Shear failure of reinforced

concrete beams
M. D. Kotsovos

hnperial College of Science and Technology, Department o/"Civil Engineering, Imperial

College Road, London SW72BU, UK
(Received February 1985: revised May 1986)

It has been suggested in a previous work that the causes of shear

failure exhibited by reinforced concrete (RC) beams are associated
with the stress conditions in the region of the path along which
the compressive force is transmitted from support to support. The
work described in this paper presents experimental evidence sup-
porting the above concept. The work is based on a comparative
study of the behaviour of concrete beams reinforced in compliance
with this concept and that of beams reinforced in compliance with
current design procedures.

Keywords: shear failure, reinforced concrete

Codes of practice, such as C P l l 0 , ~ require structural
members to be designed so as to exhibit ductile beha-
viour, since such behaviour gives ample warning of
impending collapse. Shear failures, therefore, are unde-
sirable because of their brittle nature which allows little
or no such warning.
Current shear design procedures are based on the
assumption that shear failures occur when the shear
capacity of a critical section is exceeded. Thus, the
objective of these procedures is to realistically assess
the amount of transverse reinforcement required to
carry that portion of the shear force in excess of the
value which can be sustained by concrete alone. For
beams subjected to two-point loading, the critical sec-
tion is any section situated within the shear span (av)
and, therefore, reinforcing this span in compliance with
the current strength requirements is generally con-
sidered to safeguard against shear failure.
It has, however, been argued elsewhere, 2 that the
concept of shear capacity of a critical section is insuffi-
cient to describe the underlying causes of the observed
behaviour of RC beams, Shear failure appears to be
associated with the stress conditions in the region of
the path along which the compressive force is transmit-
ted from support to support and not with the shear capa-
city of particular sections. As a result, it has been
suggested that compliance with current design proce-
dures, although preventing shear failure, may not be
sufficient to provide adequate ductility.-"
The present work, therefore, has been aimed at pro-
viding experimental evidence to support the above argu-
ments. This evidence has been obtained from tests on
RC beams with various arrangements of transverse rein-
forcement. The beams have been subjected to two-point
loading with values of av varying between approximately
1 and 4 times the beam depth. The fundamental causes
of shear failure are discussed concisely and this discus-
sion forms the basis of a comparative study of the
strength, deformation and failure characteristics exhi-
bited by the beams tested in the programme. An under-
standing of these causes is essential for the development
of new shear design models compatible with the concept
of member rather than section design stipulated by the
CEB commission IV (Stuttgart meeting, 9 May, 1984).
Causes of shear failure
It is generally considered that the behaviour of RC
beams without transverse reinforcement is dependent
on the value of the shear span to depth (av/d) ratio.
For values of a,/d between approximately 1 and 6, such
beams are expected to fail in shear before their flexural
capacity is attained. For any other value, the beams
should attain their flexural capacity. The behaviour of
the latter beams has been the subject of previous experi-
mental work. 3
As stated elsewhere, 2 the causes of shear failure are
likely to be associated with the stress conditions in the
region of the path along which the compressive force
is transmitted to the supports after the occurrence of
diagonal cracking; an analytical description of these con-
ditions could lead to the formulation of a lower bound
criterion for failure. On the basis of this argument, the
shear modes of failure exhibited by the beams under

0141-0296/87/01032-07/ $03.00
32 Eng. Struct. 1987, Vol. 9, J a n u a r y © 1987Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd

