Bridge Design

Choice of Abutment
Current practice is to make decks integral with the abutments. The objective is to avoid the
use of joints over abutments and piers. Expansion joints are prone to leak and allow the
ingress of de-icing salts into the bridge deck and substructure. In general all bridges are made
continuous over intermediate supports, and decks under 60 metres long with skews not
exceeding 30° are made integral with their abutments.
Full height integral abutments (DfT BA 42/96 call Frame Abutments) are generally used for
the shorter spans (< about 20m).
Integral abutments with piled foundations (DfT BA 42/96 call Embedded Abutments) usually
incorporate steel H piles in a single row; the H piles are orientated so that bending occurs
about their weaker axis. These abutments are suitable for the larger span decks.
Integral abutments with spread footings (DfT BA 42/96 call Bank Pad Abutments) should
only be used where settlement due to consolidation of founding strata is minimal.
Where decks exceed 60 metres long or have skews exceeding 30° then movement joints and
bearings usually need to be provided.
Geometric Considerations
Open Side Span with Bank Seats

Solid Side Span with Full Height Abutments
Usually the narrow bridge is cheaper in the open abutment form and the wide bridge is
cheaper in the solid abutment form. The exact transition point between the two types depends
very much on the geometry and the site of the particular bridge. In most cases the open
abutment solution has a better appearance and is less intrusive on the general flow of the
ground contours and for these reasons is to be preferred. It is the cost of the wing walls when
related to the deck costs which swings the balance of cost in favour of the solid abutment
solution for wider bridges. However the wider bridges with solid abutments produce a
tunnelling effect and costs have to be considered in conjunction with the proper functioning
of the structure where fast traffic is passing beneath. Solid abutments for narrow bridges
should only be adopted where the open abutment solution is not possible. In the case of wide
bridges the open abutment solution is to be preferred, but there are many cases where
economy must be the overriding consideration.
Design Considerations
Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment are :
i. Vertical loads from self weight of deck.
ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions.
iii. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc and wind.
iv. Horizontal loads from braking and skidding effects of vehicles.
These loads are carried by the bearings which are seated on the abutment bearing platform.
The horizontal loads may be reduced by depending on the coefficient of friction of the
bearings at the movement joint in the structure.
However, the full braking effect is to be taken, in either direction, on top of the abutment at
carriageway level.
In addition to the structure loads, horizontal pressures exerted by the fill material against the
abutment walls is to be considered. Also a vertical loading from the weight of the fill acts on
the footing.
Vehicle loads at the rear of the abutments are considered by applying a surcharge load on the
rear of the wall.
For certain short single span structures it is possible to use the bridge deck to prop the two
abutments apart. This entails the abutment wall being designed as a propped cantilever.
Choice of Bearings
Bridge bearings are devices for transferring loads and movements from the deck to the
substructure and foundations.
In highway bridge bearings movements are accommodated by the basic mechanisms of
internal deformation (elastomeric), sliding (PTFE), or rolling. A large variety of bearings
have evolved using various combinations of these mechanisms.
Elastomeric Bearing
Plane Sliding Bearing
Multiple Roller Bearing
The functions of each bearing type are :
a. Elastomeric
The elastomeric bearing allows the deck to translate and rotate, but also resists loads
in the longitudinal, transverse and vertical directions. Loads are developed, and
movement is accommodated by distorting the elastomeric pad.
b. Plane Sliding
Sliding bearings usually consist of a low friction polymer, polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE), sliding against a metal plate. This bearing does not accommodate rotational
movement in the longitudinal or transverse directions and only resists loads in the
vertical direction. Longitudinal or transverse loads can be accommodated by
providing mechanical keys. The keys resist movement, and loads in a direction
perpendicular to the keyway.
c. Roller
Large longitudinal movements can be accommodated by these bearings, but vertical
loads only can generally be resisted.
The designer has to assess the maximum and minimum loads that the deck will exert on the
bearing together with the anticipated movements (translation and rotation). Bearing
manufacturers will supply a suitable bearing to meet the designers requirements.
Bearings are arranged to allow the deck to
expand and contract, but retain the deck in its
correct position on the substructure. A 'Fixed'
Bearing does not allow translational
movement. 'Sliding Guided' Bearings are
provided to restrain the deck in all
translational directions except in a radial
direction from the fixed bearing. This allows
the deck to expand and contract freely.
'Sliding' Bearings are provided for vertical support to the deck only.
Choice of Deck
Making the correct choice of deck will depend on many factors. Use the links below to find
out about each type.
 Preliminary Design - Making the correct choice of bridge deck type.
 Reinforced Concrete
 Prestressed Concrete
 Composite
 Steel Box Girder
 Steel Truss
 Cable Stayed
 Suspension
Preliminary Design
In selecting the correct bridge type it is necessary to find a structure that will perform its
required function and present an acceptable appearance at the least cost.
Decisions taken at preliminary design stage will influence the extent to which the actual
structure approximates to the ideal, but so will decisions taken at detailed design stage.
Consideration of each of the ideal characteristics in turn will give some indication of the
importance of preliminary bridge design.
a. Safety.
The ideal structure must not collapse in use. It must be capable of carrying the loading
required of it with the appropriate factor of safety. This is more significant at detailed
design stage as generally any sort of preliminary design can be made safe.
b. Serviceability.
The ideal structure must not suffer from local deterioration/failure, from excessive
deflection or vibration, and it must not interfere with sight lines on roads above or
below it. Detailed design cannot correct faults induced by bad preliminary design.
c. Economy.
The structure must make minimal demands on labour and capital; it must cost as little
as possible to build and maintain. At preliminary design stage it means choosing the
right types of material for the major elements of the structure, and arranging these in
the right form.
d. Appearance.
The structure must be pleasing to look at. Decisions about form and materials are
made at preliminary design stage; the sizes of individual members are finalised at
detailed design stage. The preliminary design usually settles the appearance of the
bridge.
Constraints
The construction depth available should be evaluated. The economic implications of raising
or lowering any approach embankments should then be considered. By lowering the
embankments the cost of the earthworks may be reduced, but the resulting reduction in the
construction depth may cause the deck to be more expensive.
Headroom requirements have to be maintained below the deck; the minimum standards for
UK Highway bridges are given in TD 27 of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges. The
Eurocode Standard (EN 1991-1-7 clause 4.3.2(1) quotes clearances from roadway surfacing
to the underside of the deck to avoid impact damage.
If the bridge is to cross a road that is on a curve, then the width of the opening may have to be
increased to provide an adequate site line for vehicles on the curved road.
It is important to determine the condition of the bridge site by carrying out a comprehensive
site investigation. EN 1997-2: 'Ground investigation and testing' covers the requirements for
the Soil Survey. Other topics which need to be considered are:
i. Existing services (Gas, Electricity, Water, etc)
ii. Rivers and streams (liability to flood)
iii. Existing property and rights of way
iv. Access to site for construction traffic
v. Environmetal Impact
Selection of Bridge Type

The following table is intended to be a rough guide to the useful span ranges of various types
of deck.
Span
Deck Type
Up to 20m
Insitu reinforced concrete.

Insitu prestressed post-tensioned concrete.
Prestressed pre-tensioned inverted T beams with insitu fill.
16m to 30m
Insitu reinforced concrete voided slab.

Insitu prestressed post-tensioned concrete voided slab.
Prestressed pre-tensioned Y and U beams with insitu slab.
Prestressed pre-tensioned box beams with insitu topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with insitu slab.
Steel beams with insitu slab.
30m to 40m
Prestressed pre-tensioned SY beams with insitu slab.

Prestressed pre-tensioned box beams with insitu topping.
Prestressed post-tensioned beams with insitu slab.
Steel beams with insitu slab.
30m to 300m
Box girder bridges - As the span increases the construction tends to go from 'all concrete' to
'steel box / concrete deck' to 'all steel'.
Truss bridges - for spans up to 50m they are generally less economic than plate girders.
150m to 1000m
Cable stayed bridges.
350m to ?
Suspension bridges.
Preliminary Design Considerations
1. A span to depth ratio of 20 will give a starting point for estimating construction depth
for the deck.
2. Continuity of the deck over supports
i. Reduces number of expansion joints.
ii. Reduces maximum bending moments and hence construction depth or the
material used.
iii. Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.
3. Factory made deck units
i. Reduces the need for soffit shuttering or scaffolding; useful when headroom is
restricted or access is difficult.
ii. Reduces site work which is weather dependent.
iii. Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.
iv. Specials tend to be expensive.
v. Special permission needed to transport units of more than 29m long on the
highway.
4. Length of structure
i. The shortest structure is not always the cheapest. By increasing the length of
the structure the embankment, retaining wall and abutment costs may be
reduced, but the deck costs will increase.
5. Substructure
i. The structure should be considered as a whole, including appraisal of piers,

abutments and foundations. Alternative designs for piled foundations should
be investigated; piling can increase the cost of a structure by up to 20%.
Costing and Final Selection

The preliminary design process will produce several apparently viable schemes. The
procedure from this point is to:
i. Estimate the major quantities.
ii. Apply unit price rates - they need not be up to date but should reflect any differential
variations.
iii. Obtain prices for the schemes.
The final selection will be based on cost and aesthetics. This method of costing assumes that
the scheme with the minimum volume will be the cheapest, and will be true if the structure is
not particularly unusual.
Reinforced Concrete Decks
The three most common types of reinforced concrete bridge decks are :
Solid Slab
Voided Slab
Beam and Slab
Solid slab bridge decks are most useful for small, single or multi-span bridges and are easily
adaptable for high skew.
Voided slab and beam and slab bridges are used for larger, single or multi-span bridges. In
circular voided decks the ratio of [depth of void] / [depth of slab] should be less than 0.79;
and the maximum area of void should be less than 49% of the deck sectional area.
Analysis of Deck
For decks with skew less than 25° a simple unit strip method of analysis is generally
satisfactory. For skews greater than 25° then a grillage or finite element method of analysis
will be required. Skew decks develop twisting moments in the slab which become more
significant with higher skew angles. Computer analysis will produce values for Mx, My and
Mxy where Mxy represents the twisting moment in the slab. Due to the influence of this
twisting moment, the most economical way of reinforcing the slab would be to place the
reinforcing steel in the direction of the principal moments. However these directions vary
over the slab and two directions have to be chosen in which the reinforcing bars should lie.
Wood and Armer have developed equations for the moment of resistance to be provided in
two predetermined directions in order to resist the applied moments Mx, My and Mxy.
Extensive tests on various steel arrangements have shown the best positions as follows
Prestressed Concrete Decks
There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete :
i. Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete.
ii. Post-tensioned concrete.
The term pre-tensioning is used to describe a method of prestressing in which the tendons are
tensioned before the concrete is placed, and the prestress is transferred to the concrete when a
suitable cube strength is reached.
Post-tensioning is a method of prestressing in which the tendon is tensioned after the concrete
has reached a suitable strength. The tendons are anchored against the hardened concrete
immediately after prestressing.
There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete :
i. Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material.

By applying this concept concrete may be regarded as an elastic material, and may be
treated as such for design at normal working loads. From this concept the criterion of
no tensile stresses in the concrete was evolved.
In an economically designed simply supported beam, at the critical section, the
bottom fibre stress under dead load and prestress should ideally be the maximum
allowable stress; and under dead load, live load and prestress the stress should be the
minimum allowable stress.
Therefore under dead load and prestress, as the dead load moment reduces towards
the support, then the prestress moment will have to reduce accordingly to avoid
exceeding the permissible stresses. In post-tensioned structures this may be achieved
by curving the tendons, or in pre-tensioned structures some of the prestressing strands
may be deflected or de-bonded near the support.
ii. Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete with

the steel taking tension and concrete compression so that the two materials form a
resisting couple against the external moment. (Analogous to reinforced concrete
concepts).
This concept is utilized to determine the ultimate strength of prestressed beams.
iii. Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing.

It is possible to arrange the tendons to produce an upward load which balances the
downward load due to say, dead load, in which case the concrete would be in uniform
compression.
Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks

Types of beams in common use are inverted T-beams, M-beams and Y beams. Inverted T-
beams are generally used for spans between 7 and 16 metres and the voids between the beams
are filled with insitu concrete thus forming a solid deck. M-Beams are used for spans between
14 and 30 metres and have a thin slab cast insitu spanning between the top flanges with the
aim of forming a voided slab type deck. The top face of the bottom flange of M-Beams
cannot be readily inspected, also the limited access makes bearing replacement difficult. As a
consequence of these restrictions the Y-beam was introduced in 1990 to replace the M-beam.
This lead to the production of an SY-beam which is used for spans between 32 and 40 metres.
The U-beam is used for spans between 14 and 34 metres and is usually chosen where
torsional strength is required.
Post-tensioned Bridge Decks
Post-tensioned bridge decks are generally composed of insitu concrete in which ducts have
been cast in the required positions.
When the concrete has acquired sufficient strength, the tendons are threaded through the
ducts and tensioned by hydraulic jacks acting against the ends of the member. The ends of the
tendons are then anchored.
Tendons are then bonded to the concrete by injecting grout into the ducts after the stressing
has been completed.
It is possible to use pre-cast concrete units which are post-tensioned together on site to form
the bridge deck.
Generally it is more economical to use post-tensioned construction for continuous structures
rather than insitu reinforced concrete at spans greater than 20 metres. For simply supported
spans it may be economic to use a post-tensioned deck at spans greater than 20 metres.
Composite Decks
Composite Construction in bridge decks usually refers to the interaction between insitu
reinforced concrete and structural steel.
Three main economic advantages of composite construction are :
i. For a given span and loading system a smaller depth of beam can be used than for a
concrete beam solution, which leads to economies in the approach embankments.
ii. The cross-sectional area of the steel top flange can be reduced because the concrete
can be considered as part of it.
iii. Transverse stiffening for the top compression flange of the steel beam can be reduced
because the restraint against buckling is provided by the concrete deck.
Typical Composite Deck
Construction Methods
It is possible to influence the load carried by a composite deck section in a number of ways
during the erection of a bridge.
By propping the steel beams while the deck slab is cast and until it has gained strength, then
the composite section can be considered to take the whole of the dead load. This method
appears attractive but is seldom used since propping can be difficult and usually costly.
With continuous spans the concrete slab will crack in the hogging regions and only the steel
reinforcement will be effective in the flexural resistance, unless the concrete is prestressed.
Generally the concrete deck is 220mm to 250mm thick with beams or plate girders between
2.5m and 3.5m spacing and depths between span/20 and span/30.
Composite action is developed by the transfer of horizontal shear forces between the concrete
deck and steel via shear studs which are welded to the steel girder. Typical types of
connectors are shown below, the stud connector being the most commonly used.
Stud Connector
Bar Connector
Channel Connector
Steel Box Girders
Box girders have a clean, uninterrupted design line and require less maintenance because
more than half of their surface area is protected from the weather. The box shape is very
strong torsionally and is consequently stable during erection and in service; unlike the plate
girder which generally requires additional bracing to achieve adequate stability.
The disadvantage is that box girders are more expensive to fabricate than plate girders of the
same weight and they require more time and effort to design.
Box girders were very popular in the late 1960's, but, following the collapse of four bridges,
the Merrison Committee published design rules in 1972 which imposed complicated design
rules and onerous fabrication tolerances. The design rules have now been simplified with the
publication of BS5400 and more realistic imperfection limits have been set.
The load analysis and stress checks include a number of effects which are generally of second
order importance in conventional plate girder design such as shear lag, distortion and warping
stresses, and stiffened compression flanges. Special consideration is also required for the
internal intermediate cross-frames and diaphragms at supports.
Steel Truss Decks
Trusses are generally used for bridge spans between 30m and 150m where the construction
depth (deck soffit to road level) is limited. The small construction depth reduces the length
and height of the approach embankments that would be required for other deck forms. This
can have a significant effect on the overall cost of the structure, particularly where the
approach gradients cannot be steep as for railway bridges.
High fabrication and maintenance costs has made the truss type deck less popular in the UK;
labour costs being relatively high compared to material costs. Where material costs are
relatively high then the truss is still an economical solution. The form of construction also
allows the bridge to be fabricated in small sections off site which also makes transportation
easier, particularly in remote areas.
Choice of Truss
The underslung truss is the most economical as the deck provides support for the live load
and also braces the compression chord. There is however the problem of the headroom
clearance required under the deck which generally renders this truss only suitable for
unnavigable rivers or over flood planes.
Where underslung trusses are not possible, and the span is short, it may be economical to use
a half-through truss. Restraint to the compression flange is achieved by U frame action.
When the span is large, and the underslung truss cannot be used, then the through girder
provides the most economic solution. Restraint to the compression flange is provided by
bracing between the two top chords; this is more efficient than U frame support. The bracing
therefore has to be above the headroom requirement for traffic on the deck.
Cable Stayed Decks
Cable stayed bridges are generally used for bridge spans between 150m and 1000m. They are
often chosen for their aesthetics, but are generally economical for spans in excess of 250m.
Cable stayed girders were developed in Germany during the reconstruction period after the
last war and attributed largely to the works of Fritz Leonhardt. Straight cables are connected
directly to the deck and induce significant axial forces into the deck. The structure is
consequently self anchoring and depends less on the foundation conditions than the
suspension bridge.
The cables and the deck are erected at the same time which speeds up the construction time
and reduces the amount of temporary works required. The cable lengths are adjusted during
construction to counteract the dead load deflections of the deck due to extension in the cable.
Most early cable-stayed bridges have an orthotropic deck, mainly because the long span
bridges were usually built by steel companies. It was considered economical to use composite
slabs for spans up to about 250m. Developments in concrete technology have now allowed
higher grade strenghs to be used. This development, combined with the increased cost of
steel, has seen longer composite deck spans being used economically. Spans in excess of
600m are now being built using a steel-concrete composite box girder constuction.
Either box girders or plate girders (for the shorter spans) can be used in the deck, however if
a single plane of cables is used then it is essential to use the box girder construction to
achieve torsional stability.
Suspension Bridges
Suspension bridges are used for bridge spans in excess of 350m.
Some of the world's longest bridge main spans are:
Bridge Name (Country)
Main Span
Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge (Japan)
1990m
Xihoumen Bridge (China)
1650m
Great Belt Bridge (Denmark)
1624m
Yi Sun-sin Bridge (South Korea)
1545m
Runyang Bridge (China)
1490m
Nanjing Fourth Yangtze Bridge (China)
1418m
Humber Bridge (UK)
1410m
Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (China)
1385m
Tsing Ma (Hong Kong)
1377m
Hardanger Bridge (Norway)
1310m
Verrazano Narrows (USA)
1298m
Golden Gate (USA)
1280m
Yangluo Bridge (China)
1280m
Höga Kusten Bridge (Sweden)
1210m
Aizhai Bridge (China)
1176m
Mackinac Bridge (USA)
1158m
Huangpu Bridge (China)
1108m
Minami Bisan-Seto Bridge (Japan)

