Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Biomass resources and potential of anaerobic digestion in Indian scenario MARK

a,⁎ a b c
Paul Thomas , Nirmala Soren , Nelson Pynadathu Rumjit , Jake George James ,
M.P. Saravanakumarb
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Silchar, Assam 788010, India
b
Department of Environmental and Water Resources Engineering, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India
c
School of Biosciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore 632014, Tamil Nadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: With the rising population in India the demand for energy is also shooting up. This paper examines the
Biomass potential, scope and the opportunities of biomass in the Indian economy. India, being an agricultural country,
Bioenergy has a lot of possible resources from the agronomic sector like crop residue, animal manure, etc., which has not
Fish waste been utilised in an efficient way. This paper also gives an insight into anaerobic digestion and the many other
Strategies
digesters implemented in India. The accelerating economic growth leads to the rapid rise in urbanisation which
Achievements
in turn generates an increased production of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). This MSW can be used in biomass
production in quite a lot of innovative ways. The study also focused on the potential sources and their proper
conversion technique. The feasibility of biomass conversion and achievements made by India was also looked
into. Use of bioenergy in cheaper and economically feasible ways is also a practical solution to the energy crisis.

1. Introduction advantages such as local availability, reduced emission of greenhouse

India is one of the rapidly developing countries in the world with an
ever increasing economy. Like other developing countries, India is also
in a state of energy crisis. The country is heavily dependent on its coal
and oil reserves. A report submitted by the Ministry of Statistics
confirms that the country still depends on coal and lignite for its energy
requirements followed by petroleum [9,11]. Coal, lignite and kerosene
are the primary sources for our domestic energy use. The rising
population and ever increasing human needs are now leading to the
rapid depletion of these resources and also leads to environmental
problems such as the release of greenhouse gases and contamination of
water bodies. India is also one of the chief importers of the crude oil
[65]. The automobile sector is one of the faster-growing areas in India
and with more multinational automobile companies planning to enter
the Indian market one can only speculate the massive boom in the
automobile sector that is with the advent of rising. With the rapid
depletion of our available resources and rising environmental hazards,
cheaper and greener energy sources should be considered and
exploited.
The main eco-friendly sources readily available are solar energy,
wind energy, hydropower, biomass and biogas generated through
waste-energy recovery from municipal and industrial sources. These
resources have the potential to meet the nation's energy requirements.
The renewable energies are far superior to conventional ones with
gases, etc. India started utilising its renewable-energy resources long
back in 1897 by constructing a small hydro power plant of 130 kW in
Darjeeling [13,56,58]. Later two smaller hydropower projects of 40 kW
and 50 kW were installed at Chamba and Jubal in 1902 and 1911
respectively.
Within the past few decades, biomass has attained a global
attraction as a promising and renewable-energy source. Currently,
10% of the world's energy demand is met by bioenergy [38]. Biomass
can act as an excellent substitute for various fossil fuels. Technological
advances in crop production, conversion, etc. can be utilised to
generate biomass at a lower cost and higher efficiency [52]. As per
the world energy council reports, if energy policies are successfully
implemented, by 2025 60% of all the global energy needs can be
successfully met by renewable energy sources and thereby decrease the
dependency on fossil fuels to 30% [40]. Various reports have indicated
that bioenergy is utilised by different countries like Austria (7%),
Finland (20%) and Germany (5%). These countries are keen to expand
their share in bioenergy production in the future [8]. The bioenergy
production has an economic advantage in cost of production when
compared to other renewable energy sources such as solar and the wind
and thus makes an attractive alternative for the consumers [37]. The
primary sources of biomass and bioenergy are the various leftovers and
by-products such as animal waste, ago-residues, Municipal Solid
Wastes (MSW), etc. Strict guidelines should be observed during

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Paul.thomas2013@vitalum.ac.in (P. Thomas).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.053
Received 12 May 2016; Received in revised form 28 January 2017; Accepted 19 April 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Thomas et al.
biomass production to prevent high chances of contamination of water
sources and growth of pathogens. The rural areas mainly depend on
biomass for their necessities like cooking and electricity. The main
disadvantages of fossil fuel are the emission of greenhouse gases and
undesirable climatic changes. On the other hand, use of biomass
drastically lowers the release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.
Therefore, the usage of biomass is environmentally friendly and
pollution free.
In India, the demand for clean energy resources is becoming more
popular than the conventional ones due to pollution. To address this
issue, the government of India had integrated bioenergy with other
energy sources. It is utmost important to evaluate and quantify the
available bioresources and to determine its potential as a power source.
The preliminary study aims to identify and quantify the main exploi-
table bioenergy resources available in India. Not only does this
research focuses on the assessment of resources but it also shows a
future direction on how these resources can be explored economically,
technically, socially and environmentally. This paper deeply reviews
and discusses the various technologies involved in the conversion
process focusing on anaerobic digestion and the achievements made by
the Indian government so far. These studies, the data collected and
recommendations would be beneficial and informative for policy
makers, analysts and the academia to make decisions and to frame
new policies.
2. Biomass feedstock in India
The percentage of utilisation of biomass feed as an energy source
varies from developed to developing countries. In developing countries,
the share of contribution is much higher than the developed ones due
to the majority of the population in the world coming from rural areas
which utilise biomass for their day to day activities such as cooking,
electricity, etc. [69]. Developing countries like India use 47% of their
total energy from biomass followed by Pakistan (27%), China (13%)
and Brazil (25%) [14]. Due to the fast pace of development in
developing countries, the scarcity of energy is becoming a great
concern. It is reported that there is a rising trend towards the usage
of waste and biomass as an energy source at a rate of 2% increase
annually. Biomass represents all types of vegetation both land and
aquatic in addition to organic wastes. In the present scenario due to the
fast depletion of non-renewable energy resources and greenhouse-gas
emissions, biomass-based energy production has gained a significant
fan following [22]. Biomass is characterised and classified in different
ways. One of the traditional modes of classification will be discussed
throughout this paper. The primary classification comprises of grasses,
water-based plants, woody plants and manure. Recently, the utilisation
of algae in bioenergy production has opened up a new horizon of
opportunities.
2.1. Agro-based feedstocks and energy crops
India has the second highest population in the world and is about to
overthrow China as the most populated country in the world, and about
70% of the population depends on agriculture for their livelihood.
Along with farming, there exists an enormous number of livestock and
cattle in India. As a result, there is an abundant availability of biomass
in India [72,89]. The introduction of energy crops to the existing
cultivation system can cause both positive and adverse effect on the
yield of both [26]. The main crops cultivated as energy crops include
corn, sugar beets, sugar cane, grains, etc. Several parameters determine
whether the harvest is appropriate for energy use. The key parameters
are calorific value, the presence of moisture, cellulose ratio, the ratio of
fixed carbon and volatiles, ash content and alkali metal content. The
cellulose/lignin ratio is another significant parameter for wet biomass
conversion, and the remaining properties are essential for dry biomass
conversion [52]. The reports of FAO and other agricultural states has
719
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
estimated the potential land for cultivation of biomass for the energy
requirements [42,66,34,93,59]
2.2. Agriculture crop residues
The agriculture-based countries like India naturally generate an
enormous amount of residues. In the recent years, much research has
been conducted to assess and understand the impacts and potentials of
energy crop cultivation and the production of residues [19]. These
residues are a potential source of biomass feedstock for energy
production. The agricultural wastes include all organic materials, and
by-products developed during harvesting and processing of crops.
These residues are further sorted as primary and secondary; the
primary residues are those that are obtained in the field at the time
of collection whereas the byproducts obtained while processing is
called secondary residues. The energy requirement for secondary waste
generation is much higher than that of the primary residues due to the
large quantity produced while the primary residue collection is
sophisticated and has many applications such as animal feed, fertili-
sers, etc. Farooq, Kumar ($year$) [25]. Rice, wheat, cotton and
sugarcane are the primary crops in India. These crops produce
important residues that can be utilised in creating bioenergy; for
example, the rice husk is an excellent source of biomass. Crop residues
can also be exploited as a cooking fuel and raw manufacturing
materials. In India, some of the northeast rural areas have limited
supply of gas, and as a result, the local people have turned to using crop
residues as an alternative to cooking fuel.
Sugarcane has been cultivated in India since the Vedic ages. In the
Indian agricultural sector, the sugarcane irrigation was mainly con-
centrated in Maharashtra covering about 9.4 lakh Hector area followed
by Tamil Nadu and other states, which are only next to Brazil in
production. Sugar is the primary product of sugarcane. However, it still
consists of by-products like bagasse, molasses, etc., which are rich
sources of biomass. Rice's cultivation can be found in almost all parts of
India. India holds the second place in rice production after China.
110.31 million tonnes of rice were produced in between 2013–2014
and indicated the growing inclination in production in the years to
come. The residues obtained during rice cultivation are rice straw, rice
bran, and rice husk. The rice straw is the main by-product obtained
after cultivation and mainly used as a food source for cattle, poultry,
and fish. Rice's husk is utilised for electricity generation. Currently,
India holds the second position in wheat production after China. India
is annually exporting 30 lakh tonnes of wheat every year, which
generates a significant amount of foreign exchange. Wheat is cultivated
in an area of about 30 million hectors with a production capacity of 93
million tonnes. The northwestern plains generate wheat in a sector
stretching 11.55 million hectors, and it is the largest cultivation zone in
India. Stalks are the main by-product obtained during the wheat
cultivation. Cotton is the main industrial crop cultivated in India and
yields cotton fibre. Cotton fibre is the primary raw product for the
textile industries. The cultivation of cotton is primarily carried out by
Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat and Rajasthan. India holds the second
position in cotton production after China (Table 1). India and China
produce half of the cotton in the world. It is estimated that India will
become first in cotton production and outrank China by 2016. As a
Table 1
Top 5 Cotton Producing Nations in metric tonnes (G.o.P. Ministry of Finance. Economic
Survey of Pakistan 2013–2014).
Rank Country 2010 2012 2014
1 China 5970,000 6840,000 6532,000
2 India 5683,000 5321,000 6423,000
3 United States 3491,700 3598,000 3553,000
4 Pakistan 1869,000 2215,000 2308,000
5 Brazil 9,73,449 1638,103 1524,000
P. Thomas et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730

Table 2 its residues [33].