--'-_s Path of C
II--- av I~1
;l
3_ "1 I1
c
4 8 v -I
Av
d: c
b zontal part of the compressive force path adjacent to
Figure 1 Path of compressive force, C, and combinations of
compressive and tensile, T, forces causing: (a) type 1,
av/d< 2-2.5; (b) type 2, av/d> 2-2.5
two-point loading may be broadly classified into two
types:
Type 1
This includes modes of failure which occur in beams
with avid smaller than a value between approximately
2 and 2.5. Such beams are characterized by a path of
compressive force comprising linear portions, within
both the shear and middle spans, intersecting each other
in the region of the load point (Figure l(a)). It has been
argued that, in spite of the high compressive stresses
in the region of the load point, diagonal cracking is
unlikely to lead to a crushing mode of failure since the
multiaxial compressive state of stress which exists there
will cause an increase of the local strength. 2 Instead,
the diagonal crack should branch near-horizontally to-
wards the compressive zone of the flexure span of the
beam in order to by-pass this high strength region. The
tensile stress resultant which exists at the tip of the crack
branch combined with the compressive stress resultant
due to the bending action will reduce the strength capa-
city of the compressive zone of the flexure span of the
beam. It would be the failure of this region, therefore,
that would eventually lead to collapse of the beam.
Type 2
This includes the shear modes of failure which occur
in beams with avid larger than a value of between
approximately 2 and 2.5. Such beams are characterized
by a path of compressive force consisting of two linear
portions within the shear span, connected in the region
of the tip of the diagonal crack (Figure l(b)). This
change in the direction of the compressive force gener-
ates, for equilibrium purposes, a tensile stress resultant,
intersecting the obtuse angle of the linear portions,
which is superimposed on the tensile force existing near
the tip of the diagonal crack. Failure occurs when the
capacity of the region to sustain the combined compres-
sion-tension stress field is exceeded.
Shear failure o f RC beams: M. D. Kotsovos
.,_ Path of C
I
Figure2 Effectof transverse reinforcement on path of compres-
sive force, C, in shear span of beam with av/d> 2
It should be noted, however, that the presence of
shear forces inevitably gives rise, for equilibrium pur-
poses, to an inclined tensile force within the near-hori-
the load point. There is no experimental evidence to
suggest that the above tensile force can cause failure
and the reason for this appears to be the triaxial stress
conditions which have always been found to exist within
the compressive zone. 3 As discussed for the case of RC
beams in flexure, 3 the compressive zone in the region
of cross-sections including deep web cracks is subjected
to a triaxial compressive state of stress. A part of the
vertical component of this compressive state of stress
counteracts the tensile stresses which develop in the pre-
sence of shear forces and, hence, the combined stress
conditions remain compressive.
Transverse reinforcement
The effect of transverse reinforcement placed within the
shear span of the beams is to delay or even prevent
a shear mode of failure within this span. Furthermore,
for avid > 2, an additional effect may be that the angle
between the longitudinal axis of the beam and the por-
tion of the compressive path within the shear span near
the load point increases from an initial near-zero value
(Figure l(b)) to a considerably larger value (Figure 2). ~
Such behaviour may induce a wedge-like action in the
region of the load point which should cause failure of
the compressive zone of the flexure span, where the
state of stress is essentially uniaxial, rather than the
region of the load point where a triaxial compressive
state of stress exists. 2,4 It should be noted that such fail-
ure is similar to those classified above as type 1 shear
failures and may be brittle since it may occur before
the full flexural capacity of the beam is exceeded.
It would appear, therefore, that although current
shear design procedures may guard against diagonal fail-
ure of the shear span, they may not necessarily lead
to a ductile type of behaviour that gives adequate warn-
ing of impending structural collapse.
Experimental programme
The present work is concerned with an attempt to obtain
experimental verification of the concepts described in
the preceding section regarding the causes of shear fail-
ure. The work is based on a comparative study of the
behaviour of concrete beams reinforced in accordance
with these concepts and that of similar beams reinforced
in accordance with the code requirements.
Eng. Struct. 1987, Vol. 9, J a n u a r y 33
Shear failure o f RC beams: M. D. Kotsovos

av/d 0.8

0 V
<2 >2 ~" 0.6
I
_l E
51 51
Z
0.4

0.2

I ,, 450
l t2 0 J I 1 I t
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
I- : I Beam Strain (mm rn- 1)