1100m
Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge (Turkey)
1090m
Balinghe Bridge (China)
1088m
Taizhou Bridge (China)
1080m
Ma′anshan Bridge (China)
1158m
Bosporus Bridge(Turkey)
1074m
George Washington Bridge(USA)
1067m
Third Kurushima-Kaikyõ Bridge (Japan)
1030m
Second Kurushima-Kaikyõ Bridge (Japan)
1020m
25 de Abril Bridge [formerly Salazar Bridge] (Portugal)
1013m
Forth Road Bridge (UK)
1006m
Kita Bisan-Seto Bridge (Japan)
990m
Severn Bridge (UK)
988m
Yichang Bridge (China)
960m
Tacoma Narrows (USA)
853m
A number of early suspension bridges were designed without the appreciation of wind effects.
Large deflections were developed in the flexible decks and wind loading created unstable
oscillations. The problem was largely solved by using inclined hangers.
The suspension bridge is essentially a catenary cable prestressed by dead weight. The cables
are guided over the support towers to ground anchors. The stiffened deck is supported mainly
by vertical or inclined hangers.
Drainage Systems
The Design Manual for Roads and Bridges BD 30/87 requires surface water to be drained
away from earth retaining structures or backfill. This will normally allow the retaining wall
or abutment to be designed with zero ground water pressure on the back of the wall above the
perforated drainage pipe level; this leads to a considerable cost saving. An instance where
hydrostatic pressures will need to be considered is where there is a possibility of a burst water
main in the vacinity of the wall.
Any water percolating through the fill is collected in a perforated drainpipe, not less than
150mm diameter, which is located at the rear of the vertical stem of the wall at the level of
the top of the footing. Access to the pipe should be provided for rodding purposes from
inspection manholes positioned at the foot of the wall. Weep holes are often provided as a
safeguard in the event that the drainpipe is blocked; they also provide a visual check that the
system is working.
Unless the backfill to the wall is highly permeable then a vertical drainage layer is provided
at the rear of the wall and is connected with the perforated drainpipe.
The vertical permeable layer shown in the diagram above consists of hollow concrete
blockwork, however it may also take the form of:
1. Cast insitu porous no fines concrete
2. or
3. Granular drainage layer.

There are also proprietary systems on the market, such as Terram Geocomposite Drains, but
they will need DfT approval to be used on a highway structure.
Special consideration to the drainage layer is required when the backfill contains materials
susceptible to piping such as silt, chalk or PFA. Under these conditions then a granular
drainage layer only is recommended; hollow blocks or no fines concrete are unsuitable.
Choice of Foundation
Foundation types depend primarily on the depth and safe bearing pressures of the bearing
stratum, also restrictions placed on differential settlement due to the type of bridge deck.
Generally in the case of simply supported bridge decks differential settlements of about 20 to
25 mm can be tolerated, whereas multi-span continuous decks 10 mm is usually considered
as a maximum.
Bridge foundations generally fall into two categories:
i. Strip footings, one for each pier and abutment. However, it is sometimes convenient
to split the deck into two halves longitudinally along the centre line, this is then
continued to the footing.
ii. Piled foundations.
It is possible to have a combination of both (i.e. piers being piled with abutments on strip
footings).
The design of foundations comprise of the following stages :
i. From the site investigation report decide upon which stratum to impose the structure
load and its safe bearing pressure.
ii. Select the type of foundation, possibly comparing the suitability of several types.
iii. Design the foundation to transfer and distribute the loads from the structure to the
ground. Ensure that the factor of safety against shear failure in the soil is not reached
and settlement is within the allowable limits.
Strip Footings
The overall size of strip footings is determined by considering the effects of vertical and
rotational loads. The combination of these two must neither exceed the safe bearing capacity
of the stratum or produce uplift. The thickness of the footings is generally about 0.8 to 1.0 m
but must be capable of withstanding moments and shears produced by piers or abutments.
The critical shearing stress may be assumed to occur on a plane at a distance equal to the
effective depth of the base from the face of the column.
Cover to reinforcement should never be less than values given in BS 5400: Part 4: Table 13,
and crack control calculation must be carried out to ensure the crack width is less than
0.25mm (Table 1). Cover to reinforcement will need to be increased to comply with BS 8500
requirements.
Piled Foundations
The type of piles generally used for bridge foundations are :
a. Driven Piles; preformed piles of concrete or steel driven by blows of a power hammer
or jacked into the ground.
b. Preformed Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a
closed end and filling the tube with concrete.
c. Driven Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by driving a hollow steel tube with a closed end and
filling the tube with concrete, simultaneously withdrawing the tube.
d. Bored and Cast In-Situ Piles; formed by boring a hole and filling it with concrete.
a. to c. are known as displacement piles, and the problems of calculating the load carrying
capacity and settlement require a different approach to that for bored piles.
Driven type piles can, depending on the strata, be either end bearing or friction piles;
sometimes a combination of both.
Bored piles are generally end bearing and are often of large diameter. To increase their
bearing capacity the bottom can be under-reamed to produce a greater bearing area. However,
additional safety precautions are required with larger diameter piles.
A specialist form of pile consisting of stone aggregate consolidated by water or air using the
'Vibroflotation' technique is suitable in some granular soils.
Choice of pile type depends largely on the strata which they pass through, none of them
however give the most economic and satisfactory solution under all conditions.
The art of selecting the right sort of pile lies in rejecting all those types which are obviously
unsuited to the particular set of circumstances and then choosing from those which remain,
the one which produces the most economical solution.
Concurrently with the choice of pile type must go the choice of the strata which will carry the
main loads from the structure, because this very often influences the choice. In most all cases
the rejection of conventional pad or strip foundations arises because the computed settlement
is more than the structure can safely withstand and hence the main purpose of the piled
foundation will be to reduce this settlement. It follows, therefore, that if more compressible
strata exists within reasonable distance of the surface, it is very desirable that a high
proportion of the foundation load should be carried by this more stable strata; the ideal
solution is where piles support the load wholly in end bearing on hard rock where the
settlement will be negligible. It follows that piles wholly embedded in the same soil that
would under-lie a conventional foundation has very little effect in reducing settlement. With
soft normally consolidated alluvial clays, the remoulding effect of driven piles may well
increase the settlement of the soil under its own dead weight and thus increase the settlement
of the foundation itself.
Aspects of design of piled foundations which influence choice of pile type
All foundations must satisfy two criteria, no shear failure in the soil and no excessive
settlement; piled foundations also have to meet this criteria. There are well established
methods for ensuring that the first criteria is met, but the second presents more of a problem.
The working load of an individual pile is based on providing an adequate factor of safety
against the soil under the toe failing in shear and the adhesion between the shaft and the soil
surrounding it passing its ultimate value and the whole pile sinking further into the ground.
There are basically four methods for assessing this effect :
i. Through soil parameters i.e. summing shaft friction and bearing capacity. The
ultimate bearing capacity is usually modified to compensate for the driving effect of
the pile.
ii. By means of test piles.
iii. By means of dynamic formulae i.e. Hiley formulae which equates the energy required
to drive the pile with its ultimate bearing capacity.
iv. Piling contractors 'know how'.
v. Choice of Deck Joint
vi.
vii. Current practice is to make decks integral with the abutments. The objective is to
avoid the use of joints over abutments and piers. Expansion joints are prone to leak
and allow the ingress of de-icing salts into the bridge deck and substructure. In
general all bridges are made continuous over intermediate supports and decks under
60 metres long with skews not exceeding 30° are made integral with their abutments.
Where it is intended not to use road salts, or the deck and substructure have been
designed to incorporate deck joints then the following guidance is given in BD 33/94
for the range of movements that can be accommodated by the various joint types:
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
xiii.
xiv.
xv.
xvi.
xvii.
xviii.
xix.
xx. Thermal Movements
xxi. BS 5400 Part 2 Chapter 5.4 specifies maximum and minimum effective bridge
temperatures which have to be accommodated in the bridge structure.
The width of joint between the end of the deck and the abutment is set during
construction of the bridge; usually when the concrete curtain wall is cast. The
maximum expansion of the deck is therefore determined from the minimum effective
temperature at which the curtain wall is allowed to to be cast; usually 2°C. Hence if a
maximum effective temperature of 40°C is calculated from BS 5400 Part 2 then a
joint width will have to be provided at the end of the deck to allow for an expansion
caused by a temperature increase of (40-2)=38°C.
The maximum contraction of the deck is determined in a similar manner, but using a
nominal effective temperature at which the joint is set.
Having determined the range of movement at the joint then the type of joint can be
specified. The nominal effective temperature used in the calculations will also have to
be specified to enable the correct adjustments to be made on site when the joints are
set.
xxii.
xxiii. Joint Manufacturers
xxiv. An overview of the various types of bridge joints, together with a list of suppliers can
be obtained from the Bridge Joint Association.
Choice of Parapet
BS EN 1317-1:1998 describes a Vehicle Parapet as a safety barrier that is installed on the

edge of a bridge or on a retaining wall or similar structure where there is a vertical drop, and
which may contain additional protection and restraint for pedestrians and other road users.
Manufacturers have developed and tested parapets to meet the containment standards
specified in the codes. Much of the earlier testing work was involved with achieving a
parapet which would absorb the impact load and not deflect the vehicle back into the line of
adjacent traffic. The weight of vehicle, speed of impact and angle of impact influence the
behaviour of the parapet. Consequently a level of containment has been adopted to minimise
the risk to traffic using the bridge (above and below the deck).
BS EN 1317-2 1998 specifies criteria for vehicle impact tests on parapets for various
containment levels. The containment levels adopted by TD 19/06 (Design Manual for Roads
and Bridges Volume 2, Section 2, Part 8) require testing to be carried out for various vehicles
impacting the parapet at an angle of 20o.
The vehicle impact test criteria for various containment levels as follows :
Parapets are designed and tested by manufactures who apply to the Highways Agency to be
included on an Approved List. A copy of the the "List of EN 1317 compliant road restraint
systems" can be obtained from the Government website
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/510042/List_of
_EN1317_Compliant_RRS__March_2016.pdf
TD19/06 is the current design standard which requires carrying out a risk assessment to
identify the hazards and minimise the risks to the road users.
The risk assessment is documented by using an Excel spreadsheet, a copy of which can be
obtained from the Governments website https://www.gov.uk/guidance/standards-for-
highways-online-resources#attachment_1921143
A user-guide is also available on the same web-page.
TD 19/06 also directs the designer to use BS 6779 and BS 7818 for the design of specific
elements of parapets.
BS 6779: 1998 - Highway Parapets for Bridges and Other Structures.
Part 1: Metal Parapets for the provision of infill to parapets (see TD 19/06 clause 4.29, 4.39,
4.40)
Part 2: Concrete Parapets for the design of reinforced concrete parapets with some
amendments (see TD 19/06 clauses 4.56 to 4.60)
Part 4: Reinforced and Unreinforced Masonry Parapets to assess the containment capacity of
existing masonry parapets (see TD 19/06 clause 4.62)
BS 7818: 2015: Pedestrian Metal Parapets
This Standard is required for the manufacture and installation of pedestrian restraint systems
until such times as the drafting of prEN 1317-6 is completed (see TD 19/06 clause 9.3).
Although EN 1317-6 is to be superseded by PD CEN/TR 16949:2016 the current Technical
Approval Schedule (TAS), " Schedule of Documents Relating to Design of Highway Bridges
and Structures " says to use BS 7818: 2015.
Information required to be supplied to metal parapet manufacturers is listed in TD19/06,

namely:
 Containment Level (N1, N2, H2, H4a);
 Impact Severity Level (ISL) (Normally Class B);
 Working Width Class (W1 to W5);
 The height;
 The length;
Concrete parapets are ideal for very high containment parapets due to their significant mass.
Steel parapets are generally the cheapest solution for the normal containment. This is
significant if the site is prone to accidents and parapet maintenance is likely to be regular. The
steelwork does however require painting and is usually pretreated with hot-dip galvanising.
Aluminium parapets do not require surface protection and maintenance costs will be reduced
if the parapet does not require replacing through damage. The initial cost is however high and
special attention to fixing bolts is required to prevent the parapets from being stolen for their
high scrap value. Aluminium also provides a significant weight saving over the steel parapet.
This is sometimes important for parapets on moving bridges.
Choice of Pier
Wherever possible slender piers should be used so that there is sufficient flexibility to allow
temperature, shrinkage and creep effects to be transmitted to the abutments without the need
for bearings at the piers, or intermediate joints in the deck.
A slender bridge deck will usually look best when supported by slender piers without the
need for a downstand crosshead beam. It is the proportions and form of the bridge as a whole
which are vitally important rather than the size of an individual element viewed in isolation.
Different Pier Shapes
Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the pier are :
i. Vertical loads from self weight of deck
ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions
iii. Horizontal loads from temperature, creep movements etc and wind
iv. Rotations due to deflection of the bridge deck.
The overall configuration of the bridge will determine the combination of loads and
movements that have to be designed for. For example if the pier has a bearing at its top,
corresponding to a structural pin joint, then the horizontal movements will impose moments
at the base, their magnitude will depend on the pier flexibility.
Sometimes special requirements are imposed by rail or river authorities if piers are positioned
within their jurisdiction. In the case of river authorities a 'cut water' may be required to assist
the river flow, or independent fenders to protect the pier from impact from boats or floating
debris. A similar arrangement is often required by the rail authorities to prevent minor
derailments striking the pier. Whereas the pier has to be designed to resist major derailments.
Also if the pier should be completely demolished by a train derailment then the deck should
not collapse.
Choice of Wing Wall
Wing walls are essentially retaining walls adjacent to the abutment. The walls can be
independent or integral with the abutment wall.
Providing the bridge skew angle is small (less than 20°), and the cutting/embankment slopes
are reasonably steep (about 1 in 2), then the wing wall cantilevering from the abutment wall
is likely to give the most economical solution.
Splayed wing walls can provide even more of an economy in material costs but the detailing
and fixing of the steel reinforcement is more complicated than the conventional wall.
Loads effects to be considered on the rear of the wall are:
i. Earth pressures from the backfill material.
ii. Surcharge from live loading or compacting plant.
iii. Hydraulic loads from saturated soil conditions.
The stability of the wall is generally designed to resist 'active' earth pressures (Ka); whilst the
structural elements are designed to resist 'at rest' earth pressures (Ko). The concept is that 'at
rest' pressures are developed initially and the structural elements should be designed to
accommodate these loads without failure. The loads will however reduce to 'active' pressure
when the wall moves, either by rotating or sliding. Consequently the wall will stabilise if it
moves under 'at rest' pressures providing it is designed to resist 'active' earth pressures.
Geometry for splayed wing walls

Plan on Wing Wall
X = slope to road under bridge

Y = slope from road over bridge
L = length of sloping wall
K = length of horizontal wall
V = verge width to end of wall
Z1 = level at bottom of embankment
Z2 = level at back of verge on road over bridge
Zw = ground level at end of wall
θ = angle of wall to road under bridge
φ = skew angle ( -ve if < 90°)
Zw = Z1 + 1/x [(L+K)Sinθ]
Zw = Z2 - [(L+K) Cosθ + (L+K) SinθTanφ - V/Cosφ ] Cosφ / Y
L + K = [ X Y (Z2 - Z1) + V X ] / [ X Cos (θ - φ ) + Y Sinθ] ..................eqn.(1)

For minimum length of wall dL/dθ = 0
ie. Tanθ = Tanφ + Y / X Cosφ
For known lengths of wall (L+K) two values of θ can be obtained from eqn.(1).
From eqn.(1) -(A+B)Tan2(θ/2) + 2(C+Y)Tan(θ/2) + (B-A) = 0
Where A = [XY(Z2 - Z1) + VX] / [L + K] , B = X Cosφ , and C = X Sinφ
Minimum Lengths :-
N/E Wall : L+K = 10.437 @ θ = 50.25°