Main Crops and Residues production in India (metric tonnes) [88].
2.3. Forest residues
S.N Crop Annual Production Residues

1 Sugarcane 2,76,250 Bagasse Forestry is a major industrial and environmental resource. India
Top and Leaves has one of the largest forest reserves in the world with a huge variety of
Husks
flora and fauna. Residues obtained from the forest are called forest
2 Rice 1,45,050 Stalks residue which is rich in organic compounds [96]. India is one of the
Straw largest producers of fuel wood. It is estimated that India consumes 270
million tonnes of fuel wood. The fuelwood satisfies 40% of energy needs
3 Wheat 78,000 Pods in the country. The forests in India cover 64 million hectares that are
Stalks
about 19.5% of the total area. The dependence on fuel wood remains
4 Banana 80,000 Residue high for the rural and tribal people due to the limited supply of other
Cobs supplementary sources to satisfy their needs. When cooking fuel is not
in supply, fuelwood is often exploited. Wood is the main product from
5 Maize 18,000 Stalks
the forest while leaves, roots, barks and twigs are the primary residues
Fronds
from trees. It results in deforestation of the woods at a high rate, and
6 Coconut 13,125 Husk and pith illegal smuggling of wood is also a reason for the decimation of our
Shell forests.

7 Millets 12,410 Stalks

2.4. Municipal solid waste (MSW)
Cobs

8 Bajra 7690 Stalks Municipal solid waste consists of a combination of both organic and
Husks inorganic wastes, which are both quick and difficult to degrade,
harmful and eco-friendly. The generation of waste depends on various
9 Cassava 6060 Solid waste
Starch from roots
human activities and living standards. Studies have demonstrated that
large cities produce huge quantities of wastes. Landfills receive 10.3
10 Arhar 1950 Husks million tonnes of wastes from urban cities to villages depending on the
Stalks socio-economic attitude of occupants and policy makers. It is interest-
ing to note that 85% of wastes are from domestic uses and the
remaining 15% is generated by industries [4]. The amount of
result, there would be an increase in cotton production wastes such as
Municipal Solid Waste is increasing daily due to urbanisation and
hulls, cotton plant stalks and leaves [47]. Cotton stalks are the primary
development and as per reports; these trends will rise in the future.
leftover product after harvesting cotton and are used as a cooking
Developing countries like India are also facing a serious problem in
source in many villages. Along with crops, various vegetables and fruits
proper Waste Management strategies [31]. The mishandling and
are also cultivated in India. In addition to economic growth, India also
failure of management can create a dangerous environment and health
focuses much of its attention on upgrading its agronomic productivity.
concerns. The main sources of municipal solid waste are from
India holds the second position in the cultivation of various agricultural
commercial sites, market waste, industries and hospitals. Due to lack
products and is competing with China in the productivity department.
of strategies, the waste collected is often disposed of carelessly in open
Table 2 lists the potential residues from crops and their available
fields. The municipal solid waste is comprising of plastic and paper
quantity.
averages 80% in total collection. The municipal solid wastes that are
Recent assessment studies have determined the potential of agri-
rich in biomass can be converted into energy by anaerobic digestion
cultural residues in the range of 13–30 EJ yr−1 by 2030 and will grow
and direct combustion through the landfill in dump sites, the gas is
to 15–70 EJ yr−1 by 2050 [20]. Availability of by-products from plants
generated by decomposition of organic matter in municipal solid waste,
as a cheaper source of energy and renewability provides us with many
and it consists of methane and carbon dioxide. The methane can be
opportunities. The byproducts can be converted into usable energy
utilised as a fuel source in internal-combustion engines or gas turbine
forms by biochemical or thermochemical methods. The economic
to generate both heat and power [98]. Sewage is also a significant
feasibility of electricity production depends on the type of power plant
source of biomass similar to animal waste. Energy can be extracted
used. In the case of the steam turbine or combined cycle plants, the
with the help of anaerobic digestion to produce biogas. Table 3
power production cost is much lower than that of the thermal power
represents the data of some organisation's utilising waste for their
plants. Apart from residues, the urban markets, ago-processing in-
energy needs and the related benefits. The table indicates the potential
dustries, plantations, etc. contribute a bulk source of biomass. It is
of various technologies in converting waste into useful forms of energy.
estimated that about 200 million tonnes of household and agriculture
These technologies can be implemented in different industries with the
wastes are generated per annum in India [87]. The developing
help of research and guidance of academic institutes such like the
countries are now focusing on the utilisation of bioenergy; China
Government Ministry of New and Renewable Energy-MNRE, National
installed 19 plants to convert agricultural residues and waste into
Institute of Technology (NIT), Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) as
energy. The capacity of the plant ranges from 25 to 30 MW and
wells as private organisations.
requires approximately 250,000 t of waste and is designed to increase
its capabilities in the coming years. According to various studies [96],
2.5. Animal manures or wastes
power plants operating with straw as fuel can produce 132 million kW
electricity after burning 200,000 t. Based on these calculations, the
The animal manure consists of organic material, ash content, and
agri-residues would be a suitable solution for the energy deficiency
moisture. Decomposition occurs either in the presence or absence of
faced by India. Proper planning and implementation is key to the
oxygen called as an aerobic or anaerobic process. During anaerobic
efficient management of agri-based resources for energy production
process methane and carbon dioxide, gas is produced along with
[49]. Moreover, proper site selection and better management practices
organic materials, but aerobic condition generates only carbon dioxide
on the sustainable removal rates can improve the crop productivity and
and organic materials. In a country like India which has an excellent

720
P. Thomas et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730

Table 3 Table 6
List of Industries/Agencies using biomass to energy applications in India [88]. Various Industrial Sectors and Wastewater Production in India [41].

Agency/ Biomass/ Application Technology used Industry Waste Water Production (Mm3)
Industry Feedstock
Steel Plants 10,40,000
ASTRA,IISc Leafy Vegetables Fuel Biogas -Reactor Paper Industry 7200
Bangalore Beverages and Distillery 6000
TERI campus, Organic Wastes Fuel and Energy Acidification Textile Sector 1550
Gurgaon Edible Oil 1525
K.S.R.T.C, Canteen Wastes Methanation Sugar Industry 230
Bangalore Dairy Farms 206
Organic Wastes Cooking Fuel Biomethanation Pharma Sector 56
Fertilizer 52
Coffee Board Coffee Power Production Biogas through Refineries 15
Processing
wastes bioreactor