Figure 4 Stress-strain characteristics of tension reinforcement

i A

I 2~3 I Ii • beam A--without transverse reinforcement

• beam B--with transverse reinforcement within the
I(lll I I I
1
.]
'
shear span only
• beam C--with transverse reinforcement throughout
I ~I0 [ beam span
• beam D--with transverse reinforcement within the
Kllllllllil'll i flexure span in the region of the load points only
• Beam E--with transverse reinforcement as for beam
D, but with additional top longitudinal reinforcement
t, D
throughout the shear span
Beams A and B, with av/d = 2.25 and 3. and beam
• l
i I, C, in all cases, had top longitudinal reinforcement
I throughout their length. The transverse reinforcement
consisted of closed hoops of 3 mm diameter mild steel
[(ll Illl with f~ = 250 N mm-2 and spacing (Sv) of approximately
40 turn. The top longitudinal bars used to form the rein-
forcement cage had characteristics similar to those of
the transverse reinforcement.
Figure3 Details of beams tested: dimensions in mm
The beams used to investigate type 1 behaviour had
two tension bars, whereas those used to investigate type
2 behaviour had three bars. Beams D and E were only
used to investigate type I behaviour.
Table I Details of concrete used in tests
Testing
Proportions by weight
Load was applied in increments of approximately 0.5 kN
Ordinary Portland cement 1 through a hydraulic ram and spreader beam supported
Coarse sand (with 5 mm aggregate) 2.07 by loading plates of 20ram x 51ram placed with the
Fine sand 0,89
0.67 smaller dimension along the length of the beam. Similar
Total water
Cube strength at time of testing (N mm 2) 45 plates were used at the supports as shown in Figure
Age attesting (mortth) 2 3. At each increment, the load was maintained at a con-
stant value for approximately 15 s in order to measure
the load and the deformation response of the beams.
The load was measured by using a load cell and the
RC beams deformation response by displacement transducers
The beams tested in the programme were under-rein- (LVDT) measuring the deflection at the tensile face of
forced, 1000ram long with a 900ram span and 102ram both the middle and the loaded sections of the beams.
height × 51 mm width cross-section (Figure 3). Details The load and deflections were recorded using a Hewlett
of the concrete mix used are given in Table I. In all Packard computer-logger measuring to a sensitivity of
cases, the tension reinforcement consisted of 6 mm dia- _+0.1 N and ±0.0001 ram, respectively.
meter deformed bars with a yield stress ( f 0 of 570N
mm -2. The bars were bent back at the ends of the beams Results of tests
and anchored within the compressive zone. The stress-
strain characteristics of the steel bars used are shown The main results of the tests, together with information
in Figure 4. necessary for their interpretation, are given in Tables
The a,/d ratios investigated were approximately 1.5 2 and 3 and Figures 5-10. Tables 2 and 3 give the Mad-
(Type 1 behaviour), 2.25 and 3 (type 2 behaviour). Two carrying capacity of the beams tested in the programme,
beams were tested for each a~/d. Depending on the while Figures 5, 8 and 9 show the failure modes exhibited
transverse reinforcement, the beams tested were classi- by the beams with values of av/d of 1.5, 2.25 and 3.0,
fied as follows (Figure3): respectively. Typical load-deflection relationships for

34 E n g . S t r u c t . 1987, V o l . 9, J a n u a r y
 Shear failure o f RC b e a m s : M. D. Kotsovos

Figure 5 Typical mode of failure exhibited by beams without transverse reinforcement with av/d = 1.5

Table 2 Load-carrying capacity of beams with av/ d = 1.5

1.0 ' K
. m
Maximum load Maximum
P (kN) load
-I

0.8 Measured/
oo
Beam Measured Calculated* Calculated
x
A 35 40.8 0.86
"- 0.6 B 41.5 40.8 1.02
C 41.5 43 0.97
0 D 40 40.8 0.98
-~ 0.4 E 26 43 0.61
* Corresponding to flexural capacity

~ 0.2
0
.J

0 I I 1 I Table 3 Load-carrying capacity of beams with a v / d > 2

0 5 10 15 20 25
Maximum load Maximum
Deflection (ram) (kN) load
Figure 6 Load-deflection relationships of beams B, C, D with Measured/
av/d= 1.5: (--) beam B; ( - - - ) beam C; (- - -) beam D av/d Measured Calculated* Calculated
Beam A

