P RO T E CT I V E RE L AY S

T HE I R T HE O RY , D E S I G N ,
AN D

P RA C T I C A L OP E RA T I ON

V I C T OR H . TODD
DE I NIN
S G G AND HA U A I UBI N G
N P O' ‘
E E C RI
L T CA L E INEE R
NG

W E S ING HO US E E E CT RI C
T L C MA NU F A CT U RI NG CO .

n m n A. I . I . I .

l '
sr E DI T I O N
F O U RT H I M P RE S S I O N

M c G RA W -
HI LL BOO K C O M P AN Y ,
INC
.

N E W Y O RK : 370 S E VE N T H A VE N UE
L O N D ON : 6 a 8 BO UV E RI E S T .
, E . O 4
.

1 922
 C O P Y RI G HT , 1 922 , BY T HE

M C G RA W -HI L L BO O K C O M P A N Y , I N c .

P RI N T E D I N T HE UN I TE D STATE S OF AM E RI C A

T HE M A P L E P RE S S Y O RK P A
 l

} w a s. P RE F A C E

In preparing a work Of this nat ur e it will be realized that t he ,

s ubj ect i s so broad and varied in i t s s cope as to preclude an

author s intimate personal knowledge Of each and every system

’

de scribed A ttempt has been made t o cover the s ubj ect from
.

the first principle s Of P rotective Relays to the protection Of

high tension net works the Obj ect being t o make the work Of
-
,

value not only to the operator and te s ter who has a fair kn owledge
Of electricity and i s s eeking more information but al so to the ,

designer Of the system who may fin d many points not previousl y

taken into con sideration in h i s calculation s .

Q C on sequently many reliable sourc es Of information were

,

5; freely con sulted and in several in stance s passage s were quoted ,

El verbatim from a booklet entitled P erformance Of In strument

“

and from P rotective Relays which in t ur n

” “”
T ransformers
w as reprinted from an article by M r L N C richton in The . . .

E lectr i c J ou r n al F ul l credit i s hereby given to the We sting

.

house E lectric M an u facturing C ompany for such excerpts ;

al so to the A merican Institute Of E lectrical E ngineers for several
paragraphs quoted from i t s J une 1 9 1 9 P r oceedi n gs , ,
.

S ome Of thi s material has been publi shed in the form Of art icle s
by the author in P ow er P ow er P lan t E n gi n eeri n g E lectri cal Recor d
7
0
and S ou ther n E n gi n eer and thank
,

s are hereby given to their

,
,

9
7 editors for permi ssion to u s e the text and electr o type s for
-

7
illus tration s .

T he author al s o wi shes to extend hi s thanks and appreciation

2
9 to M r F A A nnett Ass ociate E ditor Of P ow er for per sonal
. . .
, ,

3
intere s t and a ssi s tance in the preparation Of the work ; t o M r .

—
L N C richton Relay E ngineer Of the We s tinghouse E lectric
. .
,
3
M anuf acturing C ompany and writer Of several article s ,

fro m which much valuable information w as Obtained who ,

kindly read thi s manus cript and off ered many helpfu l su gg es
,

tions and con structive criticism s ; and to Offi cial s Of the We stin g
hou se E lectric M anufacturing C ompany the G eneral E lectric ,

C ompany and the C ondit E lectric C ompany for valuable assi s ,

tance in procuring phot ograph s for illu strations .

VI CT O R H T O DD . .

S UM M I T , N J ,. .

December, 1 92 1 .
 C ON T E N T S
P AGE

P RE F AC E

C HA P T E R I

W HAT A RE P RO T E CT I V E RELAYS ?
E ar l y S ys tems —
F ir e Ris ks —
I ns u l ated F u s es —
O bj ections Au to —

m at i c S w i t ch es —
D efin i t i on —

Reas on s f or Rel ays —

Requ ir em en ts
S avin g s —

P r i n ci l es p Of Oper ation —
N om en cl atu r e .

C HA P T E R I I

C I RC U I T BREA K ERS A N D RELEAS ES

C l as s es P r i n ci pl es
—
Of O p er ati on —

A dj u s t m en t - S h u n t-tr i p
Attac h m en t —

Un derl oad Rel eas e —

Un der vol tag e Rel eas e —
O ver
vol tag e Rel eas e —
Wh y Rel eas es ar e n ot Al w ays S u ffi ci en t .

C HA P T E R I I I

T RI P C I RC U I T S A N D T I M E D ELAYS .

O bj ect O f T r i p T r i p C ir cu i t S ou r ces —
S h u n t Tr i p
— —
Au xil i ar y
C on t act s —

Cir cu i t Op eni n g or S er i es T r i p O bj ec t i ons

— —
T r an s f er
Rel ays —
Time D el ays —
C l as s ifi cat i on s —
I n vers e-t i m e Li m i t
D efin i t e T i m e —
I n vers e defin i te
—
Tim e —
How Ti m e D el ays ar e

Obtai n ed .

C HA P T E R I V

P L U NG ER-T Y P E P R OT ECTI VERELAYS

Var i ous F or ms A dj us tm en ts M or e F or ms D efin i te ti m e
— — —
—

Rel ay Bell ow s t ype O b j ecti ons S i m pl e S ystem

-
T ypi cal
A C P l u n g er type Il l us tr at i on O f S et t in g Rel ays Requ ir ed
. .
- — —

M or e Bel low s T ypes O il D as h pot T ypes — —

Li m i tations —
D efin i t e
ti m e Tr i ppi n g Sou r ces
—
.

C HA P TE R V

C P O W ER-D I RE CT I ON AL RELAYS
. .

N ecess i t y Of th is T ype D Arson val

’
—
T ype —
Us ed as E xcess
cu r r en t Rel ay —
P ol ar i z ed T yp e —
M ovin g I r on T yp e —
Bus bar
T ypes .
 C HAP T E R VI

AP P LI C ATI ONS or D C P O W E R-DI RECTI ONA L RE L AY S

.

Li mi tat ions to Use— S to r ag e Batter y P rotection Other M eth ods —

—
S t an dby Batteri es Fail u r e Of P r i m e M overs Loss O f F i el d P r o
— —

t ect ion P ar all el F eeders on D C

—
Rin g S ystem on D C W i der .
—
. . .
—

A ppli cation s Un der cu r r en t P r otecti on Overvol tag e P r otection

— —

—
Un dervol tag e P r otection .

C HAP T E R VI I

I NDU CTI ON-T Y P E C URRE NT RELAYS

Devel op m en t T ypi cal Rel ay S ettin g s T or qu e
—
om pens ato r — —
C
Ti m e Del ays Con tin u ity Of T r i p I n di cator I n du ct i on vs S ol e
— —

n oi d-plu n g er Rel ays —

Rel ay Con tacts —
Load on Tr ans f or m er
Rel ay S peci fications .

C HAP TE R VI I I

A C P O W ER-D I RECT I ON AL RELAYS

. .

E arly develop m en t M ost Comm on Use O ver l oad an d Re verse

— —

curr en t Rel ays O bj ecti ons an d F ail in g s

—
Lat es t D evel op m en ts —

The Con tactor S w i tch Th e T or qu e Com pen s ator S t r ay F i eld — —

E fi ect Oth er T ypes D ifi er en t ial P ow er -dir ection al Re l ay

— —

C HAP T E R I X

C HARACT E RI STI C S or AC . D I S T U RRA N C E S

I m por tan t P oin ts E fi ects Over load N atu r e Of S h or t -cir cu i ts
Of
'
— —

on T rans m iss ion Li n es C al cu l at ion Of t he S h or t -cir cu i t C u rr en t

—
Altern ator T r ans f or m er Con stan ts E ff ect O f Lo w Vol tag e
an d —

—
E fi ect Of Un balan ced S h or t-cir cu i ts C h ar acter is ti cs Of Re l ays —
.

C HA P T E R X

I NST R UM E NT T RA NS F O R M ERS G RO UP I NGS AND .

C u r r en t an d Vol t ag e Tr ans f or m ers I n her en t E rrors Ra tio r r or — —

E
M ag n eti z ation Of Co re E fi ec t of S econ dar y Lo ad O th er
'
— — —

S ou rces Of E rror S in g l e-ph as e G rou pin g s T w o-phas e G r ou pin g s

— —

—
N ecess i t y f or Th r ee Tr ans f or m ers on Th r ee-ph as e A dvan tag es —

Of t h e Z-con n ect ion O pen in g O f S econ dar y Vol tag e T r an s

— —

tor m ers Var iou s E rr ors P ol yph as e G rou pin g s Lo ad on T r an s

— — —

f O rm ers Us e O f Both Cu rr en t an d P oten ti al T r ans f or m ers

—

C onn ections to W att Rel ay S tar -del ta Co n n ection D eter m i n — —

in g P h ase Ro tat ion .

 CON TE N TS

C HA PT E R XI

P ROTE CTI O N or M OT ORS, T RAN SF O RM E RS, G E N E RATO RS AN D LI NE S

P rotecti on of M otors S ettin g s T w o-phas e P rotection Thr ee — — —

p h ase P ro tection P rotecti on Of S yn chronous M oto rs P ro teo

— —

tion of Rotary Converters Transf ormer P rotecti on Protecti on — —

i n Banks P Ow er -dir ection al Rel ay P rotection Other D ifl er en ti al

'
— —

M ethods P ol yph as e T r ansf or m er P rotections P r otectin g T h r ee

— —

phase S tar -del ta Ban ks P rotecti on of G ener ators P rotection by — —

P ow er -dir ection al Rel ays P rotection Of S ing l e Lin es Protection — —

Ag ainst G rou n ds .

C HA P T E R XI I
P RO T ECTI ON or P ARAL LEL F EE DE RS .

O bj ects Var ious —

M eth ods I n vers e-ti m e-li m i t Discr rmm at ion —

—
Bal an ced P rotection S ystem D ifi eren t i al Bal an ce Rel ay —

P rotection S pli t-con du cto r S ys tem Th e P ilot W ir e S ystem

— —

P r otection by P 0 w er -di r ection al Relays Cross -conn ected P ow er —

di r ecti on al Rel ays D ifi er en t ial P ow er-d ir ection al or Dou bl e—

con tact R elays Dis advantag es of Cross-conn ected S ys tems

—
.

C HA P TE R XI I I

P ROT E CTI O N or RAD I AL RI N G A N D N ETW O RK S YST E M S

S i m ple Ra di al S ys tem S electin g th e P roper Relay Li m i t O f — —

D i vis ions Th e Ri n g S ys tem Ti m e Setti n g s P ar al lel F eeders

— — —

on Rin g —
Rin g s w it h M or e th an On e S ou r ce —
P rotection Of

N et w or ks —
T he Un dervoltag e an d E xcess-cu rr en t S ys tem .

C HA P T E R XI V

M I SCELLA N E O US RE LA YS .

Over an d Un der vol tag e Un der cu rren t O verl oad e eg r aph — —

Tl
Re versed P has es S er vi ce-res tor in g Rel ays I n ter estin g Os cil lo
— —

g r a m s —
B ell -r in in
g g Relays D C Tem per atu r e Rel ays A O —
.
—
.

T em per atur e Rel ays Rel ay S w i tch es Tr ans f er Rel ays Hig h — — —

tens ion Relays T im in g Rel ays w i th a Cycle Cou n ter P r in ci

— —

p l e Of Cycle Co un ter Ti mi n g a C cu i t clos in g Relay T i m in g a

i r - — —

C i r cu i t -O pen in g Rel ay Ti mi n g t he Br eaker or Oil S w i tc h —

T ypi cal Layou t .

C HA P T E R X V

T E STI NG D I RECT-CURRE NT RELAYS

G rou n d testin g - —
T es tin g Relay
S w i tch es Var I ous Loads an d —

T es ti n g Sou r ces T es tin g M i ll i volt-type Rel ays T es tin g P l un

— —

g er -t p
y e R e l ays T es ti n g T i m e-l i mi t Re l ays C—
u r ves an d —

T abl es C on clus ions

—
.
xii CON TE N TS

C HAP T E R X VI

T EST I NG A LTE RN ATI NG CU RRE NT RELAYS -

Reas ons f or T es tin g Rel ays Re qu I r m g Cu rr en t Onl y Sou r ces

—
—

Rh eos tats P h an to m Lo ads S tan dar ds C u r r en t Tr an sf or m ers

— — —

—
Tri p Cir cu i ts T i mi n g th e Rel ay A n A ctu al T es t Th e C ycle
— — —

C ou n ter M aki n g t he A dj u s tm en t A ddi tion al P r ecau ti ons

— —

T es tin g Voltag e Rel ays P O w ar -dir ection al Relays Revers e

— —

ph as e Rel ays T em per atu r e Rel ays Conclus ion

— —
.

C HAP T E R X VI I

LO C ATI NG F AU LT S I N F EE D ERS A N D W I R I NG
M ost Com m on F au l ts A ppar atus Requ i r ed T es tin g f or Opens ,
— —

S h or ts or G rou n ds A ccu r ately Lo cat i n g t h e S h or t-cir cu i t

—

Local i z i n g a G r ou n d C alcu l atin g t h e Lo c at io n T w o-am m eter

— —

M eth od—
Th e F au l t Lo cal i z er L an d N P ow er Br i dg e Bu r n i n g
— —

ou t th e F au lt .

I N DE x
 P RO T E C T I V E RE L A Y S
C HAP T E R I

W HAT ARE P RO TE CTI VE RE LAYS

When the firs t electric generators were built and in stalled ,

no provi sion w as made for di s connecting them automatically

from the l ine s i n c ase of trouble such as overload or short
circuits T hi s w as overlooked for t w o reas on s : ( 1 ) It w as not
.

considered detrimental to have service interrupted as the ,

electric sys tem w as more or le ss a novelty and in the ex

p er i m en t al s tage,
and ( 2 ) the de s ign of generators and prime
movers w as such that in case Of heavy overload either the
prime mover would st ep or the belt fly Off or the voltage drop
, ,

so low that no electrical damage could be done .

However as the mechanical and electrical de sign Of genera

,

tors and p r ime movers w as gradually improved it w as noticed ,

that in the event Of a heavy overload the increased current ,

would burn out the weake st s pot in the system ; s ometime s

this w as in the armature sometime s in the wiring and s ometimes
,

in the switche s N aturally the re sult w as to insert intentionally

.

a weak s pot at some convenient point in the system by con ,

n ect i n g a piece Of wire much s m aller than the main wire s SO ,

that when the overload occurred thi s wire would burn out ,

and then the operator knew ju st where to g O an d look for trouble

when the power went Off T hi s w as the first fu se
. .

In stalling the fin e wirin g near inflammable material led to

another trouble ; i e fir e ri sk as during a heavy short circuit
. .
, ,
-
,

the wire w as melted and the red hot metal thrown violently
,
-

in all directions .

T he remedy w as to e n clo se the fu se in an in sulating non

i n flamm abl e tube to prevent fire s and al so to provide fuse block s
,

and clips so that the fuse s could be replaced easily in case of

an overload blowing them out .
2 P RO TE C TI VE REL A Y S

E ven t oday , t here i s ot her pi e ce of appar at us w hich

no

can excel a pro perly de signed fuse f or reli abilit y , an d n o matter

what other prot ective apparatus i s in stalled as wil l be de s cribed ,

l ater , there i s hardly an in stal lation w hich d oe s n ot h ave fuses

as an ab s olute g uarant ee of protection agai n st heavy overload s ,

sh ou l d t h e ot her prot ect ive appar atu s f ai l .

Objecti on s T he g reatest Obj ect ion t o fuse s w as the main

—
.

t en an ce co st or cost Of replacement as every t ime a fu se blew

, ,

out it meant a new fu se , and as t he cu rr ent capacity Of the system

,

went up every new fu se meant considerable money N ot

,
.

only that but it took some time t o locate and replace a fuse
,

and be side s if a new fuse were not immediately at hand there

, , ,

w as a severe temptation to u se a convenient piece of copper or

s older wire t o complete the circuit
-
thu s again introducing a
,

a hazard T hi s improper replacement of fu se s i s one Of the

.

deepest rooted evils in the electrical industry and i s alone

-

’
res pon sible for t hou sands upon thousands of dollars worth
of dam age by fire every year in addition to t he burni ng out
,

Of many motors generators and other apparatu s

,
.

In order t o eliminate this replacement expense as we l l as ,

to re store service in a minimum of time it w as found nece ssary ,

to develop an automatic switch which would open the

circuit in the event of t rouble T his w as the forerunner .

Of the pre sent circui t breaker T here were man y types de

.

vel oped and succe ssfully u sed but the principle s and the O b j ect s
,

accomplished were all the s ame ; a coil carrying the main curren t
w as arranged to either attract an armature f as tened to the
switch blade and thu s open the switch directly or to attrac t ,

an armature which in t urn released a s pring thus allowing ,

the spring to open t he switch .

F rom the foregoing it woul d appear t hat t he problem Of pro

t ect i on w as solved Bu t prot ection w as n ot the only de sirable
.

feature ; cu stomers demanded continu ous service and man y

time s an inter ruption w as caused only by a t ransient short
circuit ; for instance a wire or tool dropped acro ss a switch
, ,

immediately falling Off or burni ng out It w as not nece ss ary .

for t he breaker to open as t he overload di sappeared al mo st

immediat ely and if the breaker had not ope n ed service would ,

have continued u ni nterru pted I n othe r w ords t he circuit

.
,
 WHA T A RE P RO TE C TI VE RE LA YS 3

breaker had no di s crimi nating re as oni ng or,

thinking “

power T his led t o the develo pm ent Of the protective relay

. .

P r ot ecti ve Rel ays The protective relay i s an electrical

—

instrument generally accurat e , sensitive rugged and reliable

, ,

i n constru ction interpo sed between the main circuit and the
,

circuit breaker in such a manner that any abnormality in the

circ u it acts on the relay which in turn after the proper di s
, ,

crimination of the magnitude and characteri s tic of the ab

normality cau se s other app aratu s such as a circuit breaker
,

to function and relieve or protect the circuit and apparatu s .

T he great need of adequate protection and continuou s service

under all condition s has gradually cau sed the crude type s Of
re l ays Of a few years ago which sometime s gave protection under
,

spe cial conditions but Often failed at the critical moment ,

to be developed into pre sent day type s which are built with
-
,

the accuracy Of a watt hour meter and can be depended upon

-

in practically all conceivable case s Of electrical di stre ss .

In alternating current system s the need Of continuity Of

-
,

service i s s o great that the line s mu s t be kept alive until there

i s no chance O f the dis turbance clearing itself In some states .

the public utility boards require an explanation Of each and every

’
interruption that occurs in an operating company s service
as well as a report of the step s taken to prevent i t s recurre n ce .

M any power plants and factory managements have required

in the pas t duplicate supply line s so that their power supply ,

would not be interrupted in case Of trouble on other p arts of

the system Others have maintained st and by plants ready
.
-

to assume the load in case Of electrical trouble .

A s a typical example of how protective relays have eliminated

this nece ssity one Operating company had as many as 25 i n
,

t er ru pt i on s a year but after making an inte lligent survey Of

,

the system a few change s were made in the sectionalizing

,

apparatu s and accurate re l ays in st alled which reduced t he

interruptions to about one annually although the system ,

su ffered not le ss than 1 00 short circuit s per year from variou s

-

cau se s
.

T he relays in stantly sectionalize and i solate a defective

li n e or piece Of apparatu s without di sturbing the re st Of the
sys tem . T hi s allow s spare lines to be u sed co n tinually and t he ,
4 P RO TE C T] VE RE L A Y S
'

gre at savi ng an d economy of copper will Often finan ce t l

inst all ation Of relays .

Like a S ilent sentine l the protective relay stan ds on g uar

,

on t he l ine s day and night summer and win ter ready 1

, , ,

de tec t trouble ins tantly to determ ine if it i s seri ou s en ou g

,

t o o pen the circuit and if so t o di s connect faulty appar atI

, , ,

or sectionali ze defective l ine s with alm o st human i n t el li g en t

an d more than human accuracy .

A t p re sent the protective relays are SO s peciali zed an d hi g h]

,

developed that t here is practically no electrical defec t or al

n ormal condi tion On a line that can not be detected by a rela
and t he ci rcuit protected against it E xce ss curren t ( g en erall .

called under current over voltage under vol t agt -

,
-
,

over an d under w at t age reverse c u rrent or power hig h or 10

- ‘

, ,

frequency hi gh or low temperatu re reverse phase s an d n u m eJ

, , ,

ous other condition s which may occur all can be det ect ed b ,

a su itable relay
. .

P ri n ci pl es of O per ati on A s electricity i s an intan g ible sem i

—

t hing which can n ot be meas u red like wat er or g as w e m m ,

detect i t s pre sence and characteri s ti cs by the e ff ect i t produ ce:

T he e ff ects are four in n u m ber : chemical change s hea t m agn e1 , ,

i sm an d static attraction A lthough elect i cal i n di cati n

r .
-

instruments have been made to O perat e on all t hese vari ou

e ff ects yet practically all protective relays de pe n d on the m ag
,

netic e ff ect Of an electric cur rent for th eir operation .

T he three main principle s used are ( 1 ) the D A rson val pri t

’

ci pl e uti lizing a moving coil reacting on a perman en t m ag n et

,

( ) lenoid and pl nger type utilizing the uc k i fl

'

2 t h e s o u s n g e ec ,

Of an energized solenoid on an iro n plunger and ( 3 ) t he i n du t ,

t ion type utilizing the s ame pri n ciple as employed i n i n du t

,

tion motors and watt ho u r mete rs Various relays O per at i n

-
.

on the se principle s will be considered in det ail on f ol l ow in

pages .

N O M E N CL ATURE

Asrelay development has been a g rad u al evolut i on , m an '

fir m s developing a certain relay to overcome their par t i cu la

trouble s it will be readily apparent why the re s hou l d be su e]
,

a wide variation in the nomenclatu re thro u ghou t t he cou n try

 WHA T A RE P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S 5

In an efi ort t o standardize and har monize the nomenclature

of protective relays t he P rotective D evice s C ommittee Of the
A I E E recommended the fol lowing term s :
. . . .

P rotecti ve Relay A n intermediate electrical i n strument

—

by m ean s of which one circuit i s i ndirectly controlled by a change

in conditions in the same or other circ u i t s T he relay i s gener .

all y equipped with contacts whi ch are clo sed or opened mechan

i call y by a change on one circuit and these contacts in t u rn

close or open an auxiliary circuit electrically .

Di r ecti onal Relay A n y relay which function s in conform

.
—

ance wi th the direction Of power or voltage or current or phas e ,

rot ation etc

,
.

P o er di r ecti onal Relay

w - A n y relay w hich function s in con
—

f or m an ce with direction of power T hi s incl u des both uni .

di rectional relays with single contacts and duo d i rectional -

rel ays wi th double contacts T hi s term i s to be preferred .

“ ” ” “
to r everse power or reverse current relays becau se this
type is frequently u sed to function under normal direction
of power . F urthermore in some cas e s the normal condition
, ,

Of the sys tem may permit power to flow in either di rection .

P olar i ty dir ecti onal Relay

- A n y relay which function s by —

reas on of change in polarity .

P has e r otati o n Re l ay
- A n y relay which functio n s by reas on
.
—

Of a reve rs al of the n ormal direction of phase rotation .

Curren t Re l ay .A n y relay which function s at a predetermined

—

val ue Of the current T hes e may be either over current relays

.
-

”
or under c urrent relays and are commonly called overload “
-

and underload relays .

Vol tag e Re l ay A n y relay which functions at a predetermined

—

value Of the voltage T he se may be either over voltage relays

.
-

or under voltage relays

-
.

W att Relay A n y relay which function s at predetermined

.

value Of the watts T hese may be either over watt relays

.
-

or under watt relays

-
.