Shakthi Sugars, Sugarcane Heating Fuel Biomethanation

and pulp industry, vegetable packing industry, milk processing units,
Residues
etc. Wastewater production in India and COD has been referred in the
Maharashtra various literature [71,73,53]. Organic waste has an enormous potential
Western Poultry Power Production Biogas -UASB in the energy recovery; whatever their source may be they will be in a
Hatcheries Ltd. continuous generation to meet the day to day demands. Recent studies
Bellary Municipal Solid Reactor
revealed that waste generated from the urban sector have compara-
Municipality
Waste Biogas -Reactor tively higher energy potential compared to the rural sector [81]. The
energy conversion depends on reactor efficiency [41]; this waste can be
used as raw material for biofuel production. Various authors have
Table 4 reported that in the biogas production on a scale of 0.15–0.45 m3 CH4/
Major Livestock capacity of India and Neighbouring Countries in millions (Rahman MM Kg of COD is removed. In the industrial food sector, including
and Paatero JV 2012).
restaurants, community cooking is one of the leading industries in
Country Poultry Cattle Goats Buffaloes Sheep India producing an enormous variety of wastes such as uneaten foods,
fruits, vegetables, meat, etc. These wastes together create a great
India 656 174.0 125.7 98.6 65 feedstock source. Liquid wastes are produced by the washing of food
items including meat, fruit and vegetables, and this wastewater
Pakistan 530 31.8 56.6 30 27
Nepal 24 7.1 8.2 4.5 0.8 contains starch and other organic matter. Sewage produced from
Bangladesh 242 25.5 56 1.3 1.6 wastewater treatment plant can be incinerated or digested to generate
Sri Lanka 15 1.2 0.37 0.3 – both electricity and heat. These wastes can be anaerobically digested to
produce biogas or fermented to produce biofuels. Table 6 indicates the
industry sectors producing wastewater.
Table 5
Manure production annually in tonnes [24].
2.7. Fish waste resources
Animal Production
We have discussed the various sources for bioenergy production
Poultry 0.05 and their ups and downs. Many scientists around the world are putting
Cattle 6.0
Buffalo 6.1
their heads together to improve upon the already existing methods and
Goat 0.8 to devise new and innovative ones. We have looked at another possible
source, which is present abundantly in almost all parts of India, but it
has not been given enough attention in the Indian scenario. India is
feedstock, manure can be used as a potential source. Manure is mainly one of the largest consumers of fish around the world, and the amount
utilised as fertiliser to improve the crop productivity. Biogas generated of fish waste generated every day is quite immense. Only about 50% of
from manure is used as cooking fuel in most rural areas. every fish sold in India is eaten. Quite often fish heads, viscera, skin and
Slaughterhouses generate an enormous amount of animal waste, which bones are discarded. Scientists have discovered that some of the
is also a potential source for biogas. The energy generation of manure bioactive peptides isolated from fish waste exhibit an activity similar
depends on various parameters such as temperature, pH, physico- to that of a class of blood pressure-lowering drugs known as ACE
chemical characteristics, etc. Sheikh ($year$) [84]. Table 4 outlines the inhibitors. They also exhibit antioxidant properties and might reduce
number of poultry and various livestock present in India and its reactive oxygen species in cells. Such activity could have implications
neighbouring countries. There will be a decline in the number of cattle for cardiovascular disease and cancer prevention if proper research and
and poultry in future years as per records. The estimation of the investment is put behind it. They also exhibit antioxidant properties
amount of waste generated by an animal is proportional to its total live and might reduce reactive oxygen species in cells. Such activity could
weight [24]. Table 5 accounts the annual waste generation by livestock/ have implications for cardiovascular disease and cancer prevention if
poultry. proper research and investment are put behind it. After processing fish
wastes to produce the products mentioned above fish oil extracted from
2.6. Wastewater and industrial waste these wastes is also used for the production of biodiesel. With some fish
wastes in India increasing day by day, it is only a matter of time before
Dumping of wastes without appropriate disposal techniques can they cause a problem in the Indian economy. If proper funding is
result in the creation of leachate. The leachate generated can contam- available to fish wastes can be put into good use. More research is
inate the ground and surface water sources. The contamination causes required to properly understand the complete potential of fish wastes.
a grave danger towards human health and aquatic life. The waste Fish oil is extracted from the fish wastes through a separation process.
effluents are produced from various industrial sources such as paper The separation divides pre-treated fish waste into three fractions: fish