Path of 2.25 21.4 41 0.52

3 16.4 30 0.55
C
Beam B
~ - J Cc
2.25 40 41 0.98
3 30 30 1
£ Beam C
2.25 43 41 1.05
3 31 30 1.04

[4 av P-IV Cs * Corresponding to flexural capacity

C
Figure 7 Effect of top longitudinal reinforcement on path of
compressive force, C, within shear span: Cs is the compressive
force transmitted by compression reinforcement and Cc the path
of C in the absence of top reinforcement
the beams tested are shown in Figures 6 and 10 where,
for comparison purposes, the load is expressed in a form
normalized with respect to the maximum load sustained
by the beams calculated on the basis of the beam fiexural
capacity. Finally, Figure 7 indicates the effect of top
longitudinal reinforcement on the path of the compres-
sive force within the shear span.
Discussion o f results
Beams with a,/ d < 2
On the basis of the concept of 'shear capacity of a critical
section', beams A and D must have a similar load-carry-
ing capacity, since their shear span is without transverse
reinforcement, and yet, Table 2 indicates that beam D
has a load-carrying capacity significantly larger than that
of beam A. Furthermore, the load-carrying capacity of
beam D is essentially equal to that of beams B and
C, for which the shear span is reinforced in compliance
with the code design provisions. The above behaviour
indicates that transverse reinforcement placed within
the flexure span in the region of load points can be
as effective as transverse reinforcement placed within
the shear span. Since the shear force within the flexure
span is zero, the failure of the beams cannot be asso-
ciated with the concept of 'shear capacity of a critical
section'.

E n g . S t r u c t . 1987, V o l . 9, J a n u a r y 35
 Shear failure o f RC beams: M. D. Kotsovos
I-igure 8 Modes of failure exhibited by beams with av/d= 2.25: from top to bottom, beams A, B, C, respectively
Figure 9 Modes of failure exhibited by beams with av/d= 3: from top to bottom, beams A, B, C, respectively
The failure mode shown in Figure _5 indicates that,
as discussed in a previous section, the cause of the beam
failure is associated with the fact that the diagonal crack,
which forms at an earlier load, does not penetrate into
the region of the load point and cause crushing of this
region as is generally considered. 5 Instead, it by-passes
the region of the load point and causes failure of the
compressive zone of the flexure span. Placing transverse
reinforcement within the flexure span prevents the
extension of the diagonal cracks and leads to a signifi-
cant increase of the load-carrying capacity.
Similarly, placing transverse reinforcement within the
shear span also prevents the extension of the diagonal
crack and, thus, has a similar effect on the load-carrying
capacity. Furthermore, placing transverse reinforce-
ment throughout the beam span ha~¢he additional effect
of significantly improving ductility (Figure 6).
The above results described regarding transverse rein-
forcement on the load-carrying capacity and ductility
36 Eng. Struct. 1987, Vol. 9, J a n u a r y
of RC beams with av/d< 2 are compatible with those
predicted by finite element analysis in a previous work. ~'
It is interesting to note in Table 2 that the presence
of top longitudinal reinforcement within the shear span
of beams without transverse reinforcement (beam E)
causes a significant reduction of load-carrying capacity.
The cause of such behaviour appears to be associated
with the shape of the path along which the compressive
force is transmitted from support to support. For beams
with av/d < 2 and without compression reinforcement,
the portion of this path within the shear span is linear
(Figure 1 (a)).2
The presence of top longitudinal reinforcement
changes the shape of the path from linear to curvilinear,
since a portion of the compressive force is transmitted
by the top longitudinal reinforcement (Figure 7). Such
a shape of path gives rise to tensile stresses in the ortho-
gonal direction which lead to failure at an earlier load
stage. Failure occurs within the shear span and, as a
 Shear failure o f RC beams: M. D. Kotsovos

to indicate that the collapse occurred before the beams

attained their flexural capacity. In contrast to this beha-
1.0 viour, the beams with transverse reinforcement through-
out their length collapsed after they had suffered con-
0.8
siderable flexural cracking. This behaviour is considered
to be the cause of the considerably larger ductility exhi-
O
av/d= 2.25 bited by the beams with transverse reinforcement
E
0.6 throughout their length (Figure 10). Furthermore, it
E