S/E Wall : L+K = 15.889 @ θ = 31.5°
S/W Wall : L+K = 9.996 @ θ = 54.37°
HA and HB Type Loading
History
The first standard vehicle load for highway bridges in the UK was introduced in 1922. British
Standards introduced a traffic live load requirement in BS 153 Part 3 in 1923, which was later
revised in 1925 and 1937. The Type HA uniformly distibuted loading was introduced in 1945
and the concept of a Type HA and HB load was included in the 1954 edition of BS 153: Part
3A. In 1961 the HB load was specified in terms of units and varied depending on the class of
road, with 45 units required for Motorways and Trunk Roads and 37.5 units for class i and
class ii roads. A requirement for all public roads to be designed for at least 30 units of HB
was introduced in 1973.
HA Loading
BD 37/01 Appendix A of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HA
loading is the normal design loading for Great Britain and adequately covers the effects of all
permitted normal vehicles other than those used for abnormal indivisible loads. Normal
vehicles are governed by the Road Vehicles (Authorised Weight) Regulations 1998, referred
to as the AW Vehicles and cover vehicles up to 44 tonne gross vehicle weight. Loads from
these AW vehicles are represented by a Uniformly Distributed Load and a Knife Edge Load.
The loading has been enhanced to cover:
i) impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when striking potholes or uneven expansion
joints).
ii) overloading
iii) Lateral bunching (more than one vehicle occupying the width of a lane).
The magnitude of the Uniformly Distributed Load is dependent on the loaded length as
determined from the influence line for the member under consideration. For simply supported
single span decks this usually relates to the span of the deck.
HA UDL+KEL loading on one notional lane.
The UDL (W kN/m) is multiplied by a lane factor β to obtain the value to be applied to each
notional lane. If the UDL is required in kN/m2 then W will need to be divided by the notional
lane width bL.
The knife edge load (KEL) is also multiplied by the lane factor β. The KEL may be
positioned anywhere along the loaded length in order to obtain the worst effect in the member
being considered.
A single wheel load of 100 kN also needs to be considered as an alternative to the UDL and
KEL as part of the HA loading design. The wheel load can produce more severe effects than
the UDL+KEL on short span members.
HB Loading
BD 37/01 Appendix A of the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HB
loading requirements derive from the nature of exceptional industrial loads (e.g. electrical
transformers, generators, pressure vessels, machine presses, etc.) likely to use the roads in the
area.
The vehicle load is represented by a four axled vehicle with four wheels equally spaced on
each axle. The load on each axle is defined by a number of units which is dependant on the
class of road and is specified in BD 37/01 Chapter 4 as follows:
Motorways and trunk roads require 45 units, Principal roads require 37.5 units and other
public roads require 30 units. One unit of HB is equal to 10kN per axle. There are five HB
vehicles to check although most vehicles can be discounted by inspection. The spacing
between the inner two axles of the vehicle has five diffent values which produces the range of
HB vehicle to consider.
1 unit of HB loading.
Only one HB vehicle is considered to load any one superstructure. The vehicle is positioned
within one notional lane or straddles two notional lanes in order to obtain the worst effect on
the member. HA loading is placed in any remaing lane not occupied by the HB vehicle. Also,
if the deck is long enough, the HA UDL only is placed in the lanes occupied by the HB
vehicle, but is omitted from the length of lane within 25m from the front and back of the HB
vehicle.
Design
The design procedure is to analyse the bridge for HA and HB load effects applying the
appropriate load factors. The member is then deisgned for the worst effects of HA or HB
loading.
Load Models & Groups to UK National Annex

(BS EN 1991-2:2003 + UK NA.)
Index
1. Load Model 1
2. Load Model 2
3. Load Model 3
4. Load Model 4
5. Group gr1a
6. Group gr1b
7. Group gr2
8. Group gr3
9. Group gr4
10. Group gr5
11. Group gr6
1. Load Model 1 (LM1) - Clause 4.3.2 + NA.2.12
A double-axle load (called the Tandem System) is applied in each traffic lane in conjunction
with a uniformly distributed load (called the UDL System).
The UK use a 300kN axle load with a uniformly distributed load of 5.5kN/m2. If there is
more than one lane of traffic then the axle load is reduced in adjacent lanes (200kN in lane 2,
100kN in lane 3 and 0kN in other lanes).
This loading covers most of the effects of the traffic of lorries and cars.
A single-axle load is applied anywhere on the carriageway.
The UK use a 400kN axle load which includes a factor to allow for dynamic amplification
effects. When the action is applied within 6m of an expansion joint then an additional
dynamic amplification factor is applied. This load model is more predominant on short span
members up to about 7m; and includes members such as deck slabs spanning between main
beams. Effects under one 200kN wheel load should also be considered.
If the structure is to be designed for abnormal loads then vehicles from Load Model 3 will
need to be considered.
The UK National Annex describes two groups of vehicles, SV and SOV vehicles.
i. SV model vehicles (SV80, SV100 and SV196) are in accordance with the Special
Types General Order (STGO) Regulations
Highways England's Document BD100/16
(http://www.standardsforhighways.co.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/vol1/section3/bd10016.p
df) recommend that the levels of SV loading are as follows:
o Motorways & Trunk Roads = SV80, SV100, SV196
o Principal Roads = SV80, SV100
o Other Public Roads = SV80
These represent vehicles with nominal axle weights not exceeding 16.5 tonnes.
SV80 has a maximum gross weight of 80 tonnes with a maximum basic axle load of
12.5 tonnes.
SV100 has a maximum gross weight of 100 tonnes with a maximum basic axle load
of 16.5 tonnes.
SV196 has a maximum gross weight of 196 tonnes with a maximum basic axle load
of 16.5 tonnes.
ii. SOV model vehicles (SOV250, SOV350, SOV450 and SOV600) in accordance with
the Special Order (SO) Regulations.
Vehicle
Max. total weight of trailers
Trailer Bogie - 1
Trailer Bogie - 2
SOV-250
250 tonnes
6 axles x 225kN @ 1.5m
SOV-350
350 tonnes
SOV-450
450 tonnes
10 axles x 225kN @ 1.5m
10 axles x 225kN @ 1.5m
SOV-600
600 tonnes
14 axles x 225kN @ 1.5m
13 axles x 225kN @ 1.5m
Each axle of the SV and SOV vehicles has to be multiplied by a Dynamic Amplification
Factor (DAF) which varies from 1.2 to 1.07 for axles loads from 100kN to 225kN
respectively.
Only one SV or SOV vehicle is applied to the structure. Load Model 1 is applied in
combination with the SV or SOV vehicle loading. The "frequent" value of LM1 is used and
positioned in adjacent lanes and within 5m of the front and rear axles of the SV or SOV
vehicle.
4. Load Model 4 (LM4) - Clause 4.3.5
A uniformly distributed load of 5kN/m2 used to represent crowd loading and may be applied
to both road bridges and footway/cycleway bridges. Unless specified otherwise the ULD load
may be reduced for footway/cycleway bridges with loaded lengths greater than 10m. The UK
NA also applies this reduction to crowd loading on road bridges with loaded lengths greater
than 30m.
GROUPS OF TRAFFIC LOADS (UK National Annex Table NA.3)
Load Models 1 to 4 may be combined to form 'Groups' of traffic loads. The Groups are
referenced gr1a, gr1b, gr2, gr3, gr4, gr5 and gr6 and the load models used in each group are
listed in Table N.A.3 of the UK NA (this overwrites Eurocode EN1991-2 Table 4.4a).
5. Group gr1a
Load Model 1 is combined with footway loading. The footway loading is reduced to 3kN/m2
(0.6 x 5kN/m2).
The diagram above illustrates Group gr1a for a single span two lane carriageway with two
footways. The Tandem Systems can be positioned anywhere along the length of the traffic
lane so as to produce the worst load effect. The position shown above will produce the worst
effect for the mid-span bending moment. If the worst shear in the deck is required then the
Tandem Systems will need to be positioned adjacent to the support.
For a global analysis the tandem systems are positioned in the centre of the notional lanes
(0.5m from each edge of a 3.0m lane).
For a local analysis then the two tandem systems are positioned so that the minimum distance
between them is not less than 0.5m [see Fig. 4.2b) and clause 4.3.2(5) of EN 1991-2:2003].
6. Group gr1b
This consists of the 400kN axle shown in Load Model 2 and is not combined with any other
load model.
7. Group gr2
The 'Frequent' value of Load Model 1 is combined with Braking and Acceleration Forces
(Clause 4.4.1) and Centrifugal (Clause 4.4.2) and Transverse Forces (Clause NA.2.20). The
Frequent value of Load Model 1 is obtained by multiplying axle loads and UDL by 0.75 (Ψ1
= 0.75 from Table NA.A2.1 in NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005).
The diagram above illustrates Group gr2 for a single 10m span deck with a two lane
carriageway. Although the axle loads and UDL values have been shown as reduced by Ψ1 it is
usually more convenient to apply the 0.75 factor to the load effects rather than the loads. The
longitudinal force can be reversed; similarly for the transverse force.
From Clause 4.4.1 the longitudinal force = 0.6 x 1 x 2 x 300 + 0.1 x 1.0 x 9.0 x 3.0 x 10.0 =
387kN.
Note: UK NA to BS EN 1991-2:2003 Table NA.1 contains a note which says αq1 = 1.0.
From Clause NA.2.20 the transverse braking force = 50% of the longitudinal braking force =
194kN.
The deck shown above is straight, therefore there will be no centrifugal force.
Group gr2 will generally be required for design of the bearings and substructure, and will not
usually have a significant effect on the design of the deck.
8. Group gr3
This consists of Load Model 4 and is applied to the footways only; it is not combined with
any other load model. The UDL may be applied to one or both of the footways so as to
achieve the worst load effect.
9. Group gr4
This consists of Load Model 4 and is applied to the footways, carriageways and central
reserve; it is not combined with any other load model.
10. Group gr5
The 'Frequent' value of Load Model 1 (LM1) is combined with Load Model 3 (LM3). The
Frequent value of LM1 is obtained by multiplying axle loads and UDL by 0.75 (Ψ1 = 0.75
from Table NA.A2.1 in NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005). Tandem Systems (TS1 and TS2
shown below) can be interchanged if a worse load effect is achieved. Loading from LM1 is
omitted from the Lane, or Lanes, occupied by LM3 for a distance within 5 metres of the front
and rear axles.
The diagram above illustrates Group gr5 for a single span two lane carriageway with two
footways. The SV80 vehicle has been shown to represent the Special Vehicle for LM3 for the
purpose of this example. Although the axle loads and UDL values for LM1 have been shown
as reduced by Ψ1 it is usually more convenient to apply the 0.75 factor to the load effects
rather than the loads.
11. Group gr6
Load Model 3 (LM3) is combined with Braking and Acceleration Forces (Clause NA.2.18.1)
and Centrifugal (Clause NA.2.18.2) and Transverse Forces (Clause NA.2.20).
The diagram above illustrates Group gr6 for a single span two lane carriageway with two
footways.
Vehicle SV80 has been shown to represent the Special Vehicle for LM3 for the purpose of
this example.
From Clause NA.2.18.1 the braking force for each axle = Qlk,S Hence total force = 6 x 0.5 x
130 = 390kN.
From Clause NA.2.18.1 the acceleration force = 10% x 6 x 130 = 78kN < 390kN Hence
longitudinal force = 390kN.
From Clause NA.2.20 the transverse braking force = 50% of the longitudinal braking force =
0.5 x 390 = 195kN.
The deck shown above is straight, therefore there will be no centrifugal force.
Group gr5 will generally be required for design of the bearings and substructure, and will not
usually have a significant effect on the design of the deck.
Influence Line Tutorial for HA UDL and HB Loading Bending Effects
Example: Three span deck with continuity over pier supports.

Step1: Determine the position of the point of maximum bending moment in each element for
a single point load.
Point A − maximum sagging moment in span 1

Point B − maximum hogging moment over pier 1
Point C − maximum sagging moment in span 2
Note: as end spans are equal then critical points over pier 2 and in span 3 can be obtained
from point A and B by symmetry.
Step 2: Determine influence line diagram for point A:
Step 3: Determine influence line diagram for point B:
Step 4: Determine influence line diagram for point C:
Step 5: Determine loading for critical cases:

Point A
The maximum sagging moment is achieved by loading spans 1 and 3, however we also need
to check HA UDL for loading in span 1 only.
HA Span 1 only: loaded length = 10m hence udl = 71.8 kN/m (BD37-table 13)
HA Span 1 and 3: loaded length = 20m hence udl = 45.1 kN/m (BD37-table 13)
KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)
HB loading will produce worst sagging moment with an axle at the maximum ordinate (2.15).
Any one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however positioned with
the other 3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates:
Note: The HB vehicle has a range of spacings between the centre axles, in this case the 26m
spacing gives the worst effect.
Point B
The maximum hogging moment is achieved by loading spans 1 and 2, however we also need
to check HA UDL for loading in span 2 only.
HA Span 1 and 2: loaded length = 30m hence udl = 34.4 kN/m (BD37-table 13)
KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)
Usually HB loading will produce the worst hogging moment with an axle at the maximum
ordinate (2.051). Any one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however
positioned with the other 3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates.
In the case below the sum of the ordinates is 0.677 + 0.71 + 2.051 + 1.966 = 5.404
Other cofigurations of HB loading need be checked, and in this case the 6m vehicle will
produce a greater value with the vehicle in the position shown below. The sum of the
ordinates for this configuration = 1.604 + 1.943 + 1.651 + 1.305 = 6.503
Point C
The maximum sagging moment is achieved by loading span 2 only.
KEL: = 120 kN (BD37- Clause 6.2.2)
HB loading will produce worst sagging moment with an axle at the maximum ordinate
(3.125). Any one of the 4 axles can be located at this position; the vehicle is however
positioned with the other 3 axles to achieve the maximum total ordinates:
Note: The HB vehicle has a range of spacings between the centre axles, in this case the 6m
spacing gives the worst effect.
Step 6: Determine load effects on deck.
The following assumptions will be made to demonstrate principles of influence lines:

• Assume loads applied to 1 notional lane width of deck (3.65m wide).
• Assume ultimate limit state hence use load factor γfL of 1.5 for HA loading and 1.3 for HB
loading.
• Assume 30 units of HB.
Span 1
Maximum sagging moment due to HB loading:
M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (2.172 + 1.345 + 0.088 + 0.108) = 1448 kNm
Maximum sagging moment due to HA loading at point A:

Case 1 − Span1 loaded
M = 1.5 x (71.8 x 10.285 + 120 x 2.172) = 1499 kNm (HA critical)
Case 2 − Span1 and 3 loaded
M = 1.5 x [45.1 x (10.285 + 0.695) + 120 x 2.172] = 1134 kNm
Pier 1
Maximum hogging moment due to HA loading at point B:
Case 1 − Span 2 loaded
M = 1.5 x (45.1 x 24.776 +120 x 2.051) = 2045 kNm
Case 2 − Span1 and 2 loaded
M = 1.5 x [34.4 x (24.776 + 4.641) + 120 x 2.051] = 1887 kNm
Maximum hogging moment due to HB loading:

M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (1.604 + 1.943 + 1.651 + 1.305) = 2536 kNm (HB critical)
Span 2
Maximum sagging moment due to HA loading at point C:
Case 1 − Span 2 loaded
M = 1.5 x (45.1 x 25.25 + 120 x 3.125) = 2271 kNm
Maximum sagging moment due to HB loading:

M = 1.3 x 30 x 10 x (3.125 + 2.286 + 0.8 + 0.366) = 2565 kNm (HB critical)
Note: HB loading is shown to be critical for two of the cases, however if the loads are
distributed using a computer analysis, such as a grillage analysis, then the HB moments will
be reduced considerably.
BS5400:Pt2 Loading Idealisation for Grillage Analysis of Bridge Decks

Index
1.HA UDL+KEL
2.HB Vehicles
3.Pedestrian Load
4.Accidental Wheel Load
5.Parapet Collision Load
Using a prestressed Y4 beam with reinforced concrete deck slab as the deck example as
shown in Fig.1; the deck having a 10° skew, a span of 20m and carrying a 7.3m carriageway
with two 2m footpaths.
BS 5400 Pt.2:2006 Cl.3.2.9.3.1