F r equ en cy Rel ay A n y relay which function s at pr edet er

—

mined value Of the frequency T he se may be either over .

frequency relays or under frequency relays -

.

T e m per atur e Relay A n y relay which functions at a pre

.
—

determined temperature i n the apparatus protected .

 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

Op en -
phas e Rel ay rel ay which functions by reas on .
—

An y
of the opening of one phase of a polyphase circuit .

Di fi eren ti al Relay A n y relay which functions by reas on —

of the di fi er en ce between two quant itie s such as current or

voltage et c T his term include s relays heretofore known as
, .

“ ” “ ”
ratio balance relays
-
biased and percentage diff erential ,
-

”
relays .

Locki n g Relay A n y relay whi ch renders some other relay

.
—

or other device inoperative under predetermined value s of

current or voltage etc , .

Tri p f ree Relay

- A n y relay which prevents holding in an
—

electrically operated device such as a circ u it breaker while an

-

abnormal condition exi sts on the circuit .

Au xi l i ary Relay A n y relay which as si st s another relay in

—

the performance of i t s function and which operate s in r e s po n se

to the opening or closing of i t s Operating circuit S ometi me s .

” ” “
“
called relay sw itche s contactors or m u l t i con t act relays ,
’
.

S i g n al Relay A n auxiliary relay which operate s an audible

.
—

”
or a visible S ignal S ometime s cal led bell ringing relays .
“
.

Q UAL I F YI N G TE RM S A S AP P LI E D T O RE L A YS

N o tch i n g qualifying term applied to any relay i n di cat

.
—

A
ing that a number of separate impul se s are requir ed to complete
operat ion .

In ver se Tim e A qualifying term applied to any relay

—

indicating that there i s purposely introduced a delayed action ,

which delay decrease s as the operating f orce increase s .

Defi ni te T im e A qualifyi n g ter m applied to an y relay

.
—

indicating that there i s purpo sely introduced a delayed action ,

which delay remains sub s tantially con stant regardle ss of the

magnitude of the operating for ce ( F or force s sl ightly above .

the minimum Operating value the delay may be inverse) .

In stantaneou s A qualifying term applied to any relay

—
.

indicating that no delayed action i s purpo sely introduced .

Where relays operate in re sponse to change s in more than

one condition all functions should be mentioned
,
.
 C HAP T E R II

CI RCUI T BRE AK E RS AN D RE LE A S E S
In order t o appreciat e fu lly the action of the protective
relays it i s first necess ary to understand t he action of circuit
,

breakers both how they may be equipped with certain releas e s

,

which operate on abnormal conditions such as over and under

current etc and als o how they may be equipped with trip
,
.
,

coils which are actuated electrically by protective relays .

A s previou sly stated the first circuit breakers were merely

,

automatic switche s arranged with an electromagnet to cau se

,

the blade s to fly open upon the occurrence of exce ss current

in the electromagnet P re sent day circuit breakers break the
.
-

circuit either in air or under oil T he first are com monly called .

“
carbon circuit breakers becau se the final break i s between
“
carbon contacts and the second kind are often called automatic
,

oil s witche s ”
or oil circuit breakers
,
”
Breakers may be .

semi automatic
-
fully automatic or electrically operated A
,
- -
.

se m i automatic circuit breaker i s one which open s au t om at i

-

cally on the occurrence Of an abnormal con dition but mu st be ,

closed by hand and if the handle i s held in a clo sed po sition

, ,

the breaker i s inoperative I n the fully automatic breaker .

-
,

the handle i s said to be trip free ; that i s if the breaker “

-
,

has opened due to an abnormal condition and attempt i s made ,

to r e clo se the breaker by hand then if the abnormal con dition

-
,

s till e xi s ts the breaker wi l l open even though the handle be

,

held in the clo sed po sition A n electrically operated breaker .

-

i s on e which i s both clo sed and O pened ele ctrically T he .

opening i s u sually due to an abnormal condition but the breaker ,

may be either opened or clo sed from some remote source for ,

in stance a remote control pan el board or a protective relay

-
.

P RI N CI P LE OF OP ERA TI O N

C ircuit
breakers are u sually arranged so that when they
are clo sed con siderable energy i s stored in strong springs
, ,

and the part s held in a closed position by a s m all trigger or

. .
8 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

t ripping lever When the prede t ermined conditions Oc cur

.

for which the breaker i s set or when actuated by the prote o

,

tive relay thi s trigger i s t ripped thereby rele asi n g the poten
, ,

tial energy of the s prings which cau se s the contacts t o Open

in a small fraction of a second .

T hi s may be seen readily from the schema t ic diagram of part s

of a typical carbon circuit breaker as shown in F i g 2 which .
,

show s the breaker in i t s normally clo sed po sition A and .

B are t he main contacts (u sually heavy copper blocks ) which ,

are spanned by the laminated copper brush C T hi s i s loo sely .

attached to the moving arm D in such a manner that it i s ,

self aligning
-
and when the breaker i s being closed contact ,

C i s forced against contacts A and B with great pre ssure r e ,

”
su l t i n g in a
“
wiping action which makes a good electrical
connection T he moving arm D i s pivoted at E and the s prings
.

F are under ten sion tending to pull the contact open

,
T his .

i s prevented by the toggle j oint G and H which i s held in

position by the trigger I ( pivoted at J ) .

C onnected between the lower stud on the breaker and the ,

lower main contact i s a coil K which carrie s the main current ;

,

and under i t s influence i s an iron armature L pivoted at M .

When the c u rrent in coil K become s great enough the armature ,

L i s attracted to i t s core ; thi s cau se s a projection on the armature

to strike the tripping lever a sharp blow thereby releasing ,

the toggle j oint and allowing the s prin gs to open the contacts
quickly In F i g 3 i s shown the breaker ju st at the instant
. .

of tripping and F i g 4 shows the breaker fully open

. .

I n order to re set the handle S mu st be pulled down

, ,

thereby straightening the toggle j oint ext ending the s pr ings ,

and giving t he nece ss ary power t o force the contacts i nto

tight contact .

If the main contact s were t o open the circui t directly the ,

re sultant arc i ng would soon cau se them t o become s o pitted

that they could no longer make contact T herefore the circ u it .
,

i s final ly broken by two auxiliary carbon contact s at N and 0 ;

when the main contacts open the current i s shunted through ,

the se contacts bu t they are separated so quickly that no arc

,

or exce ssive burnin g re sul t s , t he oxi de of course passing off as

a g as .
10 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

rder t o allow a variation in the trippin g curre nt require d

In o ,

the armature L i s provided wi th a threaded weight P which

i s mounted on a worm Q and so i ts po sition may be varied by
turning t he nut R When the weight i s near the electromagn e t
.

K i t s full weight tends t o keep the armature away from

the electromagn et thu s requiring the maximum current t o
,

cau se tripping ; when it i s near the nut R i t s weight tend s t o

assis t t he attraction of K thereby requiring a minimum of current ,
.

P rovi sion i s usually made to open the breakers by hand .

T hi s breaker i s opened by rai sing the handle S which re sul ts ,

in tripping M any operators prefer to touch the trip lever

.

I or the nut R to open the breaker but thi s s hould be done

, , ,
” “
with great caution as thi s part i s alive and there may be
danger of severe shock by touching M any breakers provide .

for opening in this manner by u sing a well insulated nut at

’

R thus preventing danger of accidental shock

,
.

S hunt tr i p Attachm ent

- I t will be readily seen that anything —

which trip s the lever I will cau se the breaker to open T he shunt .

t rip i s a device for tripping the breaker from s ome remote s ource , ,

either manual ly or automatically by a protective relay I n .

F i g 5 i s shown the trip lever I pivoted at J with the parts

.
,

shown in F i g 2 omitted for clarity T he electromagnet

. .

A i s wound with many turn s of fin e insulated copper wire

and i s mounted on the side of the breaker as shown in F i g .

13 When this electromagnet i s energized it attracts the iron

.
,

armature B ( pivoted at C) and thi s striking a stud D on the

, ,

tripping lever cau se s the breaker to trip or open as before

,
.

T he s hunt trip attachment i s the device u sually employed

-

when protective relays are used ; upon the occurrence of condi

tions for which it i s set the relay close s the circuit to the shunt
,

trip attachment thereby opening the breaker , .

Un derl oad Rel ease T here are cas e s not important enough
—

.
,

to warrant t he u se of an accurate relay where a circuit mus t ,

be protected from damage due to reverse current or under

current F or instan ce if the charging sour ce of a storage
.

battery i s interrupted the battery may attempt to as sume ,

the load or to motor the generator However the in s tant

, .
,

the current drops to zero ( as it mu st do before reversing ) the ,

under load attac hment trips the breaker

- .
 CI RC UI T BRE A K E RS A N D RE LE A SE S 11

The principle of operation i s shown in F i g 6 T he t ripping . .

lever i s repre sented by J and I as before and t he device i s s hown ,

ready to apply current A n electromagnet N ( carrying the

.

main current) i s mounted on the side of the breaker as shown

in F i g 1 3 The heavy iron armature P pivoted at C h as on
. .

i t s side a small lever D which i s pivoted at E and i s manually

hooked over the stud F thereby holding the armature a slight
,

FIG 6 . .
—
Un der l oad at t ach m en t ( n or m al pos i t i on ) .

F IG 7 .
—
. Un d er l oad at t a ch m en t ( r eady t o t r i p) .

F m 8 . .
—

Un der l oad at t ach m en t ( t r i pped) .

di stance from the electromagnet N W hen the electromagnet i s .

energized it attracts the armature P to the po sition s hown in

,

F i g 7 thereby releasing the cat chl ever D

.
,
.

N ow shoul d the current fail the armature P i s no longer ,

attracted and from i t s own weight falls down to the position

s hown in F i g 8 s triking the trip lever a sharp blow and tri pping
.
,
“
the breaker C are mus t be taken that the device sets
.

itself when current i s applied ; that i s the iron weight mu st ,

be attracted and the lever D released otherwi se the device ,

will not operate on the cessation of current .

 P ROTEC TI VE RE L A Y S

Und er vo
- l tag e Rel ease —

. T he
foregoing device when wound
w i th many turn s of fin e wire may be used as D C under voltage . .
-

operati ng whe n t he volt ag e drops t o a prede termined

F IG 9

" G IG

F ro .9 .
—
Un der vol t age r elease ( n orm al pos i ti on ) .

F ro 1 0
. .
—
Un der vol t ag e r el ease ( rel easi n g ).

F ro 1 1
.
—
. Un der vol t age rel ease ( rel eas ed) .

amount On alternating current , t he electromagn et mu st

.

have a closed magnet circuit and so the armature mu st be in

-
,

the same posi tion ( closed air gap ) in both operating and tripped
position T his i s accom pl ished by a t oggle j oint arrangem en t
.
-
 CI RC UI T BRE A K E RS A N D RELEA SE S 13

as s hown in F i g 9 I and J repre sent the trip lever as before

. . .

T he coil A i s wound on laminated iron core B which with the arma

tu re C fo r m s a closed magnetic circuit A ttached to the back .

of the armature i s a triangu lar piece D ( pivoted at E ) which

i s con nected to the settin g lever F ( pivoted at G) by the link

H whi ch form s a toggle j oin t T he spring K tends to rotate .

F in a clockwise direction and thi s by attempting to straighten

, ,

t he toggle would tend to give D a cou nterclockwi se rotation

,

and pull the armature away from the electromagnet T hi s .

i s prevented by the energizing of A A s soon as the voltage .

drops to a predetermined amount the armature i s pul led away ,

all owi ng the springs K t o move the lever F thereby tripping ,

the lever I and causing the breaker to open T hi s po sition .

i s shown in F i g 1 0 Bu t the s prings pull the lever F fur ther

. .

than the trippin g po sition and this cau se s the link H and piece
D to force the armature C back again st the electromagnet ,

thereby ag ain completing the magnetic circuit and preventing the

coil A from burning out should the voltage come on again
before the device re set T hi s i s shown in F i g. 11 Re . .

setting i s accom pl i shed simply by moving the knob to the po si

tion in F i g 9 A breaker with thi s form of release i s shown

. .

in F i g 1 2
. .

Over vol tag e Re l e as e

-
F or an over voltage releas e a de vice
—

.
-

s omewhat similar to the shun t t r ip attachment i s u sed but i s -

,

u sually de signed with a heavier magnetic circuit to allow a smaller

energy lo ss due to continuou s operation An over voltage .
-

r ele as e i s s hown on the breaker in F i g 1 4 T he solenoid i s wound . .

on a heavy iron cas ting and has in i t s center an iron plunger

- .

When the voltage increase s to a certain amount the plunger ,

i s sucked upward striking the pivoted lever which in turn

,

st r ikes the proj ection on the trip lever and trip s the breaker .

While practically every make of breaker varies in detail

of co n s truction and in fact each manufacturer may turn out
,

vari ous de signs of breakers yet the principle of operation ,

i s practically the same in all and the foregoi ng example s are

typical of the device s u sually employed .

F rom t he foregoing it would appear as if the pro te ctive

,

rel ay were a superfluou s device , but it mu st be borne in

mind that th ese releases are not at all accurate in their setting
14 P ROTEC TI VE REL A Y S

F m . 12 —
. Un d e r vo lt age l
r e ease F ro . 13 .
—
Br eaker eq u i pped w it h
m ou n t ed on break er . l
u n der oa d l
r e eas e an d s hu n t t ri p
at t ach m e nt .

F m 14
.
—
. Br eak er eq u i pped wit h over vol t age release .
 CI RC UI T BRE A K E RS A N D RE LE A SE S 15

and may not always give adequate protection On high .

ten sion circuit it i s often nece ss ary to have the relays where
they are easily acce ssible as for in stance on the front of the
, ,

s w itchboard while the breakers may be in some remote and

‘

practically inacce ssible location A nother point i s that release s

.

are often diffi cult to te st and often more diffi cult to set to function
on the de sired predetermined condition s and protective relays
,

are becoming more and more to be reco g nized as a nece ssary

adjunct to the well equipped power plant and indu strial
-

concern .
 C HA PT E R III

TRI P CI RCUI T S AN D TI M E DELAYS

P rotective relay may be cla

s ss ified
as circuit clo sing and -

circuit opening relays according to the method employed to

-
,

h r h
energize t e t ip coil of t e circuit breaker C ircuit closing - .

relays are frequently called shun t trip relays It h as already

-
.

been shown how t he circui t breaker may be Opened by having

an electromag net whi ch actuate s t he tri gger when it i s energized .

T he function of the protective relay i s then to complete the ,

electri c circuit whi ch wi ll energize this electromagnet or trip

coil as it i s u sually called .

T o accompli s h thi s the r elay i s equipped with t w o contacts ;

,

one st ationary and one attached t o the moving element N or .

mall y t hese are n ot t ouching but when the abnormality on the

,

circui t reaches a cert ain predetermined magnitude the moving ,

element of the relay cau ses t he contacts to touch each other

or t o close thu s completing the trip circuit and energi zing the
,

tri p coil of t he breaker an d cau sing the breaker to open

, .

Tri p cir cui t S our ces

- I t i s e vident that if the t ri p coil i s
.
—

wound for t he proper voltage and frequency it might be possible ,

t o operate t he t ri p circuit from t he same source as the protected

source . Bu t with no protection except a plain protective relay
thi s wi ll n ot be satisfactory as in the event of a heavy short
,

circuit the voltage may drop so low that t here i s not enough
,

voltage to Operate the t ri p coil even though the relay should

,

close t he tri p ci rcuit ; and it wi l l be noticed t hat this low voltage

occu rs j ust at t he in stant when full voltage i s most needed .

E ven t he practice of connecting t he t rip circuit to an exci t er

bu s of the D C machi n es supplying the field of large alterna
.

tors i s not satisfactory as a severe di sturbance of the A C

,
.

lines may be felt all the way back to t he exciter bu se s resul t ing ,

in a failure of the tri ppi ng source at t he mo st c ri tical moment .

F rom thi s it i s evident that the t ri pping circuit source mu st be -

absolutely dependable and absolutely without co n nection to the

16
18 P ROTEC TI VE RELA Y S

Auxili ary r elays, with their di agrams of conn cti e ons will be
,

full y di s cu ssed in detail in an other chapter .

Cir cu i t openi n g or S er i es Tr i p
-
T here are m an y in stalla.
—

tions of relays for plain overload protection in which it i s con

si dered t oo ex pen sive to in st all and main tain a complete bat tery

simply for t r ippin g purpo se s F or such case s the overload

.
,

current it self i s u sed as the energ izing source but the en er i z

g ,

ing of the t rip coil i s still controlled by the protective re l ay .

In this system the trip coil i s put in serie s with the load ; or
,

in parallel with a shunt which i s in serie s with the load ; or

connected directly to the secondary of a serie s tran sformer ,

F ro . 16
.
—
E lem en tar y di ag r am of a ci r cu i t opem n g r e ay . l

the primary of which carrie s the load current Bu t the proteo .

tive relay contacts are normally clo sed and are connec t ed
-

s o that they short circuit the trip coil con sequently the lo ad
-
,

current ( or de fi nite fraction of it) passe s through the low

re sistance contacts and very little flow s through the trip coil .

N ow should an unu sual di sturbance occur the contact s of the ,

protective relay will open and as the current can no longer ,

pass through the contacts it mu st flow through the trip coil, ,

thereby energ izing it and tripping the breaker T he diagram s .

in F i g 1 6 show the co n nection s for circuit opening or serie s

.

tr ippin g .

T hi s method has a very seriou s drawback however ; if the ,

contacts become slightly dirty or make poor contacts due ,

t o vibration they may shunt the current through the t rip coi l
,

under norm al condition s of l oad and trip t he breaker withou t

 TRI P CI RC UI TS A N D TI M E DELA YS 19

cau se T o obviate thi s defect one compan y clo se s the contacts

.
,

positively by means of a toggle j oin t and thi s g ive s good ,

protection and elimin ates the danger of tri pping ou t w ithout

ca use.

Tr an sf er Relay All of the advantage s of the ci rcui t opening

—
.
-

sys tem have been regai ned and the former defect s eliminated

by the development of t he
s o called
- tran sfer relay
which i s shown in F i g 1 7 . .

While this relay i s di s cu ssed

at length in another chapter ,

yet it may be here stated

t hat thi s s y stem u se s a cir
cuit clo sin g relay as t he pro
-

t active device and when thi s

relay function s it short
,

circuit s a holdin g down -

c oil on the tran sfer relay ;

t hi s all ow s the tran sfer relay
t o function and in doi n g so
it breaks the serie s circuit
an d in s tantly cut s the t r ip

c oil into thi s circuit thereby ,

trippi ng the breaker .

Ti m e D e l ays.
—

Were it not
for the fact that it i s n eces
s ary t o have a certain tim e

delay between the in stant of

disturban ce and the in stant
of breaker functioning there ,

w ould be but little field for

the protective relay T here .

are three de finite classe s into F I G l 7 W

t i gh o t a f er
.
—

. l ay
es n u se r ns re .

which relays may be divided

according to t im c delay : in stantaneou s inverse time an d ,
-

defi n i t e time
-
.

A s the name implie s the i n stantaneou s relay provide s n o

,

time delay between the in stants of di sturbance and tr ipping .

In stantan eou s relays are u sed generally where accurate pr ot ec

20 P RO TEC TI VE RE LA Y S

tion i s de si re d an d where t here i s alm ost no po ssibility of the

,

disturbance clearing itself in a few seconds F or in stance .

,

if a transformer or a generator develops an internal short

circuit there i s practically no chance of it clearing itself an d the
,

t ran sfo r mer or g e n e r a t o r

s hould be cut out i n stantly .

Or if a generator lose s i t s field

or if a battery which i s su p
po sed to be only charging ,

should suddenly start di s

m zg W n i M pm n
char g ing due
e
to the failure
F ro 1 8
. C har acteris t i c ti m e l oad c u v
.
-
of the charging source it i s
- r e
,
Of f use
advi sable for the circuit to
'

be opened in stantly and for thi s purpose , the ins tantaneou s

,

protective relay i s employed .

Inver se Th e Lim i t T his kind of tim e l imit w as the

—

favorite for many years as it gave protection oommen

sura te wi th the magnitude of the overload By examining .

the time delay curve of an ordinary fu se ( F i g 1 8) it will be

- .

Fm . 19 .
-
C har act er i s ti c ti m e- oad l cur ves of G . E . l
i n ver se t i m e i m i t , bell ow s
t y pe, l l
over oad re ay .

seen that thi s inverse time protection i s given but of course ,

on very heavy overloads the time become s almost ins tantaneou s .

F i g ure 1 9 g ive s a t ypical cu rve of a plain i nverse t ime l imi t - -

 R
T P CI RCUI TS A N D TI M E
I DELA Y S 21

relay and re adily s hows how the time vari es with the extent
of the overload F or ins tance consider the top cur ve T hi s
.
, .

i s taken with the relay set to clo se the contacts at 1 0 amp at .

which setting it takes about 1 0 sec t his being on an i nde fi nite .

part of the curve .

With the s ame settin g an d 20 amp applied (Le 200 per cent .

of load or 1 00 per cent overload it take s only at amp

) sec ; 5 0 . .

( L e 5 00 per cent of load or 400 per cent overload it takes

.
)
sec ; at 1 00 amp it take s only
.
sec an d above t hi s t he
. .
,

relay i s practically instantaneou s .

Defi ni t e ti m e D elays
-
A s t he name implie s in this type .
—

of protective relay there i s a de fi nite time delay between the

F ro . 20 —
. C ha r ac t er i s t i c l
t i m e- oad c u r v es o f a G . E . l
defi n i t e t i m e i m i t , bell ow s
l
t y pe , over oad l
r e ay .

in stant of di sturbance an d the closing of contacts and this

time delay i s in no way aff ected by the magnitude of the ab
normality S uch time delays have been succe ssfully employed
.

on a s mall s cale but have rapidly given way to the time delay
,

de scribed in the next paragraph T ypical de fi nite time curves .

are shown in F i g 20 . .

In ver s e - d efi ni te ti m e D el ays
-
I n thi s type of delay the la t e s t
—
.

practice i s obtained by having the protective relay give a

t ime delay which i s inversely proportional to the magnitud e
Of t he overload up to abou t per cent of load , bu t which
22 P ROTEC TI VE RE LA Y S

become s a definit e time limi t upon any greater overl oad than
this F or in stance consider t he curve in F i g 2 1 , which is
.
, .

the time -delay curve of a modern induction type overload -

Pe r Ce n t . of Ampere s Neoe ssar u t o Clos e Contacts

Fm . 2l .
—
l
T y pi ca l
t i m e- oad cu r ve of a Wes ti ghou se i
n n d u c t i on t y pe l
o ver o ad
l
r e ay .

p.o tect i ve
relay A t 200 per cent of load
. the t i me delay i s

5 sec ; at 300 per cent

. sec ; at 5 00 per cent sec ; and at
,
.
,
.

per cent and any overload above per cent the tim e ,

delay i s a de finite 2 see F igure 22 show s ano t her set of curve s

.

where de finite time i s approached at very heavy overloads .

F IG . 22 .
—

T y pi ca l load
t i m e- cu r ves of a G. E . i n du cti on t ype l l
over oad r e ay .

T he appl ication s of the se time delays and how to set the ,

variou s relays t o obtain certain delays will be treated in detail

i n later chapters .
 TRI P CI RC UI TS A N D TI M E DE LA Y S 23

How Tim e Delays Ar e O btai ned T he method of lagging

—
.

or damping the moving element of a protective relay depends

largely on the principle of operation of the relay In the direct
.

current type employing a moving coil and permanent Or electro

magnet the t ime delay i s obtained by the u se of an aluminum
,

or copper bobbin which also serve s as a support for the win ding .