721
P. Thomas et al.
Fig. 1. Various biomass conversion process.
oil, protein and water. Oil will be used for methyl ester (biodiesel)
production. Protein can be fed into an aerated composting drum
together with support material to produce compost soil. The compost
from the composting drums is matured and cooled down before
utilisation. The Wastewater from the process is treated in a
Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP). Fish waste is crushed in a
mechanical crusher and treated with ~2 to 5% formic acid for
suspension purposes. The separation after crushing and pre-treatment
happen by gravity: oil as the lightest phase floats, whereas the heavier
waterfalls at the bottom and protein stabilise in between. The liquid
fraction contains oil and water, which are further separated by
mechanical centrifugation. The solid protein fraction (Total Solids
(TS) ~25%) is then utilised for post-treatment depending on the
foreseen end use. The technology utilised for the production of biofuels
from fish gut/waste is adaptable and transferable in many other parts
around the world. It can provide livelihoods, and produce localised
energy avoiding GHG emissions. With little investment in already
existing fish, farms localised energy can be produced at very low cost.
Biodiesel from fish residue/waste could also promote more efficient
utilisation of aquatic living resources and generate additional income
for fishers' and fish farmers' communities. These fish farms could
provide revenue from the production and export of fish fillets and
produce relatively cost-free local energy. It could, therefore, have a
positive impact on food security and energy security. The production of
the biodiesel starts with the pressing of the fish waste-oil is extracted
through a water separation process at 90 °C, and it is then mixed with
methanol (roughly 9%) and caustic soda (to separate the glycerine from
the biodiesel). The fuel is then purified by adding manganese and is
then fit for engines. The by-product glycerine is sold to the cosmetic
industry for the production of soap, and the residues are made into fish
meal. 1 kg of fish waste can produce over 1 l of biodiesel.
The recovery of chemical components from seafood waste materi-
als, which can be used in other segments of the food industry, is a
promising area of research and development for the utilisation of
seafood by-products. Researchers have shown that some useful com-
pounds can be isolated from seafood waste, including enzymes, gelatin
and proteins that have antimicrobial and antitumor capabilities.
Chitosan, produced from shrimp and crab shell, has shown a wide
range of applications from the cosmetic to pharmaceutical industries.
The shrimp waste consists of 71.4% head and 28.6% shell (Meyers,
1986). This waste contains useful components such as protein, lipid,
and astaxanthin pigment, thus making the commercial shrimp waste
an attractive material for extraction of the components mentioned
above to utilise them in seafood products (Mandeville et al., 1992).
Whole shrimp heads from Northern pink shrimp (Pandaluseous),
Endeavour shrimp (Metapenaeus endeavour) and Black tiger shrimps
(Penaeus monodon) were used for shrimp head protein hydrolysates
(SHPH) isolation.
After processing fish wastes to produce the product mentioned
above, fish oil extracted from these wastes is also used for the
production of biodiesel. With some fish wastes in India increasing
day by day, it is only a matter of time before they cause a problem in the
Indian economy. If appropriate funding is available to fish, wastes can
722
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
be put into proper use. More research is required to understand the
total potential of fish wastes properly.
3. Biomass-energy conversion process
From the above discussions, it is evident that a diverse range of
feedstock is available from different sources. It is necessary to convert
the feedstock into usable energy forms such as biofuel, biogas, etc.
There are various processes for the conversions of feedstock to energy
that is mostly used. They are biochemical and thermal conversions. The
biochemical transformations include fermentation and anaerobic di-
gestion while thermal conversion consists of biomass gasification and
pyrolysis. Chemical conversion is utilised to convert plant and vege-
table oils to biodiesel, and direct combustion of wood mass is also used.
The point-by-point process division is illustrated in Fig. 1.
3.1. Thermochemical conversion process - combustion, gasification,
pyrolysis
The thermochemical process involves high temperatures that break
down the organic matter bonds. The main by-products obtained during
this process are biofuels, synthetic gas and char. The main advantage of
this process is the destruction of pathogens, fewer emissions, less
processing time and recovery of nutrients. Thermochemical conversion
of biomass is most favourable for large-scale application of bioenergy
because of its flexibility in conversion of large biomass to various fuels
and by-products [80]. The vegetation biomass consists of cellulose and
polyposis (65–75%), lignin (18–35%), organic and inorganic minerals
(4–10%) [85]. At high temperature, there will be a chemical change in
lignin, cellulose and hemicellulose. The conversion of by-products
depends on feedstock properties such as chemical composition and
moisture contents. Pyrolysis is defined as the occurrence of chemical
change when heat is applied to the feedstock in the absence of the
oxygen or the presence of less oxygen to get pyrolysis products in the
form of solid, liquid and gas [43]. This method is more suitable for the
extraction of chemicals, solvents & different fuels from organic matter
[68].
Pyrolysis is again classified as slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis and
flash pyrolysis based on heating rate. In slow pyrolysis, the heating rate
is much slower compared with other pyrolysis processes. It is tradi-
tionally utilised to produce charcoal. Biomass feedstock is heated to a
low or constant temperature and the vapours formed are continuously
removed [54]. Fast pyrolysis is associated with heating the biomass at a
higher temperature (675–775 K) in the absence of oxygen to obtain tar
[23]. Flash Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process for the transforma-
tion of biomass into liquid fuel by heating at 775 K in the absence of the
oxygen. Table 7 gives the main parameters and conditions of pyrolysis.
Gasification is a thermochemical process, due to incomplete combus-
tion of biomass, which results in the production of combustible gases.
These gases contain the traces of methane, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide. It is mainly utilised as fuel for small-scale operations. In
the laboratory, it is used to produce chemicals [15]. Indirect combus-
tion, biomass is directly used as fuel to generate hot flue gas which in
P. Thomas et al.
Table 7
Operating condition for pyrolysis process.
Conditions Flash Fast pyrolysis Pyrolysis
pyrolysis (Normal)
Temperature (K) 1050–1300 850–1250 550–900
Heating rate(K/s) > 1000 10–200 0.01–1
Solid Residence Time < 0.5 0.5–1 300–3600
Size of Particle < 0.2 < 1 5–50
turn is used to produce steam. With the help of turbine's heat and
electricity can be simultaneously provided. Combustion of biomass at
high temperature around 800–1000 °C produces hot gases [86]. In
2014, biomass-based power production reached 433 TWh while the
capacity installed was 93 GW. India is far behind in power production
from biomass; the main players are China, Germany and United
States [75]. Electricity generation from direct combustion is practised
in India [2]. Cogeneration with biomass is implemented to improve the
power generation and typical usage of biomass resources. The biomass/
cogeneration projects are successfully operating in various states such
as Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In India,
the cogeneration projects are successfully implemented in southern
and eastern regions [2]. 1 MW capacity power plant was commissioned
in December 2004 by Arashi Hi-Tech Bio-Power Pvt. Ltd in
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu. There are various projects commissioned
for biomass gasifier rural electrification, and one of the oldest projects
of the like is called Gosaba Island Project operation in Tripura state
since 1997 [83]. The government of India is cooperating with state
governments promoting various projects by providing subsidies and
necessary guidance.
3.2. Bio-Diesel production from various sources
Fuel is essential for the day to day activities and has broad
applications in industries and transportation sector. The demand for
petroleum or diesel is comparatively higher in India compared with
other countries around the world. The boom of transportation and
automobile sector is one of the main reasons behind the demand.
Diesel is the primary fuel used for vehicles in India resulting in the rise
of crude oil imports. The current depletion and increasing cost of fossil
fuels are forcing scientists to find a suitable alternative fuel source. The
solution is to find an appropriate alternative fuel which is cheaper, eco-
friendly and easily attainable. One of the most viable solutions is
triglycerides and their derivatives, vegetable oil, which is widely
available and has low sulphur content. The oil from different plants
such as sunflower, olive oil and soy has been used as an alternative fuel
for over 100 years after the successful testing of peanut oil in engines
[83,45]. According to availability, different countries use different oil
sources such as palm oil in Southeast Asia, soya-bean oil in U.S. and
sunflower oil in Europe.
India initiated the launch of biofuel projects in 18 states to
maximise the availability of plant species. The plant species used in
biodiesel production are Jatropha and karanj [92]. These plants can
adapt well to Indian climatic conditions. Vegetable oil holds a promis-
ing solution for the development of alternative fuels but is still plagued
by some problems. One of the main issues is high viscosity, which
results in poor fuel atomization, incomplete combustion, carbon
deposits and failure of the injection nozzle. In triglycerides, the cloud
and pour points are higher and cause significant problems during cold
weather. The key solution towards these challenges is transesterifica-
tion process which involves chemical conversion to bio-diesel. Biodiesel
is obtained from feedstocks of vegetable oil and animal fat through
transesterification process [1]. Biodiesel can be blended with diesel and
used as an alternative fuel. Recently, much research and studies have
been carried out to find cheaper and much more eco-friendly sources
723
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
and as a result; the researchers have discovered that algae have much
unexplored potential in biodiesel production [35]. Khan et al. re-
searched on the possibility of microalgae for biodiesel production. The
main obstacles in algae usage arise due to a smaller amount of lipid
availability when compared to plants and animals. The biggest problem
faced by India is the difficulty in the initiation of farming in a vast area
as the farmers are not at all interested in the cultivation of Jatropha
due to low-income returns compared with other crops. Another
problem that persists is the lack of infrastructure in oil extraction
and seed collection. The present scenario demands more integrated
energy farms to meet the fuel requirements. This energy farm should
be established on wastelands and should utilise resources at a cheaper
rate.
3.3. Bio-chemical conversion process: fermentation
The biochemical conversion involves converting biomass to biofuels
by fermentation and anaerobic digestion. High moisture organic waste
is more suitable for anaerobic digestion. Fermentation is a biochemical
process which includes the hydrolysis of sucrose and its fermentation.
In this process initially, the enzyme hydrolysis of sucrose takes place
and is then converted into fructose and glucose. The process is followed
by fermentation, distillation and dehydration to form bioethanol.
Various countries are utilising fermentation in large scale to produce
ethanol from sugar cane and other plants. Transesterification process
can convert the enzymes to biodiesel, and glycerol is obtained as a
byproduct. The catalyst can be recycled for further use. In India, the
major metro cities have implemented the latest fermentation technol-
ogies, but the rural areas do not have the adequate resources to catch
up with the former. The collection and processing cost are compara-
tively higher, but it can be managed with revenue generation from
compost and fertilisers [95].
4. Feasibility of biomass conversion
Despite the many advantages, the possibility of utilising biomass in
energy conversion regarding emission is still controversial [7]. Biomass
is categorised, mainly into two types, agrofuels and biofuels. Biofuels
are produced with an aim to replace petroleum products or to decrease
its usage to an extent. An agrofuel is a kind of biofuel produced by
large-scale cultivation of energy crops like maize, corn, palm, Jatropha,
and soy. Biodiesel and ethanol are important agrofuels and have been
in use for many years. Biodiesel is usually produced on a large-scale
and marketed locally in the generating country itself.
4.1. Economic and social factors
Even under careful analysis, it is still tough to conclude which is the
better (biomass or conventional energy sources) and more suitable
option due to various parameters such as the cost of feedstock, output
and size in the plant [27]. For the analysis, the anaerobic digestion and
gasification efficiency and cost of operation is taken into account. Rice's
husk and waste wood are mainly used as biomass feedstock in
gasification due to its availability in bulk quantities. Both the resources
are available abundantly in rural areas all over India. Calculation of the
cost per power, mainly in two schemes produces gas mode and dual
fuel mode [44]. The economic feasibility is presented in Table 8. The
anaerobic digestion analysis focused on the viability of the biochemical
process. The government of India is providing subsidies for the
construction of biogas plants. There are a lot of digesters available in
the rural areas which can successfully meet the energy requirements of
a family. There is not much difference in building cost for both the
technologies and the government is supporting both financial and
technically [60]. The transportation and collection costs are cheaper
due to location and local availability of resources. The biogas based
power production can be made cheaper by proper recycling of
P. Thomas et al.
Table 8
Economic feasibility of thermochemical process [44].
Fuel Mode Diesel Wood Husk Total expenditure
(INR/kWh)
Dual-Fuel 0.1 1 1.5 10
9
15
Gas 1.5 2 5
4
generated heat. The biogas plant capacity of 26.5 million m3 of biogas
(52% ethane) can annually produce 55 million kWh of electricity.
Further increase in biogas generation can be achieved through
pretreatment techniques [57]. It is reported that 1Nm3 of biogas
produce energy content of 6 kWh with 60% methane content.
Considering many losses in the account, the cost of 1kWh of electricity
equals to 4 INR when biogas is used as fuel for the generator.
While utilising the biomass in energy production, the social impact
should also taken into consideration. When producing biofuels from
agarol fuels, we need to consider certain parameters such as land and
availability of other resources. Excess attention towards the agrofuel
crops leads to declining the productivity of food crops. In India, about
44% of the geographical area is utilised for agricultural activity, and it
contributes 18% to the total GDP in the economy. The annual income
of many rural families comes from agriculture and plays a critical role
in social and economic development. There are some arguments that
Jatropha plants require less care and are suitable for any soil
conditions, but recent studies indicate that in India and many other
countries, the productivity of Jatropha is comparatively low [35,36].
The cultivation of Jatropha on a large scale will not be an economically
feasible option. Here the cultivation of algae as a potential feedstock for
the production of bio-diesel arises as a feasible alternative [67,50,51].
Possibilities of using algae as an available source have been studied by
various researchers [70]. The adaptability of growing in harsh condi-
tions is an added advantage in algal cultivation; researchers like [78]
described more in detail about microalgae cultivation mentioned in his
paper. Microalgae can survive in the both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems. Many varieties of algae are present, but only 30,000 are
being studied and analysed. The algal application is not only limited to
biofuel production but also in the fields of pharmaceutics, food crops,
etc.
4.2. Environment factors
As per the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
change and Ministry of the Environment and Forest reports, the
agriculture sector emits 334.41 million tonnes of carbon dioxide per