7.3m carriageway has 2 notional lanes hence lane width = 3.65m.
Cl.6.3 The deck shall carry 45 units of HB
Cl.6.7 Assume bridge requires high containment parapets hence collision loading needs to be
considered.
1.HA UDL + KEL
HA UDL can be applied to each longitudinal member as a uniformly distributed load, the
intensity of the load is proportional to the width of the lane directly above the longitudinal
member, for example:
HA UDL for a 20m span = 45.1kN/m of notional lane.
Notional lane width = 3.65m
HA UDL/m width = 45.1 / 3.65 = 12.36kN/m
HA UDL on member 2 = 0.15 x 12.36 = 1.85kN/m
HA UDL on members 3,4 & 5 = 1.0 x 12.36 = 12.36kN/m
HA UDL on member 6 = 0.5 x 12.36 = 6.18kN/m
UDL applied to each longitudinal grillage member to represent HA UDL in lane 1.
Alternatively, if the program has the facility of applying patch loads then a patch width equal
to the lane width and length equal to the loaded length may be applied. The patch load is
usually positioned by the centroid of the patch area in relation to the grid co-ordinates.
HA KEL can also be applied as a uniformly distributed load to the transverse members. As
loads are initially proportioned to the adjacent members and joints then the worst effects will
always be achieved by positioning the KEL directly above a transverse member. If the deck is
skewed then the postion of the KEL to give the worst effect will be different to a square deck
and two or three positions may need to be checked to find the critical case.
It is therefore useful to separate the HA UDL and HA KEL into different load cases to
avoid repeating the calculation for the effects of the UDL. The UDL and the various positions
of the KEL can be added together in different combination cases.
Similar load cases are produced for the HA UDL and KEL in the second lane. Full HA live
load will have the HA UDL and KEL in both lanes whilst HB live load has the HB vehicle in
one lane and the HA UDL and KEL in the second lane. All these variations in load cases can
be developed in the combination cases.
2. HB VEHICLES
The HB vehicle consists of four axles with four wheels on each axle and is applied to the
grillage as a series of point loads. Clause 6.3.2 and 6.3.3 allow the wheel loads to be applied
as patch loads however there is little to be gained in a global analysis by applying this
refinement and point loads will be a suitable representation for the wheel loads.
There are five variations of the inner axle spacing for the HB vehicle that can be applied
to the deck. A line beam analysis incorporating moving point loads will indicate the positions
of the critical HB vehicle to achieve the design moments and shears. An Excel spread sheet
using moment distribution to carry out a line beam analysis of standard moving vehicles can
be downloaded by clicking here.
The result of the line beam analysis shows that the maximum sagging moment occurs at 8.5m
from the end of the deck with the leading axle at 16.3m from the end.
All critical load cases are produced from the vehicle with the 6m inner
axle spacing.
As the loading is symmetrical and both ends of the single span deck
are simply supported then the position of maximum moment can be
measured from either end of the deck.
The transverse position of the HB vehicle will depend on which member is being considered,
however it is usual to design all internal beams for the critical loading condition for vehicles
on the carriageway. The edge beams will require special consideration to support the
additional loading from the cantilever.
The diagram shows one of the

inner wheels on the critical
axle positioned over the
nearest transverse member at
8.5m from the support.
This would produce the critical

loading condition for the bending moment on the internal beam for an orthoganal deck,
however other positions need to be considered to take account of the skew effects.
As a check on the data, the total of the reactions should equal the total load of the vehicle = 4
x 450 = 1800kN. Also the line beam analysis gives a total moment of 5692.5kNm; so as there
are four longitudinal members supporting the vehicle, then the moment from the grillage
should be in the order of (but less than) 5692.5 / 4 ≈ 1400kNm in the longitudinal member.
3.Pedestrian Load
Clause 6.5.1 states that the pedestrian live load shall be taken as 5.0 kN/m2, but reduced to
0.8 x 5.0 = 4.0kN/m2 for members supporting both footway and carriageway loading.
Consequently the edge beam should be designed for 5.0kN/m2 and the next-to-edge beam
designed for 4.0kN/m2. The UDL's can be applied to these two members in a similar manner
to the HA UDL described in Section 1. above, however, as there is no barrier between the
carriageway and footway, Clause 6.6 requires that the footway members are designed for
Accidental Wheel Load which is generally more onerous than the pedestrian live load.
4.Accidental Wheel Load
Accidental Wheel Loading consists of a 200kN axle and a 150kN axle with two wheels on
each axle and is applied to the grillage as four point loads. Clause 6.6.2 and 6.6.3 allow the
wheel loads to be applied as patch loads however there is little to be gained in a global
analysis by applying this refinement and point loads will be a suitable representation for the
wheel loads.
Similarly as with the HB vehicle a line beam analysis incorporating

moving point loads will indicate the critical positions of the vehicle to
achieve the design moments and shears. An Excel spread sheet using
moment distribution to carry out a line beam analysis of standard
moving vehicles can be downloaded by clicking here. The Abnormal
Load facility is used in the line beam proforma to input the accidental
wheel vehicle.
The result of the line beam analysis shows that the maximum sagging moment occurs at
10.26m from the end of the deck under the leading axle.
The vehicle will be positioned over the parapet beam as shown to obtain the critical loading
condition for bending in this member. This may also be the critical position for the design
moment in the main edge beam, however the 100kN wheel should be positioned at joint B to
confirm the critical case.
Other positions on adjacent

transverse members need to be
considered to take account of
the skew effects.
As a check on the data, the

total of the reactions should
equal the total load of the
vehicle = 200 + 150 = 350kN. Also the line beam analysis gives a total moment of
1657.5kNm; so as there are two longitudinal members supporting the vehicle, then the
moment from the grillage should be in the order of (but less than) 1657.5 / 2 ≈ 800kNm in the
longitudinal member.
5.Parapet Collision Load
Loads due to collision with parapets need only be considered in a grillage analysis if high
level containment parapets (H4a) are required. Collision loads on other types of parapet need
only be considered for local effects (how the load is transferred to the main members).
Clause 6.7.2.1 describes the three loads that are to be applied to
the top of the parapet over a 3.0m length.
The point loads need to be transferred down to the datum level of
the grillage, which is at the centroid of the deck slab, and
distributed over a 3.0m length.
The high containment parapet is 1.5m high above the back of
footpath level. The centroid of the deck slab is about 0.3m below the back of footpath level,
consequently the two horizontal loads will induce moments on the grillage with a lever arm
of 1.8m.
The 500kN horizontal load will produce a moment of 900kNm at the centre-line of the deck.
This moment is distributed along a 3.0m length giving 300kNm/m moment to be applied to
the grillage.
The horizontal load of 167kN/m will be taken into the deck

which, as it is very stiff axially compared to bending, will
distribute evenly between all longitudinal members and therefore
have negligible effect in the grillage. The load is however considered in determining local
effects in accordance with Clause 6.7.1.
The 175kN vertical load can be idealised as a uniformly distributed

load 58kN/m along a 3.0m length of the parapet beam.
The 100kN horizontal load acts in the plane of the parapet and there
is an argument that the load will be resisted by the framing effect of
the parapet rails with the posts and will therefore be transferred to the deck as a series of
horizontal and vertical loads at the base of the posts.
As the loads are to be applied over a 3.0m length then the

moment of 100kN x (1.5 + 0.3) = 180kNm can be
represented by a vertical couple of 60kN x 3.0m.
The horizontal load of 100kN will be taken into the deck which, as it is very stiff axially
compared to bending, will distribute evenly between all longitudinal members and therefore
have negligible effect in the grillage. The load is however considered in determining local
effects in accordance with Clause 6.7.1.
The three loads can be

combined in one load
case.
The 3.0m length can be positioned anywhere along the parapet beam and positions are
generally chosen to coincide with the critical positions for the accidental wheel load.
HA & HB Loading Example
BS 5400 Part 2 : 2006

Clause 6.2 Type HA Loading
Problem:
How do you work out the HA loading and bending moment for a bridge deck ?
Example:
Carriageway = 6m wide
Deck span = 34m (centre to centre of bearings for a simply supported single span)
Design for a metre width of deck :
Cl 3.2.9.3.1.
Number of notional lanes = 2

Notional lane width = 6.0/2 = 3.0m
Cl 6.2.1.
Loaded length = 34m

W = 336(1/L)0.67 kN/m (per notional lane)
W = 31.6 kN/m (per notional lane)
Cl 6.2.2.
Knife Edge Load = 120 kN (per notional lane)

Cl 6.4.1.1. Table 14.
α2 = 0.0137[bL(40-L)+3.65(L-20)]
α2 = 0.0137[3.0(40-34.0)+3.65(34.0-20)] = 0.947
Note: For loaded lengths less than 20m the load is proportioned to a standard lane width of
3.65m, i.e. 0.274bL = bL/3.65.
For a metre width of deck :
W = (31.6 x 0.947)/3.0 = 10.0 kN/m
KEL = (120 x 0.947)/3.0 = 37.88 kN
Maximum mid span Bending Moment with KEL at mid span:

M = (10.0 x 342)/8 + (37.88 x 34)/4 = 1767 kNm
Cl 6.2.7.
γfL = 1.20 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)

γfL = 1.50 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HA moment for a metre width of deck :

Msls = 1767 x 1.2 = 2120 kNm
Mult = 1767 x 1.5 = 2650 kNm
Note: Use of γf3

BS 5400 Pt.3 & Pt.5 - γf3 is used with the design strength so Mult = 2650 kNm.
BS 5400 Pt.4 - γf3 is used with the load effect so Mult = 1.1 x 2650 = 2915 kNm.
Clause 6.3 Type HB Loading
Assume the road over the bridge is not a Principal Road then we need to check for 30 units
type HB loading (see BD 37/01 Chapter 4).
Cl 6.3.1
Nominal load per axle = 30units x 10kN = 300kN
The maximum bending moment will be achieved by using the shortest HB vehicle i.e. with
6m spacing (see BS 5400-2:2006 Fig 12).
The maximum moment for a simply supported span occurs under the inner axle when the
vehicle is positioned such that the mid span bisects the distance between the centroid of the
load and the nearest axle.
With a 34m span and the 6m HB vehicle with equal axle loads, the inner axle is placed at
1.5m from the mid span.
RL =
300(10.7+12.5+18.5+20.3)/34
= 547 kN
RR = 4x300-547 = 653kN
Moment at X = 547x15.5 -
300x1.8 = 7939kNm
Cl 6.4.2
The HB vehicle occupies one lane with HA load in the adjacent lane. Assume for the example
that the HB load is carried by a standard lane width of 3.65m.
Hence the moment per metre width of deck = 7939/3.65 = 2175kNm
Cl 6.3.4.
γfL = 1.10 (Serviceability limit state - combination 1)

γfL = 1.30 (Ultimate limit state - combination 1)
Design HB moment for a metre width of deck :
Msls = 1.1 x 2175 = 2393 kN/m (compared to 2120 for HA load)
Mult = 1.3 x 2175 = 2828 kN/m (compared to 2650 for HA load)
Hence in this case HB load effects would govern although a grillage or finite element type
distribution would reduce the HB moment considerably.
A spreadsheet (InfLine.zip) is availble to download which will provide the influence line
diagram, areas and ordinates required to determine critical moments as detailed above.
Combinations of Actions to UK National Annex
Index
1. Introduction
2. Serviceability Limit State

3. Ultimate Limit State
1. Introduction
For the benefit of those who are making the transition from BS5400 to the Eurocodes
i. dead loads become 'permanent actions' (Characteristic value = 'Gk')
ii. imposed loads, snow loads, thermal loads and wind loads are collectively called
'variable actions' (Characteristic value = 'Qk')
iii. load combinations become 'combinations of actions'.
In its simplest form a combination is Gk + Qk

For prestressed structures the effect of the prestressing action has been classified as a
permanent action and identified separately by the variable P.
Thus the combination becomes Gk + P + Qk
The permanent actions Gk can comprise of several elements (weight of the beams and deck
slab, weight of the parapets, weight of the road surfacing, weight of the footway construction,
differential settlement, concrete shrinkage, etc.). Each of these elements are referenced by a
suffix and given the variable letter 'j'.
Similarly the variable actions Qk can comprise of several elements (traffic loads, temperature
effects, wind loads, snow loads, etc). Each of these elements are referenced by a suffix and
given the variable letter 'i'.
The combination of all these different actions is ΣGk,j + P + ΣQk,i
The chance that the maximum design loading for each of the variable loads will occur all at
the same time would be extremely unlikely during the 120 year design life of a bridge.
Consequently the Eurocode sets out a series of reduction factors to enable realistic
combinations to be used for design. Unless stated otherwise the variable action which
produces the largest design load effect is identified (for road bridges this is usually one of the
groups of traffic loads) and given the 'i' suffix 1 (i.e. Qk,1). This is called the 'leading variable
action'. The other representative values of variable actions are reduced by a factor (ψ) and are
defined as follows:
i. The combination value (ψ0 Qk) of an action is intended to take account of the reduced
probability of the simultaneous occurence of two or more variable actions.
ii. The frequent value (ψ1 Qk) is such that it should be exceeded for only a short period
of time.
iii. The quasi-permanent value (ψ2 Qk) may be exceeded for a considerable period of
time.
Tables NA.A2.1 and NA.A2.2 of the NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 list values of ψ0, ψ1
and ψ2 for each type of variable action.
A summary of the design situations and the respective representative values which can be
used at ultimate and serviceability limit states are shown in the table below:
Combination Factors for Appropriate Design Situations
Serviceability limit states are concerned with the functioning of the structure under normal
use, the comfort of people, and the appearance of the structure. Serviceability limit states may
be reversible (e.g. deflection) or irreversible (e.g. yield).
At SLS there are in principle three combinations of actions to consider:
 Characteristic ~ used for checking that no inelastic response occurs (allowable

stresses are not exceeded)
 Frequent ~ used if deflection needs to be checked (this includes evaluation of

dynamic response to ensure that users do not experience discomfort). Also used for
decompression and crack width checks in prestressed concrete members.
 Quasi-permanent ~ this relates to long-term effects and is used for checking crack
widths in concrete.
Ultimate limit states are concerned with the safety of people and the structure. Examples of
ultimate limit states include loss of equilibrium, excessive deformation, rupture, loss of
stability, transformation of the structure into a mechanism, and fatigue.
Four Ultimate Limit States are considered in BS EN 1990, namely EQU, STR, GEO and FAT
which are concerned with equilibrium, strength, ground and fatigue.
For persistant and transient design situations under the STR limit state, the Eurocode defines
three possible combinations which are given in expressions (6.10), (6.10a) and (6.10b).
However NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1 Clause NA.2.3.7.1 A2.3.1(1) says that for the design
of bridges the combination of actions should be based on equation 6.10.
............ (6:10)
The leading variable action Qk,1 is multiplied by its appropriate safety factor γQ,1 .
Other variable actions Qk,i , for i> 1, which may act simultaneously with the leading variable
action Qk,1, are taken into account as accompanying variable actions and are represented by
their combination value, i.e. their characteristic value reduced by the relevant combination
factor Ψ0, and are multiplied by the appropriate safety factor γQ to obtain the design values.
The appropriate safety factors γQ are obtained from NA to BS EN 1990:2002+A1 Tables

NA.A2.4(A to C) & 5 as follows:
 Static equilibrium (EQU) should be verified using Table NA.A2.4(A).
 Design of structural members (STR) not involving geotechnical actions should be

verified using Table NA.A2.4(B).
 Design of structural members (STR) involving geotechnical actions and the resistance
of the ground (abutments, wing walls, piers etc.) should be verified using Tables
NA.A2.4(B) & NA.A2.4(C) using Approach 1.
 γ = 1.0 for the design values of actions given in Table NA.A2.5
Reinforced Concrete to BS 5400 Part 4
Index
1.Introduction
2.Serviceability Limit State
3.Ultimate Limit State
4.Shear
1. Introduction
Both the Serviceability and Ultimate Limit States need to be considered.

Serviceability Limit State ensures that crack widths do not exceed values specified for
different environmental conditions, and also ensures that concrete and reinforcement stresses
are maintained below a safe limit.
Ultimate Limit State ensures that the structure will not collapse.
i) Crack Control
Cracks in concrete can be caused by:
 corrosion of the reinforcement which causes the concrete to spall
 thermal movements, particularly cooling from heat of hydration (called early thermal
cracking)
 structural actions such as bending, shear or torsion
Corrosion of reinforcement is controlled by use of suitable concrete grades and providing

adequate cover to the reinforcement.
Cracks due to thermal movements are controlled by providing minimum nominal steel area
and restricting the maximum bar spacing. BD28/87 is used to calculate the minimum steel
area and bar spacing to control early thermal cracking.
The width of shear cracks is controlled by ultimate strength calculations.
Only the crack widths caused by bending and tension need to be calculated and clause 5.8.8.2
is used.
For calculating the crack width only combination 1 loading is used and a maximum of 30
units of HB is applied. Cracks caused by higher loadings will not exist for long enough to
affect corrosion. The maximum design stress limits will ensure that the cracks close up when
the loads are removed.
A cracked elastic section analysis is used to determine the strain εm at the level where
cracking is being considered.
Using a rectangular section as an example:
We first need to determine the
position of the neutral axis.
Let:
αe = Es / Ec
Es = 200kN/mm2 (clause
4.3.2.2)
The short term value of Ec is
obtained from Table 3 which is
appropriate to the live load
portion of the moment (Mq).
The permanent load portion of
the moment (Mg) has an Ec
value equal to half the short
term value. The modified value
of Ec used for the crack width
calculation is an intermediate value between the short and long term values (clause
4.3.2.1(b)).
Modified Ec = Ec(short-term){1-0.5[Mg/(Mg+Mq)]}
ρ = As / btd and ρ' = A's / btd
Then dc/d = √{[αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ']2 + 2[αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ'd'/d]} - [αeρ + (αe - 1)ρ']
Second Moment of Area of Cracked Section Ic = btdc3/3 + (αe-1)As'(dc-d')2 + αeAs(d-dc)2
Strain at level of tension reinforcement εs = αe(Mg+Mq)(d-dc) / (IcEs)
Depth to notional surface where nominal cover cnom is provided = a'
Strain at notional surface ε1 = εs(a'-dc) / (d-dc)
There is a correction formula (equation 25 in clause 5.8.8.2) which allows for the stiffening
effect of concrete in the tension zone. Due to fatigue the stiffening effect does not work under
fluctuating load. This is allowed for in equation 25 by providing no advantage if more than
half the moment is due to live load.
The corrected strain at notional surface εm is thus obtained using the value of ε1 in equation
25.
acr = √{(cnom+Φ/2)2 + (s/2)2} - Φ/2
The Design Crack Width can now be calculated using equation 24 in clause 5.8.8.2.
ii) Stress Limits