It ta ke s power to move the bobbin through the inten se field

and thu s the movement and con sequently the time delay
, ,

i s inversely proportional to the power applied or in other word s

, ,

to the overload .

In the solenoid and plunger type some manufacturers employ

,

a leather bellow s with a small adju stable needle valve to allow

the air to e s cape slowly A s the plunger attempts to ri se
.
,

the air i s compre ssed in the bellow s thu s re t arding the movement
, .

Other manufacturers u se a das hpot with oil to retard the motion .

In the i nduction type an aluminum di s k rotate s between

,

s trong permanent magnets w hich retard the motion In .

this type the de finite time i s obtained by having a small trans

,

former which saturate s on heavy overload thu s limiting the

,

power which i s supplied to the relay winding s .

O ther type s u se variou s novel method s which will be fully

de s cribed under the variou s type s of protective relays .
 C HAP T E R IV

P LUN G E R T YP E P ROTE CTI VE

- RE LAYS
A relay operating on the e ffect of a solenoid to raise an i ron
plunger thus closing or opening contacts i s shown in F i g 23
, , . .

Referring to the diagram of part s shown in F i g 24 winding .

,

A i s wound around t he iron core B S upported at the t w o poles .

and S i s an iron plunger C arranged so that it may slide up

F ro . 23 —
. C on d i t str a p w ou n d F ro . 24 .
—

Sc h e m at i c g
di a r am of l
r e ay
pl u n ger t y pe over load l ay re . show n in F i g 23
. .

and down When the current in A reache s a certain value

.
,

the iron core C i s lifted thu s closing the contacts D and E ,

wi th bridge F which will immediately trip the breaker , as

,

previously de s cribed .

When the current i s greater than amp a winding i s not .

,

necessary as the magneti s m from the s traight bar or cable

,

produce s su ffi cient flux to operate the relay T he relay may .

then take the form shown in F i g 25 the cable s imply pas sing .
,

through the large hole H which i s surrounded by in sulating ,

material In F i g 26 i s another modi fi cation which may be

. .

used on a busbar t hat ru ns vertically in stead of hori zontally .

24
26 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

take a maxi mum of cu rrent t o rai se it but if it i s set high , then ,

‘
it wil l rise on a m inimum oi current .
!
.

A noth er for m of overlo ad ( exce ss current) rel ay util izin g t he -

,

same pri n ci pl e of oper atio n a tho se al ready de s cribed i s shown

s . ,

in F i g 28 C oil A is wound on the central par t over the i ron

. .

plunger C and the magn etic circuit i s completed by t he two

,

part s B and B1 T he action i s identical with the previousl y

.

de s c ribed relay ; namely when the current reache s a certain ,

value the plun g er C i s lifted upward thu s cau sing the contact
, ,

F ro . 29 . F ro . 30 .

FIG . 29 —

. I n t er i or vi ew of o bsol et e W es t i n gho u se defi ni t e t i m e lim i t D C

. .

l
r e ay .

F IG. 30 —

. S h ow s t he co ver o n a n d t h e ti m e set t i n g ar m .

disk F to short circuit the two contacts D and E which complete

-
,

the circuit that trips out the breaker In another type of .

s mall capacity adju s tment i s made by u sing tap s on the wind

,

ing ; however this cannot be done in capacitie s of several hundred

,

ampere s T he great advantage gained by the simple relay de

.
!

scribed further on h as di s couraged the u se of plunger type relays -

on direct curr ent circuits If a plunger type relay i s to be

-
.
-

used with a shunt as has been done in rare case s the adj ust
, ,

ment f or load i s made by varying t he drop of t he shunt .

 PL UN GER-T YP E P ROTE C TI VE 11m m 27

F i g ure 29 shows a defini t time relay e-

r removed
an d F i g 3 1 g ive s a s chematic diagram
. solenoid

A has an iron plunger B which under on re s ts

on the moving arm C piv oted at F which carrie s a cpn t act , ,

D and a counterweight E Wh en the solenoid A i s en et g i zed .

,

the core B i s rai sed upward i n stantly ; relieved of this weight ,

the cou n t erw eight E now cause s the contact D to s tart upward
t o meet the upper contact G However attached to the arm .
,

C i s a piston H working wi thin a cylinder I which retard s t he ,

movement of arm C making it move very slowly as t he air ,

e s capes around the plunger T hen after a de fi nite time from .

, ,

1 t o 5 sec depending on the initial di stance between contact s

.
,

D and G the contacts D and G clo se thu s clo sing the circuit to
, ,

the shunt trip coil of the circuit breaker cau sing the latter to
-
,

open .

F m 31
.
—

. Sc hem ati c di a g r am of t h e defi ni t e t i m e i m i t l l l

o ve r o a d r e a y , F ig . 30 .

If the current drops to normal before contacts G and D ,

F i g 3 1 clo se the solenoid allows the plunger B to drop thu s

.
, , ,

forcing t he arm C downward into normal po sition In order .

that the relay may reset qui ckly a valve i s provided in the ,

dashpot plunger T hi s valve consists of a l ittle st eel ball J

.
,

which clo se s the air ports K when the piston move s upward and
attempts to force air out of the port but raise s and allow s the air ,

t o enter readily when the pi s ton move s do w n as in re setting .

F igure 30 i s an outside view of a defin i t e-time limit relay similar -

t o that in F i g 29 T his relay will clo se the circuit in the number

. .

of seconds that arm A points to on s cale S T hi s rel ay i s now .

practically obsolet e but there are still many in ol d in stallations

, .
28 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

The types of rel a s ,

to 28 if de sired may close the
y F igs 23 .
, ,

circuit to a defin i t e t i m c limit relay instead of tripping the

- -

breaker ins tantly but then while the action i s selective the co st
, ,

renders i t s u se prohibitive S elective action except in very .

,

heavy short circuits may be obtained by lagg ing the time of t he

-
,

tripping and maki ng t he relay an inve r se ti m e limit device

,
- —
.

F ro . 32 .
—
Vi ew of G .ser i es t y pe F ro . 33 —
. G . E . u ni t t y pe bell ow s
o ver l l
oad i n ver se- t i m e- i m i t r e ay l . t y pe l
o ver oa d r e ay . l

T hat i s, the greater the overload the quicker the time In .

fact in actual practice the instantaneou s relay h as a very limited

, ,

u se ; an i nver se time limit relay co s ts o nl y slightly more gives

- —

the same prote ction and will not interrupt service on tran sien t
short circuits —
T he latter type i s shown in F igs 32 and 33
. . .

T he plunger in r i sing compre sse s the air in the leather bellows

, ,
 P L UN GER- T YP E P ROTE C TI VE REL A YS 29

B, which re si sts i t s upward movement In the top of t he c as t .

ing to which the bellows i s attached , is an ai r passage C, which

may be anywhere from 1 or 2 see to 20 or 30 sec . .

The greate st objection to the bellows type relay i s that the -

leather unle ss carefull y attended to wi ll dry ou t and crack

, , ,

making the permanence of time setting very unreliable T o .

secure the be s t operation t he bellow s s hould be rubbed with

n eat sf oot oil every few month s and load time curve s taken ,
- .

Otherwi se the relays may fail at a critical time Another fault .

i s that while the time i s inverse up t o ce r tain

,

overload s on s hort circuits the time i s almos t

,
-

in stanta n eou s T herefore if applied to a

.
,

radial feeder system the action will be select

-
,

ive up to certain overload but above thi s a ,

breaker near the generator may go out as

quickly as a breaker near the source of di s
t u r ban ce T o overcome thi s di ffi culty
. a ,

plunger type overload

-
,
defin i t e time limit ,
- -

relay w as devised .

Tim e l i m i t Relays
- A defin i t e time limit — - -

relay i s shown diagrammatically in F i g 34 . .

T he plunger A i s not rigidly attached to

the stem B as in the type previou sly de
,

s cribed but slide s freely on it

,
If an overload .

occurs t h e plunger i s raised and compre sse s

the spring C which in turn force s the stem F I G 34 S hem at i c .
—
. c

f w t i
'

B upward ag arn st the r esrst an ce of the bellow s fifiQ i gfi ow s i y

e

g
‘

D and finally clo se s t h e contacts E and F ci cu i t l os i n g defi r -c .

with the dis k G It will be seen readily that

.

no matter how severe the overload may be ,

it can only compre ss the sp ring C ; con sequently the upward ,

pre ssure on the bellows stem i s constant regardle ss of overload

and t he time i s therefore con stant T he duration of time is .

varied by opening or clo sing the air valve S as de s cribed for

inverse time limit types A t the fi rst glance thi s might appear
- -
.

the solution of radial protection but it i s impossible to depend ,

on the relay for clo ser settings than 1 sec ; therefore when .
,

there are four or fi ve relays connected in a circuit tho se near ,

t he generators mu st be set to Operate in about 5 or 6 sec which .

30 P RO TE C T] VE REL A Y S

i s t oo long a time to sustain a d ead short circu it e s pe cially -

,

near the generator T hen too the relays would trip j u s t as

.
, ,

quic kly on a moderate overload as on a heavy overload which i s ,

not at all de sirable Were the foregoing of great importance

.

it would be nece ss ary to pe rfect a relay accurate within small

percentage of su stained accuracy and one whose curve w as inve rs e
up to certain overload s after which it would be come ,

a defin i t e time limit device However owing to the u n qu es

- -
.
,

t i on ed superiority of alte rnating current for high ten sion -

long distance tran s mission s and the comparatively small size of

-

most direct current radial syste m s of tran s mi ssion relay eng i

-
,

F ro . 35 —
. E lem en t a ry di a g l
r am of r adi a di s t r i b u t i on s y s t em .

n eer s have devoted mo st of their energie s to the pe r fection of alter

nating current relays which are to a high degree perfect in the i r
-

protection In the large power pl ants or factorie s however

.
, ,

where there are n umerou s machine s that mu st be kept ru nning

u nle ss actually damaged a radial system of protection may ,

be adopted with succe ss .

T hi s brin g s u p an important u se for defi n i t e time limit - -

relays C onsider the di stribution system shown in F i g 35

. . .

E ach time the line divide s to supply a set of feeders a defin i t e ,

time l imit relay i s supplied to operate a double pole circuit

- -

breaker F or in s tance the feeder from the bu sbar i s protected

.
,

by breaker A the next subdivi sions are protected by breakers

,

B and C and the n ext by circuit breakers D E F and G S u p

, , ,
.

pose a heavy overload occurs on the feeder protected by breaker

 P L UN GE R-T YP E P ROTEC TI VE REL A YS 31

D . T he xcess cu rren t ext e n ds all t he way back t o t he main

e .

bu s , and were defin i t e time relays not u sed breaker A would

-
,

go out as soon as breaker D thu s interrupting every circu it ,

connected to the feeder protected by breaker A Bu t thi s .

i s where the defin i t e time l imit relay enters in -

T he relay
-
.

at D i s set say for 1 sec B and C for 2 sec and A for 3 sec
, , .
,
.
, .

F ro . 36 .
—

Vi ew of We s ti n ghou se bellow s t y pe ove load r r e ay l wi t h an d w i t ho u t

p ote ct i n g cove
r r.

T hu s when the di sturbance occurs all the relays of breakers A , ,

C and D s tart to operate but at the end of 1 sec breaker D , .

,

opens re l ieving the exce ss current and all the other relays
, ,

re set quickl y con fin i ng the di sturbance to the one l ine on which

,

it occurred Had the di s turbance occurred on feeder C then

.
,

the breaker at C would have gone out in 2 sec breaker A .

woul d not have had time to Open and f eeder B would not have .

been interrupted F igure 36 shows a typical overload relay

.

which obtain s the time limit by mean s of an air bellow s and F i g , .

32 P RO TEC TI VE RELA Y S

3 7 is hemat ic diagram of t he same T he i ron plun ger

a sc .

A worki ng under the influence of t he solenoid B carrie s at

, ,

i ts lower end an in sulat ed di s k D having on i t s circumference

a ban d of nono xi dizin g metal When the solenoid coil B is .

ene rg ized by a current of a cert ain strength the co re A i s pulled ,

up w ard thus forcing the disk D agains t t he contacts E and

,

F completin g a circuit to a shunt trip coi l on a circuit breaker

,
-
.

On the upper end of the plunger s haft i s a leather bellow s G

fas t ened t o the perm anent support H so that as the plunger ,

ri ses it compresse s the air in the be l lows an d re si sts i t s upward

,

motion T hi s air i s permitted to e scape .

gradu al ly through a little opening at I

in the cas ting an d thi s gradual e s cape ,

of air all ows the plunger to ri se in a

certain time t o comple t e contact at E
and F .

It i s evident that the greater the

current in the solenoid B the greater
will be the upward pull con sequently ,

the greater the compre ssion in the bel

low s the qu icker the e scape of air and
,

the shorter the time T hat i s the .

,

greater the overload the quicker the

F ro 3 7 S ch em at i c di a
. .
—
circuit will be opened .

” l ay in
T hi s inverse proportion i s not a fixed
factor however since by varyi ng the , ,

s ize of the e s cape aperture at I by means of the valve J the

time may be varied from alm ost n othing t o 1 5 or 20 sec , and .

s till have the invers e time l imit .

T he tap s K L M etc are provided t o change the number

, , , .
,

of turns in circuit and con sequently the amount of current

required to operate the relay F or instance t his part icul ar .
,

relay has tap s for 4 5 6 7and 8 amp T hi s means t hat if t he

, , ,
.

4 amp t ap i s in circuit the plunger will start to ri se when t he

-
.
,

current reache s 4 amp ; with the 5 am p tap t he plunger w ill

.
-
.
,

ri se when the current reache s 5 am p etc .

, .

As a practical example assume that the relay i s used w ith a

,

1 00 to 5 current tran sformer T hi s means that when the .

full load current of 1 00 amp i s reached there will be 5 am p

-
. .
 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

C, and t he ci rcu i t breaker D open s and cl oses the ci rcui t E .

i s the primary winding of a seri e s tran sfo r mer and F t he second

ary, which i s connected to t he relay and energ ize s the solenoid
H T he direct current circuit i s connected to the shunt trip
- -

TRI P COI L

F ro . 39 —
. E lem en t ary di a g r am s l
of ci r cu i t c os i n g l
r e a y o n si n gle phase ci r cu i t .

Fm . 40 .
—

S t an dar d di a g r am s of co n n ec t i o n s of We t i n ghou se bell ow s

s t ype .
l
ci r cu i t c osi n g . l
over o ad r el ay s .

coil of breaker D with a break in the circuit at contacts J

,

and K T his diagram shows the normal operating position

. .

If an overload occurs at C and exce ss current in the tran s

forme r EF re sults, the relay plunger rises, short circuits the -
 P L UN GE R-T YP E P RO TEC TI VE REL A Y S 35

cont acts J K and complet e s the t rip circu it ; an in stant later

the oil swi tch will open di s connecting the l ine F igure 40
, .

C over

N eed l e l
Va ve A djus t i n g N u t
Loc k N u t

Be ll ow s S u ppor t

T ap f or Q u i ck Rel eas e Val ve

W hen Us ed

Bel l ow s

C o m press i on S pri ng

S t at i on ar y C o n t act

M ovi n g C o n t act

C on t ac t Bas e
P l u n g er S t op

F ram e

M ag n et F r am e C over

P ol e P i ece

P l u n g er
O per at i n g C oi l
M ag n et F r am e S h el l

M ag n et F r am e E n d Pi ece

M F r am e S u pp ort i n g
'

ag n et
S c r ew
C al i br at i n g Rod
C al i br at i n g T u be

D us t C over

A djus t i n g N u t

F m 4l
.
—

. G . E . u ni t pl u n ger t y pe l
r e ay .

gives di agram s of relay and tran sformer connections for pro

t ectin g single phase , two phase and three phase circuits
- - -
.
36 PROTEC TI VE REL A r s

Other Types An oth er bellows type of relay is show n i n

—
.

F ig 41
. T hi s i s a si ngle phase unit
.
-
M any rel ays were formerl y
.

m ade with t w o and three relays moun t ed on one cas tin g t o pr o

Air Valve f or Ti me Q uic k Ret u r n

Valve

13
« —
. A i rw al ve q u i ck reset t i ng va vel on G .

tect t w o or t hree phase ci r u its T hese w ill st i ll be f ou n d

c
.

on ol der i rrs tal lat ions How ever , they req u ire t w o or three sepa
.

rate series transf or mers j ust as do the rel ays previously des cribed.
 P L UN GE R- T Y P E P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S 37

It will be noted in this type that the contacts are at the top
and protected by a removable cover permitting ready in spection ,
.

In this relay the variou s load settings are not obtained by

taps but by varying the po sition of the iron plunger in the
,

solenoid by an adj u s tment at A L owering the plunger r e .

quire s more current to rai se it and rai sing the po sition require s ,

le ss current .

Fm . 43 .
—
l
E ar y f o r m of q u i ck r es e t t i n g ai r l
va ves o n bell ow s t y pe l
r e ay .

T hetime setting i s varied by an air valve in t he top of the

bellows casting as shown in F i g 42 When an overload occurs
,
. .
,

the s olenoid raise s the plunger thereby rai sing the stem A ,
.

T his compre ss e s air in the leather bellow s B forcing it ,

up the channel C and through the valve D The time , .

i s adj u sted by varying the po sition of the pin C by turning

G. A good feature i s the quick re setting device shown at -

H and K K i s a cylinder which on upward travel of the stem

.
,

A i s forced again st O pening L and e ff ectually clo se s opening

,

M When the relay attempts to re set the air i s rare fied in the
.
,

bellows and cylinder K i s lifted all owing air to enter M and ,

P , thereby in suring a quick re setting of the plunger .

38 P ROTE C TI VE RE L AY S

An
early form of qu ick resetting device i s shown in F i g 43 , bu t .

one of the greate s t drawbacks of this type i s that on a he avy

alternating current overlo ad e s pecially low frequency the peak
-
, ,

of the wavecauses the air to compre ss in the bell ows while when
the A O wave passes thr ough zero this compre ss ed air d r ive s
. .
,

F ro . 44 —

. G . E . das h po tt y pe , ci r cu i t-o pen i n g , l

i n vers e- t i m e- i m i t l
r e ay , w i th
an d w i t ho ut p r otec t i n g c o ve r .

the plunger down a trifle an d th en the quick re setting device -

admits air the w rong time T hi s recurring at every alter n a .

tion drove the plunger s o far down that it could n ot clo se t h e

cont ac ts .

On e drawback to the leather bellows type relay i s that t h e - -

leather unle ss attended to carefully will harden in time an d

, ,

crack thu s defeating t he purpose of an accurat e time T o

, .

overc ome thi s relays of the type shown in F i g s

, 44 were .
 PL UN GE R- T Y P E P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S 39

developed T he se had the contacts at the top as in the type

.
,

F i g 45 but the bellow s i s omit ted and an oil d ashpot w as placed

.
,

at the bottom of the stem as shown in F i g 46 . .

Ins tead of forcing air through a needle valve oil i s forced ,

by a piston on i t s upward travel through the val ve E and out

F ro 4 5 . . F ro . 46 .

F ro . 45 .
( Le f t ) —

G en er a l E l ec t r i c bello w s l
t y pe i n ver se- t i m e- i m i t , ci r cu i t

c l os i n g r el ay .

FIG . 46 ( Ri
. ght ) —
S h ow s det ai l s of t he l
oil va ve i n t he oil - d am ped l
r e ay s .

of hole F F i g 46 T he piston C has a number of hole s in the

,
. .

bottom which are normally covered by the di sk D Upon upward

,
.

travel the di sk close s the hole s practically oiltight but on ,

downward travel it ri ses and allows a quic k re setting of the

plu nger .
40 P RO TE C T] VE RELA Y S

Thes e rel ays cann

ot be used w he re t hey are su bj ect ed t o ext rem e
ch an g e
s i n t em perat ure an d no other oil except t hat suppl ied
,

by t he m an uf ac t u rers shou l d be used i n the das h pot T heir .

t im e m ay be vari ed fro m al m os t i nst ant aneous at heavy l oads ,

t o over 5 m i n at 1 5 0 per cent l oad

. .

S om et im es as in radial sys t ems an in ve rse t i m e i s n ot s o

, ,

des ir abl e as a de fini te t im e T o ob t ai n th is the relays he reto

.
,

fo re sho w n are sl ightly m odified so that ins tead of the pl u n g er

bein g r i g idl y attached t o t he bell ow s and contact shaft the rais ,

ing of t he plu n ger merely compres ses a s pr ing which in t ur n ,

F ro . 47
—
. E lem e n t ar y di a g r am ser i es open i n g

rai ses the shaft T his w as shown in F i g 34 T he pl un g er A

. . .

i s f r ee to sl ide up on the shaft B When it rises it com premes .

,

the spring C which pre sses against a s top rigidly att ached t o
,

the shaft at the bott om of the be ll ow s the reby raisi n g t he

, ,

shaft an d contacts .

It will be readily seen that n o mat ter how m u ch cu rre n t

i s pas s ed thro u gh t he solenoid once it rise s there can be n o , ,

g re at er compr ess ion from the s pring no mat t er w hat t he l oad .

C onsequently t he con t acts are cl osed in a defi ni te tim e depen di n g

, ,

u pon the time setting aft er the raising of t he pl ung er Hen ce .

”
t he name defi ni te time li mi t overlo ad rel ay
,
“
- -
.

I n the exam ple s shown it w as as sumed that t here w as al w ays

,

a se parate di rec t current circuit which the relay compl et ed

-

t o t ri p the oi l switch S o met imes a source of dire c t cur ren t

.

i s not available so t he secondary curren t Of t he ser i es t r ans

,
42 P ROTEC TI VE RE LA Y S

form er is used t o tr i p t he cir cui t b reaker T hese rel ays are .

known as series t rip or circui t o penin g types T he secon dar y

- -
.

of the tran sfor mer i s connec ted t o t he t rip coil on t he b reaker ,

bu t th i s coil i s sh or t-c ircui ted no r m ally by t he relay con t act s .

W hen t he relay ope rates it connect s t he t ri p coil in ci r cu i t

, ,

the reby causing all t he cu rrent to fl ow th rough i t an d O pen

TRI P C OI L

S i n g l e Ph a s e Three Pha s e Ung ro u n d ed

Thr ee Fl u s e Gr ou n d e d Neut r al Q u a r t er P h a s e

F ro . 50 .
—
D ia g ra m s c or res po n di n g t o Fig . 49 e xce p t f or ci r cu i t o pe n i n g l
r e ay s .

t h e oil s w i t ch T hi s .i s s h o w n i n F i g 4 7 in which the. fe e der

, B
is s uppl y ing t h e load C t h r ou g h t h e cu r re n t t r an s fo r m er s
’

p ri m a ry E an d prot ec ted by ci rc u it hr akc r D T he sec ond ary c

.

of t he t ransfo r m er F i s con nec ted t hroug h t he relay H and t h e

t r ip co il I o n t h e o i l s w i t c h I ) T h e t r i p c
. oil i s s hor t circuit ed -

by t he con t acts J and K on t he r l ay A n overload at C caus es e

.
 P L UN GE R-T YP E P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S 43

exce ss ive current t o fl ow in the relay coil H which rai se s i t s ,

plunger and opens the contacts J and K causing current t o ,

flow through the trip coil I which opens the oil switch
, .

On e type of serie s trip relay F i g 44 clo se s the contact s

-
,
.
,

C by a toggle T which i s clo sed on the downward travel of

,

the plunger thereby in suring very po sitive connection When

,
.

the plunger ri se s thi s open s the toggle allowing a s pring t o

, ,

open the contacts with a quick po sitive action

, .

T he serie s trip relay s have an advantage in that they do not

-

require a separate circuit to trip the circuit breaker However .

,

unle ss they are equipped with solidly clo sed contacts they are ,

li able t o trip the breaker on a slight j ar or knock .