annum. The graph and diagram-Desk agriculture sector itself generates
27.6% greenhouse gas and holds the second position in emissions.
Fig. 2 illustrates agriculture emissions that can be attributed due to
over usage of nitrogen fertilisers and intensive farming. The nitrous
oxide emission from the field is more powerful when compared to
carbon dioxide emissions. The nitrous oxide has an impact that is 300
times deadlier than carbon dioxide. The greenhouse-gas emissions
depend on many factors such as cultivation method, ground cover, soil,
and climate. Another major factor is deforestation. During ethanol
production, use of cogeneration with gas-fired turbine has relatively
smaller emissions by 45% when compared to other conventional
methods [32]. The least greenhouse-gas emissions can be achieved
when waste cooking oil is utilised to produce bio-diesel. The environ-
mental impact is a significant factor for the energy production. As we
discussed earlier land-use plays a major role in emissions, therefore,
more care and attention is required in this category,
724
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
Fig. 2. Green house gas emission of agriculture sector (Ministry of Environment
Statistics).
5. Anaerobic digestion
Biogas is one of the primary renewable-energy sources for devel-
oping countries like India. The anaerobic digestion is carried out in the
absence of oxygen in which the organic matter converts to biogas.
Biogas is a combination of various gases such as methane, carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and other contaminated gases. Biogas can
be applied directly for cooking and lighting purpose. Biogas can be used
as an alternative to fossil fuels. The extra organic matter in the digester
is rich in nutrients and can be used as a fertiliser. The anaerobic
digestion is a complicated procedure which depends on many para-
meters like C/N ratio, temperature, pH value; etc. Anaerobic digestion
gains popularity as it moves from small scale to large scale due to its
feasibility in converting livestock waste to energy [39,94]. Table 8
represents the economic viability of the thermochemical process.
According to various reports, India constructed about 4 million biogas
plants that utilised animal waste as a biomass feedstock. Bhat et al.
[10,91]. It is estimated India has 100 million rural families. The goal of
providing cleaner energy to a large population by focusing on animal
manure as the only source is impossible and various research projects
have gone on to identify alternative raw materials such as water weeds,
etc. [30]. Pulverising other organic wastes such as rice straw [6],
aquatic plants [82], and terrestrial weeds [21] to the water-based slurry
can improve the overall rate of biomass production. Chanakya et al.
undertook similar studies [16] in bio-methanation production from
herbaceous biomass.
5.1. Anaerobic digester construction
The main purpose of the bioreactor is the conversion of waste to the
energy. The design of the bioreactor is unique and varies depending
upon the waste. The design of anaerobic digester is explained below.
The aerobic digester is primarily classified into three main types;
Conventional, Sludge retention and an Anaerobic membrane reactor.
The application and usage of the reactor depend on parameters such as
environment conditions, availability of feedstock, etc. The floating gas
holder digester is the primarily implemented model in India and
consists of conventional underground digester body of approximately
6×8 ft2. The waste or feedstock is applied over a mixing tank size of
3.4×2 ft2 which is supplied to the main digester using a pipe [16]. The
gas is then stored on the upward part of the digester. Afterwards, the
gas is utilised for energy requirements.
P. Thomas et al.
5.2. Classification of anaerobic digesters models implemented in the
Indian scenario
5.2.1. Floating gas holder type (KVIC Model)
The Khadi and Village Industries Commission (KVIC) digester
model is famous and used all over India since 1962. This is a typical
floating gas bio - digester with four main sessions: Mixing Tank,
Underground Digester, Compost Pit and Gas Storage. The feedstock or
waste is applied from a mixing tank, and later this waste source is
transported toward the digester using pipes. The compost is later
collected in a compost pit. The gas storage is done above the digester. It
is like a drum and depending on the accumulated gas; the drum will
move up and down. The drum can be made either using PVC or steel.
The volume of biogas implemented in India ranges from 1.8 m3 to
10 m3. The biogas stored in the drum is later utilised for the energy
requirements such as cooking. These digesters need skilled labour and
investment costs are higher [64] due to the necessity of concrete and
steel. Digesters are daily loaded with wastes diluted with water. The
main operation task is digester maintenance such as removing
accumulated solids in the bottom. The expected life span of the digester
is short because of drum collisions.
5.2.2. Deenbandu model
The deenbandhu model was developed in the 80 s. This model is
similar to the fixed dome. The main advantage when compared to the
conventional fixed dome biogas digester is its minimum requirements
of construction materials by reducing the size of the main chamber and
making a second compensation chamber. It consists of spheres of two
different chambers. The digester is loaded semi - continuously with
waste or the feedstock diluted with water. The maintenance is one of
the main issues as removing the sludge is a difficult task, and it can
carry on once a year. For the entrance, there is a manhole plug installed
at the top of the digester. The volume of typical household digesters
varies from 10 m3 to 20 m3 [90]. The community-based digesters
produce a volume of 50 m3 [l46]. The system is constantly checked
for any leakages and cracks. The lifespan of the scheme is expected to
be around 20 years. This model is comparatively cheaper than KVIC
model.
5.2.3. Pragati model
The pragati model is a combination of both Deenbandhu and KVIC
Design. The digester is located underground, and the lower part of the
digester is semi-spherical with a conical bottom. There is a floating
drum located above the digester. The digester is loaded similar to both
deebandu model and KVIC model and is loaded daily. The compost pit
is constructed to collect the sludge, and the construction cost is higher
due to the floating dome model because of steel.
5.2.4. Tubular digesters
The tubular digester design was first developed in Taiwan. It
consists of a PVC inlet and outlet and a pipeline for the collection of
gas. The tubular bag which is placed underground acts as a digester.
The diluted feedstock or waste is supplied using PVC pipes. In this
design, there is no need for mixing and heating requirements. A
covering protects the digester under the roof; the biogas is concen-
trated over the upper part and collected using a gas pipeline for cooking
and energy applications (Martí-Herrero et al., 2014). The tubular
design is easy to implement and handle, and there is no need for any
specialised skilled labour and construction cost is minimum. The main
operations are daily loading, digester management, sludge removal and
proper attention to identifying gas leakage. Plastic bags are used in the
tubular digester, and it has a short time span of fewer than five years.
There lies an additional maintenance cost every five years. These design
models are slowly gaining popularity in India due to its low initial
investment and cheaper construction materials.
725
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
5.3. Environment aspects
Anaerobic digesters reduce the emission on the environment by
effective utilisation of waste resources and by replacing firewood
thereby reducing deforestation to a large extent. There are only a few
studies performed in environment impacts of anaerobic digesters in
India right now. The global warming emission in India and other
developing countries is carried out by considering proper manure
management, reduction of emissions by substituting traditional energy
sources such as kerosene and firewood, replacement of fertilisers and
reduction of emissions by the slurry. When compared to crude oil
based fuels biogas is environmentally friendly and beneficial to
automobiles including heavy vehicles due to its fewer emissions [61].
An estimation of about 249 million tonnes of carbon dioxide can be
reduced in India with the help of anaerobic digestion (Martí-Herrero
et al., 2014). To understand the environmental impact of small-scale
production energy analysis was performed in Costa Rica for tubular
digesters. The result was excellent and full of scope showing that the
energy production is sustainable and eco-friendly. Usage of biogas for
electricity generation is not sustainable due to its high energy values
which depend on energy loss and equipment. During the study of
environment impact of Deenbandu model and plastic tubular digesters,
the LCA study determined that the plastic tubular digesters have a high
impact due to the use of plastic and geo - membrane while the
Deenbandu model has less impact due to the usage of concrete and
bricks. Replacing the tubular design with bio - plastic can reduce the
emissions and thereby becomes more friendly towards the environ-
ment (Pérez et al., 2014).
5.4. Socio-economic aspects
Usage of solid fuels for cooking without improved stoves produce
smoke and other harmful matter which leads to air pollution and cause
severe health issues such as asthma and other respiratory problems.
The main victims of such pollution are the children and women in
India. Substituting biogas in the place of solid fuel not only improves
air quality and but also reduces the emission to a great extent about
60%. A collection of firewood and solid fuel is a time-consuming
process as it takes much time to search the forest to find the proper
firewood. Instead of firewood if the biogas is implemented the time
spend for searching can be utilised for socio-economic development
(Garfí et al. [28]). A recent survey conducted amongst families using
biogas stated that they are spending much time in other activities such
as social and community work, income generation activities, etc. Even
though the digesters have many advantages, it still faces much criticism
such as social acceptance even after implementing millions of digesters
all over India and also faces challenges in proper management after the
implementation [64]. The Indian government has initiated many
supporting activities by providing training and subsidies for imple-
mentation and proper management.
The digesters can replace the traditional fuel source and fertilisers
which greatly help the rural families. They can save and reduce the
expenditure towards the purchase of solid fuels and fertilisers. As
discussed above the digestive is a rich source of nutrients which results
in improving the crop productivity. In India usage of bio – fertilisers
have gained much attention and agricultural products using bio -
fertilisers have more market value compared to those utilising artificial
fertiliser. In addition to construction cost, labour costs are higher for
fixed dome and tubular design. The fixed dome construction cost is
higher when compared to tubular digesters due to the requirement of
skilled labour and time consumed in construction (Pérez et al., 2012).
For economic aspects, there is need of cost analysis in Installation and
Operation.
a) Installation cost Analysis = Labour charges + Price of Materials
needed for construction + Cost of transportation + Cost of Storage
P. Thomas et al.
and Gas Delivery setup
b) Operation Cost Analysis = Setup of managing Slurry(Drying
Process) + Usage of Crop residues need Shredding (Shredding
setups)+ Annual Maintenance Charges
The estimated cost of fixed dome digester is about 1963 dollars and
1729 dollars for tubular design including the labour charges. The initial
investment costs about 341 dollars for geo - membrane and polyethene.
An additional charge of 365 dollars is required for the rest of the
materials. For tubular design maintenance, every five years is also
necessary. Tubular design is more affordable to low-income families
when compared to the fixed and floating dome. However, the deen-
bandu model could reduce the fixed dome digester cost. It was
estimated that the capital cost of deenbandu model is comparatively
cheaper than other models both in construction and labour charges
[90]. Even though biogas technology has many advantages and easily
applicable in both developing and developed countries when it is
compared to other variations of bioenergy products its dissemination is
still restricted by economic factors [97]. In Indian scenario 1 m3 of
biogas equals to 0.43 kg of LPG and the family can save about Rs
1821(Indian Rupees), which is a huge save for low-income families.
The MNRE can support the implementation of digesters by providing
subsidies and training to users and also via schemes of public
awareness.
5.5. Potential of anaerobic digestion
The anaerobic digestion involves a series of the processes. Fig. 3
clearly illustrates the various processes involved in anaerobic metabo-
lism. Many studies have been carried out in different types of feedstock.
Various research activities are currently being performed in the various
regions around the world. Countries like China have already started
such initiatives by doubling the number of anaerobic digesters in the
country [3,17,18]. Budzianowski [12] has done research in prefabri-
cated biogas digesters in China (2012). He also studied the economic
feasibility of installing prefabricated biogas digesters. In India, using
the cotton stalks as a potential feedstock has been investigated [32].
The potential of biogas as an alternative source of energy in Poland
[29] has been investigated and suitability of anaerobic digestion
Fig. 3. Process involved in anaerobic digestion.
726
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
compared to other is now being considered. Garfi et al. focused on
the implementation of economically feasible household digesters; he
also discussed effective utilisation of biomass feedstock. Usage of pig
manure as a raw material for anaerobic digestion was analysed by
various researchers [79], who also discussed improving the methane
generation by combining with other wastes. B. Riaño et al. [77]
designed a new optimal placing of anaerobic digester plant. The
feedstock used in this research was a combination of cow and pig
manure. Co-digestion of winery wastewater with swine manure can
improve the enhancement of methane generation [76]. L. Regueiro
et al. [74] worked upon the opportunities for enhanced methane
productivity in Austria. A. Pantaleo et al. [63] mentioned about
comparison study of methane production of pig manure with fish
waste. M. Otero et al. [62] have shed light on the prospects of anaerobic
digestion in Italy. The mesophilic condition is more suitable that
thermophilic conditions for conversion of cow manure to usable energy
forms [55]. In Portugal, there lies much scope in bioenergy production
[48] due to more livestock capacities. Various researchers are now
involved in the removal of pathogens from the substrate and produc-
tion of energy on the commercial basis [46]. Kougias et al studied the
relation between hydraulic retention time and methane generation.
Moreover, the maximum methane production was also determined.
Keshtkar et al. determined the response of organic loading rate on the
anaerobic digestion. The feasibility of commercial generation of biogas
utilising factory waste and swine manure was performed by Kafle et al.
The energy production comparison by direct burning, and anaerobic
digestion is represented in Table 9. From Table 9, we can conclude that
anaerobic digestion is more efficient than direct burning.
6. Implementation scenario in India
In India, about 68–69% of the population still lives in rural villages.
The living style and economic development are different in both rural
and urban regions. As a result of the waste generation also varies on the
economic growth. Due to this, there is a need for proper waste
management approaches. Anaerobic digestion is used as an appro-
priate technology to convert the wastes to energy and various by-
products such as fertilisers etc.
6.1. Rural sector
In the rural sector, the gas produced from anaerobic digestion is
utilised as a cooking fuel. In the earlier days due to the lack of proper
knowledge farmers hesitated in utilising biogas. Various initiatives by
the government of India have now encouraged the farmers to use
biogas by providing subsidies and technical assistance. The main
advantages of using the digesters are:
Efficient use of manures and other byproducts compared to direct
burning
Eco-friendliness
Over dependency on forest residues and wood was reduced drasti-
cally
Substitute to the LPG cylinders
Table 9
Comparison of energy production on Direct burning and Anaerobic Digestion (Manure),
(Khalid et al., 2011).
Parameters Direct burning Anaerobic digestion
Total energy 43.76 MJ 19.71 MJ
Useful energy 4.37 MJ 10.84 MJ
Effluent waste None 10 kg
P. Thomas et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730