The methods given in the code for checking crack widths assumes a linear elastic behaviour.
It is therefore necessary to check the stress limits to ensure this assumption is correct. in
particular that the strains caused by transient loads will not become permanent.
The stresses are calculated using a cracked elastic section analysis similar to that used to
determine the crack width described above. All load combinations need to be checked to
ensure that the stress limits are not exceeded.
The stress limits are given in Table 2 of the code which are:
0.75fy for reinforcement in tension or compression. This is critical for most members in
bending.
0.5fcu for concrete in compression with triangular stress distribution. This is critical for
members in bending with significant axial load or with heavy reinforcement.
0.38fcu for concrete in compression with uniform stress. this is critical for members in axial
compression.
To determine the moment of resistance of a member at failure by limit state analysis the
following assumptions are made:
a. The distribution of strain across any section is linear. This means that plane sections
before bending remain plane after bending, and the strain at any point is proportional
to its distance from the neutral axis.
b. The resistance of concrete in tension is ignored.
c. The relationship between the stress and strain in the reinforcement is as shown in
Figure 2 of the code with γm = 1.15.
d. The relationship between the stress and strain in the concrete is as shown in Figure 1
of the code with γm = 1.5. The strain in the concrete at the outermost fibre is taken as
0.0035. Alternatively the distribution of stress in the concrete at failure may be
represented by a uniform stress of 0.4fcu acting over the whole of the compression
zone.
The deisgn formulae given in clause 5.3.2.3 of the code are based on a uniform compressive
stress of 0.4fcu for concrete and stresses of 0.87fy in tension and 0.72fy in compression for
steel. The steel stresses are the maximum values provided by the stress-strain curves, where
0.72fy is a simplification of the expression for steel in compresssion.
The design formulae are also based on a maximum depth of concrete in compression of 0.5d;
this ensures a strain ≥ 0.0035 in the tension reinforcement. For values of x > 0.5d the use of
the design stress of 0.87fy in tension is invalid, the design becomes inefficient and the failure
less ductile.
For the singly reinforced rectangular section:
Taking moments about the centre of compression for the tensile force
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz
Taking moments about the centre of tension for the compressive force
M = (0.4fcu)bxz = (0.4fcu)bx(d - 0.5x)
The maximum moment of resistance is obtained when x = 0.5d so substituting for x we get:
Mu = 0.15fcubd2
The depth to the neutral axis depends upon the reinforcement provided and is obtained by
equating the forces:
(0.87fy)As = (0.4fcu)bx
Rearranging and dividing both sides by d we get:
(x/d) = (2.2fyAs) / (fcubd)
Lever arm z = (d - 0.5x) so substuting for x we get:
z = (1 - [1.1fyAs] / [fcubd])d
The value of z is not to be taken greater than 0.95d.
For the doubly reinforced rectangular section:
Taking moments about the centre of tension for the compressive forces
Mu = 0.15fcubd2 + (0.72fy)A's(d - d')
Equating the tensile and compressive forces
(0.87fy)As = 0.2fcubd + (0.72fy)A's
These two equations are based on a value of d'/d ≤ 0.2, which ensures a strain ≥ 0.0035 x 0.6
= 0.0021 in the compression reinforcement. For values of d'/d > 0.2 the use of a design stress
of 0.72fy in compression becomes invalid.
4. Shear
The design rules for shear in beams are based on the results of tests carried out on beams with
and without shear reinforcement.
The results from the beams tested without shear reinforcement showed that for a constant
concrete strength and longitudinal steel percentage, the relationship between the ratio of the
bending moment at collapse (Mc) to the calculated ultimate flexural moment (Mu) and the
ratio of shear span (av) to effective depth (d) is as shown below:
The diagram has four distinct regions, each of which has a different mode of failure.
Region (i) fails by crushing of a compression strut running from the load to the support.
Region (ii) fails by diagonal tension causing splitting along the line from the load to the
support.
Region (iii) fails when a flexural crack develops into a shear crack.
Region (iv) fails in flexure.
The flexural failure in region (iv) is prevented by designing the beam for Mu in accordance
with Clause 5.3.2.3. The test results show that this is unsafe for regions (ii) and (iii) and Mc
needs to be controlled by considering the shear force.
Let the shear force at failure = Vc and the nominal shear stress vc = Vc / bd then:
Mc = Vcav = vcbdav
The test results relationship with av/d can be reproduced by dividing both sides of the above
equation by bd2 which gives:
Mc/bd2 = vc av/d
The dashed line is Mu/bd2 which assumes flexural failure. The chain dotted line is constructed
to cut off the unsafe side of the graph; the slope of this line is vc and is the allowable shear
stress.
Values of vc are given in Table 8 of the code; these values will ensure that the moment to
cause collapse will fall below the test values. It can be seen from Table 8 that the steel area As
has a more significant effect on the value of vc than does the concrete strength.
When the shear stress v is greater than ξsvc, as given in Table 7 of the code, then links need to
be designed. These are designed on the basis that the beam and links act as a pin-jointed truss.
The links are designed to carry the shear in excess of that which can be carried by the
concrete. The horizontal tie force in the truss analogy has to be provided by the tension
reinforcement, this is in addition to that required to resist any bending effects and is
determined from Asa ≥ V/{2(0.87fy)} in clause 5.3.3.2.
The beam may fail by crushing of the compression struts regardless of the amount of shear
reinforcement. The maximum allowable shear stress is therefore limited to a value of
0.92√(fcu/1.5) as given in clause 5.3.3.1.
Reinforced Concrete Deck Example to British Standards
Reinforced Concrete Deck Design to BS 5400 Part 4
Problem:
Design a simply supported reinforced concrete deck slab using a unit strip method.
The deck carries a 100mm depth of surfacing, together with a nominal HA live load udl of
17.5 kN/m2 and knife edge load of 33kN/m .
The deck should also be designed to carry 30 units of HB load. The span of the deck is 12.0m
centre to centre of bearings.
γconc. = 25kN/m3
30 units of HB also to be considered.

Use C32/40 concrete to BS 8500.
Use Grade B500B reinforcement to BS 4449.
BS 8500-1 cl. A.2.1 Table A.1
Exposure Class XD1 used for bridge deck soffits.
cl. A.3
Fixing tolerence for reinforcement Δc = 15mm for insitu concrete.
Table A.5
Nominal cover for C32/40 concrete = 45 + Δc = 60mm with

maximum water-cement ratio = 0.55 and minimum cement content of 320 kg/m3
Loading per metre width of deck (unit strip)
(Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of designing the slab (See
BS 5400 Pt2, or BD 37/01 for full design loading).
Nominal Dead Loads :
deck slab = 25 × 0.65 × 1.0 = 16.3 kN/m
surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m
Nominal Live Load :
HA = 17.5 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 17.5 kN/m(udl) + 33kN(kel)
30 units HB = 30 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 75 kN per wheel
Load factors for serviceability and ultimate limit state from BS 5400 Part 2 Table 1:
SLS
ULS
Comb 1
Comb 3
Comb 1
Comb 3
Dead Load
γfL concrete
1.0
1.0
1.15
1.15
Superimposed Dead Load
γfL surfacing
1.2
1.2
1.75
1.75
Live Load
γfL HA
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.25
γfL HB
1.1
1.0
1.3
1.1
Temperature Difference
γfL
—
0.8
1.0#
Key: # It is usually assumed that there is local plasticity at the critical sections at Ultimate
Limit State and the self equilibrating stresses due to non linear temperature distribution can
be ignored in combination loadings. (Ref:"Concrete bridge engineering:performance and
advances" by R.J.Cope).
Temperature Difference Effects
Apply temperature differences given in BS 5400 Pt2 Fig.9 (Group 4) to a 1m wide deck
section.
Cl. 5.4.6 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 × 10-6 per °C.
From BS 5400 Pt4 Table 3 : Ec = 31 kN/mm2 for fcu = 40N/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 31 × 103 × 12 × 10-6 = 0.372 N/mm2
Section Properties
Area = 1000 × 650 = 0.65 × 106 mm2
Second Moment of Area = 1000 × 6503 / 12 = 22.9 × 109 mm4
a) Positive temperature difference
Force F to restrain temperature strain :

0.372 × 103 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 + 5.05 ) + (195 × 1.5) + (195 × 1.05)] × 10-3 = 634.2 kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment M to restrain

curvature due to temperature strain :
0.372 × 103 × [150 × (3.0 × 250 + 5.05 × 275) + 175 × (0.3 × 87.5 + 1.35 × 116.7) - (20 ×
0.15 × 6.7) - (195 × 1.05 × 260)] × 10-6 = 111.5kNm
b) Reverse temperature difference

- 0.372 × 103 × [ 130 × ( 1.8 + 2.5 + 1.5 + 1.9 ) + 163 × ( 0.9 + 0.75 )] × 10-3 = - 472.4kN
Taking moments about centroid of section to determine required moment M to restrain

curvature due to temperature strain :
- 0.372 × 103 × [130 × ( 1.8 × 260 + 2.5 × 282 - 1.5 × 260 - 1.9 × 282 ) + 163 × ( 0.9 × 141 -
0.75 × 141 )] × 10-6 = -13.34kNm
Note: Sign convention is compressive stresses are positive.
Dead + Superimposed Dead Loading (per metre width of deck)
SLS = Serviceability Limit State

ULS = Ultimate Limit State
Design SLS moment = ∑(γfL × M) = [(1.0 × 16.3)+(1.2 × 2.4)] × 122 / 8 = 345 kNm
Design ULS moment = γf3 × ∑(γfL × M) = 1.1 × [{(1.15 × 16.3)+(1.75 × 2.4)} × 122 / 8] = 454
kNm
Live Loading (per metre width of deck)
Nominal HA mid span moment = 17.5 × 12.02 / 8 + 33.0 × 12.0 / 4 = 414kNm

The maximum moment for the HB vehicle occurs at point X in the diagram below with the
vehicle positioned as shown.
(CG = position of the centre of gravity of the three 75kN wheel loads)
Nominal HB moment at X = 99.4 × 5.3 - 75 × 1.8 = 392kNm
Combination 1 Loading
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.2 × 414 = 497 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.1 × 392 = 431 kNm < 497 kNm ∴ HA critical
Total Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 497 = 842 kNm
Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.5 × 414 = 683 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.3 × 392 = 561 kNm < 683 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Total Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 683 = 1137 kNm
Design HA SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 414 = 414 kNm
Design HB SLS moment = γfL × M = 1.0 × 392 = 392 kNm <414 kNm ∴ HA loading critical
Design SLS Moment (Dead + Live) = 345 + 414 = 759 kNm
Design HA ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.25 × 414 = 569 kNm
Design HB ULS moment = γf3 × γfL × M = 1.1 × 1.1 × 392 = 474 kNm < 569 kNm
∴ HA loading critical
Design ULS Moment (Dead + Live) = 454 + 569 = 1023 kNm

Ultimate Capacity of Deck Slab
Ultimate Design Moment = 1137 kNm
BS 5400 Pt 4 cl. 5.1.2.1
It is usual to design reinforced concrete for the ultimate limit state and check for
serviceability conditions.
cl. 5.4.2
Use clause 5.3.2 for the resistance moments in slabs.
cl. 5.3.2.3
Try 32mm dia. reinforcement at 125mm centres:

Nominal cover to reinforcement in deck soffit = 60mm
d = 650 - 60 -32/2 = 574

As = Π162 × 1000 / 125 = 6434mm2/m
fy = 500N/mm2
fcu = 40N/mm2
z = [1 - ({1.1fyAs}/{fcubd})]d
z = [1 - ({1.1 × 500 × 6434}/{40 × 1000 × 574})]d = 0.85d < 0.95 d
∴ z = 0.85 × 574 = 488mm
MuSteel = 0.87fyAsz = 0.87 × 500 × 6434 × 488 × 10-6 = 1366 kNm/m

MuConcrete = 0.15fcubd2 = 0.15 × 40 × 1000 × 5742 × 10-6 = 1977 kNm/m > 1366
∴ Mu = 1366 kNm/m > 1137kNm/m ∴ OK.
Check Serviceability Limit State
Combination 1 SLS Design Moment = 842 kNm (345DL + 497LL)
Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:
cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec = 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2
Youngs Modulus for steel reinforcement = Es = 200 kN/mm2
Case 1) When the bridge has just opened (when only a small amount of creep has occurred):
Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 31 = 6.45
Taking first moments of area about the neutral axis:
1000 × X2 / 2 = 6.45 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 41510X - 23.83×106 = 0
X = 177 mm
Second Moment of Area of cracked section:

Ixx = 1000×1773 / 3 + 6.45×6434×(574-177)2 = 8.39×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3
Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×106 × 177 / 8.39×109 = 17.8 N/mm2
Table 2
Allowable compressive stress = 0.5fcu = 20 N/mm2 > 17.8 ∴ OK
Case 2) When creep and shrinkage in the bridge are substantially complete:
cl. 4.3.2.1(b)
Youngs Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2 = 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 497LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 497 × 31) / 842 = 24.65 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2

Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 24.65 = 8.1
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.1 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 52115X - 30×106 = 0
X = 198 mm

Ixx = 1000×1983 / 3 + 8.1×6434×(574-198)2 = 9.96×109 mm4
Cl 4.1.1.3
Max compressive stress in concrete = 842×106 × 198 / 9.96×109 = 16.7 N/mm2
Table 2
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 842×106 × (574 - 198) × 8.1 / 9.96×109 = 257.5 N/mm2
Table 2
Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 257.5 ∴ OK
Crack Control:
Strain in reinforcement = ∈1 = 257.5 / 200000 = 0.00129
Table 13
Notional surface for crack calculation = 35mm cover to reinforcement
5.8.8.2
acr = √[(125/2)2 + (16+35)2] - 16 = 65
Allow for stiffening effect of concrete:
eqn 25
∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8bth(a'-dc)} / {∈sAs(h-dc)}] × [(1-Mq/Mg)×10-9]

∈m = ∈1 - [{3.8×1000×650×(625 - 198)} / {0.00129×6434×(650 - 198)}] × [(1 - 497/345)×10-
9
]
∈m = ∈1 - [-0.00012] but not greater than ∈1 Hence no stiffening effect
∈m = ∈1 = 0.00129 × (625 - 198) / (574 - 198) = 0.00146
Design crack width = 3 × 65 × 0.00146 / [1 + 2 × (65 - 35) / (650 - 198)] = 0.25 mm
eqn 24
Design crack width = 3acr∈m / [1+2(acr-cnom)/(h-dc)]
Table 1
Maximum allowable crack width = 0.25 mm ∴ OK
Combination 3 SLS Design Moment = 759 kNm (345DL + 414LL)
Determine depth 'X' to neutral axis of cracked section:

cl. 4.3.2.1 Table 3
Youngs Modulus for concrete for short term loading = Ec = 31 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.1(b)
Youngs Modulus for concrete for long term loading = Ec/2 = 15.5 kN/mm2
Hence Modified Ec for (345DL + 414LL) = (345 × 15.5 + 414 × 31) / 759 = 23.95 kN/mm2
cl. 4.3.2.2

Modular Ratio = Es / Ec = 200 / 23.95 = 8.35
1000 × X2 / 2 = 8.35 × 6434 × (574 - X)
500X2 + 53724X - 30.84×106
X = 200 mm

Ixx = 1000×2003 / 3 + 8.35×6434×(574-200)2 = 10.18×109 mm4>
Cl 4.1.1.3
Max compressive bending stress in concrete = 759×106 × 200 / 10.18×109 = 14.9 N/mm2
Max compressive stress due to positive temperature difference = γfL × 2.31 = 0.8 × 2.31 = 1.8
N/mm2
Total compressive stress in concrete = 14.9 + 1.8 = 16.7 N/mm2
Table 2
Tensile stress in reinforcement = 759×106 × (574 - 200) × 8.35 / 10.18×109 = 232.8 N/mm2
Tensile stress due to reverse temperature difference =
γfL × 8.35×[{(1.43+0.06)×(130-60-16)/130}-0.06] = 0.8 × 4.7 = 3.8 N/mm2
Total tensile stress in reinforcement = 232.8 + 3.8 = 237 N/mm2
Table 2
Allowable tensile stress = 0.75fy = 375 N/mm2 > 237 ∴ OK
Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for the mid span.
Shear Design
Shear is designed for ultimate limit state.

cl. 5.4.4
V = shear force due to ultimate loads.

Maximum Dead Load V = γf3 × 12 × (1.15 × 16.3 + 1.75 × 2.4) / 2
Maximum Dead Load V = 1.1 × 137.7 kN = 151 kN
Determine shear effects at distance d away from the support.