F igure 48 show s the s tandard diagram s of connectio ns

furnished by the Wes tinghouse C o for circuit opening relays
.
,

c orre s ponding to the circuit clo s ing diagram s s hown in F i g 40 . .

T he G eneral E lectric C o furni sh the diagram s shown in F i g 49

. .

for one two an d three phase protec t ion by circuit clo sing rel ays
,
.

T he corre spondi n g diagram s for circuit opening relays are shown

in F i g 5 0
. .
 C HA P T E R V

D C P O W E R D I RE CTI O N AL RE LAYS
. .
-

D uring the early days of the electrical indu stry the prob
l em of the protection of circuits and equipment w as one in
which the chief concern w as given to di s connecting the fault
as quickly as po ssible T his generally could be accomplis hed
.

by the u se of fu se s or circuit breakers with an in s tantaneous

trip Howe ver as the size of electric power system s incre as ed
.
,
-

and they were complicated with a multiplicity of circuits and

apparatus and the nece ssity of continuity of se r vice became an
,

important matter the problem of protection developed not

,

onl y into one of protectin g the apparatu s but al so of locali zing ,

the fault to the circuit on the piece of apparatu s where it

occurred T o meet the variou s condition s of protection required
.

for machines Operating in parallel or in parallel with other equip ,

ment or for i s olating the faulty circuit in the variou s feeder

,

sys tem s there have been developed a number of diff erent types
,

of relays A mong the se device s the reverse current relay has

.
-
,

e specially in the protecting of direct current circuits and appara -

t u s a wide application
,
.

On e of the prime application s of the D C power directional . .

-

relay i s for the prevention of the reversal and the di scharge

of current from a storage battery into the charging source
should the voltage of the charging equipment fail In addition .

to thi s there are numerou s other appl ication s where the power
directional relays may be u sed Rotary converters operating .

in parallel with a s tand by storage battery i s another cas e in

-

which a highly sen sitive relay of the reverse current type i s -

required Or where rotary converters are Operated in parallel

.
,

if the alternatin g current supply fails on one machine it will

-

be motorized fro m the direct current bu s E ven if the alter -

.

nating current supply i s interrupted only for a short time

-
,

it i s un s afe to run the converter inverted although the power

con sumed i s very small since it may run at damag ing speed
, ,

44
 D C P OW E R- DI RE C TI ON A L RE L A Y S
. . 45

and in any case were the alternating current supply to be

,
-

e stablished after a very short interruption the converter would ,

not be running in synchroni sm and might cau se considerable

damage T herefore t he power directional relay mu s t be highly
.

s en s itive and trip the breaker immediately upon a slight rever s al

of power in the direct current end -

.

F igure 5 1 shows a D C power directional ( reverse current ) . .

- -

relay with the cover removed and F i g 5 2 i s a diagrammati c , .

s cheme of connection s .

In F i g 5 2 A i s the magnet frame and B an iron core about

.
,

which the moving coil C i s free to turn on j eweled bearings

at the top and bottom of the coil very similar to the perma ,

nent magnet movement voltmeter or ammeter T he field

-
.

coil D i s wound with a large number of turns of fin e wire con

n ect ed directly acro ss the circuit and magnetize s the pol epi eces N

and S .It w ill be noticed that the potential on coil D doe s

not reverse no matter which way the current i s flo w ing in the
,

circuit ; con sequently the polarity of the magnet i s always

,

the same T he movable coil i s connected through spiral springs

.
,

the same as a movable coil in a direct current ammeter or -

voltmeter to the shunt which i s in serie s with the load

, , .

When the current flows in the proper direction the turning ,

e ff ort or torque of the movable coil tend s to keep the contact

, ,

E firmly again st the stop F and i s al s o held in thi s po sition

by the spiral spri ngs Bu t if the current reverse s in the c i rcuit
.
,

the current through the movable coil i s reversed con seq uently ,

the torque therefore con t act F move s over again s t G T hi s

,
.

close s a circuit to the shunt trip on the circuit breaker and o pen s -

the circuit Or if de sired it may close a de finite time limit

.
,
-

relay which in turn close s the trip circuit T he po sition

,
.

of the stop F and the contact G i s variable so that the contacts ,

w i l l not clo se until the load h as reversed to a de fi nite

predetermined amount T his relay h as a s cale marked in milli .

volts as shown in F i g 5 1 and may be set to act as low as 2 per

.
,

cent rever sal of current or as high as 1 00 per cent .

T he closing torque of thi s relay i s proportional to the load ,

o w ing to the re straining e ff ort of the spiral s prings con sequently ,

can be u sed as an exce ss current relay since i t s ti me is inver sely

-

ro ortio al t t h x e rrent Thu s if t he di sturba nc e i s

p p n o e e c ss cu .
46 P ROTE C T ] VE RE L A YS

F ro . 51 —
. M ovabl e-coi l t y pe l
r ever se-cu rr en t r e ay ( Wes ti n ghou se) .

F ro . 52 —
. Sc hem ati c di a g
r am of ble coi l
t he m o v a - t y pe l
r e ay s h ow n in F ig . 51 .
 D C P OWE R- DI RE C TI ON A L RE L A Y S
. . 47

mil d it may take as high as 8 see to close allowing ample time for
,
.
,

a tran sient dis turbanceto clear itself If the di sturbance i s more .

s evere it may take only 1 2 or 4 sec depending on the violence of

, ,
.
,

the di sturban ce , whi le on a de ad short circuit the action i n closin g -

the contacts i s almost instantaneous .

F i g ure 5 3 s hows another type of D C power directional . .

-

relay whi ch i s not however, capable of such accurat e pro

, ,

F ro . 53 .
—
Po l ari z ed r ever s e-cu rr en t r e ay l ( Wes t i n gh ou s e) .

F ro . 54 —
. Sc h e m at i c di a gra m of r ever s e cu rr e n t r e a y s l h ow n in F ig . 53 .

t ect i on chematic diagram of this relay i s g iven i n F i g

. A s .

54 . A i s a permanent bar magnet with pole s N and S P ivoted ,

.

on t he end of the magnet i s an iron armature B whi ch has i t s

’ ’
ends polarized N and N by magnetic induction T he ir on .

core s of coils C and D al s o serve to complete the magneti c

circuit of the bar magnet T he coils are wound to produce .

pole s N and S at the armature end with the current flowin g

48 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

in a rm al direction T hen t he N en d of t he l ower c oil repels

no .

’
t he ar mature N and the S end of the upper coil attracts the
arma t ur e .T his keeps the contac t s E and F ope n S hould t he .

current reverse the polari t y of the ele ct r om ag n et s is re

,

versed and the armatur e end of the lower coil wi l l becom e

’
S polari t y which will attract the armature N while the u ppe r
, ,
’
coil wi ll become N and will repel the armature N ; therefore

the armatu re move s ove r and close s the contacts E and F on

55 —
. G . E . str a p w ou n d r everse- cu r r en t
- l
r e ay .

reversal of t he curren t which in turn may clo se the circu it

,

to a relay switch defini t e time limit relay or the shunt trip

,
- - -

coil on the circu it breaker .

T he relay may be adj us ted t o operate on a de fini t e reversal

by changing t he position of the stop G or by varying the mi lli
v ol t s drop across the relay coil lead s T he millivolts drop may
-
.

be obtained by connectin g across a length of copper busbar .

Al lo w in g amp per squ ar e i nch of cross section 6 f t

.
-
,
-
.

len g t h of bu sbar wil l give 5 0 m v drop A corr espondin gly . . .

h eavier cu rrent per square inch w ill gi ve the drop with a shorter
s pan . C ar e mu st be taken that the relay lead s s pan only t he
s ol id copper that i s there i s no j oint included as a s light
—

re si stance of a j oint may equal seve ral fe et of busbar and t he

50 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

on omewhat diff eren t prin ciple from th ose i n F i g s 5 5 5 6 an d

a s .
,

5 7 T hi s i s shown di ag r amm at ical ly i n F i g 5 9

. T he iron . .

mag neti c ci rcui t A has a g ap B on one side and an i r on yoke

F ro . 57
—
. Re v er se
-c
u r r e n t r e ay l ar r an g e d (G . E ) f o t bu s- ba r m
. ou n ti n g .

F ro . 58 .
—

Rel ay f or ver t i c a l bu s .

C acro ss i t s center If the current i

. n the heavy bu s bar D
i s fl owing in the direction of the arrow it will magnetize the ,

yoke with a polarity as shown T he winding E i s w ound w ith .

 D C P O WE R-DI REC TI ON AL
. . RE LA r s 51

a lar ge n umber of turns of fin e w ire and i s connected across

the circuit so as to produce a polarity in core C as indicated It ,
.

i s evident that the e ff ect of the current in the busbar and that

F ro . 59 .
—

Sc h e m at i c di a g r am l
of r e ver seu c u r r e n t r e ay.

F ro . 60 .
—

C on di t stra p- w ou n d r ever se-c u rr e n t r e ay . l

in E is s uch as to cause a flow of flux through the mag

n etic circuit formed by the mag net A and the yoke C of the

p oten t i al co il E as i ndicated
,
by the dotted l i ne M Very littl e .
52 P ROTEC TI VE RE L A Y S

magn e t ism wil l flow t hrou gh the part of t he magn e t i c cir

cuit contai ning the ai r gap B S hould the curren t reverse .

i n the bus bar , however the mag ne t is m will also reve rse an d
,

oppose that of coil E but they wi l l b oth uni te i n forcing t he

,

magn etism throu gh the part of the ci rcu it c ontai ni n g the ai r

a
g p B I n.ai r gap B i s an iron core F and wh e n the magneti s m ,

become s great enoug h the core will be attracted upward thus

, ,

F ro . 61 . Flo . 62 .

F ro . 61 —
. g
D ia r am s h ow i g pol a i ty w i t h cu en t i
n r rr n n or m a l
di r ect i on .

F ro . 62 —

. Diag r am s h ow i g p ol
n i t y u po
ar c e t
n u rr n r ever s a l
a n d c os i n l g of
con t ac t s .

clo sing t he contact s C whi ch are shown cl earl y in F i g 5 8 T hi s

, . .

type of relay i s given an inverse time characteri s tic by equip -

ping i t with a retardin g bellows B which may be adj usted by ,

the air valve A on t op of the relay .

A nother slightly di fferent form of power di rect ional relay -

i s shown in F i g 60 A n iron plu nger i s u sed and two coils

. .

ar e placed on oppo si t e legs of the iron magnetic c i rcuit T he .

arran gement i s shown dia g rammatically in F i g 61 T he . .

i ron mag ne tic circuit A and A has a current coil B on one leg
'
,

an d a potential coil C on the other leg with a core D located ,

’
between A and A arranged to move vertically With the current .

flowing i n n orm al dir ection t he mag n e t i sm travel s u p one l eg

 D C P OWER-DI RE C T] ON AL
. . RE L A Y S 53

an d down t he her , as i n dicated by the arrows T here i

ot .
s

n o mag ne t i sm or at leas t a very weak field in the c ore D under

n or m al l oad . S houl d t he cur rent reverse i n B t he n both ,

63 —
. Rel ay arr an ged f o h ori z on t al
r bu s .

F ro . 64 —
. Rel ay ar r a n g ed l
f or ver t i c a bu s .

coi ls t endto force the flux through the core D When thi s .

reve rsal i s sufficient to force enough magneti sm through the

core, it i s lifted up and cl o se s the contacts E and F by the

 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

contact dis k G as i n F i g 62, which in turn close s the circui t

,
.

to a breaker trip coil

-
.

When the curren t i s amp or more the current coil

.
,

i s omitted and a relay li ke F i g 63 i s u sed the cable or bu s

.
,

passin g through the insul ated hole H, the magnet ic field set up
about the cable being su fli ci en t to operate the relay If the
'

relay i s t o be u sed with a vertical bu sbar instead of a horizon t al

one the parts are sli ghtly rearranged as shown i n F i g 64 ,
,
.

but the principle of operation i s the same .

T here are other relays utilizing sim ilar principle s of operation ,

but before selec t ing any relay for a particular service ,

the characteri s tic s of the relay shoul d be carefully studied

as well as the char acter of the in s tallation to be protected ,

and a relay chosen which gi ve s a maximum of favorable points .

A ppli cation s of D C power directional relays will be fully

. .
-

dis cu ssed in the next chapter .

 C HA P T E R VI

AP P LI CATI O N S O F D C P OW E R D I RE CTI O N AL . .
-
RE LAYS
T here are numerou s case s in which power directional relays -

may be applied not only to g ive complete protection to D C . .

apparatu s but al s o to pre serve continuity of service in cas e of

failure of line s or machine s While their general u se h as been .

lim ited by the initial cost and the relatively small size s of
D C
. . transmis sion system s compared to A O system s yet . .
,

they are becoming more and more to be recognized as an i n

dis pensable factor i n the correct operation of any plant A nother .

re as on why they have not come into general u se in the variou s

plants i s becau se the u sers of electric energ y have g r ovvn into
the habit of con sidering an interruption as a part of their every
day work ; an unavoidable evil Were the protective relays .

better unders tood it would at once be realized that interrup

,

tion s are not a n ecessar y evil but a large percentage of the ,

interruption s on many system s may be avoided by the proper

u se of protective relays .

S tor ag e batt e ry P r o t e cti o n

- T he primary application of —

a D C power directional or reverse current relay i s to protect

. .
- -

a charging storage battery from di scharg ing should the charg

ing source fail If the battery i s being charged by a small
.

motor generator a failure of the motor may cau se the battery

,

to motorize the generator thu s exhau sting itself E ven if , .

t he battery i s being charged from a li ne circuit through a r e

si st an ce a failure of the li ne will cau s e the battery to di s charge
,

into the l ine through the re sistor If being charged by a mechan .

i c al recti fier a failure of the alternating current may cause

,
-

t he battery to di s charge through the recti fi er coils However .

w ith a mercury arc recti fier or a vacuum t ube recti fier such as
- -

t he
“
Tu ngar
”
or the Rect i g on the battery cannot di s
” “

charge i n case of A O failure . . .

F igure 65 shows a diagram of connection s giving the di r ec

t ion of current in battery generator and l oad F ig ure 66
, .

55
56 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

BA TTE RY
IOLOAD

F ro . (15 —
. D i agr am of con nec t i on s of bat t ery , l oad an d g en er at or . Ar r ow s
s h ow n or m a l di rect i on of cu rren t flow .

7
0
BEI N G M O7
03 5 0
F ro . 66 .
—
A r r ow s s how di r e c t i o n of cu r r en t flow u p
on f ai l ur e of g e n er at o r .

F ro . 67 .
—
Dia gr a m of co n n e c t i on s f or b at t e r y , l oad an d g ene r a t o r f or p r o t ec t i o n

g
a ai n s t cu r r en t r ever s a l .
58 P RO TEC TI VE RELA Y S

Ot her met hods util i z ing t he n o- o l ad and t he -

rev rse c u rre
e nt
releases have been fully described u nder t he chap t er on
“
Ci r cui t
Breake rs and Re le ases .

P O W E R-D I RE C TI O N AL REL AY S AN D S TAN D -BY BATTE RI E S

When t he battery i s larg e enough an d i s desi gn ed to carry

part or carry all t he l oad in the event of charging s our ce fai lure -
,

as f or in stan ce in t he c as e of a rotary conve r ter char ging the

l arge stand by batte ry of an elevator or mine hoi st system

- -
,

i t i s evident that the battery mu s t not be di s connec ted in case

of current revers al .

Fm . 0l) .
—
C o n n ec t i o n s o f r ot a r y c o n ver t er , s t o r a g bat te
e l
r y a n d e e va t o r m otor .

A r r ow s s h ow n or m al di r e c t i o n of D C . . cu r r e n t .

In order to determine the correct point of application for

the rel ays let u s con sider F i g 69 w hich shows a rotary con
, .
,

ver ter feedi n g a stand by battery and the elevator motor load
,
- -
.

F ro . 70 .
-
A rr ow s s ho w d i re c t i on of cu rr e n t w it ha h s o r t ci r cu i t o n t he A O . . li ne.

N ow should t he A O power fail , due f or ins tance to a sh ort

. .

i n t he A O line as sh own in F i g 70 ,
. . at X then the battery will .
,

attem pt t o feed t he ro tary ( D C end ) r u n i t inverted g enerat e . .

, ,

al t ern at i ng curren t an d feed through the sh ort at X

. Or even .

i f t he A O su pply is only in terru p ted for a sh or t ti m e i t would

. .
,
 A P P L I CA TI ON S OF D C P O W E R- DI . . RE C TI ON A L RE L A Y S 59

be u nsafe to run the converter inverted al though the power

it consume s i s very small ; for it may run at damaging s peed .

In an y case were the alternating current to come on suddenly

, ,

it would not be runni ng in synchroni sm and mi ght caus e ,

cons iderable damage T herefore the reverse current relay

.
,
-

mus t be i ns talled between the rotary conve r ter and the l ead -
.

It mus t be very sensitive and trip the breaker immediately

u pon a slight reve rs al of power in the D C end T he rotary . . .

mus t the n be re started and re synchronized ( if not of the self

,

synchronizing type ) and the voltage readj u s ted before recon

n ect i on to the D C s ystem T hi s case call s for the highe s t

. . .

grade of relay as it mu st be set to trip the breakers instantly

on a revers al of current of only 1 or 2 per cent of nor mal load

current .

If the battery i s not large enough to carry the full load then ,

a reverse current power directional relay may be installed

- -

in the battery circuit to limit the dis charging load by tripping

several of the unimportant circuit s In thi s case however .
, ,

much better operation i s assured by u sing the relay not to

trip the circuits directly but to sound an alarm thu s warning
, ,

the operator to pull feeders until the safe load of the batt ery
i s reached at which point the alarm will cease .

F ro . 7l .
—
A r r ow s s h ow di r ect i on of cu rr en t w it h t hr ee ge n er a t or s f eedi n g bu s .

F ail ur e of P rim e M
v A simil ar case i s where the gen
o er s . —

or ators may be run from water or steam turbines or other ,

t ype of engine where they may be connected i n parallel feed

, ,

i n g the same bu s or charging a stand by battery C on sider

,
-
.

F i g 71 ,
. s howing three generators each w ith i t s separat e prime ,

m over , tied in to one bu s E ach g enerator sh ou ld be su pply

.
60 P RO TEC TI VE RE LA Y S

ing i ts ow n share of t he l oad Bu t su pp ose t he pri me m oving .

s ource of g enerat or N o 2 shou l d fail Being c onnec ted t o

. .

a live bu s the current would reverse it w ou l d run as a m otor

, , ,

and keep the prime m over running as a load ins tead of a m over ,

the currents being as shown i n F i g 72 . .

F ro . 72 —
. A r r ow s s ho w di r ec t i o n o f cu r r en t fl ow u po n f ai l u r e of o n e gen er at or .

S uppo se the failure should not be due to the prime mover but ,

due to generator N o 2 lo sing i t s fi eld ( accidentally di s connected

.

from exciting circuit ) T here would s till be a weak re si dual

.

fi eld upon which the heavy revers e current might react run ,

the motor and prime mover at terri fi c speed breaking the fly ,

wheel or doing other material damage S till the current might .

be les s than full load current -

.

A reverse current relay in serted between the generator and

-

protecting breaker would prevent this On the leas t reversal .

of current the relays would quickly clo se i t s contacts tripping

, ,

the breaker which could n ot be clo sed until the conditions

,

w ere correct for normal operation T his s cheme should not .

be depended on alone to di s co n nect a generator with lo st fi eld ,

as every important machine should be equipped with a cen t r i f

ugal device which instantly opens the circuit in the event of

exce s s s peed .

P ar al l el F eeders Heavy D C ins tallations sometimes tie

—

. . .

in a su b bu s with several tie line s some of which formerly were ,

u sed as spare line s to be used only in case of emergency .

S ometime s important machine s have their motors fed by

s everal feeders By properly connecting in reverse power relays
.

with overload and defi n i t e time limit rel ays every feeder may
- - - -
,
 A P PLI CA TI ON S OF D C P OWE R-DI RE C TI ON A L REL A Y S
. . 61

be u sed, g reat ew it h
conomy in a
copper and a fault y feeder ,

dis connec ted i m mediately without interruption of ser vice allow ,

ing the ot her cable s to c ar ry the load at overload until the

damag ed lin e can be r epair ed F i gur e 73 shows the main bu s .

tied into a su b bu s by two feede rs an d protected at the gen

F ro . 73 —
. l
N o r m a d i r ec t i o n of cu r r en t in par all el f eeder s .

crat or end by overload and defin i t e time limit relays an d - - - -

,

at the su b end by reverse current relays If a heavy excess -

.

current occurs on the su b bu s relays OD and OD wi ll trip the ,

’

breaker on each feeder at the generating end Bu t a short .

on a bu s in side the station i s of a very rare occurrence S uppose .

,

h owever , a short occurred on the feeder at X F i g 74 T hi s ,

. .

F ro . 74 —
. A r r ow s s h ow d i r ect i o n of c u r r en t w it h a s h or t c i r cu i t on on e f ee d er .

s hort will be fed from both the generating en d an d t he su b end ,

t hereby putting a heavy l oad or exce ss current on each feeder .

'
Both relays start to act at OD and OD but the current in ,

r elay R h as revers ed so before either OD or OD can trip their

’ '
,

breakers R trips i t s breake rs thu s relieving the exce ss current

’
, ,

on the fi rs t feeder T he exce ss current i s not reli eved from

.

'
r elays OD , however s o in a second or so they trip their breaker
, ,
62 P ROTE C T] VE RE LA Y S

e ff ectually cutting the bad feeder from service at both ends and
s till allowin g the fi rs t feeder to feed the bu s load without inter

ru ption .

When there are a number of feeders in parallel they may ,

be equipped with plain overload (exce ss current) relays with -

an inverse time li mit D u e to the current in the faulty feeder

- -
.

being gr eat er than in the other feeders the inverse time delays ,
-

wi ll u sually enable the relays to di s criminate and trip out the

faulty feede rs T his condition i s practically the same on D C
. . .

and A C and i s dis cu ssed in detail under the chapter on the

. .

P rotection of P arallel F eeders by E xce ss C urrent Relays

“ ” -
.

D C . Ri n g S ys tem s S ometime s there i s an apparatu s

.
—

which must be run without interruption except in case of actual

damage to the apparatu s its elf and even then the interruption ,

mus t be confi ned to the smalle st possible area T o thi s end .

,

spare feeders or line s are often run to each piece of apparatu s ,

and in case of trouble on one line the other i s s witched on , .

If the apparatu s i s connected in a ring system and power ,

directional and defi n i t e time l imit relays supplied the faulty - -

,

feeder or piece of apparatu s may be automatically cut out

without interru ption to the re st of the system A s shown .

in F i g 75 the tie line s between the motors are all equipped with
.
,

relays whi ch trip only when the power flow s aw ay from the
apparatu s T hen the relays on the side away from the main bu s
.

as at A B C D and E are set for a decrea sing time element

, , , ,

as for in s tance A for 5 sec B for 4 sec C for 3 sec and so .

,
.
, .
,

forth T he other relays going around the other way F G

.
, , , ,

H I and J are als o set with decreas ing time element as F

, ,

for 5 sec G for 4 sec and so on T he feeders are protected

.
,
.
,
.

at the bu s by overload and defin i t e time relays having a time - - —

element slightly longer than the longe st reverse current relay - .

N ow remembering that a relay w ill only trip when the current

,

flows aw ay from the su b bu se s and never when it flows ,

into them consider the e ff ect of a shor t circuit at X F i g 76

, ,
. .