Fig. 4. Initiatives launched By government of India Regarding Energy.

6.1.1. Using animal manure Municipal Solid Waste such as Landfilling, Composting and Anaerobic
The main feedstock considered in bioenergy generation is those Digestion. Due to the large quantities, most of the cities implement
from cattle, horses, and buffalos. Other feedstock wastes are not landfilling to manage these wastes. The landfilling is attractive, but care
considered due to comparatively lower efficiency. The efficiency is should be maintained in leachate management otherwise, the chances
estimated to be 50%. The following equation calculates the manure of groundwater contamination are high. Anaerobic digestion would be
used as input for digester and the biogas yield effective when considering the sustainability and area. The collection
efficiency ranges from 65% to 90% in various cities. The methane
Ybio Σ Fani Ec Yunit generation from organic fraction is about 100 m3/ton.
Ybio Total biogas generated
Fani Manure Feedstock Ybio Σ City Ec Yton
yunit Production of biogas from 1ton Ybio Total biogas generated
Fcity MSW Waste
y ton Production of biogas from 1ton

6.1.2. Using crop residues

The main crops residues used in India are wheat, cotton, rice and
sugarcane. The collection efficiency is lower; approximately 40%.The
waste generated during the process is not considered because the
industries itself use these residues in electricity generation. The biogas
yield is estimated with the help of the following equation
Ybio Σ Fcrop Ec Yton
Ybio Total biogas generated
Fcrop Crop Residue
y ton Production of biogas from 1ton
6.2. Urban scenario
The waste generation varies from city to city and depends on the
living style and habitats. In India, there are 200 cities and eight
metropolitan cities. Huge quantities of Municipal solid waste are
generated day by day. There are mainly three methods used to manage
6.3. Initiatives launched by government of India
When compared to other developing countries, India has made
significant progress in the technological and scientific field. These
developments support improvement in the usage of renewable energy
in a feasible manner. The Fuel Policy Committee was the first step
carried out by the Indian government to study about the fossil-fuel
crises in 1974. In 1979, the Work Group on Energy Policy was set up to
frame suitable policies for both renewable and nonrenewable energy
resources. In 1980, Institution Mechanisms was first introduced
followed by a Commission on Sources of Energy (CASE) established
in 1981 under the Department of Science and Technology, which was
later converted into a new separate department, Department of Non-
Conventional Energy Sources (DNES) in 1982. The Advisory Board on
Energy instituted in 1983 proposed for Nodal Energy Conservation
Organisation (NECO) to support central and state government agencies
and in 1989 Energy Management Centre replaced it. Due to the failure
of some policies, changes were made to accelerate the promotion of