Try 32mm dia. bars at 125 c/c : d = 574mm
Maximum HA V = γf3 × 1.5 × (12 × 17.5 / 2 + 33 × 11.426 / 12 - 17.5 × 0.574)

Maximum HA V = 1.1 × 190 kN = 209 kN
Maximum HB V = γf3 × 1.3 × 75 × (11.426 + 9.626 + 3.626 + 1.826) / 12

Maximum HB V = 1.1 × 215 kN = 237 kN > 209 ∴ HB loading critical
Maximum V = 151 + 237 = 388 kN

Shear stress = V / bd = 388×103 / (1000 × 574) = 0.68 N/mm2
Design for no shear reinforcement condition then ξsvc > 0.68 N/mm2
Table 9
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500/574)1/4 = 0.97
Table 8
vc = 0.27/γm(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3
vc = (0.27 / 1.25) × [100 × 6434 / (1000 × 574)]1/3 × (40)1/3 = 0.77 N/mm2
ξsv√ = 0.97 × 0.77 = 0.75 N/mm2 > 0.68 ∴ OK
cl 5.3.3.1
Check that the maximum allowable shear stress is not exceeded:

Maximum allowable shear stress = 0.75√fcu or 4.75 N/mm2
0.75√fcu = 0.75√40 = 4.74 > 0.68 ∴ OK
Hence B32 bars at 125 centres are adequate for shear at the ends of the deck.
Note: Intermediate sections between mid span and the ends of the deck will have a smaller
moment than at mid span and a small shear than at the ends of the deck. These sections need
to be checked to determine where the reinforcement may be reduced to B25 at 125c/c.
cl. 5.8.4.1
Minimum area of reinforcement = 0.15% of bad = 0.15 × 1000 × 574 / 100 = 861 mm2/m ∴
use B12 bars at 125 centres (As = 905 mm2/m) for distribution reinforcement.
Prestressed Concrete Beam Example to British Standards
Prestressed Concrete Beam Design to BS 5400 Part 4
Problem:
Design a simply supported prestressed concrete Y beam which carries a 150mm thick
concrete slab and 100mm of surfacing, together with a nominal live load udl of 10.0 kN/m2
and kel of 33kN/m . The span of the beam is 24.0m centre to centre of bearings and the
beams are spaced at 1.0m intervals.
γconc. = 24kN/m3
25 units of HB to be considered at SLS for load combination 1 only (BS 5400 Pt4 Cl. 4.2.2)
Loading per beam (at 1.0m c/c)
Note: The loading has been simplified to demonstrate the method of designing the beam (See
BS 5400 Pt2, or DB 37/01 for full design loading)
Nominal Dead Loads :
slab = 24 × 0.15 × 1.0 = 3.6 kN/m
beam = say Y5 beam = 10.78 kN/m
surfacing = 24 × 0.1 × 1.0 = 2.4 kN/m

Nominal Live Load :
HA = 10 × 1.0 + 33.0 = 10 kN/m + 33kN
25 units HB = 25 × 10 / 4 per wheel = 62.5 kN per wheel
Load factors for serviceability and ultimate limit state from BS 5400 Part 2 Table 1:
SLS
ULS
Comb 1
Comb 3
Comb 1
Comb 3
Dead Load
γfL concrete
1.0
1.0
1.15
1.15
Superimposed Dead Load
γfL surfacing
1.2
1.2
1.75
1.75
Live Load
γfL HA
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.25
γfL HB
1.1
Temperature Difference
γfL
0.8
1.0#
Concrete Grades
Beam C40/50 fcu = 50 N/mm2, fci = 40 N/mm2
Slab C32/40 fcu = 40 N/mm2
BS 5400 Pt. 4
Section Properties
cl.7.4.1
Modular ratio effect for different concrete strengths between beam and slab may be ignored.
Section properties of Y5 beam were obtained from a Paper by Taylor, Clark and Banks
Note: Level 2 is at the nib level and not at the top of the beam.
Property
Beam Section
Composite Section
Area(mm2)
449.22×103
599.22×103
Centroid(mm)
456
623
2nd Moment of Area(mm4)
52.905×109
103.515×109
Modulus @ Level 1(mm3)
116.020×106
166.156×106
89.066×106
242.424×106
179.402×106
Temperature Difference Effects
Apply temperature differences given in BS 5400 Pt2 Fig.9 (Group 4)to a simplified beam
section.
Cl. 5.4.6 - Coefficient of thermal expansion = 12 × 10-6 per °C.
From BS 5400 Pt4 Table 3 : Ec = 34 kN/mm2 for fcu = 50N/mm2
Hence restrained temperature stresses per °C = 34 × 103 × 12 × 10-6 = 0.408 N/mm2
a) Positive temperature difference

0.408 × 1000 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 + 5.25 ) ] × 10-3 + 0.408 × ( 300 × 250 × 1.5 + 750 × 200 ×
1.25 ) × 10-3 = 504.9 + 122.4 = 627.3 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :

0.408 × 1000 × [ 150 × ( 3.0 × 502 + 5.25 × 527 ) ] × 10-6 + 0.408 × ( 300 × 250 × 1.5 × 344 -
750 × 200 × 1.25 × 556 ) × 10-6 = 261.5 - 26.7 = 234.8 kNm
b) Reverse temperature difference

- 0.408 × [ 1000 × 150 × ( 3.6 + 2.3 ) + 300 × 90 × ( 0.9 + 1.35 ) ] × 10-3
- 0.408 × 300 × ( 200 × 0.45 + 150 × 0.45 ) × 10-3
- 0.408 × 750 × [ 50 × ( 0.9 + 0.15 ) + 240 × ( 1.2 + 2.6 ) ] × 10-3 = - 385.9 - 19.3 - 295.1 = -
700.3 kN
Moment M about centroid of section to restrain curvature due to temperature strain :

- 0.408 × [ 150000 × ( 3.6 × 502 + 2.3 × 527 ) + 27000 × ( 0.9 × 382 + 1.35 × 397 ) ] × 10-6
- 0.408 × 300 × ( 200 × 0.45 × 270 - 150 × 0.45 × 283 ) × 10-6
+ 0.408 × 750 × [ 50 × ( 0.9 × 358 + 0.15 × 366 ) + 240 × ( 1.2 × 503 + 2.6 × 543 ) ] × 10-6
= - 194.5 - 0.6 + 153.8 = - 41.3 kNm
Differential Shrinkage Effects
BS 5400 Pt.4 cl.7.4.3.4
Use cl.6.7.2.4 Table 29 :

Total shrinkage of insitu concrete = 300 × 10-6
Assume that 2/3 of the total shrinkage of the precast concrete takes place before the deck slab
is cast and that the residual shrinkage is 100 × 10-6 ,
hence the differential shrinkage is 200 × 10-6
BS 5400 Pt.4 cl.7.4.3.5
Force to restrain differential shrinkage : F = - εdiff × Ecf × Acf × φ

F = -200 × 10-6 × 34 × 1000 × 150 × 0.43 = -439 kN
Eccentricity acent = 502mm
Restraint moment Mcs = -439 × 0.502 = -220.4 kNm
Self weight of beam and weight of deck slab is supported by the beam. When the deck slab
concrete has cured then any further loading (superimposed and live loads) is supported by the
composite section of the beam and slab.
Dead Loading (beam and slab)
Total load for serviceability limit state = (1.0 × 3.6)+(1.0 × 10.78) = 14.4kN/m
Design serviceability moment = 14.4 × 242 / 8 = 1037 kNm
Super. & HA live load for SLS:
= [(1.2 × 2.4)+(1.2 × 10)]udl & [(1.2 × 33)]kel
= (2.88 + 12.0)udl & 39.6kel
= 14.9 kN/m & 39.6kN
Super. & HB live load for SLS:
= 2.88 & 4 wheels @ 1.1 × 62.5
= 2.9 kN/m & 4 wheels @ 68.75 kN
Total load for ultimate limit state:
= [(1.15 × 3.6)+(1.15 × 10.78)+(1.75 × 2.4)+(1.5 × 10)]udl & [(1.5 × 33)]kel
= (4.14 + 12.40 + 4.20 + 15.0)udl & 49.5kel
= 35.7 kN/m & 49.5kN

HA Design serviceability moment:
= 14.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 39.6 × 24 / 4
= 1310 kNm
25 units HB Design SLS moment:
= 2.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 982.3(from grillage analysis)
= 1191.1 kNm
Design ultimate moment:
= 35.7 × 24.02 / 8 + 49.5 × 24 / 4
= 2867 kNm
Super. & HA live load for SLS:
= [(1.2 × 2.4)+(1.0 × 10)]udl & [(1.0 × 33)]kel
= (2.88 + 10.0)udl & 33kel
= 12.9 kN/m & 33kN
Total load for ultimate limit state:
= [(1.15 × 3.6)+(1.15 × 10.78)+(1.75 × 2.4)+(1.25 × 10)]udl & [(1.25 × 33)]kel
= (4.14 + 12.40 + 4.20 + 12.5)udl & 41.3kel
= 33.2 kN/m & 41.3kN
Design serviceability moment:
= 12.9 × 24.02 / 8 + 33 × 24 / 4
= 1127 kNm
Allowable stresses in precast concrete
At transfer :
cl.6.3.2.2 b)
Compression ( Table 23 )
0.5fci (≤ 0.4fcu) = 20 N/mm2 max.
cl.6.3.2.4 b)
Tension = 1.0 N/mm2
At serviceability limit state :
cl.7.4.3.2
Compression (1.25 × Table 22)

1.25 × 0.4fcu = 25 N/mm2
Tension = 0 N/mm2 (class 1) & 3.2 N/mm2 (class 2 - Table 24)
Stresses at Level 1 due to SLS loads (N/mm2) :
Comb 1
(HA)
Comb 1
(HB)
Comb 3
Dead Load M / Z = (1037 × 106) / (116.020 × 106)
-8.94
-8.94
-8.94
Super. & Live Load M / Z = M / (166.156 × 106)
-7.88
-7.17
-6.78
Reverse Temperature = γfL × -1.69 = 0.8 × -1.69
-1.35
Differential shrinkage
-0.60
-0.60
-0.60
Total Stress at Level 1 =
-17.42
-16.71
-17.67*
Hence Combination 3 is critical
Prestressing Force and Eccentricity
Using straight, fully bonded tendons (constant force and eccentricity).

Allow for 20% loss of prestress after transfer.
Initial prestress at Level 1 to satisfy class 2 requirement for SLS (Comb. 3).
Stress at transfer = ( 17.67 - 3.2 ) / 0.8 = 18.1 N/mm2 (use allowable stress of 20 N/mm2)
The critical section at transfer occurs at the end of the transmission zone. The moment due to
the self weight at this section is near zero and initial stress conditions are:
P/A + Pe/Zlevel 1 = 20 ..................... (eqn. 1)
P/A - Pe/Zlevel 2 >= - 1.0 ..................... (eqn. 2)
(eqn. 1) × Zlevel 1 + (eqn. 2) × Zlevel 2 gives :
P >= A × (20 × Zlevel 1 - 1.0 × Zlevel 2) / (Zlevel 1 + Zlevel 2)
P = 449.22 × 103 × ( 20 × 116.02 - 89.066) / ( 116.02 + 89.066) × 10-3 = 4888 kN
Allow 10% for loss of force before and during transfer,

then the initial force Po = 4888 / 0.9 = 5431kN
Using 15.2mm class 2 relaxation standard strand at maximum initial force of 174kN (0.75 ×
Pu)
Area of tendon = 139mm2
Nominal tensile strength = fpu =1670 N/mm2
Hence 32 tendons required.
Initial force Po = 32 × 174 = 5568 kN
P = 0.9 × 5568 = 5011 kN
Substituting P = 5011 kN in (eqn. 2)
e <= Zlevel 2 / A + Zlevel 2 / P = (89.066 × 106 / 449.22 × 103) + (89.066 × 106 / 5011 × 103)
e = 198 + 18 = 216 mm
Arrange 32 tendons symmetrically about the Y-Y axis to achieve an eccentricity of about
216mm.
Taking moments about bottom of beam :
2@
1000 =
2000
2@
900 =
1800
4@
260 =
1040
8@
160 =
1280
10 @
110 =
1100
6@
60 =
360
32
7580
e = 456 - 7580 / 32 = 456 - 237 = 219mm
Allowing for 1% relaxation loss in steel before transfer and elastic deformation of concrete at
transfer :
cl. 6.7.2.3
P = 0.99 Po / [ 1 + Es × (Aps / A) × (1 + A × e2 / I) / Eci ]
P = 0.99 × Po / [ 1 + 196 × ( 32 × 139 / 449220) × (1 + 449220 × 2192 / 52.905 × 109) / 31 ]
P = 0.91 Po = 0.91 × 5568 = 5067 kN
Initial stresses due to prestress at end of transmission zone :
Level 1 : P / A × ( 1 + A × e / Zlevel 1 ) = 11.3 × ( 1 + 219 / 258 ) = 20.89 N/mm2

(20.89 N/mm2 is slightly greater than the allowable of 20 N/mm2 so a number of tendons will
need to be debonded near the ends of the beam).
Level 2 : P / A × ( 1 - A × e / Zlevel 2 ) = 11.3 × ( 1 - 219 / 198 ) = - 1.20 N/mm2
Moment due to self weight of beam at mid span = 10.78 × 242 / 8 = 776.2 kNm
Stress due to self weight of beam at mid span :

@ Level 1 = - 776.2 / 116.02 = - 6.69 N/mm2
@ Level 2 = 776.2 / 89.066 = 8.71 N/mm2
Initial stresses at mid span :
cl. 6.7.2.5
Allowing for 2% relaxation loss in steel after transfer,

concrete shrinkage εcs = 300 × 10-6
and concrete specific creep ct = 1.03 × 48 × 10-6 per N/mm2
Loss of force after transfer due to :
cl. 6.7.2.2
Steel relaxation = 0.02 × 5568 = 111
cl. 6.7.2.4
Concrete shrinkage = (εcs × Es × Aps ) = 300 × 10-6 × 196 × 32 × 139 = 262

cl. 6.7.2.5
Concrete creep = ( ct × fco × Es × Aps ) = 1.03 × 48 × 10-6 × 12.76 × 196 × 32 × 139 = 550
Total Loss = 111 + 262 + 550 = 923 kN
Final force after all loss of prestress = Pe = 5067 - 923 = 4144 kN (Pe/P = 0.82)
Final stresses due to prestress after all loss of prestress at :
Level 1 f1,0.82P = 0.82 × 20.89 = 17.08 N/mm2
Level 2 f2,0.82P = 0.82 × - 1.20 = - 0.98 N/mm2
Combined stresses in final condition for worst effects of design loads, differential shrinkage
and temperature difference :
Level 1, combination 1 HB : f = 17.08 - 16.71 = 0.37 N/mm2 (> 0 hence O.K.)
Level 1, combination 3 : f = 17.08 - 17.67 = - 0.59 N/mm2 (> - 3.2 hence O.K.)
Level 2, combination 1 : f = - 0.98 + 1037 / 89.066 + 1310 / 242.424 + 1.64 = 17.71 (< 25
O.K.)
Level 3. combination 3 : f = (1127 / 179.402) + (0.8 × 3.15) = 8.8 N/mm2 (< 25 O.K.)
Ultimate Capacity of Beam and Deck Slab

(Composite Section)
Ultimate Design Moment = γf3 × M = 1.1 × 2867 = 3154 kNm
cl. 6.3.3
Only steel in the tension zone is to be considered :

Centroid of tendons in tension zone = (6×60 + 10×110 + 8×160 + 4×260) / 28 = 135mm
Effective depth from Level 3 = 1200 - 135 = 1065mm
Assume that the maximum design stress is developed in the tendons, then :
Tensile force in tendons Fp = 0.87 × 28 × 139 × 1670 × 10-3 = 5655 kN
Compressive force in concrete flange :
Ff = 0.4 × 40 × 1000 × 150 × 10-3 = 2400 kN
Let X = depth to neutral axis.

Compressive force in concrete web :
Fw = 0.4 × 50 × [393 - (393 - 200) × (X - 150) / (671 × 2)] × (X - 150) × 10-3
Fw = ( -2.876X2 + 8722.84X - 1243717) × 10-3
Equating forces to obtain X :
5655 = 2400 + ( -2.876×2 + 8722.84X - 1243717) × 10-3
X = 659 mm
Stress in tendon after losses = fpe = 4144 × 103 / (32 × 139) = 932 N/mm2
Prestrain εpe = fpe / Es = 932 / 200 × 103 = 0.0047
Determine depth to neutral axis by an iterative strain compatibility analysis

Try X = 659 mm as an initial estimate
Width of web at this depth = 247mm
εpb6 = ε6 + εpe = -459 × 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0022
εpb5 = ε5 + εpe = -359 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0028
εpb4 = ε4 + εpe = 281 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0062
εpb3 = ε3 + εpe = 381 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0067
εpb2 = ε2 + εpe = 431 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0069
εpb1 = ε1 + εpe = 481 * 0.0035 / 659 + 0.0047 = 0.0072
fpb6 = 0.0022 × 200 × 103 = 444 N/mm2
fpb5 = 0.0028 × 200 × 103 = 551 N/mm2
fpb4 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0062 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1178 N/mm2
fpb3 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0067 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1201 N/mm2
fpb2 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0069 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1213 N/mm2

fpb1 = 1162 + 290 × (0.0072 - 0.0058) / 0.0065 = 1225 N/mm2
Tensile force in tendons :
Fp6 = 2 × 139 × 444 × 10-3
= 124
Fp5 = 2 × 139 × 551 × 10-3
= 153
Fp4 = 4 × 139 × 1178 × 10-3
= 655
Fp3 = 8 × 139 × 1201 × 10-3
= 1336
Fp2 = 10 × 139 × 1213 × 10-3
= 1686
Fp1 = 6 × 139 × 1225 × 10-3
= 1022
Ft = ∑ Fp1 to 6 = 4976 kN
Compressive force in concrete :
Ff = 0.4 × 40 × 1000 × 150 × 10-3 = 2400
Fw = 0.4 × 50 × 0.5 × (393 + 247) × (659 - 150) × 10-3 = 3258
Fc = Ff + Fw = 5658 kN
Fc > Ft therefore reduce depth to neutral axis and repeat the calculations.
Using a depth of 565mm will achieve equilibrium.
The following forces are obtained :
Fp6 = 134
Ff = 2400
Fp5 = 168
Fw = 2765
Fp4 = 675
Fc = 5165
Fp3 = 1382
Fp2 = 1746
Fp1 = 1060
Ft = 5165
Taking Moments about the neutral axis :
MFp6 = 134 × -0.365 =
-49
MFp5 = 168 × -0.265 =
-45
MFp4 = 675 × 0.375 =
253
MFp3 = 1382 × 0.475 =
656
MFp2 = 1746 × 0.525 =
917
MFp1 = 1060 × 0.575 =
610
MFf = 2400 × 0.49 =
1176
MFw = 3258 × 0.207 =