A n exce ss curr ent will flow in the direction shown and relays
A B C and D will start operating ; al so F and the main relays
, ,

K and K Bu t D h as the lowe st setting of any of the one s that

’
.

s tart operating S o at the end of 2 sec relay D trips i ts breaker

. .
, ,

thus relieving the exce ss current on A , B C and K, which imme ,

 AP PLI CA T] ON S OF D C P O W E R-D] . . RE C TI ON A L REL A Y S 63

75 —
. E l em en t ar y t w o- w i r e r i n g sy s t em f or f eedi n g m o t or s an u n i n ter r u p t ed
su ppl y .

F ro 76
.
—
. A rr ow s s h ow di rect i on of c u rr en t fl ow w i t h a s ho t
r ci r cu i t bet w een
s t at i on s .
64 P ROTE C TI VE RELA Y S

di at ely r e set The excess current is s til l actu at ing relays F an d

.

K, but as F is qu ic ker than K, F trips i ts breaker before K, t hus

relieving the excess cu r rent and K reset s .

T hus it will be seen that the fau lty line is dis connect ed at
both ends and every motor i s s til l m nni n g without inter ru ption .

A disturban ce at any point of t he whole sys tem will thus clear

its elf E ven if the motor were defective the l ines supplyi ng
.
,

it woul d be automatically opened on each end and would cu t

out only the defective unit and allow the others t o ru n withou t
interr uption .

T o expand thi s system of protection large indus trial plan t s ,

may be substituted for the motors and be fed in a ring

without interruption except to the plant or the l ine in which
,

the disturbance occurs .

Or as a further expansion a number of subs tation may be ,

s

connected in a ring and give uninterrupted service .

Of course thi s i s seldom done on a commercial s cale on

,

direct current work due to the expen se unle ss the importance

-
, ,

of the service warrants it but the s ame sy stem i s widely u sed,

i n high ten sion alternating current tran smi ssion and a carefu l
- -

study of the ring system as applied in i t s elementary form

to D C work will greatly assi st in understanding the action
. .

of the ring system in A C work where three phase s phase . .

,

relations and di s tortion s as well as inductance and capacity

,

e ff ects must be con sidered and ar e very confusing unle ss the

,

elementary principle be clearly understood .

Un der curr ent P r ot ecti on

-
I f de sired under special con .
—

di t i on s mo st reverse current relays may be adj u sted to open

,
-

the breaker when the load merely drop s in stead of a full reverse , ,

by making the contacts normally closed and using the curren t

in normal direction to hold them open T he breaker will .

trip on either a fall in load or on reverse .

O ver vol tag e P r ot ecti on

- By suitably changing the win ding
.
—

on a moving coil type reverse current relay and connecting

- -
,

in series with a re sistor directly across the line it can be made

, ,

to g ive protection again st over voltage F igure 77 g ive s t he -

.

diagram of connection s A s the voltage ri se s it force s more

.
,

and more current through the moving c oil until a prede ,

 C HA P T E R VII

I N D UCTI ON T YP E CURRE N T
-
RE LAYS
When the great possibili tie s of adequate protection were
seen,
and when it w as realized that to obtain thi s pro t ection
a more accura te relay than the plunger type w as required ,

the induction type watt hour meter w as looked to as a s olution

- -

of the problem The voltage winding of the watt hour me ter

.
-

w as di s placed by a current winding and contacts were arranged ,

to close when the current reached a certain value T he torque .

,

or turning e ff ort of the di sk w as oppo sed by a s piral spring

,
.

T he magnetic and electric circuits of a relay of the induction

type are shown in F i g 78 A i s the main winding and under
. .
,

thi s i s another winding similar to the secondary of a trans

former which suppli e s the pol epi ece windings B and D T he
,
.

path of the magnetic flux i s indicated by the dotted line s .

F igure 79 show s a s tandard induction type relay and F i g -

.

80 a s chematic diagram of parts as viewed from the top T he .

di sk A i s damped by the permanent magnets D in a manner ,

,

similar to a watt hour meter except that both windings on the

-
,

electromagnet C Operate from the current of the li ne alone ,

as in an ammeter In st ead of the di s k revolving continuou sly

.

when current i s appl ied the rotation i s oppo sed by the spiral
,

s pring I fa s tened with i t s outer end to the permanent support

E an d i t s inner end to the shaft B, w hich also carri es t he m oving

contact F .

When sufficient curr ent flows through the electromagnet C

to develop in the di sk the nece ssary torque it rotates until ,

the contact F touche s contact G thereby completing the trip ,

circuit .

T he foregoing de s cribe s the i nduction type relay without -

i t s pre sent re finements It had great accuracy but on e great

.
,
” “
drawback w as that the moving contact floated T hat i s .
,

the l oad might be su fficient to turn the di sk half way around ,

so if the r elay w as set t o operate on 5 amp and the load w as .

,

66
 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T RE LA Y S 67

F ro . 78 —
. M g
a net i c an d l
e ec t ri c ci r cu i t of W es t i n g h o u se i n verse- ti m e-l i m i t
i n d u ct i on t y pe l
r e ay .

h o. 79 —
. Westi n ghou se i n du cti on t y pe over l oad rel ay .
 P RO TE C TI VE REL A Y S

am pf or som e t irne an d then su ddenl y i ncreas ed, t he

.

cl os i n g of t he c on tact s w ou ld be al m os t i ns tan tan eous , because

”
am p caused the contacts t o float near t o t he t r ippi ng
“
.

p oin t T.o overcome t his , seve r al hol es w e re cu t in t he dis k ,

benea t h t he poles of the elec t romag n e t s T hese holes decreas ed .

t he t orque considerably , but once the current be ca m e h ig h

enou gh to m ove t he dis k slightly the holes were moved ou t ,

f rom u n der t he poles and t he latt er then acting on the solid

, ,

m etal cau sed t he dis k to revolve until the con t ac t s w e re closed

, .

Fm . fi tl —
S ho w i n g p o sit io n of c o n t ac t s , ma g nets , et c . in W es t i n ghou se l
r e ay

( t op vi ew ) .

T hi s in sured an inverse time limit on all overloads as the disk ,

w as alw ays at i t s starting point u n til an overload occurred .

As all circuits could n ot be set to trip on the same overload ,

t aps were brought out on the current coil which enabled the ,

op ratin g current to be varied over a wide range

e
a common ,

rang e being 4 5 6 ,7and 8 amp although later practice has

, ,
.
,

of t en shown 4 to 1 2 or 4 to 1 6 amp preferable . .

I n the i n ductio n ty pe relay F i g 79 the t aps are changed

-
,
.
,

by i nser tin g a sc rew in a marked plate t o make contac t with ,

t he des i red t ap T he metal piece on the front of relay F i g

.
, .

8 1 has a nu m ber of t apped hole s to receive the s crew which

, ,

m ay be pu t in any hole and make contact with the taps T he .

m ai n coil i s wou nd on the elec t romagnet and has the taps

broug ht ou t at t he co r rec t turns to give the de si red o peration
. .
 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T RE L A Y S 69

The bl oc k is of insulating material and i s arranged so the tap s

cannot pull out .

As has been pointed out previously it i s sometime s de sirable ,

t o have an invers e time limit on moderate overloads and a

-

defin i te time limit in the cas e of severe sho r t circuits

-
T hi s -
.

Fm . 81 .
—

C u rr e n t t ap pl at e of W es t i n gho
u se i n du c t i o n l l
o ver o ad r e ay .

combination of inverse time on moderate overload gradually ,

decreasing to a de finite time on heavy overloads or s hort circui t s -

,

i s met in the induction type relay by t he use of a sm al l trans

-

“
former called a torque compen sat or .

Tor qu e Co m pen sator s T hi s t or qu e com pen sat or is i n tr o

.

du ced into the second ary ci r cu i t as show n i n Fi g 82 T he . .

70 P ROTE C TI V E RE LA Y S
p

with the necessary current t o react on t he main flux or magnet ,

i sm from the pole F produced by coil A

,
A t n oder at e load s .

the current in D will increase in proportion t o B but the iron ,

in C i s of a cro ss section such that after the current in coil

-
,

B passe s a certain value the core become s saturated cou se

, ,

quently the current in D cannot increase no matter what the

overload may be S ince the current in the coil cannot increase
.

above a de finite value the torque on heavy overloads become s

,

constant thu s re sulting in a defin i t e time delay

,
-
.

Fm . 82 —

. M g
a net i c l
e ect r i c ci r cu i t of We stin gh o u se d efi n i te m i n i m u m
—

t im e im it l l
r e ay .

It i s essential i n the protection of radial and ring system s

that the time of the relay be variable T o accompli sh thi s .
,

the angle through which the contact mu st travel i s varied .

T hus if the contact mu st travel on e half revolution it may

,
-
,

take 2 sec but if a stop H F i g 80 i s arranged so that the

.
, ,
.
,

contact need make only one fourth revolution the time may -
,

be halved O ther po sitions easily set by a small lever enable

.
, ,

an y time from ins tantaneou s to a maximum to be readily set .

A typic al c u rve for an overload induction relay i s given -

i n F i g 2 1 reference to which will show that 1 5 0 per cent load

.
,

takes about 1 0 see for the relay to close i t s contact ; 200 per
.

cent load require s about 5 sec ; 5 00 per cent sec ; .

,
.

p er cent and a n y overload i n exce ss of thi s take a de fi n ite

t i m e of abou t 2 sec Th ese val ues ar e tak en at t he hi g hest
.
 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T RE L A Y S 71

time setting ; if the setting i s halved the time i s halved In ,

.

other word s the time i s almo st proportional to the lever settings

,
.

Rel ay Con tacts Owin g to the accuracy required in a pr o

—

t ect i ve relay the part s mu st be small and del icately con structed
, .

C onsequently the contacts of the trip circuit cannot be large an d

bulky and are not de si g ned to open the trip circuit either i n
,

t en t i on all y or unintentionally once it has been e stabli s hed , .

T hi s i s one point that require s careful con sideration in the design

or selection of a relay as the tripping circuits are as a rule, , ,

hi ghly inductive and an ar e which would naturally follow the

,

opening of the circuit might per si s t for a considerable len th of

g
t ime and re sult in seriou s burning of contact s F or t hi s reason .

it i s nece ss ary that the tripping circuits be opened by an auxil iar y

pallet switch or contacts fastened to the circuit breaker in such a
manner that the openin g of the breaker automatically open s the
tripping circuit .

C o n tactor S wi tch e s T here are two reasons why the contactor

.
—

s witch i s required In the firs t case take for in stance a circuit

.
,

breaker which require s of a second to open after the relay

contacts have closed an d the trip coil of the breaker has been
energized S uppo se that the overload on the line should di s
.

appear i h the small interval between the instant of contact clo sing
and the opening of the breaker T he relay would instantly .

attempt to re set and in doin g so would open the circuit before

t he auxiliary pallet switch opened it thu s re s ulting in severe ,

contact burning T he contactor switch overcomes this

. .

In the second case the overload might j ust be great enough

,

to barely close the contacts T his weak clo sing might not allow .

su ffi cient c u rrent to pass through to operate the trip coil of the

” “
breaker and the contacts would chatter and burn badly .

To overcome thi s the contactor s witch may be e m ployed t o

,

change a weak fluttering contact into a good positive contact

which will keep the trip circuit clo se d in the relay until it i s
opened externally by the pallet switch on the breaker .

A dia g rammatic s cheme of the old s tyle contactor switch i s

sho w n in F i g 83 while a diagram of the modern contactor switch
.

i s shown in F i g 84 In both the se figure s the main relay con

. .
,

tact s A when they clo se the tripping circuit of t he relay e nerg ize
, ,

a sm all coi l B that attracts an iron armature or plunger 0 an d

72 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

close s the contacts D whi ch are in parallel with the mai n con
,

tact s A T hu s it will be seen readily that even though the

.

contacts A should open the cu rrent will pas s through B and con
,

Fla . 83 —

. Sc h e m at i c d i ag r am l
of o bso e t e c o n t a c t o r s w itc h .

tacts D will stay clo sed until the pallet switch on the breaker
opens the circuit ; when thi s occurs coil B will lo se i t s pull and
open contact s D T hi s contactor s w itch will clo se about 20
.

amp at 220 volts

. .

F ro . 84 .
—

Sc hem at i c di ag r am of m oder n co n t a c t or s w i t c h .

In F i g 85 i s shown a view of the assembled contactor switch

.

and also an exploded view showing the plunger and contacts .

T hi s contactor switch i s usually mounted in the bottom of the

relay as shown in F i g 86 . .

If the trip circuit require s more than the current which can be
safely handled by the contactor switch then an auxiliary relay ,
74 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

s uch as shown i n F i gs 1 95 and 1 96 may be u sed T he auxi liary

. .

relay shown in F i g 1 97 not only handle s gr eater current but

.
,

may also be arranged t o trip several circuits upon the fu nction

ing of on e relay .

Conti nui ty I n di cator O n e di mcu l t y frequentl y encou nt ered

.
—

i s the burnin g ou t of tri p-current carrying springs due to exce ssive—

trip currents or contact arcing T o overcome thi s , special con .

t acts may be arranged as in F i g 87to prevent the s pring from .

carrying any current C ontact A i s stationary while B i s

.

F ro . 87 —
. S p eci al ar r an gem en t of con t a ct s w he n r eq u i r ed wit h co n t i n u i t y

i n di cato r .

mounted a thin fl exible strip G T hen when t he disk turn s

on .
,

the arm D s tr ike s the contact B forcing it again st A and com ,

pl et i n g the trip circui t .

S ome companies connect a small vol tmet er or a pilot lamp

across the contacts as i n F i g 87in order t o tell by i t s continuou s
.

indication that the trip circuit i s al ive up to the contacts S hould .

the meter fail to indicate or the pilot lamp go out the operat or ,

knows immediately t hat the trip circu i t has failed In other .

cas es a small telegraph relay i s conn ected t o ring a bell w hen the
,

circuit fails .

An other later form of contin uity indicator or supervi sory

”
circuit i s formed in thi s relay by adding a second spi ral spring
and u sing the standard relay with i t s cu rrent carrying spring and -

moving contacts T he voltmeter or pilot lamp i s connected to

.
 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T RE LA Y B 75

f eed through both springs , so i f the main s pring burns out , then
t he continu ity indicator indicat e s by the pilot lamp going out .

Th e G en er al E l ectri c In du cti on Rel ay A front view of thi s —

relay i s shown in F i g 88 where the external similarity t o the

.

hou se type watt hour me t er i s readily appar ent F rom the

- -
.

s chematic diagram of the front mechani s m as shown in F i g 89 .

it w ill be seen that there i s a di sk A which i s dri ven by a U shaped

-

F ro . 88 —
. T he G en er a l E lectr i c Co . i n du ct i on t y pe l
over oad ( excess cur r en t )

l
re ay .

electromagn et ( not shown ) and which i s damped by the per

manent magnets C Upon the occur rence of an overload the
.

electromagn et cau se s the disk t o turn against the re str aining

action of the S pring U It will be noted that the edge of the disk
.

i s slotted with slot s of decreasing depth so that as the disk r e ,

volve s more and more metal i s placed under the action of t he

,

driving magnet thu s re sulting in an increased torque which

,

offsets the increas ing re strai ning action of the spring and prevents
the disk from floating .
76 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

M ec h a n is m

Sti r -
Sc hem ati c di ag r am of G . E i n d u c t i on ty pe
. l l
o ver oad r e ay .
dis k re vd m f ar m ongh a pi n T pushes the conts ets
. on g ear

D t og et her , t h us com pl et i ng t h e
t ri ppi ng ci rc ui t .

I n ord er to preven t th e con t acts f r om flu t teri ng or open i ng

t h e t r i p ci rcu i t an d caus i ng th e con t acts to bu rn , the el ec tr o
m ag net G i s co n nect ed -
i n ser ies w i th t h c t r i p ci rcui t an d ar m nged
'

s o t hat t h e fir st flu t t er of cu r r en t w hi ch paw s t h ro ug h the tri p

coi l en er g i z es t he elect ro m ag net , w hi ch q ui ck ly at tra cts t he

i ron arm at u re on con t acts D an d hol ds t hem posi t i vel y s hu t u n ti l .

t he t p
r i ci rc u i t i s opened by th e auxi li ar y pal let sw i t ch on th e

Ti m e Load C ur ves
- —

I t has pre vi ou sl y been show n w hy a

defin i te in verse
or -
defini t e t ime delay w as pre ferable t o a t ru e
in verse t i me delay w h r
e e t he curves m ay in t e rs ect at ext r me
ly e

F to. 90 .
—

I n dex pl a t e of G . E . i n d u c ti on l
o ver oad r e
l ay .

heavy overloads In thi s relay t hi s inv

. pproaching defini t e
, erse a
- —

mini m u m delay i s obtained by using a sm all sat urat ion trans

f o r mer conn ected so that i ts prima ry carri es the l i n e current a nd
i ts secondary feeds the driving electromagnet At high curren t s .
,

t hi s transformer li mi t s the current suppli ed to t he drivin g elect ro

m agn et and re sults i n curve s as shown in F i g 22 It w ill be . .

n oted that al though the time i s s lightly i n vcrsc th rou g hout t he

‘

entire length of the cur ve yet the curve s never inters ect and ar e
,

clearly disti ngu ishable even at p e r cent of normal load .

T hi s overload i s seldom m et in actual p rac tice exc ept on very

exceptionally heavy short circuits -
.

P ractice has shown on thi s relay that a table of fig ures i s

preferable and more easy to interpret than a set of curves l on .

sequen tly , the relay i s provided wi t h a tab ul ated n am epla te

78 P ROTE C TI VE REL A Y S

as in F g 90 which is self explanatory from a careful

i .
- tudy If s .

de sirable a trans cript plate may be made in which the actual

,

transformer secondary operating current s are tabulated instead of

FIG . 91 .
—

O per at or
’
s t r an s cr i p t of i n de x pl at e .

u sing multipliers S uch a transcript i s shown in F i g 9 1 and i s

.
.

often of great convenience when change s in settings mu st be

q uickly made .

F ro . 92 —
. Lo cat i on of t he cu r r en t t ap pl ate i n the G . E i n du ct i on
. l
o ver oad r e a y l ,

Ti m e S etti ng s ti me i s rea dily controlle d by a small

.
—

T he
lever E ( F ig 89) which move s over a divided scale N
. F or .

instance if t he relay t akes 2 second s at a certain l oad with N o 1 0 .

 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T RE L A Y S 79

se tting then at the same load it wi ll take 1 second at N o 5

,
.

setting or
, s econd s at N o 2 setting etc .
, .

Curr en t T ap P l ate A clos e u p view of the current tap plate i s

.
- -

shown in F i g 92 . T hi s plate contains tap s from the primary

.

coil of the saturation transformer and i s arranged to keep the

ampere turns constant In changing taps an extra plug i s
.
,

s crewed into the de sired hole and then the fi rs t one removed .

T w o plugs mu s t never be left in at one time as thi s would s hort

circuit part of the tran sformer primary ; nor mu s t both plugs be
withdrawn at once as thi s would open circuit the serie s line -

t ransformer and might re sult in a dangerou sly high potential

at the relay terminals T he numeral s 4 5 6 8 and 1 0 repre sent
.
, , , ,

the minimum value s of current in ampere s that each tap require s

to cau se the relay to clo se i t s contacts .

Adju stm en t of T r i ppi n g Curr en t A lthough every relay as it

—

leave s the manufacturer i s carefully adj u sted to trip on i t s rated

current yet due to variation in wave form or frequency or
, , ,

shocks in trans portation it will sometime s be found that the relay

requires slight adju stment F or thi s purpo se a flux shunting

.
,

s crew i s conveniently located on the lower left hand side .

L oo sening the lock nut and turning the s crew to the right i n
crease s the current required and turning to the left decreas e s it .

A fter adju stment the s crew should again be locked by the nut .

Rel ati o n of Var i ou s P art s When the relay has been repaired
—
.

or reassembled it i s nece ss ary to see that the fi rst short slot in the
edge of the disk stand s ju st under the front edge of the opening
”
in the left hand frame T hi s i s to insure against floating of
-
.

the dis k at low overloads .

T he time lever mu st be set on zero and then the contacts

adju sted so they are barely clo sed When free the se contacts .
,

s hould be separated from each other by about inch .

In the se relays will be found a black s pot painted on the edge

of the disk ( as in F i g 9 3) and this s pot should come exactly in
.

the center l ine of the bracket which supports the permanent

magnets .

With the time lever set on zero of i t s scale the contact mec h an
i sm i s brought into po sition for assembly with the relay frame ,

and the holding screws partially set up leaving the gear and ,

p inion di s engaged T he. di s k i s then rotated carefully in a

 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

countercl ockwise direction (l ooking down) from i t s free po sition

through approximately of a revolution until the spot painted
on the edge of the di sk i s midway between the pole tips of the
permanent magnet T he gear and pi ni on are then engaged and
.

the mechani sm secured by tightening the holding s crews C are .

mu st be taken that the gears are not meshed too deeply T here .

should be a little play in them when the di s k i s held fixed and the

gear wheel shaken back and forth .

Ti me Lever

F ro . 93 —

. S how i g
n t he l
cor r ec t r e at i o n be t w een c on t a c t s , t im e l e ve r a n d l
b ac k
di s k s po t i n t he G . E . i n d u ct i o n l
o ver oa d r e a y l .

T he correct location of the driving magnets i s al so important .

Both the upper and lower pole piece s have a s econdary conductor
or shading ring and the angu lar po sition of the pole pieces with
respect to the radiu s of the di sk at their center determine s in
a large degree the torque exerted by the disk when a given current
i s applied t o the relay windings .

T he upper pole piece i s secured to a pin in the U shaped —

driving magnet in such a manner that it can rotate slightly as the

82 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

When replacing the time index plate be sure that it is

adj usted so that i ts back does not touch the edge of the d isk .

I N D UCTI O N VS . S OLE N OI D -P LUN G E R RE LAY S

T here are a number of di sadvantage s in the solenoid plunger -

relays which are not pre s ent in the induction type In the .

ai r bellow s lagged type the time i s very inaccurate and u n r eli

-
,

able due to the drying out of the leather

,
.

A nother diffi culty i s that the continuou s vibration t o which

they are subj ected gradually loosen s the nuts s crew s etc , ,
.
,

unle ss the relay i s unusuall y well bu ilt T he noi se i s al s o objec .

t i on abl e The force on the plunger increas e s as the square of

.

the current with the re sult that the force s reach such enormou s
,

value s during a heavy overload that the leather may be stretched

or even burst I t i s no uncommon thing for relays of this
.

type to be so badly damaged that they will fail to operate

the next time another short circuit occurs -
.

T he defi ni t e time limit relays are not subj ect to such defects
- -

in the bellows due to overload but their inherent variation ,

in time make s them unreliable for selective action closer than

about one second A nother di sadvantage of bellow s type
.

relays i s that once the core i s l ifted then in order to re set the
, , ,

current must drop to 40 or 5 0 per cent of the minimum tripping

value .

T he oil damped relays are not at all permanently accurate

-

and change in time greatly due to change s in the vi s co sity of

the oi l upon change s i n temperature .

An obj ection to the u se of all s olenoid plunger relays i s that -

the expense of adju sting them for accurate work i s often greater
than the cos t of the relays them selve s It i s possible that an .

automatic sectionalizing s cheme could be laid out so that time

limits varying by steps of 1 to 2 sec could be u sed in which cas e .
,

t he be l low s type of relay might be suffi ciently accurate but such ,

ac cur acy could not be obtained except at considerable expen se .

In order to adj ust relays of thi s type it i s generally nece ssary

to dis connect them from the circuit and connec t them to a te s t
circuit which in many cas es i s not easy to obtain In addition
,
.
,

a chronograph amm eter and control device are nece ssary

,
.