727
P. Thomas et al.
Renewable Energy in India [5]. The first step was the up-gradation of
Department of Non-Conventional Energy Sources to a Ministry; the
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES) which came
into effect in 1992. The main aim of MNES was to promote the
renewable-energy sources and later in 2006 MNES renamed into the
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE). The Ministry
expanded with regional offices, research institutes and a financial
company (Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency) to support
its projects. Moreover, to set up various centres and commissions, the
Indian Government passed the Energy Conservation Bill in September
2001. This act was a milestone in promoting energy efficiency and
created the Bureau of Energy Efficiency. In June 2008, Government of
India launched a National Action Plan on Climate Change. Fig. 4
represents the endeavours undertook by the Government of India.
6.4. Strategies and achievements
The Ministry of New Renewable Energy identified the potential for
bioenergy production in the Indian scenario. Over the last few decades,
biomass became an attractive commodity for the investment well over
USD 130 million (INR 600 crore). This area made a significant growth
in employment of more than 10 million opportunities in both rural and
urban areas. The main agenda of Ministry of New Renewable Energy
was to promote the cogeneration and gasifier programme and also in
providing both financial and technical support. Various state and
central agencies incorporated with the Ministry of New Renewable
Energy to develop in rural areas. The central government also launched
a National Biomass Resource Assessment Programme (NBRAP) with
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) to provide
financial support for biomass-based projects. Various actions include:
Provide Funds such as grants, loans, incentives for bioenergy
projects.
Concession on various duty taxes such as import duty, excises tax,
etc.
Training for users and institutes etc.
Guidance for State Electricity Board in Renewable Portfolio
Standards
Imitation of Buyback policy from independent producers.
To improve sanitation facilities in villages.
Exceptions from sales tax in biomass gasifier purchase.
The main achievements achieved by Ministry of New Renewable
Energy;
Implementation of 259 biomass power and cogeneration projects
total capacity of 2312 MW installed and much more in progress.
The increase in private partnership towards Bioenergy Projects.
Reduced imports in gasifiers more local manufacturers supported by
Ministry of New Renewable Energy
7. Future directions
The government of India must act decisively to develop and modify
the clean and sustainable energy sources. Biomass can serve as an
efficient substitute to the world's energy and environmental issues. The
government should utilise the bioresources that are available to meet
uprising energy demands and should frame out policies to introduce
productive private partnership in biomass technologies by raising the
incentives and subsidies. Proper research needs to be carried out in the
commercialization of bioenergy without negatively impacting the poor.
Proper market investigations and strategies should be implemented
before commercialization. Life cycle assessment would be an effective
step in understanding the economics perspective of bioenergy in the
market. Bioenergy should be viewed as a future energy source for
development in India as well as the world. The current economic
growth demands more energy and the government of India should plan
actions to build up new projects to enhance the usage of bioenergy
728
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
resources. Active campaigning can promote the usage of bioenergy, but
both the government and private organisations should act together to
make it a success. Proper monitoring should be undertaken to check
the emissions level of bioenergy which is necessary to ensure that the
emissions are lesser than those of fossil fuels. Support of universities
and funding should be done to improve the quality and quantities of
research in biomass field.
India primarily depends on coal reserves for energy production.
Usage of biomass resources can replace coal and crude oil dependency
in India to a certain extent. India is rich in its biomass resources, and
there has been an increase in its resources in past few years due to
environmental factors. However, a lot of research is needed to under-
stand its social and potential aspects. As a result, the sector growth is
slower than what was originally anticipated. Bioenergy potential needs
to be improved, and the government should make necessary frame-
works and actions by providing tax exemptions and subsidies.
8. Conclusion and recommendation
Traditional farming waste management has a lot of negative aspects
associated with them such as emissions of various pollutants and
aerosols to the atmosphere. The burning of crop residues in farmland
reduces the fertility of the soil and to increase the fertility farmers use
chemical fertilisers. These chemical fertilisers cause salinity and
degradation of soil. More research should be carried out to improve
the temperature in digester and the potential of co-digestion in biogas
generation. The slurry obtained after the digestion and its usage to full
potential should also be studied. The post-treatment techniques need
to be adapted for the removal of pathogens. Biogas production is
always eco-friendly, and therefore more durable and sustainable
materials should be used to reduce the emission and impacts towards
the environment. From a social point of view, the anaerobic digestion is
more suitable as it improves the health and the lifestyle of women and
children. However, there still exists a lack of acceptance in the society,
but this will change shortly due to various strategies and policies made
by MNRE.
In this paper, the broad analysis of various potential biomass
energy sources and their conversion to energy has been discussed.
From the above discussions, it can be confirmed that India is having a
huge amount of unexplored bioresources. The bio-energy from both
crop and non-crop residues can successfully meet the energy demands
of our vast population. Various conversion techniques like anaerobic
digestion and other processes have been discussed. Huge opportunities
for thermal and chemical conversion for power generation are available
in India as well. Availability of wastes in massive volumes is quite
promising for anaerobic digestion and in waste management. Power
generation based on cogeneration and gasification projects has proved
to be successful in India. This project solved not only energy scarcity in
the rural area but is also a promising income source for families. From
the various works inferred, it can be said that the co-digestion
combining various wastes from different sources enhances the energy
generation to a great extent. A proper statistical database should be
developed and should be consistently updated and maintained. The
government should frame new policies and regulations to make private
organisations actively participate in its endeavours. Policies should give
importance to local by-products and residues and promote its applica-
tion. It is also important to meet the domestic energy demands before
its commercialization in the global market.
The bio-diesel production is facing significant challenges like
commercial cultivation, greenhouse-gas emission due to land use and
booming transport sector. Setting up bio-refineries close to the
cultivation field can help in transport, and use of algae as an alternative
source would be more feasible and attractive compared to energy crops.
With rising demand and faster depletion of fossil fuels, biomass is an
appropriate solution for the energy crisis India is facing now.
P. Thomas et al.
References
[1] Abdul Kalam DrAPJ (2005–06) Hon’ble President of India ‘‘Dynamics of Rural
Development’’ 93rd Indian Science Congress annual report; p. 34.
[2] Abe H. Summary of biomass power generation in India; a case study report
prepared for Japan. International Cooperation Agency (JICA); 2005 〈http://
gasifiers.bioenergylists.org/gasdoc/abe/IndiaBioSummary050721Web.pdf〉.
[3] Adl M, Sheng K, Gharibi A. Technical assessment of bioenergy recovery from cotton
stalks through anaerobic digestion process and the effects of inexpensive pre-
treatments. Appl Energy 2012;93:251–60.
[4] Agence nationale des déchets (AND). [internet]. Indicateurs. Etats des lieux et
perspectives. [updated 19.02.16] Available from: 〈http://and.dz/
indicateursdechets-en-algerie〉; 2016.
[5] Urjha Akshay. Renewable Energy at a Glance in India. Renewable Energy, April ed.
MNRE Planning Commission. 2007. Eleventh Five-Year Plan, 2007–2012. The
Government of India, New Delhi; 2010.
[6] Andersson J, Bjornsson L. Evaluation of straw as a biofilm carrier in the
methanogenic stage of two-stage anaerobic digestion of crop residues. Bioresour
Technol 2002;85:51–6.
[7] Avis M. Biofuels—fuelling the world or fooling the world? Folkcenter Trainee.
Nordic Folkecenter for Renewable Energy, January; 〈http://www.folkecenter.net/
gb/rd/transport/plant_oil/biofuels/〉; 2008.
[8] Baños R, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG, Gil C, Alcayde A, Gómez J.
Optimisation methods applied to renewable and sustainable energy: a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:1753–66.
[9] Basic statistics on Indian Petroleum & Natural Gas. Ministry of Petroleum and
Natural Gas, Economic Division; 2008–09, 〈http://petroleum.nic.in/total.pdf〉.
[10] Bhat PR, Chanakya HN, Ravindranath NH. Biogas plant dissemination: the success
story of Sirsi, India. Energy Sustain Dev V 2001;1:39–41.
[11] British Petroleum. BP statistics review of world energy, June,〈www.bp.com/
statistical〉 review; 2010.
[12] Budzianowski WM. Sustainable biogas energy in Poland: prospects and challenges.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:342–9.
[13] Buragohain B, Mahanta P, Moholkar Vijayanand S. Biomass gasification for
decentralised power generation: the Indian perspective. Renew Sustain Energy
2010:73–92.
[14] Butt S, Hartmann I, Lenz V. Bioenergy potential and consumption in Pakistan.
Biomass- Bioenergy 2013;58:379–89.
[15] Caputo AC, Palumbo M, Pelagagge PM, Scacchia F. Economics of biomass energy
utilisation in combustion and gasification plants: effects of logistic variables.
Biomass- Bioenergy 2005;28:35–51.
[16] Chanakya HN, Reddy BVV, Modak J. Biomethanation of herbaceous biomass
residues using 3-zone plug flow like digesters—a case study from India. Renew
Energy 2009;34:416–20.
[17] Chen Y, Yang G, Sweeney S, Feng Y. Household biogas use in rural China: a study of
opportunities and constraints. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:545–9.
[18] Cheng S, Li Z, Mang H-P, Huba E-M. A review of pre-fabricated biogas digesters in
China. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;28:738–48.
[19] Creutzig F, Ravindranath NH, Berndes G, Bolwig S, Bright R, Cherubini F, et al.
Bioenergy and climate change mitigation: an assessment. GCB Bioenergy
2015;7:916–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcbb.12205.
[20] Daioglou V, Stehfest E, Wicke B, Faaij A, van Vuuren DP. Projections of the
availability and cost of residues from agriculture and forestry. GCB Bioenergy
2016;8:456–70.
[21] Das CR, Ghatnekar P. Replacement of cow dung by fermentation of aquatic and
terrestrial plants for use as fuel, fertiliser and biogas plant feed. In: TERI Technical
Report. TERI; December; 1979.
[22] Demirbas A. Biofuels are securing the planet's future energy needs. Energy Convers
Manag 2009;50:2239–49.
[23] Demirbas A. Producing bio-oil from the olive cake by fast pyrolysis. Energy Sources
Part A 2008;30:38–44.
[24] Taiganides EP. Animal wastes. Applied Science Publishers London; 1977. p.
241–51.
[25] Farooq MK, Kumar S. An assessment of renewable energy potential for electricity
generation in Pakistan. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;20:240–54.
[26] Ferchaud F, Mary B. Drainage and nitrate leaching assessed During 7 years under