674
Mu = ∑ MFp1 to 6 + MFf + MFw = 4192 kNm > 3154 kNm hence O.K.
cl. 6.3.3.1
Mu / M = 4192 / 3154 = 1.33 ( > 1.15 ) hence strain in outermost tendon O.K.
cl. 6.3.4
The Shear Resistance of the beam needs to be determined in accordance with clause 6.3.4.
and compared with the ultimate shear load at critical sections
Abutment Design to BD 30 and EN 1997-1
Index
1.Earth pressures
2.Abutment Construction
3.Loading
4.Stability
5.Design Example to BD 30 or EN 1997-1
1.Earth Pressures
 Active earth pressures (Kaγ h) are considered to ensure that the abutment is stable.
 At rest earth pressures (Koγ h) are considered to ensure that the structural elements are
adequate.
 Passive earth pressures (Kpγ h) are only considered for integral abutments or where
shear keys are provided.
At rest pressures are initially developed on the back of the abutment wall during construction
and whilst the backfill is compacting. Consequently the structural elements have to be
designed to resist the effects of these pressures.
Any movements in the structure caused by the at rest pressure, either through rotation or
deflection will reduce the pressure on the back of the wall; a state of equilibrium is reached
when the pressure reduces to the active earth pressure value. Consequently the stability of the
structure can be checked by using active earth pressures.
Passive pressures are developed when the structure pushes against the soil. Since movements
required to develop passive pressures are considerably greater than that for active pressures,
and the structure is designed to ensure that the foundations do not slide under active
pressures, then it is unlikely that passive pressures will be developed in front of the abutment.
The magnitude of movement required to mobilise passive pressure can be determined from
EN 1997-1:2004 Clause C.3(2) and PD 6694-1:2011 Clause 7.5. There is also the chance that,
at some time in the future, the soil in front of the abutment may be removed temporarily. This
could happen if services, such as drainage pipes, water or gas mains, are installed or repaired
in front of the abutment. Consequently the structure needs to be designed to be stable with no
soil in front of the concrete footings.
If shear keys are required to prevent sliding then the key should be located under the rear half
of the base and a factored value of passive pressure is used.
Integral bridges experience passive pressures on the back of the abutment wall when the deck
expands. The design of integral abutments is covered in BA 42, PD 6694-1 and a number of
publications, such as Integral Abutments for Prestressed Beam Bridges by B A Nicholson,
and Composite Highway Bridge Design by D C Iles give guidance and examples.
2.Abutment Construction
Departmental Standard BD 30 gives recommendations for the layout of backfilled cantilever

retaining walls with spread footings or piled foundations.
The layout of the abutment will have implications on the design which need to be considered.
The provision of a drainage layer will allow porewater pressures to be ignored (unless there is
a possibility of a large water main bursting). However the drainage layer separates the
backfill soil from the wall so back of wall friction should not be included. Traffic vibration
will also affect any vertical friction effects on the back of the wall.
Foundation level is usually set at least one metre below ground level to avoid deterioration of
the foundation material through frost action. If services, such as gas pipes, water mains,
electricity cables etc., may be installed in front of the abutment wall then the depth to
foundation level may need to be increased to allow the services to be installed above the
concrete footing.
It is usual to provide granular backfill to the back of the wall which limits the material to
Class 6N or 6P as defined in the Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works Volume
1 Specification Series 600 Clause 610 and Table 6/1. A typical value for the effective angle of
internal friction (ϕ') for Class 6N or 6P material is 35o. This equates to serviceability limit
state values of:
Ka = (1-Sinϕ') / (1+Sinϕ') = 0.27
Ko = (1-Sinϕ') = 0.43
3.Loading
Loading from the deck is applied to the abutment through the bearings. Maximum vertical
bearing loads are obtained from the deck analysis; these loads, together with the type of
restraint required to support the deck, will dictate the type of bearing provided.
Horizontal loads from the deck are produced by wind loading, temperature effects, creep
movements, traction, braking and skidding loads, collision loads when high level of
containment parapets are used, and centrifugal loads if the horizontal radius of curvature of
the carriageway is less than 1000 metres when using BS 5400-2, or 1500 metres when using
EN 1991-2.
Longitudinal loads from temperature effects in the deck will be determined according to the
type of bearing used. Elastomeric bearings are effectively 'glued' in place between the deck
soffit and the abutment bearing plinth so that the bearing has to distort when the deck
expands and contracts. The longitudinal force produced by this distortion is proportional to
the shear stiffness of the bearing and the magnitude of the movement.
Sliding bearings, on the other hand, produce a longitudinal load which is proportional to the
dead(permanent) load reaction and the coefficient of friction between the sliding surfaces.
The cofficient of friction (μ) varies between 0.01 and 0.08 depending on the type of bearing
and bearing stress (see BS 5400 Part 9:1, Tables 2 and 3).
Free abutment with sliding bearings
Both abutments with elastomeric bearings only
Free abutment with elastomeric bearings
The longitudinal load from the temperature effect will act equally on both abutments. If
sliding bearings are used then the load transmitted is equal to the friction at the bearing under
dead and superimposed dead loads (permanent actions). If elastomeric bearings are used then
the load transmitted is equal to the force required to distort the bearing by the distance the
deck expands or contracts.
Free abutment with sliding or elastomeric bearings
Both abutments with elastomeric bearings only
The deck is very stiff in the axial direction so horizontal loads will have negligible effect on
the length of the deck. Hence longitudinal loads due to traction, braking and skidding are
assumed to be transmitted to the fixed abutment only. Any frictional resistance from sliding
bearings at the free end of the deck would produce a relieving effect on the fixed bearing and
should therefore be ignored when designing the fixed bearing. If only elastomeric bearings
are used, i.e. there is no fixed abutment, then the loads due to traction, braking and skidding
are shared between the two abutments.
Transverse loads on the deck will be transmitted to the abutment through the fixed and
sliding-guided bearings only. These loads are unlikely to have an effect on the stability of a
full height abutment, but the bearing plinths need to be designed to resist the loads. The
stability of small abutments, such as bank seats, may need to be checked for these loads.
Live loading at the rear of the abutment is represented by a surcharge loading (see BS 5400
Part 2:2006 clause 5.8.2 or PD 6694-1:2011 clause 7.6). Traction, braking and skidding loads
at the rear of the abutment are not required to be considered when using EN 1991-2:2003 (see
clause 4.9.2). The curtain wall (also called upstand wall or ballast wall) does however need to
be designed for braking forces.
Vehicle collision on abutments need not normally be considered as they are assumed to have
sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes (See BD 60/04 clause 2.2,
or NA to BS EN 1991-1-7:2006 clause NA.2.13).
4.Stability
Stability of the abutment is determined by considering:
 Sliding
 Overturning
 Failure of the foundation soil
 Slip failure of the surrounding soil
A comprehensive Ground Investigation Report is essential for the design of the bridge
structure. Boreholes need to provide information about the nature of the ground below the
foundations. Adequate sampling and testing also need to be carried out to obtain design
parameters for allowable bearing pressures, together with friction and cohesion values of the
soil at foundation level.
When using BD 30 sliding and overturning effects are calculated using nominal loads and
active earth pressures. A factor of safety of 2.0 is used to ensure that the abutment is stable
against sliding and overturning.
When using EN 1997-1:2004 stability needs to be considered at serviceability and ultimate
limit states.
Several load cases need to be considered to ensure all loading conditions are catered for.
Construction sequences also need to be considered. The abutment wall will often be
constructed and backfilled up to bearing shelf level; this provides good access for the deck
construction. A surcharge load can be applied to the wall by the construction plant used to
compact the backfill. This surcharge load, together with the active backfill earth pressures,
will be acting on the back of the wall without the stabilising effects of the dead load from the
deck and can result in a critical loading case.
Allowable bearing pressures are obtained from the Ground Investigation Survey. An
allowable pressure is usually determined to limit settlement to about 20 to 25mm. An
alternative is provided in EN 1997-1:2004 to limit the maximum SLS pressure under the
foundation to a fraction of the ground strength; PD 6694-1:2011 clause 5.2.2 clarifies this
fraction to be one third. As the allowable pressure will be dependent on the size of foundation
and loads applied then there will need to be an initial assessment of the loads and foundation
sizes before an allowable pressure can be given. This results in some redesigning until the
correct base size, applied loads and allowable bearing pressures are obtained.
BS 8002 says that instability of the earth mass involving a slip failure may occur where:
 the wall is built on sloping ground which itself is close to limiting equilibrium; or
 the structure is underlain by a significant depth of clay whose undrained strength

increases only gradually with depth; or
 the strata is founded on a relatively strong stratum underlain by weaker strata; or
 the structure is underlain by strata within which high pore water pressures may
develop from natural or artificial sources.
If none of these conditions are present then a slip failure analysis will not be necessary.
Abutment Design Example to BD 30
Design the fixed and free end cantilever abutments to the 20m span deck shown to carry HA
and 45 units of HB loading. Analyse the abutments using a unit strip method. The bridge site
is located south east of Oxford (to establish the range of shade air temperatures).
Vehicle collision on the abutments need not be considered as they are assumed to have
sufficient mass to withstand the collision loads for global purposes (See BD 60/04 Clause
2.2).
The ground investigation report shows suitable founding strata about 9.5m below the
proposed road level. Test results show the founding strata to be a cohesionless soil having an
angle of shearing resistance (φ) = 30o and a safe bearing capacity of 400kN/m2.
Backfill material will be Class 6N with an effective angle of internal friction (ϕ') = 35o and
density (γ) = 19kN/m3.
The proposed deck consists of 11No. Y4 prestressed concrete beams and concrete deck slab
as shown.
Loading From the Deck
A grillage analysis gave the following reactions for the various load cases:
Critical Reaction Under One Beam
Nominal Reaction
(kN)
Ultimate Reaction
(kN)
Concrete Deck
180
230
Surfacing
30
60
HA udl+kel
160
265
45 units HB
350
500
Total Reaction on Each Abutment
Nominal Reaction
(kN)
Ultimate Reaction
(kN)
Concrete Deck
1900
2400
Surfacing
320
600
HA udl+kel
1140
1880
45 units HB
1940
2770
Nominal loading on 1m length of abutment:

Deck Dead Load = (1900 + 320) / 11.6 = 191kN/m
HA live Load on Deck = 1140 / 11.6 = 98kN/m
HB live Load on Deck = 1940 / 11.6 = 167kN/m
From BS 5400 Part 2 Figures 7 and 8 the minimum and maximum shade air temperatures are
-19 and +37oC respectively.
For a Group 4 type structure (see fig. 9) the corresponding minimum and maximum effective
bridge temperatures are -11 and +36oC from tables 10 and 11.
Hence the temperature range = 11 + 36 = 47oC.
From Clause 5.4.6 the range of movement at the free end of the 20m span deck = 47 × 12 ×
10-6 × 20 × 103 = 11.3mm.
The ultimate thermal movement in the deck will be ± [(11.3 / 2) γf3 γfL] = ±[11.3 × 1.1 × 1.3 /
2] = ± 8mm.
Option 1 - Elastomeric Bearing:

With a maximum ultimate reaction = 230 + 60 + 500 = 790kN then a suitable elastomeric
bearing would be Ekspan's Elastomeric Pad :Bearing EKR35:
 Maximum Load = 1053kN
 Shear Deflection = 13.3mm
 Shear Stiffness = 12.14kN/mm
 Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Note: the required shear deflection (8mm) should be limited to between 30% to 50% of the
thickness of the bearing. The figure quoted in the catalogue for the maximum shear deflection
is 70% of the thickness.
A tolerance is also required for setting the bearing if the ambient temperature is not at the mid
range temperature. The design shade air temperature range will be -19 to +37oC which would
require the bearings to be installed at a shade air temperature of [(37+19)/2 -19] = 9oC to
achieve the ± 8mm movement.
If the bearings are set at a maximum shade air temperature of 16oC then, by proportion the
deck will expand 8×(37-16)/[(37+19)/2] = 6mm and contract 8×(16+19)/[(37+19)/2] =
10mm.
Let us assume that this maximum shade air temperature of 16oC for fixing the bearings is
specified in the Contract and design the abutments accordingly.
Horizontal load at bearing for 10mm contraction = 12.14 × 10 = 121kN.

This is an ultimate load hence the nominal horizontal load = 121 / 1.1 / 1.3 = 85kN at each
bearing.
Total horizontal load on each abutment = 11 × 85 = 935 kN ≡ 935 / 11.6 = 81kN/m.
Alternatively using BS 5400 Part 9.1 Clause 5.14.2.6:

H = AGδr/tq
Using the Ekspan bearing EKR35
 Area = 610 × 420 = 256200mm2
 Nominl hardness = 60 IRHD
 Bearing Thickness = 19mm
Shear modulus G from Table 8 = 0.9N/mm2

H = 256200 × 0.9 × 10-3 × 10 / 19 = 121kN
This correllates with the value obtained above using the shear stiffness from the
manufacturer's data sheet.
Option 2 - Sliding Bearing:
With a maximum ultimate reaction of 790kN and longitudinal movement of ± 8mm then a
suitable bearing from the Ekspan EA Series would be /80/210/25/25:
 Base Plate A dimension = 210mm
 Base Plate B dimension = 365mm
 Movement ± X = 12.5mm
BS 5400 Part 2 - Clause 5.4.7.3:

Average nominal dead load reaction = (1900 + 320) / 11 = 2220 / 11 = 200kN
Contact pressure under base plate = 200000 / (210 × 365) = 3N/mm2
As the mating surface between the stainless steel and PTFE is smaller than the base plate then
the pressure between the sliding faces will be in the order of 5N/mm2.
From Table3 of BS 5400 Part 9.1 the Coefficient of friction = 0.08 for a bearing stress of
5N/mm2
Hence total horizontal load on each abutment when the deck expands or contracts = 2220 ×
0.08 = 180kN ≡ 180 / 11.6 = 16kN/m.
Traction and Braking Load - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.10:

Nominal Load for HA = 8kN/m × 20m + 250kN = 410kN
Nominal Load for HB = 25% of 45units × 10kN × 4axles = 450kN
450 > 410kN hence HB braking is critical.
Braking load on 1m width of abutment = 450 / 11.6 = 39kN/m.
When this load is applied on the deck it will act on the fixed abutment only.
Skidding Load - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 6.11:

Nominal Load = 300kN
300 < 450kN hence braking load is critical in the longitudinal direction.
When this load is applied on the deck it will act at bearing shelf level. If sliding bearings are
used then friction forces at the free end should be considered as a relieving effect on
longitudinal and skidding loads and therefore ignored when designing the fixed bearing.
Loading at Rear of Abutment

Backfill
For Stability calculations use active earth pressures = Ka γ h
Ka for Class 6N material = (1-Sin35) / (1+Sin35) = 0.27
Density of Class 6N material = 19kN/m3
Active Pressure at depth h = 0.27 × 19 × h = 5.13h kN/m2
Hence Fb = 5.13h2/2 = 2.57h2kN/m
Surcharge - BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 5.8.2:

For HA loading surcharge = 10 kN/m2
For HB loading surcharge = 20 kN/m2
Assume a surchage loading for the compaction plant to be equivalent to 30 units of HB
Hence Compaction Plant surcharge = 12 kN/m2.
For surcharge of w kN/m2 :
Fs = Ka w h = 0.27wh kN/m
1) Stability Check
Initial Sizing for Base Dimensions

There are a number of publications that will give guidance on base sizes for free standing
cantilever walls, Reynolds's Reinforced Concrete Designer's Handbook being one such book.
Alternatively a simple spreadsheet will achieve a result by trial and error.
Load Combinations
Backfill + Construction surcharge
Wall backfilled up to bearing shelf level only.
Backfill + HA surcharge + Deck dead load + Deck contraction
Backfill + HA surcharge + Braking behind abutment + Deck dead load
Backfill + HB surcharge + Deck dead load
Backfill + HA surcharge + Deck dead load + HB on deck

Backfill + HA surcharge + Deck dead load + HA on deck + Braking on deck
(Not applied to free abutment if sliding bearings are provided)
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment
Density of reinforced concrete = 25kN/m3.