N eedle ss to say, such a calibrat i on mu st be made by a skilled

 I N D UC TI ON - T Y P E C URRE N T REL A Y B 83

te ster If a change in the time l imit i s later required it i s

.

nece ssary to repeat the entire proce ss .

T he be s t feature of the inductio n type of overload relay i s

i t s remarkable accuracy and permanence of calibration T he u se .

of permanent mag nets as a time limit device prevents ove rs wing

-

i n g and chattering of the contact s and the con struction i s such

,

that the relay will ins tan tly ceas e i t s movement when the over
load disappears T here i s no possibil ity of mechanical injury
.

due to excessive currents when the torque compensator i s u sed ,

becau se the saturation of the iron prevents the mechanical

force s from increasing beyond a certain amount .

T he current and time adj u s tment of the induction relays

are plainly and accurately marked and any des ired change
’
can be made at a moment s notice T hi s i s a feature much.

appreciated by the operating man who i s res pon sible for the
succe ssful operation of the automatic sectionalizing devices -

on hi s system He can pers onally check the setting of every

.

relay and thu s be sure that no incorrect operation wi l l re sult

due to the carele ss ne ss or incompe tence of an assi stant .

Le ad on In str um en t Tr an s f or m er When selecting a relay

.
—

for u se on current transformers which als o operate ins truments ,

it i s important to con sider the l ead which the relay place s on

the tran sformer T he induction type of relay require s a smaller
.

amount of energ y than does any other type a feature to be ,

appreciated when bu shing type current tran sformers are u sed

-
.

Rel ay S pecifi cati on s I n order that unreliable and u n sat

.
—

i sf act or y overload and underload relays may not be u sed in

in stallation s it i s always well to add the following speci fica
,

tion s If a relay meets thes e fundamental requirements and

.

i s well cons tructed it should be sati sfactory but the se s peci

, ,

ficat i on s will bar the unde sirable relays .

“
Overlo ad protective relays shall be equipped with a time
-

limit that vari e s inversely with the current at all moderate

overloads and which will not drop below a de finite mini mum
time at extreme overloads T he de fini te minimum time limit
.

shal l be adj u s table for all value s between 0 and 2 see ( or 0 .

and 4 which adj u stment shall be accurate and permanent .

The relays shall be calibrated at the factory and the calibrating ,

data shall be fixed to the front of t he relay It shall be po ssible .

84 P ROTE CTI VE RE LA Y S

to make without the u se of any te sting equipment or timing

,

device s independent adju stment of both the time l imit and

,

the overload value at which the relay w ill operat e Relays shall
.

be so cons tructed that they will not be damaged or their calibra

tion aff ected by the maximum cu rrent that the generating equip
ment can deliver to them T hei r cons truction shall be such
.

t hat in case an overload cease s before the relay contacts have

been closed the relay w ill instantly commence to re set t o i t s
,

s tarting po sition .T he energ y that the current transformer

mu st furn i sh to operate a relay shall not be in exce ss of 20
”
volt amp
- .
 C HAPT E R VIII

A O P OW E R DI RE CT I O N AL RE LAY S
. .
-

In the tran smi ss ion of electric energy there i s perhaps ,

no more important piece of apparatu s than the power directional -

relay which i s u sed to di s criminate or localize and i solate a def ec

tive feeder or subs tation and thereby secure a maximum of
“
continuou s service T he se relays are frequently called reverse
.

”
current relays overload and reverse current relays reverse
,
-
,
” “
p o wer relay s and rever, se overload relay s A lthough
-
q uit e .

good protection has been obtained by the u se of spli t co n duc t or -

and pilot wire system s for the protection of parallel feeders

-
,

( as will be de s cribed later ) yet s uch s y s tem s are very

, expen s ive

Fm . 95 —

. S h ow i g
n w hy t he c u r r en t r e ver se s w h en on e p ar all el f eeder
”
is
s ho
r t ed .

to install and m ai ntain T heir greate s t excu se at the time

.

of in stallati on w as the lack of a reliable power directional -

relay as it mu st be adm itted that the early relays were qui te

lacking in s ome points and since the pe rfection of the present
,

day power directional relays the pilot wire and split conductor
-
,
- -

system s are u sed only on certain sys tem s where careful de si g n ,

and calcul ation indicat es a di stinct advantage .

T he development of a s ati sfacto r y power directional relay

-
,

however w as by n o means a simple propo sition In order to

,
.

better illu strate thi s it may be well to c onsider some of the

,

early form s and show why they failed .

85
86 P ROTE C TI VE REL A Y S

Areview of the m ost c omm n of the power directi ona l

o u se -

r elay i s s hown in F i g 9 5 where A i s a generator feeding the bus

.
,

B which supplie s the su b bu s C over the parallel tie line s D

,
-

and E S uppose a short circuit oc cur s at X on feeder D Cu r

.
-
.

”
rent will feed into the short X directly from the bu s B and
“
,

als o over the l ine E through C and into X Bu t it will be

,
.

noted that while the power flow in feeder E and in feeder

D as far as X i s in the normal direction yet the power flow in the ,

s e ction of the feeder D between X and C h as reve r sed Or .

in other word s the current (in s tantaneou s value s) has r e

versed i t s polarity w ith re spect to the voltage (in stantaneous
value s) T hi s reversing of re s pective in stantaneou s polarities
.

of current and voltage i s re s ponsible f or the term reverse “

current .

It might appear at firs t thought an easy matt er to place

, ,

contacts on a wattmeter which would hold open on normal ,

direction and close on reversal of power Bu t should the

, .

”
s hort be near the subs tation the voltage will be very low
“
, ,

al though the current may be high and the power actuating ,

t he wattmeter will be extremely low in thi s cas e In fact .

,

in some te s ts made where the line w as actually shorted i n t en

,

t i on all y it w as s hown that the voltage may drop as low as

,

1 per cent of normal .

F urther we are u sually dealing in actual practice with three

,

phase current and phas e di stortions mu st be con sidered par

, ,

t i cu l ar l y i n the case of s hort circuit s from one lin e to ground or

-
,

on one phase only T hese short circuits may so di stort the rela
.
-

tion of current to voltage as to cau se the angle between them to

be almost 90 deg and con sequently there i s the worst condition
.
,

for low torque in the wattmeter element el e very l ow power , .

fac t or and very low voltage .

S till one of the fi rs t relays u sed for reverse p ower trip

,
-

ping had a wattmeter element which clo sed contacts on reve rs al

of power In thi s form the movement w as the same as the
.
,

induction wattmeter T here w as a movable arm and contacts

.

an d two stationary contact s one on each side of the movable ,

contact with separate adj u s tment s provided to allow di ff erent

,

setti n g s for tripping poin t s i n normal and rever se directions .

T he m ovem en t w as c ontrolled by a st rong spring to al l ow set

 A C
. . P O W E R- DI RE C TI ON AL RE L A Y S 87

ting to t w o or three tim es fu ll l oad N o att empt w as ma de to .

introduce time lag or damping the relays acting i n s tantaneousl y

, , .

T he se relays were fou nd t o be entir ely inadequate on ac coun t

of in suffi cient torque when shor t circ u its caused t he volt age -

and power factor to drop to low values T hey proved con .

elu sively that a pure wattmeter relay w as not s atisfact ory .

A nother early relay u sed a moving coil dynamometer type -

movement with an ironclad magnetic circuit to increas e t he

torque On e particular re as on why this failed w as because
.

the very powe rful current in the current coil generated a voltage
in the voltage coil of the relay du ri n g a short circuit and conse -

quently the relay would not trip when it should Under other .

conditions the induc ed v oltage caused i t t o trip when it should

,

not.

A nother disadvantage of the in s tantaneous revers e p ower -

relays w as that sudden momentary surge s such as might be due ,

t o synchro ni zing or s witching would t rip out the breaker ,

unnecess arily .

T here were many attempts made t o add c orrective features

t o the early wattmeter relays On e of the mo st intere sting
.

w as an arrangement con si sting of a contact device in com

bination with a qui ck acting regulator to maintain the current
-

practically co n s tant in the potential coil regardless of low

voltage A dj ustments were provided to vary the time element
.

of the relay .

”
T he next step in development w as t he
“
diff erential type ,
”
in which a voltage coi l w as added t o polarize an ordinary
cu rr en tw per at ed relay in order to cau se the relay t o operate
,

at a lower value of cur rent in the reverse than in the nor mal
direction S uch relays were made in both the solenoid bellows
.
-

type and the induction type In the solenoid type a voltage

.
,

winding w as superimposed u pon the current solenoid : voltage

and cu rr ent acting in opposition on normal flow and acting ,

additively if the power flow revers ed .

A nother form of thi s di ff erential clas s of relay w as made

on the induction type wattmet er pri n ciple by winding the
-
,

relay for excess current an d adding a voltage winding connected

to a voltage transformer .

T he coils were wound on the iron laminations in such relation

88 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA YS

as to cau se the t orque in the m ovable disk t o be proport i onal

t o the square of the curr ent ; a te r minal block w as used to vary
the curr ent setting s by changing the number of turns in the
main c oil When voltage w as applied t o the terminals of t he
.

main coil the eff ect w as to shif t the t orque cu r ve in the reverse
,

dir ection It will be un derstood that t he g r eat advantage

.

of thi s type of relay over t he earl ier wattmeter type s w as that

even sh ould the voltage or the power factor or both fall t o , ,
“ ”
zero ,the relay would become a plain exce ss current relay -
,

and thu s trip out the circu it breaker Whereas t he wattme t er .

relays wou ld be inactive under these conditions re sulting in ,

no aut omatic protection and these relays would trip T heir

, .

di ffi culty w as of cou rse that under such conditions they could
, , ,

not dis criminate between directions of power flow and t hu s

would trip out both circ u it breakers at the subs tation ends
of parallel lines Bu t they were better than relays which under
.

conditions of l ow voltage or power factor would not trip out

at all and they were thus u sed sati sfactorily for a number of years
,
.

T hes e relays were als o made for polyphas e work with two
movements operating one shaft and contact but as the tripping ,

values would be di ff erent according t o whether the overload

,

w as on one phas e or on more they were abandoned in favor ,

of the u se of separate single ph ase elements for polyphase service

-
.

As regards their place in the fi eld the se overload and reverse ,

“
relays can only be regarded as a modifi cation of overload
( exce ss cu rrent
-
) relay s which with
, g iven c ondition s of,s uper
i mpo sed voltage s as regard s value and direction wi l l trip at ,

diff erent value s of current .

“ ”
T hey become practically current relays when the volt age
drops very low .

RE Q UI RE M E N T S OF A P RA C TI CAL P O W E R - D I RE CTI O N AL REL AY

F rom the f oregoing it i s e vi dent that a practical power

directi onal relay should fulfill the following con ditions
1 It should close i t s contacts po sitively when the direction
.

of power flow i s revers ed under all possible c ondition s of ,

voltage p ower factor an d current

,
.

2 It should never under any circum s tance s clo se i t s contact s

.
, ,

when the direction of power flow i s normal .

90 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

t ains t w o at e i nduction elements each w i t h i t s wi n di ngs

separ , ,

disk magnets contacts et c T here is no mechanical con nec

, , , .

tion whatever between the two moving elements The t op .

element i s the quick acting ext remely sensitive watt elemen t

-

and the lower ele m ent is the standard exce ss cu rrent ( over -

FIG . 9 60 . FI G . 9 6h .

FIG . 9 6a
.
—
E x t er n a vi ew of l We t i ghou se pow
s n er di r ec t i o n a l l
r e ay .

FIG . 9 6b
.
—

l
I n t er n a vi ew of West i gho e pow e
n us r di r ec t i on a l l
r e ay .

load ) relay provided with adj ustable time lever etc exactly
, ,
.

as de s cribed for the overload inverse defi n i t e minimum time - -

limit relay .

F igure 9 7 show s the in ternal wiring diagram of connections ,

t he cu rrent winding being shown by the heavy black lines .

F igure 98 s hows the same connection s but the voltage circuit

i s thi s time shown by heavy line s and F i g 99 shows t he same ,
.
,

with the trip circuit shown heavy .

T h e Con tactor S w i tch A nother eff ect present during short

.
—

circuit w as that due to the flow of heavy currents the vibration

, ,

of the disks prevented the making of good contacts at the watt

ele m en t and als o caused t he dis ks to sli p on t he sh af ts du e t o t he
 A O P OW E R-D I
. . RE C TI ON AL RE LA Y S 91

5 WI TCH
7
D3 0 U5
OR
CON PEIYS A 7

F m 97
.
—
. l
I n t er n a di ag r a m o f W t i gh e p ow
es n ou s er di r ec t i o n a l l
r e ay w it h se r i es

ci r c u i t how w i t h h avy li
s n e n es .

F IG . 98 .
—
S am e as F ig . 9 7 ex c e p t w i t h po te ntia l ci r c u i t s how heavy n .

F ro . 99 —

. S am e as F ig . 9 7excep t w i t h tri p ci r c u i t s how n heavy .

92 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

excessive t orque developed T he vibration eff ect w as a matter

.

of magnetic attraction between t he series coils and t he induced

currents in the disk .

F ortunat ely thi s weak fluttering contact may be changed

, ,

into a good po sitive con t act by means of a contact or s witch ,

mounted in the case T hi s con si sts of a solenoid capable of

.
,

attracting an iron plu nger which carries a silver contact as in F i g , .

84 .

N ow uppose the main relay contacts j us t barely clo se and are

s -

vibrating or chattering violently du e to the heavy induced ,

current s in the disk to which they are attached T heir partial .

touching allows a weak fluttering current to flow in the solenoid

,
.

T his weak current imme di ately rai ses the plunger and the ,

co ntact disk immediately short circuit s t he two stationar y -

contacts which being in parallel with the main contacts i m m edi

, , ,

ately take all the trip current by making good positive contact ,

thus po sitively energ izing the tr ip coil and tripping the breakers .

It i s very evident that should the main contacts still flutter ,

there will be no spark and in fact after t he firs t touch they

, ,
.

may even open although the touch w as enough to close

,

the contactor contacts and trip the breaker T he t rip circuit .

will s tay energ ized and the se contacts will stay closed until
,

the circuit i s opened by the auxiliary pallet s witch on the breaker -

,

which i s arranged for this purpose .

T he contactor switch not only assure s po sitive contact ,

but by increasing the tripping circuit capacity from 2 to 20 -

amp avoid s the u se of an auxiliary relay switch except in the

.
,
-
,

case of very heavy trip currents .

Th e Tor qu e Com pen s ator T he eff ect of the exce ss ive

.
—

torque loo sening the disks on the shafts w as eas ily overcome
by means of the torque compen sator which as w as thoroughly , ,

explained under Induction type Relays i s merely a s mall trans

” -
,

former with the primary carrying the main current the secondary ,

supplying the relay windings and so proportioned that the

,

iron become s s aturated at heavy overloads t hu s preventing ,

exce ssive flow of current in the relay .

S tray F i el ds I n V iew of the fact that the heavy overload

.
-

currents produce such a strong field it might be su spected ,

that thi s alternating field would weaken the permanent magnets

94 P ROTE OTI VE RE LA Y S

F ro . 101 —
. I n t er i or vi ew of G E . . poly p h ase pow er l l ay
di r ect i o n a re .

F ro . 1 02 —
. I n t er n al w i ri n g di ag r am of G E poly p h ase pow er di r ect i on al
. . relay .
 A C P OWE R-DI RE C TI ON AL
. RE LA Y B 95

F rom thi s i t wil l be plainl y seen that there are t hree sepa
rate curren t coils and three separat e potential coil s and since ,

the relay operate s on the induction pr inciple there i s no m utu al ,

inductance between coils ; con sequently n o induced voltage

in the pote n ti al c oi l fr om the heavy curren t flowing i n the
s erie s coil .

T w o di sks are u sed the upper one of which i s driven by one

,

element T he lower d isk i s driven by two elements one in the

.
,

front ( plainly sho w n in F i g 1 0 1 ) and one in the rear Under

. .

normal direction of power the dis ks te n d to rotate i n one direction

,

and keep the contact O pen Rever sal of power flow cau se s the
.

di sk s to rotate in the oppo site direction th u s closing the contact , .

S ince the action desired i s as nearly in stantaneous as po ssible ,

no att empt i s made to damp the m ovement ; the arc of disk

t ravel i s very small .

F luttering trip curren t s such as migh t be due to vibration

of di sk bouncing of contacts etc are quickly tran sformed
, , .

into full strength current by mean s of the small auxiliar y con

-

tactor switch .

P ow er dir ecti on al M u l ti el em en t Rel ays Us ed w i th Overl oad

- -

Rel ays T hi s power directional relay mu st be u sed in con ju n c

— -

tion with a three phase or three single phase overload relays such
- -

as the induction type or solenoid bellow s type to secure pr eper-

,

protection .

T he tr ip circuits of the overl oad relays ( connected in mul

tiple ) are connected in serie s with that of the power directional -

relay so that neither can trip the breaker separately but

, ,

b oth mu st clo se their contacts before the breaker will be tripped .

E ach overload relay i s connected in s erie s with a current coil

of the reverse power relay T he com plete connections of a three
-
.

phas e circ uit are s hown in F i gs 1 5 9 and 1 60 T hi s plai nly

. .

show s the main three ph as e line prote cted by break er and su p

-
, ,

plied with three current and three voltage transformers E ach .

current transformer supplie s one current coil in the power dirce

t i on al relay and one overload relay T he tr ip of t he power di r ec
.
-

t i on al relay i s connected in ser ies with the trip s of the overload

relays and operate s the trip coil of the breaker When the break .

er opens the auxiliary switch opens thus re setting t he c ontactor

, ,

s witch in the power directional relay

- .
96 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S .

Di fi er enti al P di r ecti onal Rel ay. Another recent devel

ow er - -

O pm en t i s t he diff erential power directional relay T his mu s t

—
.

be used in conj unction with the auxili ary relay shown i n F i g 10 3 . .

T his r elay i s als o shown with t he cover removed in F i g 1 03 .

and t he di ag ram of co nn ect i ons i s shown i n F i g 1 64 T he power . .

directional relay i s arr anged t o make cont act when it move s either
to the left or righ t Bu t once i t close s one contact , i t in st ant ly
.

energ izes one of the interlocki ng relays and this relay O pens t he

Fm . 1 03 —
. Wes t i gho
n u se au xi l i ar y i n t er l ocki g r el ays
n w it h an d w i t h ou t
pr ot e ct i n g cover .

trip circuit t o t he opposite contact T he interlocking relay .

re sets in about two seconds after the trip circuit has been de -ener
g i z ed by the ope n ing of the circuit breaker .

T he applications of power directional relays t o var i ous sys tems

-

will be dis cu ssed in a subsequent chapter devoted to that subj ect .

S pecifi cati on s In .
—
order that en g ineers may obtain
the highe s t grade of power directional relays and to gu ard
-

against t he u se of obsolete and defective principled relays -

 C HA P T E R I X

CHARACTE RI S TI C S O F A O DI S TURBAN CE S . .

M any Of the early protective relays were designed with

but a partial knowledge of the actual charac t eris tics Of the
electrical di stur bances which they were supposed t o detect
and i solat e C onsequently there were many failu re s under
.
,

certain conditions and the se failure s led to an intimate study

,

of the e ff ects of an electr ical di sturbance fro m both a theoret

ical and an actual standpoint In some in stance s the lines
.
,

were actually shorted at various location s to determine the

actual conditions while in other case s miniature systems were
, ,

built with line s havi n g characte r is tics similar to the main

,

line in order to study the extent and divi sions Of overloads

,
.

E ven the protection Of simple apparatu s such as motors and

transformers requires an intimate knowledge of how certain
appar atus acts in case Of electrical di stre ss .

S ome Of the more im portant point s on which an accurate

knowledge mu st be Obtained are as follows :
1 What i s the inten sity Of a
“
. s hort circuit -

2 F or how long can the overload exi s t ?

.

3 What i s the e ff ect on the sys tem voltage ?

.

4 What other efl ect s such as phase di stortion and surge s

.
, ,

accompany severe disturbance s ?

5 What mu st the relay do an d what mu st it not do and
.
,

what are the be st connection s ?

T he se points are e ssential not only t o the u ser of the pr o
,

t ect i ve relays but al so to the manufacturer and it i s safe t o say

, ,

that had the manufacturers had proper information on t hese

points when they designed their fi rs t relays the relay u ser ,

could have saved many thou sands Of dollars Of damage to

apparatus and avoided thousands Of interruptions .

E F F E CT S OF OVE RL OAD

T he duration of an overload without damage depend s entirely

on the apparatus itself ; that i s , it may be sustained until the
exce ssive heat starts to burn the insulati on , or cau se other
98
 CHA RA C TE RI S TI CS OF A O DI S T URBA N CE S . .

eff ects which would lead to damaged in sulation D amage .

from overload i s seldom caused except by heat some exceptions ,

bei ng the breaki ng of shafts or the explo sion of tran sforme rs ,

or t he puncturing Of insulation due to surges M odern design .

has however practically eliminated thi s danger

, ,
.

S ome motors may Often have their voltage reduced to zero

for a second or s o without being damaged or losing their l ead ;
they also may carry overload ( about 5 0 per cent) continuous ly
without se r iou s damage ; but they mu st be protec te d so t hat
t hey wil l be cut out Of service s hould the load exceed 1 5 0 per cent
for any length Of time If internal short circuits develop
.
-
,

caus ing exce ss current they mu st be cut ou t ve r y quickly to

,

avoid seriou s burnouts .

P ower tran sformers mu s t al so be protected agains t internal

and ext ernal overloads in the s ame manner ; in fact an internal ,

s hort in a large tran sformer might damage it s everely in a

few seconds and as an internal short will seldom clear itself

, ,

i t s automatic i solation should be practically ins tantaneou s .

T ran smi ssion lines are Often damaged by prolonged overload ,

and they al s o cau se an exce ss current in the generators t o which

they are connected in case Of short circuits -
.

On e Of the big pre sent day problem s in automatic sectional

-

izing i s to cut out a short circuited section Of line before it burn s

-

d own .

T he overload which an alternator can s tand depends entirely

upon the alternator as the characteri stics of such machines vary
,

over a wide range . h

T e s hort- circuit current may be roughly
calculated by Observing the voltage drop between the two
section s at normal load as will be explained later
,
.

T he current during a short circuit decreas e s ve r y rapidly

-

until a su stained short-circ u it current i s reached as will be seen ,

by r eferr ing t o F i g 1 04 T his cu rve does n ot mean that the

. .

maxi mum po ss ible short circuit current i s 1 00 per cen t but

-
,

take as example an alternator which gives 1 2 time s the normal

lo a d current on s hort circuit T his i s 1 00 per cent but this
- .
,

1 2 ti me s quickly dec r eases until t he sus tai ned current i s ab out

1 2 per cent of 1 2 time s or time s the normal load .

S ome alternators may deliver a su stained short circuit cur -

ren t Of t w o an d one half or t hree times the full l oad curren t

- -
.
l 00 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA YS

T his rapid decrease Of short circuit current i s anot her i m port ant
-

reason why a breaker should not trip ou t in stantly I t s breaking .

capacity must be con siderably greater to tr ip instantly than

t o tri p wh en t he current falls t o i t s su stai n ed valu e which i s much ,

lower .

RI
BM . C ycl cs
1 5 800 T u r bo 15 O z5
2 20 000 T u r bo
T u r bo
18
00 60

5 l ‘) 00 0
3 1 2 000 A l t er n at or 1 16
4 o 000 Km a . A l t er n at or S
3
Z§
6 15 000 A l t er nat e 3

FIG . 1 04 —
. C u r r en t dec r ease o n a s y m m et r i c a l s ho r t -c i r cu i t s .