perennial and annual bioenergy crops. Bioenergy Res 2016;1:1–15 http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/s12155-015-9710-2.
[27] Foust TD, Aden A, Dutta A, Phillips S. An economic and environmental comparison
of a biochemical and a thermochemical lignocellulosic ethanol conversion pro-
cesses. Cellulose 2009;16:547–65.
[28] Garfí M, Ferrer-Martí L, Villegas V, Ferrer I. Psychrophilic anaerobic digestion of
guinea pig manure in low-cost tubular digesters at high altitude. Bioresour Technol
2011;102:6356–9.
[29] Garfí M, Ferrer-Martí L, Velo E, Ferrer I. Evaluating benefits of low-cost household
digesters for rural Andean communities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2012;16:575–81.
[30] Goldemberg J, Johansson TB, Reddy AKN, Williams RH. A global clean cooking
fuel initiative. Energy Sustain Dev VIII 2004;3:5–12.
[31] Guerrero LA, Maas G, Hogland W. Solid waste management challenges for cities in
developing countries. Waste Manag 2013;33:220–32.
[32] Gupta P, Shekhar Singh R, Sachan A, Vidyarthi AS, Gupta A. A re-appraisal on the
intensification of biogas production. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:4908–16.
[33] Haase M, Rösch C, Ketzer D. GIS-based assessment of sustainable crop residue
potentials in European regions. Biomass–Bioenergy 2016;86:156–71.
729
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
[34] Handbook of Statistics: Section A . Table 03. India: Ministry of Agriculture; 1996,
[–97] 〈http://dacnet.nic.in/rice/HS-A-Table-03.html〉.
[35] Huang GH, Chen F, Wei D, Zhang XW, Chen G. Biodiesel production by microalgae
technology. Appl Energy 2009 〈http://www.foe.co.uk/resource/briefings/
agrofuels_fuelling_or_fool.pdf〉.
[36] Huang GH, Chen F, Wei D, Zhang XW, Chen G. Biodiesel production by microalgae
technology. Appl Energy 2009.
[37] International Renewable Energy Agency IRENA. Renewable power generation
costs 244 in 2014; 2015.
[38] International Energy Agency IEA. [Internet]. Bioenergy. About bioenergy. Available
from: 〈〈https://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/subtopics/bioenergy/〉〉; 2016.
[39] Jones HB, Ogden EA. Biomass energy potential from livestock and poultry wastes
in the Southern United States. Biomass 1984;6:25–35.
[40] Koh MP, Hoi WK. Sustainable biomass production for energy in Malaysia.
Biomass- Bioenergy 2003;25:517–29.
[41] Kansal A, Rajeshwari KV, Balakrishnan M, Lata K, Kishore VVN. Anaerobic
digestion technologies for energy recovery from industrial wastewater—a study in
the Indian context. TERI Inf Monit Environ Sci 1998;3(2):67–75.
[42] Kapoor RPA, Agarwal , editors. The price of forests. New Delhi: Centre for Science
and Environment; 1992. p. 173.
[43] Katyal S. Effect of carbonisation temperature on combustion reactivity of bagasse
char. Energy Sources Part A 2007;29:1477–85.
[44] Khan A. Economic-feasibility-of-biomass gasification. Glob J Sci Front Res
2015;15:18–24.
[45] Krawezy T. Biodiesel—alternative fuel makes inroads, but hurdles remain.
INFORM 1996;7(8):800–15.
[46] Lateef SA, Beneragama N, Yamashiro T, Iwasaki M, Ying C, Umetsu K. Bio-
hydrogen production from co-digestion of cow manure and waste milk under
thermophilic temperature. Bioresour Technol 2012;110:251–7.
[47] Leading cotton producing countries worldwide (LCPCW) in 2014/2015, retrieved
from 〈〈http://www.statista.com/statistics/263055/cotton-productionworldwide-
by-top-countries/〉〉.
[48] Linke B, Muha I, Wittum G, Plogsties V. Mesophilic anaerobic co-digestion of cow
manure and biogas crops in major German biogas plants: a model for calculating
the effect of hydraulic retention time and VS crop proportion in the mixture on
methane yield from the digester and digested storage at different temperatures.
Bioresour Technol 2013;130:689–95.
[49] Márquez AL, Baños R, Gil C, Montoya MG, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Montoya FG.
Multi-objective crop planning using Pareto-based evolutionary algorithms. Agric
Econ 2011;42:649–56.
[50] Mata Teresa M, Martins Antonio A, Caetano Nidia S. Microalgae for biodiesel
production and other applications: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2010;14:217–32.
[51] Mata Teresa M, Martins Antonio A, Caetano Nidia S. Microalgae for biodiesel
production and other applications: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2010;14:217–32.
[52] McKendry P. Energy production from biomass (part 1): an overview of biomass.
Bioresour Technol 2002;83:37–46.
[53] MNRE annual report . [09]. New Delhi: Ministry of New and Renewable Energy;
2008. p. 2008–9.
[54] Mohan D, Pittman CU, Jr, Steele PH. Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: a
critical review. Energy Fuels 2006;20:848–89.
[55] Monteiro E, Mantha V, Rouboa A. Prospective application of farm cattle manures
for bioenergy production in Portugal. renewable energy; 36:627–31. [77] Massé D,
Gilbert Y, Topp E. pathogen removal in farm-scale psychrophilic anaerobic
digesters processing swine manure. Bioresour Technol 2011;102:641–6.
[56] Nouni MR, Mullick SC, Kandpal TC. Providing electricity access to remote areas in
rural India: an approach towards identifying potential areas for decentralised
power supply. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2008;12:1187–220.
[57] NSW. Energy from Biogas in Northern Inland NSW. Retrieved 4/4/2016 from
〈〈http://www.rdani.org.au/files/pages/projects/bioenergy-and-
localelectrictyretailing/Biogas_Opportunity_Summary_General.pdf〉〉; 2016.
[58] Nouni MR, Mullick SC, Kandpal TC. Techno-economics of micro-hydro projects for
decentralised power generation in India. Energy Policy 2006;34:1161–74.
[59] NRSA . Report on area statistics of land use/land covers generated using remote
sensing techniques. Hyderabad: Department of Space; 1995.
[60] Obando DS, Gualdrón MA, Reno MLG, Lora EES. Techno-economic indicators for
the thermochemical and biochemical routes for biofuels production using sugar-
cane bagasse as feedstock. in: Proceedings of international society sugar cane
technology; 2010.
[61] Olsson L, Fallde M. Waste (d) potential: a socio-technical analysis of biogas
production and use in Sweden. J Clean Prod 2015;98:107–15.
[62] Otero M, Lobato A, Cuetos MJ, Sánchez ME, Gómez X. Digestion of cattle manure:
thermogravimetric kinetic analysis for the evaluation of organic matter conversion.
Bioresour Technol 2011;102:3404–10.
[63] Pantaleo A, Gennaro BD, Shah N. Assessment of optimal size of anaerobic co-
digestion plants: an application to cattle farms in the province of Bari (Italy).
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;20:57–70.
[64] Pallav Purohit AK. Energetics for coal substitution by briquettes of agricultural
residue. Energy 2006:1321–31.
[65] Planning Commission. Integrated energy policy—report of the expert committee,
August, 〈planningcommission.gov.in/reports/genrep/rep_inten-gy.pdf〉; 2006.
[66] Planning Commission of India, Working paper on Leasing of degraded forest land;
Report Reprint SeriesNo.1/99-PC〈http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/
wrkpapers/wp_lease.pdf〉.
[67] Powell EE, Hill GA. Economic assessment of an integrated bioethanol–biodiesel–
P. Thomas et al.
microbial fuel cess facility utilising yeast and photosynthetic algae. Chem Eng Res
Des 2009;87:1340–8.
[68] Pragya N, Pandey KK, Sahoo PK. A review of harvesting, oil extraction and biofuels
production technologies from microalgae. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2013;24:159–71.
[69] P. R. M. National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Toolkit. International Energy
Agency WIND 2012 annual report.{@ONLINE} ed; 2012.
[70] Ravindranath NH, Hall DO. Biomass energy and environment: a developing
country perspective from India. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1995.
[71] Ravindranath NH, Somashekar HI, Nagaraja MS, Sudha P, Sangeetha G,
Bhattacharya SC, et al. Assessment of non-plantation biomass resources potential
or energy in India. Biomass- Bioenergy 2005;29:178–90.
[72] Ravindranath NH, Balachandra P. Sustainable bioenergy for India: a technical,
economic and policy analysis. Energy 2009;34:1003–13.
[73] Reddy AKN. Rural energy consumption pattern-a field studies analysis of results.
Biomass- Bioenergy 1982;2(4):255–80.
[74] Regueiro L, Carballa M, Alvarez J a, Lema JM. Enhanced methane production from
pig manure anaerobic digestion using fish and biodiesel wastes as co- substrates.
Bioresour Technol 2012;123:507–13.
[75] Renewable energy policy network for the 21st Century (REN 21). Renewables 2015
global status report – key findings. ISBN 978-3-9815934-7-1. Available from:
〈http://www.ren21.net/GSR2015-Renewables-2015-Global-Status-Report-
KeyFindings-EN〉.
[76] Resch C, Wörl A, Waltenberger R, Braun R, Kirchmayr R. Enhancement options for
the utilisation of nitrogen-rich animal by-products in anaerobic digestion.
Bioresour Technol 2011;102:2503–10.
[77] Riaño B, Molinuevo B, García-González MC. Potential for methane production from
anaerobic co-digestion of swine manure with winery wastewater. Bioresour Technol
2011;102:4131–6.
[78] Richmond A. Handbook of microalgal culture: biotechnology and applied phycol-
ogy. Blackwell Science Ltd; 2004.
[79] Rico C, García H, Rico JL. Physical–anaerobic–chemical process for treatment of
dairy cattle manure. Bioresour Technol 2011;2011(102):2143–50.
[80] Sanchez DL, Kammen DM. A commercialization strategy for carbon-negative
energy. Nat Energy 2016;1:15002.
[81] Saber M. Designing biogas units for cleaner energy production from different
wastewater effluents. Desalin Water Treat 2016;57(12):1–7. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1080/19443994.2015.1022002.
[82] Sharma A, Unni BG, Singh HD. A novel fed-batch system for bio-methanation of
730
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 77 (2017) 718–730
plant biomasses. J Biosci Bioeng 1999;87(5):678–82.
[83] Shay EG. Diesel fuel from vegetable oils: status and opportunities. Biomass-
Bioenergy 1993;4:227–42.
[84] Sheikh MA. Renewable energy resources potential in Pakistan. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2009;13:2696–702.
[85] Singh SP, Pandey P. Review of recent advances in anaerobic packed-bed biogas
reactors. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009;13:1569–75.
[86] Singh R, Shukla A. A review on methods of flue gas cleaning from the combustion of
biomass. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;29:854–64.
[87] Singh Y. Waste biomass to energy, environment and waste management; 1 October;
〈www.wealthywaste.com/waste〉 biomass-to-energy; 2008.
[88] Singh J, Gu S. Biomass conversion to energy in India – a critique. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2010;14:1367–78.
[89] Somashekhar SP, Rao S, Ravindranath NH. Sustainable biomass production for
energy in India. Biomass- Bioenergy 2003;25:501–15.
[90] Sooch KJ. Comparative study of the economics of different models of family size
biogas plants for the state of Punjab, India. Energy Convers Manag 2004:1329–41.
[91] Srivastava RC, Pillai KR, Singh HD, Raghavan KV. Studies in the design of
anaerobic digester for water hyacinth. In: Proceedings of III International
conference on water hyacinth; p. 566–592; 1985.
[92] Subba Rao DrIV. (2005–06). General President Indian Science Congress
Association. ‘‘Presidential address'’ 93rd Indian science congress annual report; p.
12.
[93] Sudha P. Plantation forestry; land availability and bio-mass production potential in
Asia. Report submitted to ARPEEC, Sida, Energy Program, AIT, and Bangkok;
1996.
[94] Tan Z, Lagerkvist A. Phosphorus recovery from the biomass ash: a review. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:3588–602.
[95] Technology Informatics Design Endeavour (TIDE) . Bioreactor for the treatment of
organic fraction of urban municipal waste at Siraguppa [TIDE Technical Report].
Bangalore: Technology Informatics Design Endeavour; 2005.
[96] Xincheng Y. Straw is burning power plant in China. Available:( 〈http://english.cri.
cn/2906/2006/12/21/65@176617.html〉); 2006.
[97] Yousuf A, Khan MR, Pirozzi D, Wahid ZA. Financial sustainability of biogas
technology: barriers, opportunities, and solutions. Energy Sour Part B Econ Plann
Policy 2016;11(9):841–8.
[98] Zafar S. Biomass wastes, alternative energy eMagzine—AltEnergyMag.com;
August/September; 2009.