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 = 52kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.27 × 19 × 7.52 / 2 = 144kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.27 × 12 × 7.5 = 24 kN/m
Restoring Effects:
Weight
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Stem
163
1.6
261
Base
160
3.2
512
Backfill
531
4.25
2257
Surcharge
52
4.25
221
∑=
906
∑=
3251
Overturning Effects:
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Backfill
144
2.5
361
Surcharge
24
3.75
91
∑=
168
∑=
452
BD 30 Clause 5.2.4.2 refers to CP 2: 1951 Earth retaining structures for Safety Factors.
Factor of Safety Against Overturning = 3251 / 452 = 7.2 > 2.0 ∴ OK.
For sliding effects:
Active Force = Fb + Fs = 168kN/m
Frictional force on underside of base resisting movement = W tan(φ) = 906 × tan(30o) =
523kN/m
Factor of Safety Against Sliding = 523 / 168 = 3.1 > 2.0 ∴ OK.
Bearing Pressure:
Check bearing pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e / Z) where P × e is the
moment about the centre of the base.
P = 906kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 452 = 2799kNm/m
Eccentricity (e) of P about centre-line of base = 3.2 - (2799 / 906) = 0.111m
Pressure under base = (906 / 6.4) ± (906 × 0.111 / 6.827)
Pressure under toe = 142 + 15 = 157kN/m2 < 400kN/m2 ∴ OK.
Pressure under heel = 142 - 15 = 127kN/m2
Hence the abutment will be stable for Case 1.
Analysing the fixed abutment with Load Cases 1 to 6 and the free abutment with Load Cases
1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:
Fixed Abutment:
F of S
Overturning
F of S
Sliding
Bearing
Pressure at Toe
Bearing
Pressure at Heel
Case 1
7.16
3.09
156
127
Case 2
2.87
2.13
386
Case 2a
4.31
2.64
315
76
Case 3
3.43
2.43
351
39
Case 4
4.48
2.63
322
83
Case 5
5.22
3.17
362
81
Case 6
3.80
2.62
378
43
Free Abutment:
F of S
Overturning
F of S
Sliding
Bearing
Pressure at Toe
Bearing
Pressure at Heel
Case 1
7.15
3.09
168
120
Case 2
2.91
2.14
388
Case 2a
4.33
2.64
318
78
Case 3
3.46
2.44
354
42
Case 4
4.50
2.64
325
84
Case 5
5.22
3.16
365
82
It can be seen that the use of elastomeric bearings (Case 2) will govern the critical design
load cases on the abutments. We shall assume that there are no specific requirements for
using elastomeric bearings and design the abutments for the lesser load effects by using
sliding bearings.
2) Wall and Base Design
Loads on the back of the wall are calculated using 'at rest' earth pressures. Serviceability and
Ultimate load effects need to be calculated for the load cases 1 to 6 shown above. Again,
these are best carried out using a simple spreadsheet.
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations:
Wall Design
Ko = 1 - Sin(ϕ') = 1 - Sin(35o) = 0.426
γfL for horizontal loads due to surcharge and backfill from BS 5400 Part 2 Clause 5.8.1.2:
Serviceability = 1.0
Ultimate = 1.5
γf3 = 1.0 for serviceability and 1.1 for ultimate (from BS 5400 Part 4 Clauses 4.2.2 and 4.2.3)
Backfill Force Fb on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 19 × 6.52 / 2 = 171kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs on the rear of the wall = 0.426 × 12 × 6.5 = 33kN/m
At the base of the Wall (tension in the rear face):
Serviceability moment = (171 × 6.5 / 3) + (33 × 6.5 / 2) = 371 + 107 = 478kNm/m
Ultimate moment = 1.1 × 1.5 × 478 = 789kNm/m
Ultimate shear = 1.1 × 1.5 × (171 + 33) = 337kN/m
1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained for the design moments
and shear at the base of the wall:
Fixed Abutment:
Moment
SLS Dead
Moment
SLS Live
Moment
ULS
Shear
ULS
Case 1
371
108
790
337
Case 2a
829
258
1771
566
Case 3
829
486
2097
596
Case 4
829
308
1877
602
Case 5
829
154
1622
543
Case 6
829
408
1985
599
Free Abutment:
Moment
SLS Dead
Moment
SLS Live
Moment
ULS
Shear
ULS
Case 1
394
112
835
350
Case 2a
868
265
1846
581
Case 3
868
495
2175
612
Case 4
868
318
1956
619
Case 5
868
159
1694
559
Concrete to BS 8500:2006
Use strength class C32/40 with water-cement ratio 0.5 and minimum cement content of
340kg/m3 for exposure condition XD2.
Nominal cover to reinforcement = 60mm (45mm minimum cover plus a tolerance Δc of
15mm).
Reinforcement to BS 4449:2005 Grade B500B: fy = 500N/mm2
Design for critical moments and shear in Free Abutment:
Reinforced concrete walls are designed to BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.6.

Check classification to clause 5.6.1.1:
Ultimate axial load in wall from deck reactions = 2400 + 600 + 2770 = 5770 kN
0.1fcuAc = 0.1 × 40 × 103 × 11.6 × 1 = 46400 kN > 5770 ∴ design as a slab in accordance with
clause 5.4
Bending
BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.4.2 → for reisitance moments in slabs design to clause 5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B40 @ 150 c/c in rear face at base of wall:
As = 8378mm2/m, d = 1000 - 60 - 20 = 920mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 8378) / (40 × 1000 × 920) ]} d = 0.875d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 8378 × 0.875 × 920 × 10-6 = 2934kNm/m > 2175kNn/m ∴
OK
Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width of 0.2mm <
0.25mm.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required in clause
4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Shear
Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.4.4:

v = V / (bd) = 619 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.673 N/mm2
No shear reinforcement is required when v < ξsvc
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 920)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 × 920})1/3 × (40)1/3
= 0.72
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.72 = 0.62 N/mm2 < 0.673 hence shear reinforcement should be provided,
however check shear at distance H/8 (8.63 / 8 = 1.079m) up the wall.
ULS shear at Section 7H/8 for load case 4 = 487 kN
v = V / (bd) = 487 × 103 / (1000 × 920) = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.62
Hence height requiring strengthening = 1.073 × (0.673 - 0.62) / (0.673 - 0.53) = 0.4m < d.
Provide a 500 × 500 splay at the base of the wall with B32 @ 150c/c bars in sloping face.
Early Thermal Cracking
Considering the effects of casting the wall stem onto the base slab by complying with the
early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 horizontal lacer bars @ 150 c/c will
be required in both faces in the bottom half of the wall.
Minimum area of secondary reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.2 = 0.12% of bad = 0.0012 × 1000
× 920 = 1104 mm2/m (use B16 @ 150c/c - As = 1340mm2/m)
Base Design
Maximum bending and shear effects in the base slab will occur at sections near the front and
back of the wall. Different load factors are used for serviceability and ultimate limit states so
the calculations need to be carried out for each limit state using 'at rest pressures'
Using the Fixed Abutment Load Case 1 again as an example of the calculations:
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment Serviceability Limit State
γfL = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0

Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.0 = 163kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.0 = 160kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.0 = 531kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.0 = 52kN/m
B/fill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.0 / 2 = 228kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.0 = 38 kN/m
Restoring Effects:
Weight
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Stem
163
1.6
261
Base
160
3.2
512
Backfill
531
4.25
2257
Surcharge
52
4.25
221
∑=
906
∑=
3251
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Backfill
288
2.5
570
Surcharge
38
3.75
143
∑=
266
∑=
713
Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P × e / Z)

P = 906kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3251 - 713 = 2538kNm/m
Pressure under toe = 142 + 53 = 195kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 177kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 89 + {(195 - 89) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 160kN/m2
SLS Moment at a-a = (177 × 1.12 / 2) + ([195 - 177] × 1.12 / 3) - (25 × 1.0 × 1.12 / 2) =
99kNm/m (tension in bottom face).
SLS Moment at b-b = (89 × 4.32 / 2) + ([160 - 89] × 4.32 / 6) - (25 × 1.0 × 4.32 / 2) - (531 ×
4.3 / 2) - (52 × 4.3 / 2) = -443kNm/m (tension in top face).
CASE 1 - Fixed Abutment Ultimate Limit State

γfL for concrete = 1.15
γfL for fill and surcharge(vetical) = 1.2
γfL for fill and surcharge(horizontal) = 1.5
Weight of wall stem = 1.0 × 6.5 × 25 × 1.15 = 187kN/m
Weight of base = 6.4 × 1.0 × 25 × 1.15 = 184kN/m
Weight of backfill = 4.3 × 6.5 × 19 × 1.2 = 637kN/m
Weight of surcharge = 4.3 × 12 × 1.2 = 62kN/m
Backfill Force Fb = 0.426 × 19 × 7.52 × 1.5 / 2 = 341kN/m
Surcharge Force Fs = 0.426 × 12 × 7.5 × 1.5 = 58 kN/m
Restoring Effects:
Weight
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Stem
187
1.6
299
Base
184
3.2
589
Backfill
637
4.25
2707
Surcharge
62
4.25
264
∑=
1070
∑=
3859
Lever Arm
Moment About A
Backfill
341
2.5
853
Surcharge
58
3.75
218
∑=
399
∑=
1071
Bearing Pressure at toe and heel of base slab = (P / A) ± (P x e / Z)

P = 1070kN/m
A = 6.4m2/m
Z = 6.42 / 6 = 6.827m3/m
Nett moment = 3859 - 1071 = 2788kNm/m
Pressure under toe = 167 + 93 = 260kN/m2
Pressure at front face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 5.3 / 6.4} = 228kN/m2
Pressure at rear face of wall = 74 + {(260 - 74) × 4.3 / 6.4} = 199kN/m2
γf3 = 1.1
ULS Shear at a-a = 1.1 × {[(260 + 228) × 1.1 / 2] - (1.15 × 1.1 × 25)} = 260kN/m
ULS Shear at b-b = 1.1 × {[(199 + 74) × 4.3 / 2] - (1.15 × 4.3 × 25) - 637 - 62} = 259kN/m
ULS Moment at a-a = 1.1 × {(228 × 1.12 / 2) + ([260 - 228] × 1.12 / 3) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0 ×
1.12 / 2)} = 148kNm/m (tension in bottom face).
ULS Moment at b-b = 1.1 × {(74 × 4.32 / 2) + ([199 - 74] × 4.32 / 6) - (1.15 × 25 × 1.0 × 4.32 /
2) - (637 × 4.3 / 2) - (62 × 4.3 / 2)} = -769kNm/m (tension in top face).
1 to 5 using a simple spreadsheet the following results were obtained:
Fixed Abutment Base:
Section a-a
ULS Shear
SLS Moment
ULS Moment
Case 1
261
99
147
Case 2a
528
205
302
Case 3
593
235
340
Case 4
550
208
314
Case 5
610
241
348
Case 6
637
255
365
Section b-b
ULS
Shear
SLS
Moment
ULS
Moment
Case 1
259
447
768
Case 2a
458
980
1596
Case 3
553
1178
1834
Case 4
495
1003
1700
Case 5
327
853
1402
Case 6
470
1098
1717
Free Abutment Base:
Section a-a
ULS
Shear
SLS
Moment
ULS
Moment
Case 1
267
101
151
Case 2a
534
207
305
Case 3
598
236
342
Case 4
557
211
317
Case 5
616
243
351
Section b-b
ULS
Shear
SLS
Moment
ULS
Moment
Case 1
266
475
816
Case 2a
466
1029
1678
Case 3
559
1233
1922
Case 4
504
1055
1786
Case 5
335
901
1480
Design for shear and bending effects at sections a-a and b-b for the Free Abutment:
Bending
BS 5400 Part 4 Clause 5.7.3 → design as a slab for reisitance moments to clause 5.3.2.3:
z = {1 - [ 1.1fyAs) / (fcubd) ]} d
Use B32 @ 150 c/c:
As = 5362mm2/m, d = 1000 - 60 - 16 = 924mm
z = {1 - [ 1.1 × 500 × 5362) / (40 × 1000 × 924) ]} d = 0.92d < 0.95d ∴ OK
Mu = (0.87fy)Asz = 0.87 × 500 × 5362 × 0.92 × 924 × 10-6 = 1983kNm/m > 1922kNm/m ∴
OK
(1983kNm/m also > 1834kNm/m ∴ B32 @ 150 c/c suitable for fixed abutment.
For the Serviceability check for Case 3 an approximation of the dead load moment can be
obtained by removing the surcharge and braking loads. The spreadsheet result gives the dead
load SLS moment for Case 3 as 723kNm, thus the live load moment = 1233 - 723 = 510kNm.
Carrying out the crack control calculation to Clause 5.8.8.2 gives a crack width of 0.27mm >
0.25mm ∴ Fail.
This could be corrected by reducing the bar spacing, but increase the bar size to B40@150 c/c
as this is required to avoid the use of links (see below).
Using B40@150c/c the crack control calculation gives a crack width of 0.17mm < 0.25mm ∴
OK.
Also the steel reinforcement and concrete stresses meet the limitations required in clause
4.1.1.3 ∴ serviceability requirements are satisfied.
Shear
Shear on Toe - Use Fixed Abutment Load Case 6:
By inspection B32@150c/c will be adequate for the bending effects in the toe (Muls =
365kNm < 1983kNm)
Shear requirements are designed to BS 5400 clause 5.7.3.2(a) checking shear at d away from
the front face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:
ULS Shear on toe = 1.1 × {(620 + 599) × 0.5 × 0.176 - 1.15 × 1 × 0.176 × 25} = 112kN
v = V / (bd) = 112 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.121 N/mm2

Reinforcement in tension = B32 @ 150 c/c
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 × 924})1/3 × (40)1/3
= 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 > 0.121N/mm2 ∴ OK
Shear on Heel - Use Free Abutment Load Case 3:

Shear requirements are designed at the back face of the wall to clause 5.4.4.1:
Length of heel = (6.5 - 1.1 - 1.0) = 4.4m

ULS Shear on heel = 1.1 × {348 × 0.5 × (5.185 - 2.1) - 1.15 × 1 × 4.4 × 25 - 1.2 × 4.4 × (8.63
× 19 + 10)} = 559kN
Using B32@150 c/c then:

v = V / (bd) = 559 × 103 / (1000 × 924) = 0.605 N/mm2
ξs = (500/d)1/4 = (500 / 924)1/4 = 0.86
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 5362} / {1000 × 924})1/3 × (40)1/3
= 0.62
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.62 = 0.53 N/mm2 < 0.605N/mm2 ∴ Fail
Rather than provide shear reinforcement try increasing bars to B40 @ 150 c/c (also required
for crack control as shown above).
vc = (0.27/γm)(100As/bwd)1/3(fcu)1/3 = (0.27 / 1.25) × ({100 × 8378} / {1000 × 920})1/3 × (40)1/3
= 0.716
ξsvc = 0.86 × 0.716 = 0.616 N/mm2 > 0.605N/mm2 ∴ OK
Early Thermal Cracking
Considering the effects of casting the base slab onto the blinding concrete by complying with
the early thermal cracking of concrete to BD 28 then B16 distribution bars @ 250 c/c will be
required.
Minimum area of main reinforcement to Clause 5.8.4.1 = 0.15% of bad = 0.0015 × 1000 ×
924 = 1386 mm2/m (use B20 @ 200c/c - As = 1570mm2/m).
Local Effects
Curtain Wall
This wall is designed to be cast onto the top of the abutment after the deck has been built.
Loading will be applied from the backfill, surcharge and braking loads on top of the wall.
HB braking load to BS 5400 clause 6.10 = 25% × 45units × 4 × 10kN on 2 axles = 225kN per
axle.
To allow for load distribution effects assume a 45o dispersal to the curtain wall and a 45o
dispersal down the wall, with maximum dispersal of the width of the abutment (11.6m).
This crude analysis will slightly underestimate the peak values in the wall below the load, but
allowance can be made when designing the reinforcement to ensure there is spare capacity.
Then:
1st axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 3.0 = 75kN/m
Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 9.0 = 25 kN/m
2nd axle load on back of abutment = 225 / 6.6 = 34.1kN/m
Dispersed to the base of the curtain wall = 225 / 11.6 = 19.4 kN/m
For load effects at the top of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 75 + 34.1 = 109.1kN/m
For load effects at the base of the curtain wall:
Maximum load on back of abutment = 25 + 19.4 = 44.4kN/m
Bending and Shear at Base of 3m High Curtain Wall
Horizontal load due to HB surcharge = 0.426 × 20 × 3.0 = 25.6 kN/m

Horizontal load due to backfill = 0.426 × 19 × 3.02 / 2 = 36.4 kN/m
SLS Moment = (44.4 × 3.0) + (25.6 × 1.5) + (36.4 × 1.0) = 208 kNm/m (36 dead + 172 live)
ULS Moment = 1.1 × {(1.1 × 44.4 × 3.0) + (1.5 × 25.6 × 1.5) + (1.5 × 36.4 × 1.0)} = 285
kNm/m
ULS Shear = 1.1 × {(1.1 × 44.4) + (1.5 × 25.6) + (1.5 × 36.4)} = 156kN/m
400 thick curtain wall with B32 @ 150 c/c :

Mult = 584 kNm/m > 285 kNm/m ∴ OK
SLS Moment produces crack width of 0.14mm < 0.25 ∴ OK
ξsvc = 0.97 N/mm2 > v = 0.48 N/mm2 ∴ Shear OK

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Bridge Design

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Choice of Abutment

Open Side Span with Bank Seats

Loads transmitted by the bridge deck onto the abutment are :

i. Vertical loads from self weight of deck.

ii. Vertical loads from live loading conditions.

iv. Horizontal loads from braking and skidding effects of vehicles.

Plane Sliding Bearing

Multiple Roller Bearing

The functions of each bearing type are :

 Preliminary Design - Making the correct choice of bridge deck type.

 Steel Box Girder

i. Existing services (Gas, Electricity, Water, etc)

ii. Rivers and streams (liability to flood)

iii. Existing property and rights of way

iv. Access to site for construction traffic

Selection of Bridge Type

Insitu reinforced concrete.

Insitu reinforced concrete voided slab.

Prestressed pre-tensioned SY beams with insitu slab.

Preliminary Design Considerations

2. Continuity of the deck over supports

i. Reduces number of expansion joints.

iii. Increases sensitivity to differential settlement.

3. Factory made deck units

ii. Reduces site work which is weather dependent.

iii. Dependent on delivery dates by specialist manufactures.

iv. Specials tend to be expensive.

i. The structure should be considered as a whole, including appraisal of piers,

Costing and Final Selection

i. Estimate the major quantities.

iii. Obtain prices for the schemes.

Reinforced Concrete Decks

Beam and Slab

Prestressed Concrete Decks

There are two types of deck using prestressed concrete :

i. Pre-tensioned beams with insitu concrete.

ii. Post-tensioned concrete.

There are three concepts involved in the design of prestressed concrete :

i. Prestressing transforms concrete into an elastic material.

ii. Prestressed concrete is to be considered as a combination of steel and concrete with

iii. Prestressing is used to achieve load balancing.

Pre-tensioned Bridge Decks

Post-tensioned Bridge Decks

Typical Composite Deck

Steel Box Girders

Steel Truss Decks

Cable Stayed Decks

Suspension bridges are used for bridge spans in excess of 350m.

Some of the world's longest bridge main spans are:

Bridge Name (Country)

Akashi-Kaikyo Bridge (Japan)

Xihoumen Bridge (China)

Great Belt Bridge (Denmark)

Yi Sun-sin Bridge (South Korea)

Runyang Bridge (China)

Humber Bridge (UK)

Jiangyin Suspension Bridge (China)

Tsing Ma (Hong Kong)

Hardanger Bridge (Norway)

Verrazano Narrows (USA)

Golden Gate (USA)

Yangluo Bridge (China)

Höga Kusten Bridge (Sweden)

Aizhai Bridge (China)