N AT URE OF H
S OR CI RCUI T S
T - O N TRAN S M I S S I O N LI N E S

When making current calculation s it should always be assumed

that a short circuit i s due to a metallic connection between the
-

conductors On a high voltage aerial line u sing wooden pins

.
-

an d cro ss arm s it sometimes happens that an insulator i s

,

broken with t he re sult t hat the wood i s gradually hea t ed

,

by t he passage of the current through it until it fi nally bursts

into flame t hus causing an ar e between c onductors A little
, .

considerati on shows that the flow of the current i s small until

the arc i s e stablished and that it i s ab surd to speak of auto
,

m at i call y di s connecting a section of line which has such a high

re si stance sh ort circuit It has someti m es be en assumed th at
- .
1 02 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T he calculation Of
the short circuit currents on a compli -

cat ed system involve s more or le ss approxi mation and a good ,

method i s to prepare a table showing the impedance Of each

s ection Of line and al s o of the generators T he se fi gure s can then .

FIG . 105 .
—
RE S I S T A NC E ,
I N D UC T A N C E AN D I M P E D A NCE or OVE RHE A D L I NE S

Res is t an ce ( R) I n d u ct a n c e X an d i m pedan ce Z per w i re per m i le

S paci n g , f t .

25 C yc l es

0 .

8 0
o 0

o
l

r
-
u
c
c
o

60 C ycl es

A bove val u es ar eh vol t ag e to n eu tr al S i zes N O 0000 t o 0

t o be u sed w i t . .

ar e s t r an ded : ot h ers ar e so l i d Bas ed on 9 7per cen t con du cti vi ty at 20 C

°
. .

or 67 F Val u es i n table com pu ted on s li de ru le

°
. .

be combined in any way desired to determine the impedance Of a

particular path In Obtaining the impedance of several sections
.

Of a sy stem the re sistances and inductances mu st be added

,

s eparately and the two sums combined geometrically T he .

inductance varie s with the si ze of the conductors and with t he

 CHA RA C TE RI S TI CS OF A C . . D I S T URBA N CE S 1 03

di stance between them whi ch in the case of a cable i s determined ,

by the thickness Of the insulation T he characteris tics Of .

cable can usually be Obtai ned from the man ufactur ers A .

v N O 0000 cable at 60 cycle s has an impedance about 23

- . .

p er cent greater than i t s O hmic re s i s tance whereas the imped , ,

ance Of a v line having the s ame size copper conduct or

-
.

S paced 1 5 ft apart i s about three and one quar ter time s the
.
-

F IG . 1 00 —
A P P ROX I M A T E O HM I C RE S I S T A N C E A N D I M P E D A NC E OF T HREE
C O N D UC T O R C A BL E S , A r 60 C Y C L E S

I m pedan ce, O hm s per m il e

W or k i n g vol t ag e

Bas ed P u r e Co pper , 75 F wit h an allo w an ce O f pi r al t f or

°
on . 3 per cen s

path Of con du ct ors , 60 cycles per secon d an d s t an dar d t h i ck n ess of var n is h ed

cam br i c i ns u lat i on . Valu es are pr act i call y t h e s am e f or oth er types O f
i ns u l at i on T h ese fig u r es ar e also approxi m at el y corr ect f or 98 per cen t
'

con du ct i vi ty copper
°
at 65 F .

value of i t s re si stance T he resi stance inductance and impedance.

,

Of aerial tran smi ssion line s having variou s wire s pacing are given

i n F i g 1 05 and F i g 1 06 which s how s the re si stance and impe

.
, .
,

dance Of variou s kinds of three conductor cable -

.

T he method Of computing the impedance Of a circuit including ,

a line generat or and transformer i s shown in t he followin g

, ,

exam ple
1 04 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

Assu m e —
A -k va.
, 60 ycle g en er at or havi n g 1 0 per
-c
cen t react an ce
dr op .

A k va ban k Of tr ansf orm ers havi n g 1 per cen t r es is tan ce

- .

dr op an d 5 per cen t reactan ce drop .

-v li n e N O 0 copper c n d
5 0 m i les .o u ctors s paced 4 i t
. .

p t
a ar .

All l
va u es of resi s tance , t
r eac an ce an d i m pedan ce w ill be r edu ced t o t erm s
of v .

F u ll-load cu rren t 64 am p.
x
S tar ltage vo
G en er ator C h ar acteri sti cs
Re actance drop 1 0 per cen t Of v.

Reactan ce 41 O hm s
F
.

T r an sf or m er C h aracter is t i cs
Res is tan ce drop 1 per cen t of 26 1 v.

26 1
Res i stan ce
6 } 4 1 . o hm s .

Re actan ce dr op 5 per cen t O f v .

)
64
3
L ?
Reactan ce 20 O hms .

Li ne C h ar act er i sti cs ( f rom T abl e F ig , . 1 05 )

X !
50 X 0 . 71 4
S u m m ar y :
R X
G en er ator N eg li g i ble 41 0

Total 96 7Ohm s
. .

Z ’
R +X ’ ’
Hen ce Z o hm s

"
T he short circui t current i s
-
t he r efore 260 amp
1 00 5
.

for the first instant As shown in F i g 94 t ne initial current . .

,

will decrease until the su stained value i s reached In this .

example the su stained value i s probably about twice full load -

current or say 1 30 amp If the line s should have more impe

,
.

dance Or if le ss generating capacity should be connected to

,

the bu sbars the generator reaction would have le ss e ff ect

,
1 06 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

s hort circuit because any smal l Obj ect that coul d be brought
-

into contact with the bu sbars would be immediately destroyed .

T he only po ssibil ity for obtaining a shor t-circ u it that will lower
the voltage to a point where reverse power relays cannot oper ate -

i s the case of an extra-high voltage system where the sh ort —

circu it cur rent i s so small that it cannot burn Off a me t alli c

connection F or in stance on a . v sys tem of some ,
—
.

magn itude the current at short circuit may not exceed 5 00

,
-

amp which could be carried for some seconds by a telephone

.
,

w ire dropped across a transmi ssion li ne T he pos s ibility .

Of interruption from thi s cau s e i s remote becau se a short circuit ,

-

across t hree wires will not often occur and when only t w o ,

wi res are involved the low voltage condition d oe s not exi st -

except on one phase .

E fi ect of Un bal an ced S h or t c i r cu i t s I n the past the opera - —

tion Of power directional relays has been somewhat u n sat i s

-

facto r y because mean s were not taken to in sure correct operation

,

at time s when the power factor of the system w as bad due t o -

,

A s a re sult of several years inve s ti

’
u nbalanced short circuit s - .

g at i on it h,as been found the the method s of connecting revers e

power relays with their potential coils in star as has been the ,

usual cust om i s theoretically incorrect and the relays may

, ,

fail t o Operate upon the occurrence of the most common form of

s hort circuit
-
When un balanced short circuits occur a large
.
-
,

number of combination s of ci r cu m st am ces are po ssible but it has ,

been found that the mos t severe condition i s when only two con
du ct or s of a three phas e line are short circuited and if relays
- -
,

wil l operate pro perly under thi s condition they will s ati sfy
practically all the others .

In F igs 107a and 1 0 7b are shown in a rather incomplete way

.
, ,

the vector relations on a simple electric circui t when a short

circuit occurs between the wire s B and C F igure 1 07b shows .

at a t he volt age triangle at the generating station and at b

the voltage triangle some dis tance from the generating station .

A t 0 i s repre sen t ed the condition s at the s hort circuit and-

,

it will be seen that the long side s of the volt age triangle have
closed in together It will al so be observed that the two s tar
.
—

voltage s 0 B and 0 0 are in phase Referring again t o a

, ,
.
,

if the circuit h as no inductance the current which flows into ,

 CHA RA C TE RI S TI CS OF A C DI S T URBA N CE S . . 1 07

the short circuit will be in phase with the voltage BC as i s shown

-
,

by the vectors I B and I C If su ch a con dition were possible ,

none of the relays at t he S hort circuit could operate because -

,

the power factor i s zero S ince however there i s always induc .

, ,

tance in the circuit the current will lag somewhat as shown

, ,

by the vectors I B and I O T he result of thi s i s to cau se one

1 1
.

of the relays at the short circuit to operate forwards and the -

other one to operate backwards F igure l o7b shows the eff ect .

of an inductive load on the sys tem T he S hort circuit currents .

-

are repre sented by dash vectors and the re sultant of the S hort ,

circuit currents and load currents by heavy vectors T he .

F ro . 1 0 7a . FIG . 1 0 7b.

F I G 1 0 7a
. .
—

g
Vec t o r di a r a m of cu r r en t a n d vo t a e w i t l g h h s or t ci r c u i t w hen
l oad i s n o n -i n d u c t i ve .

F I G l o7b
.
—

. h g
S ow i n t h e vec t or s w i t i n du c t i ve oa d h l .

general re sult Of the load current on the system i s to make less

pronounced the eff ect due to the short-circuit as will be observed ,

upon comparing b in F igs 1 07C and b In the former case . .

,

one of the relays operat es backwards but in the latter case , ,

both of them read properly .

In the above explanation the condition in only one line ,

has been shown and the que s tion might immediately ari se as
,

to what diff erence it make s whether or not one relay operat e s

backwards so long as one of t hem Operates to tri p the circuit
,

breaker T he ans wer i s t hat the s ame condition exi sts in all
.

the good sections of l ine parallel to the trouble with the re sult ,

that their circu it breakers will als o be opened T hi s diff iculty .

can easily be overcome by u sing the delta delta connection

-

Of voltage tran sformers as expl ained under In str u ment T rans

”
formers and G roupings With this connection the current .
,

in each relay leads the voltage in each relay by 30 deg when .

the line power factor i s 100 per cent instead of the relay current
and voltage being in phase at 100 per cent line power factor .
1 08 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T hen even t hough the line power factor should dro p to almost
zero during a s hort circuit the current in any relay could not
-
,

lag more than 60 deg behind i t s voltage

. .

CHARA CTE RI S TI C S OF RE LAY S

F rom the foregoing di s cu ssion it will readily be seen that t he

,

relays mus t be absolutely rel iable and dependable and have

as well a high ac curacy both initially and maintained Relays .

for the prot ection of overloads or rather exce ss current s should

, ,

have two distinct adj u stments : time and current T he t ime .

setting i s of course eas ily set according t o the relay cu r ve s t o

obtain the de sired delay .

M uch misunders tanding has prevailed in the pas t regarding

t h e current adj u s tment In the case Of straight overload relays
.
-
,

the relay i s easily selec t ed and set according to the magnitude

of the load and the overload Bu t on diff erential protection
.
,

however many relays have been u sed with very low current
,
-

windings in order to make them su s ceptible to slight u n bal an c ~

ings in current The re sult i s that they were too sen sitive
.

and tripped the breaker on sli ght surge s due to throwing the
apparatus on the line or l ine s witching or synchronizing
, .

A tt empts were m ade to g ive the se relays a time delay with only
slightly better res ults In such case a relay should be used
.
,

with a comparatively high overload setting and the time adj usted
t o in stantaneou s .

On the power directional rel ays t here should be t hree di s

-
,

tinct adj u stme nts : time current and direction T he time

, ,
.

and current adj u stmen t s should be set s ame as t he current relay ,

while the directional adj u stment mu st be so sen sitive that it

will function on a ve r y small reversal of power flow even though
the po t e nt ial drop to 1 or 2 per cent of normal .

M uch co n fu sion h as exi s ted regarding the correct u se of the

p o wer directional
- and t h e watt relays F or in s tance con sider
.
,

a plant supplying part of i t s own power and buying the re s t

from a nearby station with provi sion s to limit the power flow .

N either a power directional nor a watt relay alone will give

-

the de sired re sults ; both mu st be u sed .

When considering the adju stment of the power directional -

relay it must be remembered that it i s for protection alone

, ,
1 10 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

power from a high voltage hydro electric sys tem It i s

- —
.

O bviou s that the small s te am plant cannot hold up the electric

sy s tem during trouble s which are i n herent in the electric s ystem

and which occu r altogether too frequently N evertheless .

,

even if the receiving system should have su fi ci en t steam

turbine capacity constantly floating on the line to pick up the
electric load the instant it i s los t such a change cannot be made
,

without con siderable dis turbance and there i s always a possi

bili t y that the st eam plant will be unable to pick up the load
as quickly as is nece ss ary in order to save the service N ow .

there can be only t w o condition s existing at the steam plant ,

either there i s suff icient steam generating capacity connected

-

t o the bu sbars so that t he load can be picked up in stantly ,

'

and if thi s i s the case there i s suffi cient capacity available to

operate reverse power relays having a normal current setting ;
- -

or el se there i s in su ffi cient steam capacity to pick up the load ,

in which cas e it will be de sirable to hold on to the electric power

through what ever manner of dis turbance may occur .

T hi s argument i s u sually met by the s tatement that the

”
hydro electric system frequently goe s under due to a failure
-

in the water supply or due to short circuit on the tran smi ssion
-

s ys tem which cut s off e ssential plant s Of course under such .

,

circums tance s it i s not de sirable for the steam plant to attempt

,

to carr y all the load of the elect ric system and it i s reasonable ,

t o separate t h e two but the power directional relay canno t

,
-

be depended upon to make this separation i n the preper man ner .

F or thi s purpo se u se should be made of a watt relay which i s

essentially a contact making wattmeter and which will cl ose
-

i t s contacts when the power exceeds a predetermined amount

in a predetermined di rection T his device i s much simpler than
.

the power directional relay and can be depended upon to oper

—

ate with great accuracy However i t is not intended t o clear

.
,

s hort ci r cuits and i n the ins tallation which we have been con
-
,

S i deri n g it will be nece ss ar y to make u se of the power di r ec

,
-

t i on al relays to t ake care of line trouble s and the watt relay

t o prevent the steam system from attempting to carr y the hydro
electric system T his arrangement will g ive complete pr ot ec
.

tion and if the electric system i s in itself properly sectionalized

,

so as t o take care of i t s ow n trouble s , there will be ve r y littl e

 CHA RA C TE RI S TI CS OF A O DI S T URBA N CE S
. . 111

nece ssity for keeping the stand by steam plan t in readiness

-

to in stantly carr y the entire load Viewed from thi s s tand

.

point the que stion becomes of considerable import ance and will
j ust i fy car eful c onsi deratio n on the part of prospective r elay
users .

Another important point i s that relays with a low current -

winding not only have a high impedance but they will not carr y
a heavy load without severe overheating .

A s will be explained later under the pilo t wire systems

-
,

low current relays find a legitimate application when the currents

-

must be transmitted a long di stance between the current trans

former and relay In thi s case however u se i s made of current
.
, ,

t ran sformers who se normal se condar y current i s the s ame as

the current rating of the relay .
 C HA P T E R X

I N S TRUM E N T TRAN S F O RM E RS AN D G RO UP IN G S

With the exception of the smaller low voltage ins tallations

,
-
,

where the relays may be connected directly to the line and wound
to carry the l ine current it i s e ssential to co n nec t protective
,

relays to the secondary circuit of in strument tran sform ers .

It then become s nece ssary to have an accurate knowledge

of the pe rformance of an instrument tran sformer during times
of electrical trouble .

In stru m en t T r an sf or m er s T here are two classe s of i n st r u

—
.

” ” “
ment transformers available : the current or serie s trans
” “ ” ”
former and the voltage
“
,
potential or shunt tran sformer
“
.

T he current tran sformers are used to carry the main li ne -

current in their primary and reproduce in their secondary

circuit a smaller current which bears a de fin ite relation in
phase and magnitude to the primary current A nother very .

important function of the current tran sformer i s to in sulate

the secondary circuit t o whi ch are connected the relays from
, ,

the high ten sion of the primar y .

C urrent tran sformers are required for relays which mu s t

function on a predetermi ned condition of the current in a
circuit T he primary i s co nne cted directly in serie s with the
.

line and several current in struments may be connect ed to the

,

s econdary . P art of the l ine current act s as the magnetizing

current for the tran sformer iron and for a fixed number of i n st r u
ments in the secondary ; a ri se or fall in the line current require s
a corre sponding ri se or fall in the secondary voltage to force
the secondary current through the connected in st r u ments .

T h e magnetic flux thu s follows the ri se and fall of the primary

or line currents unti l the point of saturati on i s reached when
,

the ratio breaks down .

In any tran sformer the pri mar y ampere turn s may be con
,
-

si der ed as made up of two part s one small element which

,

supplie s the magneti zing and core lo ss current and another

-
,

1 12
1 14 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

40 v amp to. v am p and thi s in many cases i s above

. . .

the sat urating point of the transformer T his necessit ate s .

an accurate knowledge of the ratio of t he t ransfor mer with

various secondary l oads and various primary cu r rent s in order
to enable the relay s to be set accurately .

Pri m a ry Amper es

F ro . 1 08 .
-
C u r vo s h ow i g h o w
n t he r a t i o o f a ser i es t r a n s f o r m er break s dow n on
heavy l
o ver o ad .

M agn eti z ati n o of C or e

magnetic history of the iron
.
—

T he
als o aff ects i t s losses If the core h as been mag netized either
.
,

by pass ing direct current thr ou g h the coil by opening the second ,

ary circuit with a load on the primary or by a heavy overload ,

on the pr im ary the iron lo ss and magnetizing current will be

,

abnor mally high and the ratio and phase an g l e errors will be
sl ightly great er than n ormal S uch a tran sformer can be dem ag.

n et i zed and re stored to normal condition by pas s ing about

1 5 0 per cent of normal current thr ough the primar y with the ,

seconda r y connected t o a re s i s tance of 20 to 30 o hms and gradu

 I NS TRUM E N T TRA NS F ORM E RS A N D GRO UP I NGS 1 15

ally reducing t he re si s tance t o zero G reat care s hould be taken

.

not to come in contact with the secondary lead s during thi s

O peration as dangerous voltage may be induced .

E fi ect of S eco n dar y Load T he i ns tr u ments con nected in

—
.

the secondar y circuit of the tran sformer are placed in series ,

s o that the s econdary current will p as s thr ough each As i n s t r u .

ments are added higher voltage i s required to force the current

,

through them T his requ ires higher magnetic den sity in the
.

iron w h ich increases both the iron loss and t he magnetizing

,

current hence both the ratio and the phase angle errors ar e
,
-

magni fied F or the sake of accuracy therefore the re i s

.
, ,

a l imit to the number of instr u ments that should be placed on

a single current tran sformer
-
.

T he ordinary measuring in st r u ments are not non inductive -

.

T he power factor of the load of i n st r u ment s varie s with the

diff erent combinations used In general and withi n the li m its
.
,

of the u sual groups of meters it may be said that for the same
,

volt ampere load t he greater the inductive element in the load

-
, ,

the le ss will be the phas e di splacement error and the greater the
ratio error Whi le the variations in the errors are not enough
.

to aff ect the accu racy to a great ext ent the power factor of the ,

load mu st be recognized in preparing pe rformance curves of

current tran sformers .

F or a given instr u ment load on the tran sformer the secondary ,

ampere turn s bear a de fin ite relation to the primary ampere

-

turn s for each value of the primary load current T herefore

,
-
.
,

by properly proportioning the number of turn s in the windings ,

it i s po ss ible to raise the secondary current to overcome the

ratio error However owing to the inherent variation of the
.
,

ratio error this compensation will not be exactly correct for

,

other values of the primary current .

A current tran sformer i s usual ly compensated t o g ive as ,

clo sely as po ss ible the correct ratio at 65 per cent of i t s rated

,

current As meters and tran sformers should be selected with

.

a rating 5 0 per cent greater t han the normal current of the

circuit to allow for peaks and overloads the f u ll load current
, ,
-

of the circuit repre sents about 65 per cent of the current rating
of the transformer and meter T herefore the greate st accu .
,
1 16 P M T E C TI VB RE A YS

r acy of m et er readi n g is at t ai n ed w i t h f ul l l oad

-
cu r ren t in t he
ci cu
r it .

Hi gher f r eq u en ci es produ ce l ow er m ag n eti zin g cu r ren t an d l ow er

ir on l oss , an d t heref ore resul t in l ow er percen t ag e of rat io error

an d sm al l er phase an g le The vari at i ons are sm all, how ever ,
.

an d m os t cur ren t t r ansf orm er s m ay be u sed at any f r eq uen cy

f r om 25 t o 1 33 cycl es .

As t he oper at i on of t he cu r ren t t ran s f orm er depen ds on

cu rr en t on l y , vari at i on of li n e vol t ag e has n o efi ect on accu racy .

A t ype of cu r rent t ransf orm er m u st be ch osen , h ow ever, havi n g

i n su lat i on sui t abl e f or t he v oltag e of t he l in e on w hi ch i t i s
t o be used .

T he s hape of the prim ar y-cu r rent w ave aff e ct s , t o a cer tain

ext en t , maxi mu m in du ct ion an d ther efore t he ir on l oss es
t he ,

an d als o aff ec t s the s hape of t he secondar y c ur rent wave w hi ch -

,

m ay in t rodu ce sli g ht errors i n som e m et ers T hese eflect s .

are h ow ever negli g ible

, ,
.

Rise of t emperature in creases t he resist an ce drop i n t he

w i n din g s w hich necess i t at es an inc rease i n the sec onda r y v ol t
,

ag e . Thi s i n t u rn necessi t at es an inc r ease in t h e mag n et i c

, ,

densi ty requi r ed i n the iron an d thus aff ects the ac cur acy .

The re s ist an ce dr op is however on l y a small part of the indu ced

, ,

volta ge an d t he temperat ur e r ise of t r ans fo r me r s shou ld be

,

wi thi n the A I E E li mit of 5 5 C The variat ions of accu

. . . .
°
.

racy du e t o t empe r at ure rise ar e very slight .

A cu r rent transfor mer t o be ac cu r ate r equi r es at leas t

, ,

600 m p e turns ( bas ed on no r m al p r imar y curr ent)

a er - In t he .

”
“
throug h type the re i s on l y one prim ar y t u r n so t hat t hi s
-
,

type cann ot be made for nor m al cu rrents of less t hat 600 am p .

without s ac r ifi cing accu racy In cases whe re ac c u racy is .

required over on ly a l imi t ed rang e as for r elays or tr ip coil s , ,

the use of this type i s entir ely satisfactory for normal cur rent
as low as 1 00 amp Whe r e it i s poss ible t o cal ib rate the in st ru
.

ment w ith the tr ansf orm er, i t is enti rely sat isfact ory t o u se
thi s type of trans fo rmer .

T he momen tar y current du e t o a heavy sh o r t c ircuit on a -

large s yst em is extremely gr eat an d the mechanical st ress es set

up between t he pr imar y and secondary windings of a curr en t
“
transfor mer due t o this current are very larg e In the throug h .
1 18 P ROTE C TI VE REL A Y S

a) ( b)
( a) Th ree-w i re . O ne t ransf orm er i n each ph ase . V-con nec t i on .

( b) Th ree-w i re . h ans f orm ers i n one-phase and comm on w i re . V-Con nect i on .

Pri m

( )
c Fou r -w i re. d
i n epen en td O ne t r ansf orm er i n each ph ase V-Con nec t i on
d d
. . .

( ) F ou r-wi re. i nt er -con nect e T -Con nect ron

. .

F ro . l ll —
. T w o-p hase g r ou pi n g s of cu r r en t t r ansf or m ers s how i n g con n ec t i on s

an d vec to rs .
 I NS T RUM E N T TRA N S F ORM E RS A N D GRO UP I N GS 1 19
’

i ng th at
the transf ormers have stan dard 5 amp secondary - .

windings the numbe rs on the vect or diagrams show the currents

,

in the corre sponding branches of the ci rcui t s T he preferable .

arrangement for any case depends on the type of in s tr u ment

to be energized F or ammeters a rea ding in each phase u sually
.
,

i s all that i s nece ss ar y whi le protective relays shoul d be so ,

connected that trouble on any line will be detected .