Ex
"10 0.4
Softening branch
should be noted that, while these beams are also charac-
terized by a gradually descending post-peak load deflec-
tion relationship, those with transverse reinforcement
O Yes
_J only within the shear span suffered a complete and
x No
0.2
immediate loss of load-carrying capacity as soon as a
peak level was attained. This supports the argument
that placing transverse reinforcement within the shear
0 I I | I I span only may be inadequate for providing sufficient
0 5 10 15 20 25 ductility.2 Since the nominal reinforcement specified by
Deflection (mm)
current codes of practice may be inadequate to safe-
guard against the failure of the compressive zone exper-
ienced by the beams tested in this programme, it is
recommended that the reinforcement of the shear span
be extended by at least a length equal to the beam depth
1.0 d beyond this span.
In addition to the considerable improvement in duc-
0.8 tility, Figure 10 indicates that transverse reinforcement
0
throughout the beam length also resulted in a small but
E
finite increase of the load-carrying capacity of the
av/d = 3 beams. This increase appears unlikely to be due to an
0.6
enhancement of the compressive strength of concrete
caused by the confining effect of the transverse rein-
0.4 forcement. This is because the transverse reinforcement
0
_.1 spacing is significantly larger than the depth of the com-
pressive zone and it has been suggested that such spacing
cannot lead to an increase of the concrete strength. ~°
°'ii I I 1 I I
Instead, it is considered that the amount of transverse
reinforcement used merely reduced the detrimental
0 5 10 15 20 25 effect of transverse tensile stresses on the load-carrying
Deflection (mm)
capacity of the compressive zone. As shown in previous
Figure 10 Load-deflection relationships of beams B, C with
work, 3 significant tensile stresses invariably develop
avid>2 within the compressive zone of the flexure span when
the beam is subjected to load levels approaching its load-
carrying capacity.
result, in contrast to the behaviour of beams without
top longitudinal reinforcement, placing transverse rein-
forcement only within the flexure span is ineffective. Conclusions
• For avid < 2, the load-carrying capacity and deforma-
Beams with av/d > 2 tional characteristics of RC beams with transverse
Figures 8 and 9 show the effect of transverse reinforce- reinforcement within the flexure span are similar to
ment on the failure mode of beams with avid equal to those of beams with transverse reinforcement within
2.25 and 3, respectively. As expected, the beams with- the shear span.
out transverse reinforcement suffered a diagonal failure • The above behaviour is compatible with the concept
of their shear span. that the causes of shear failure are associated with
Placing transverse reinforcement only within the the stress conditions in the region of the path along
shear span delayed the occurrence of diagonal cracking which the compressive force is transmitted from sup-
in all eases. Collapse occurred due to failure of the com- port to support and not with the shear capacity of
pressive zone of the flexure span in the region of the critical sections.
load point. This mode of failure is similar to those • For a given av/d < 2, the presence of top longitudinal
observed in previous investigations of the behaviour of reinforcement appears to considerably reduce the
reinforced7'8 and prestressed 9 concrete beams. The load-carrying capacity of RC beams without trans-
occurrence within the middle span of inclined web verse reinforcement. This is considered to occur
cracks and horizontal cracks along the tension reinforce- because the presence of such reinforcement trans-
ment is a post-failure phenomenon which is not typical forms the shape of the path of compressive force into
of a bending failure. a shape that characterizes a beam with a larger avid.
Figures 8 and 9 indicate that a characteristic feature The shape of this path, therefore, appears to be the
of the above mode of failure is the absence of significant underlying cause of the dependence of the beam
flexural cracking. Such behaviour may be considered behaviour on a,./d.

Eng. Struct. 1987, Vol. 9, January 37

Shear failure of RC beams: M. D. Kotsovos
• Transverse reinforcement within the shear span only
does not necessarily result in adequate ductility.
Extending this reinforcement within the flexure span
improves ductility considerably.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Messrs. A. Papamakarios
and S. Pavlou who carried out the experiments and Dr
M. Pavlovic who reviewed the paper and made valuable
comments.
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