N E CE S S I TY F O R THRE E TRA N S F O RM E RS ON THRE E -P HA S E

CI RCUI T S

T hat the u se of t w o tran sformers an d two relays for the pro

t ect i on Of a three phase circuit i s not suffi cient i s apparent from
-

F i g 1 1 2 whi ch shows the relays at A and B with the transformers

.
,

F ro . 1 12 —

S h ow i g
n w hy tw o ser i es t r an s f or m er s ar e n ot s u ffi ci en t f or t hr ee.

p h ase pr ot ecti on .

at 1 and 2 If a ground should O ccur on line 2 and another

.
,

ground on a generator winding or lead as at a or b or c then ,

F m 1 13
. . FIG . 1 14 .

F ro . l l3 —
. W g
r on co n n ec t i o n of t h r ee t r an s f or m ers an d tw o l
r e ays .

F ro . 1 14 —
. A n ot h e r w r on g co n n ec t i on .

there would be a heavy short circuit current which would -

flow through t he middle line without passing throu g h eithe r

relay .
1 20 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T hree transformers cannot be u sed with two relays with

the connections as shown in F i g 1 1 3 as it wi ll be noted that .

in the event of a short between line s 1 and 3 there will be ,

no exce ss current in the relay In F i g 1 14 a S hort due to ground . .

,

on either line s 1 or 3 will tend to force the exce ss current through

the middle transformer thereby piling up the voltage due to ,

the high impedance so thi s connection also cannot be u sed

,
.

F ro . 1 15 . F ro . 1 16 .

F ro . 1 15 .
—

P r o pe r c o n n ec t i o n h
f or t ree r e a y s l an d t h r ee t r an s f or m ers .

F ro . 1 16 .
—

l
De ta con n e c t i o n t o t w o r e aysl .

T he be st combination i s three transformers wi t h three relay s

as in F i g 1 1 5 as thi s enable s each relay to receive the full current
.

from i t s re s pective transformer T hi s i s the mo st u sed connec .

tion T w o relays may be connected to three tran sformers

.

with the delta connec t ion as in F i g 1 16 or with the Z connection .

as in F i g 1 1 7 . .

F ro . 117.
—

Z - co n n e c t i g n t o t w o l
r e ay s .

Advan tag es of th e Z Conn ecti on A ssumi n g that the normal

- —

current in the transformer secondary i s 5 amp then wi th the .

,

delta connection the normal current in the relays i s

,
amp .
,

thu s requiring s pecially wound relays With t he Z connection -

.
-
,
1 22 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

When makin g the Z connection the foll ow i ng rule should

-
,

be employed : C onnect two po sitive transformer terminals

t o the fi r s t relay termi nal
-
T he negative terminals of the .

firs t and thi rd transformer go to the second relay terminal and -

the remaining po sitive and negative transformer terminals

go to the common between the two relays T hus referring .

F ro . 1 20 .
—
VA RrO US Z C O M B I N A TI O NS

RE L A Y C

LOA D

to F i g 1 20 it wi l l be seen that there are si x combinations which

.

produce the same results F igure 1 2 1 give s the va rious groupings

.

and vector diagrams .

O peni n g of S eco n dary T he secondar y circuit of a curr ent

.
—

transformer S hould never be opened while the p rimary i s carry

ing current I f it i s necessary to dis connect ins truments the
.

secondary should fi rs t be short circui ted I f the secondary —

.

circui t i s opened a diff erence of potential i s developed between

,

terminals whi ch i s dangerous to anyone coming in contact

with the meters or l eads T he cause of thi s high voltage i s
.

t hat with open secondar y circui t all of the p rimary ampere

turns are e ff ective in producing flux in the core where as normally ,

but a ve r y s mall portion of the total pe rform thi s function T he .

danger i s magnifi ed by the fact that the wave form of this

secondar y voltage i s peaked pro ducing a high maximum value ,
- .

A hi gh flu x produced in this way may als o permanently change

t he magnetic condition Of the core so that the accuracy of the
transformer will be impair ed .

Vol tag e Tr an s form er s Voltage transformers ( al so called

.
—

potential or shunt transformers ) are u sed to in sulate the relay

circuit from the hi gh tension line circuit and t o reproduce
-
,

a voltage on the relays which i s in direct proportion to the l ine

voltage .
 I N S TRUM E N T TRA N S F ORM E RS A N D G RO UP I N GS 1 23

( a) Del t a C o n nec t i on ( b) Y -Connect i on

( c) Vec t or parr al lel d

( ) Reverse V d

( e) Z -Con nec t i on

F ro . 121 —
. T h r ee
—
p h ase gr ou pi n gs of cu rre n t t r an s f or m ers s h ow in g co n n ec t i o n s

an d vec t ors .
1 24 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T his transf ormer i s in pri n ciple p ti on an ordi nary

of o er a

co n s tant poten t ial trans for mer s pecially de signed f or close

-

r e g u lation S O that the se conda ry vol t age u nder an y conditions

,

wil l be as near l y as possi bl e a fi xed percent ag e of t he pri m ar y

voltage .

T he only thin g whi ch can afl ect the ac curacy of a volt ag e

tran sformer wi thout enti rely des troying it is a change in t he
, ,

iron whi ch would change the exciti ng current Inas much as t he .

eff ect of the exciting current is small an d m odern transfor me r

,

iron i s non ag ing it i s safe t o ass ume that the origin al calibr a
-
,

t ion of a fi r s t c lass m odern t r ansf ormer i s permanent

- .

Volt age transf orm e rs are compen s ated for their iron l ow
at their rated voltage When used on some other vol t ag e
.
,

either hi g her or lower an e r ror i s introduced In g ene ral

, .
,

this e r ror wi ll not be mor e than p e r cent when the app li ed

volt age i s from 5 0 per cent to 1 1 0 per cent of rated volt ag e .

A volt age tran sf ormer should never be u sed on a circuit wh ose

volta ge i s more than 10 per cent above the rated voltage of
the transform er .

Ordinary freq uency var iation an d wave s hape also aff ect
the iron lo sses but their eff ects on the accuracy Of the trans
,

former cannot be detected .

As the O perat ion of the volt age tran sformer de pends onl y
on t he vol t ag e appl ied at i t s ter mi nals variat ions in the line
,

c u rrent have no eff ect whatever on i t s accuracy .

A S voltag e transforme rs are desi gned for clo se r e g ulati on ,

they S hould have a temper ature rise wel l wi thin the A I E E . . . .

°
limit of 5 5 C .

P ol yphas e G r ou pi n g s I n general t w o voltage transf orme rs

.
—

ar e su ff icient for any t w o phas e or three phas e c ircuit

- - F igu res .

1 22 and 1 23 show var ious groupi ngs of transforme rs on t w o

phas e and three ph as e circui ts r e s pectively The numbers
- .

s hown on the vector diag rams of se condary connect ion s S h ow

the voltag e between the points indicated in percenta g e of t he ,

voltag e between line s ( corrected for ratio of the tr ansforme rs ) .

In cas e a di fl er en t secondary volt age be t ween t he se points i s

desired t r ansformers of suitable ratio should be selec t ed T he
,
.

highe s t accuracy i s attained wi th s t andard t ransformers whe n

t he se condar y voltag e of t he t r ansformers i s 1 00 v , bu t .
1 26 P RO TE C T I VE RE L A Y S

Del t a-Del t a

( )
c V-Rever se dV ( d) O pen Y -O pen Y

A
( e) O pen Y -Revers e d O pen Y (f) Y -Y

F ro . 1 23 .
—
T h r ee- ph as e g r ou p i n gs l tag e
of v o t r a n s f or m er s s h ow i n g co n n e c t i o n s

a n d vec t ors .
 I N S TRUM E N T TRA N S F ORM E RS A N D GRO UP I NGS 1 27

to be handled S ome compan ies have adopted the practice

.

of connecting the voltage transforme rs directly to the line s

without f u se s T hi s i s dangerou s because a short circuit
.
,
-

withi n the transformer might cause a high voltage lead to -

burn ofl and fall in such a way as to short circuit the system -

.

T o prevent th i s the larger A me r ican elect r ical manuf acturers

recommend the u se of resistors and fuse s in the high voltage -

leads of voltage transformers T he re sistors limit the short .

circuit curr ent to 20 to 40 amp while the fuse s are de signed .

,

to Open such a current .

In normal operation the re sistors carr y only the ve r y small

,

pr imar y curr ent of the voltage transformer and the drop in ,

voltage whi ch they cause i s inappreciable .

Lead on Tr an sf or m er s I f several ins tr ument s are connected

.
—

to the same transformer the combined load may be found as ,

follows : Let W 1 W 2 W 3 etc be the true watts required by the

, , ,
.

several ins t r u ment s .

An d M 1 M 2 M 3 etc be the magnetizing reactive volt ampere s

, , ,
.
-

required by the several instruments .

T hen the volt ampere load on the secondary of the tran s

-

former wil l be

and the power factor Of thi s secon dary will be

W1 W2 +
L

T he se relation s are true in single ph as e or t ph ase sys tem s -

wo-

where the current from each transformer flows through i t s

own lo ad As an approximation which i s fairl y close the
.
,

volt amperes Of the secondar y load may be taken as the su m

-

of the volt ampere s of the several in s trument s

- An d the power .

factor of the secondary load may be taken as the su m of the

watt s divided by the su of the volt amperes
m - .

T hree pha se circuits having a set of tran sformers for each

-

phase are approximately equivalent to three single ph ase -

circuits and the transformer error calculated as for a single

, ,

phase system wil l be the average error Bu t when only two

,
.

t ran sformers are u sed on a three pha se sys tem the calculation -
,
l 28 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

of the loads on the individual tran sforme rs becomes more

complicated and i s not included here When accu racy i s .

required such that exact correction for phas e angle and ratio -

i s nece ssary two tran sformers shou ld not be used on three ph as e

,
-

sys tem s .

REL AY S RE Q UI RI N G BOTH CURRE N T A N D P O TE N TI AL

TRA N S F O RM E RS

On S ingle phase and two ph ase circuits current and poten

- -
,

tial tran sformers may be connected to the relays according

to the fore g oing directions Bu t when relays requiring both
.

current and potential are u sed on three phas e circuits then -

,

s pe cial provi s ion mu s t be made to maintain the correct phas e

relations or rather the phase relations demanded to give adequ ate

,

protection .

F or ordinar y watt protection the relays mu st be connected ,

s o that they alway s give po s itive deflection with the load in

a given direction T his exclude s the connection u sually u sed

.

with two single ph as e wattmeters on three ph ase A s i s well

- -
.

known the voltage and current on one in st r ument falls 90 deg

,
.

out of phase at 5 0 per cent line power factor and the deflection -

actually reverse s below thi s value T he correct connection s .

ar e S hown in F i g 1 24 . .

With directional relays which are u sed to sectionalize and

i solate a S hort circuited line it w as once cu stomary to u se
-
,

the star connection for cu rrent tran sformers and the star
delta connection for voltage tran sformers as shown in F i g 125 . .

T h i s cau sed the relay current and voltage to be in phas e

at 1 00 per cent line power factor T hi s s cheme i s still used
-
.
,

particularly on underground cable systems where the re si s tance ,

i s high compared to the inductance Bu t on long overhead .

,

line s and in every case where feeder reactors are u sed a short ,

circuit may be of such low power factor that there will not
be enough energy to cau se the directional relays to function .

On e method of curing thi s trouble i s very simple : T he

relays should be connected with the voltage coil s across the ,

s ame conductors which are cau sing the S hort circuit In -

.

other words the voltage coils should be connected in delta i n

, ,

accordance with F i g 1 26 Because the current will lag behind

. .
1 30 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

phase pow e f act or m et

r-er i n ser i es w i t h t he relay -cu r ren t ci rcu it ,

and t hen w i t h 1 00 per cent pow er f act or on t he li ne , se e l ct t he

F ro. 1 25 .
—
S tar-dcl t a rel ay con n ec t i on i n w h i ch t h e cu rr en t i s i n
, p h ase
t he vol t age at 1 00 per cen t l i ne pow er f act or .

F ro . 1 26 —
Co n nec ti ons l
of re ays to ca u se t he cu r r en t to lead l
t he vo tag e on
n on-i n du cti ve loads .

pa ir of vol tag e lead s which g ive about 86 per cent power f act
-
or

lead on t he meter .
 I N S TRUM E N T TRA N S F ORM E RS A N D G RO UP I NGS 131
'

The c nd me t hod i s t o u se a single phas e indicating watt

se o -
,

meter an d with a lagg ing power factor on the line between

,

5 0 and 1 00 per cent selec t t he pair of voltage lead s which give

t he hi ghe st reading .

J us t after makin g t he above t es t i s the proper ti me t o see

that the contacts are held open I f t hey close the voltage leads
.
,

must be reve rs ed .

T he above di s cu ssion i s n ot b as ed solely upon the mathe

metical study of the problem bu t i s the result of actual tests
,

made on a number of trans miss ion li nes where the reverse

energ y relays connected according to the Ol d method have
not g iven satisfacto r y service E xpe riments have shown that
.

thi s method of connection should als o be u sed on system s having

a grou nded neutral T hi s connection ( with the curr ent 30
.

deg ahead of the voltage) mus t be u sed with care on an

.

ungrounded neutral sys tem having a heavy charging current to

ground D ifficulty may al so be encoun tered on some systems
.

where the load current i s leading Bu t in both these c as e s the

.

S hort circuit current s wi l l be much greater than any po ss ible

-

leading current and no diffi cul ty due to incorrect operation of

t he reverse power relays wi ll be experienced if the excess
-

cu rrent elements are adju sted to O perate only on S hort-circuits .

D eter m i ni n g P h as e Rotati on I n order to function correctly

.
—

the directional relays mu st have the current lead 30 deg and not .

lag 30 deg and in order to Obtai n this condition it i s necessary

.
,

t o determine the phase rotation This cannot be determined

.

from an ordinar y ins pection of the three wire s but i s eas ily ,

determined by small patented device s now on the market or

by a simple apparatus consis ting of two ordinary incande s cent
lamps and a suitable r eactor connected in Y T he reactor .

S hould have abo u t the s ame reactance as th e lamp s have

re s i stance .

C alli ng the three ph ase voltage wire s A B and C connect

-
, , ,

one lamp to A and the other to C and connect the reactor to ,

B On e lamp will now burn bright and one dim and the rule
.

i s that the bright li ght always lead s the inductance F or .

instance if the lamp connected to A should be bright the phase

, ,

rotation i s A B C while if the lamp connected to C should

,

be bright t hen the phase rotation would be C B A

, .
 CHA PT E R XI

P RO TE CTI O N O F M O T O RS , TRAN S F O RM E RS
G E N E RAT O RS , AN D LIN E S

In the early days of electric service protection of motors ,

and transformers w as accompli shed by ordinar y fu se s whi ch ,

dis co n nected the apparatus automatically when the current

became exce ssive E ven today fuse s cannot be excell ed for
.
,

reliability on heavy overlo ad s It w as soon realized that there

.

were conditions Of overload which the fu se did not take care

of adequately and bes ides the fuse w as not at all accurate or
, ,

s elective in i t s action and w as quite expen sive F or thi s .

re ason the circ u it breaker w as developed but while it w as ,

”
a great improvement yet it po sse s sed small reas oni ng or
,
”
“
thi n king power ; that i s it w as ve ry li ttle better than t he
,

fu se in i t s selective action T hi s led to the u se of the prote o

.

tive relay a small instrument actuated by the currents in t he

,

machine s or wire s and controlling the action of the breaker .

T he relay i s so flexible in i t s variou s connections and so accurate

” “
and selective in i t s action that it i s Often called the brains
Of an electric sy stem .

While the principal u se of the protective relay i s on l arge

generating system s and long distance trans mi ss ion line s yet
-
,

it i s often applied to mo t ors and tran sformers and give s prote o

tion and uninterrupted service that can be Obtained in no other
way .

P r ot ecti on of M otor s I n i t s simple st application the relay

—

.
,

i s arranged to carry a current proportional to the load current ,

and upon the occurence of exce ss current clo se a circuit whi ch

, ,

trips or opens a circuit breaker F igure 1 27 shows a relay .

A connected to the secondar y of a serie s tran sformer B T he .

primar y i s connected to carry the load current of motor C

which i s protected by breaker D N ormally the relay contacts
.

are open but should motor C be overloaded or develop a S hort

,

1 32
1 34 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

F ro . 1 28 —
. Sim p le p rote ct i on on t w o-p h a e ci r
s cu i t .

F ro . 13 —
. S im p le ove load p
r r o te c t i on o n a h
t hr ee-p ase ci r c ui t .
 M OTORS , TRA N S F ORM E RS , GE N E RA TORS , A N D LI N E S 1 35

would in t hi s case be used and may be O pera t ed with one or

two trip coils .

F igu re 1 28 shows a t w o phas e protec ted motor circuit If -

.

two trip coils wer e used they might be connected in parallel , ,

0 a 70 a a .

m m xvo

M 5 0 773 4 4 cw m m rm bu r ”v a ca

M M !

Fi fi /£5
“
IN 64 5 2
"OF
“

F ro . 1 30 .
—
S t an d ar d con n ect i on s of es t i n W gh l
ou se i n d u c t i o n r e ay s f or pr o
g
t ect i n ci r cu i t s f r om over oad s l I n al l cases t h e t r i p ci r cu i t m u s t be open ed
.

by an l ll
au xi i ar y p a et s w i t c h
on t he ci r cu i t r eak er b .

or connec ted separately t o their re spective relays In any case .

,

both phas es should be opened .

T hree phase motors may be protected with two relays

-
,

but require three transformers for adequate protection , as t he re

1 36 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

is danger of an overload on any wire S hould the motor

insulation to ground fail T he reas on s for this are dis cu ssed
.

”
under In strument T ransformers and G roupings
“
On e t rip .

coil i s generally u sed tripped by either relay but the breaker

, ,

must Open all three line s F igure 1 29 show s the connections

. .

Br ee /( er

F ro . 131 —
. C o n n ec t i o n s of G . E . l
r e ay f or l
s i n g e-p h a s e ci r c u i t p r o t ec t i o n .

As in the case of the single phase the time delay in tripping may ,

be easily set by the time lever and load taps on the relay F i gure .

1 30 show s typical diagrams of connections as supplied by the

manufacturer A dditional diagram s are shown in F igs 1 3 1 to 1 35
. . .

P r o t ecti on of S yn chr onou s M o tor s T he problem of pro —

te eting a synchronou s motor or conden ser i s peculiar in that

it i s de sirable to have the motor stay on the line ju st as long as
possible in the event of external trouble and yet it S hould be ,

quickly dis connected in case of internal trouble T he motor .

1 38 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T hi s attachment i s als o provided with a c alibrat ed s cale so ,

that it may be set withi n wide limits T he relay proper i s set .

for a very long time delay on moderate overloads of 200 to 400

per cent so t hat a maximum time delay i s obtained in mild cas es
of distress Bu t should t he load exceed 5 00 per cent then t here
.

i s no longer time to delay S O the in stantaneous trip functions

,

F ro . 1 33 —
. C o n n ec t i o n s of G E r e ays f or
. . l pr ot ect i on of a t hr ee p h ase
-
ci r c u i t
wit h
u n r ou n dedg n eu t r a l .

and cuts out the motor instantly T hi s arrangement allows .

the main l ine relays to i solate defective feeders before the syn
-

chronons motor i s thrown off but it provides in stantaneou s ,

protection S houl d a s hort circui t develop in the motor or i t s -

connecting leads .

A dditional protection should be provided for in the form of

temperature load relays T hi s s cheme employs exploring tem
.

per at u r e coil s built right in the s tator s lot s It allow s the machine .
 M O TORS , TRA N S F ORM E RS , G E NE RA TORS , A N D L I NE S 1 39

to carry a heavy overload until overheati ng occurs E ven then .

though the machine be hot , if the load has decreased the relay ,

will not function ; it require s both high temperatur e and high l oad
t o operate it and then it usually warn s the operator by means
of an alarm or it O perate s automatic e q ui pment to relieve
the load T his relay i s more fully de s cribed under M i scell a
.

neon s Relays ”
.

FIG . 1 34 .
—
C o n n ecti on s of G . E . l
r e ay s f or pr o t ec ti on of a t hr ee ph a e
- s ci r cu i t

w it h a g r ou n ded n eu t r al .

P r ot ecti onRotar y Conver ter s Rotary converters S hould

of —

be pro t ected on both A C and D C side unle ss the rotary . . . .

,

i s O perating an is olated line without storage-batter y stand bye -

or any other chance of the current reversing and motoring

the rotary On the A C end there S hould be provided the usual
. . .
,

curr ent overload relays to pro t ect against severe overloads

- .

A low voltage relay should be provided to di sconnect the rotary

-

i n cas e of ine voltage failure

l - .
1 40 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

T he protection against reversal of current in the D C en d has . .

been full y des cribed under “A pplications of D C P ower Di rec . .

t i on al Relays E very rotary shoul d be provided with an

.

overs peed device of the centrifugal type which provides

protection S hould the other device s not pro tect it from over
s peedin g .

F ro . 1 35 —
. . l
C o n n ect i o n s of G E r e a y s f or pr o t ec t i on of a t h e p hase f
r e- o u r-w i r e

ci r c u i t w i t h
or w i t ou t a h
r o u n ded g n eu t r a l.

A complete diagram of the A O and D C protective relays . . . .

i s shown in F i g 1 3 6 . .

Tr an sf or m er P r otecti on I f the relays are connected on —

the li ne side (generating S ide ) of tran sformers which operate

a load of motor s etc they not onl y protect the load but the
,
.
, ,

transformers as well opening the circuit in case of trouble

,

in the tran sform ers .

Bu t the ob j ect i s not only to protect but al so to pre serve

 P ROTE CTI VE RE LA Y S

the condary C urrent t ran sf ormers are chosen f or t he pri m ary

se .

an d secondary which ive the same seco n dar y cu rren t n ra y

g ,
(g e e l l
5 am p) T hese are S hown at B an d C T he secon dar i es
.
.

F ro 1 37
.
—
. D i fleren t i al t r ansf orm er protecti on .

F ro . 1 38 . S
-
how i n g cu rren t s in rel ay u pon s hor t -ci r cu i t i n t r ansf or m er .

ar e conn ected in seri e s so that at normal load and correct di rec

t io n of power fl ow , a current will circulate in the second ar ie s
and none in the relay, as there is as mu ch t ende n cy for flow
in on e direct ion as i n t he other .
 M OTORS , TRA NS F ORM E RS , G E N E RA TORS , A N D L I N E S 1 43

AS long curr ent flows away from t he t ransf orm er in the

as

same ratio as it fl ow s in to it 1 ther e can be no curr ent

h
in t e relay ; but co nsider F i g 1 38 A short circu it has occu r red
- . .

in t he windi ng at X and a heavy cu rrent say 5 00 amp is , , .

,

flowing into t he primar y T he secondary cu rren t may n ot

.

drop 0 3 m uch , but the trans former would soon be ou t .

F ro . l 39 —
. T w o t r an sf or m ers in p ar allel ; s hor t i
-c r cu it i n one.

C onsider the current in the secondary of t he series trans

formers F ive
. hundred ampere s on a 1 00 to 5 t ransformer
give 25 amp on the secondar y T he other transformer
. .

to 5 ) will allow only 5 amp to flow through it so the ext ra

.
,

20 amp mu s t go somewhere
. C onsequently they fl ow through
.
,

the relay close the contacts and trip both the breake rs , efi ect u ally
, ,

isolating the transformer .

P r ot ecti on in Bank s I f however there i s another tran s

.
—

, ,

former operating l n parallel with thi s and a short circuit occurs -

,
1 44 P ROTE C T I VE RE L A Y S
'

the good transformer may feed the bad tran sformer from the
secondary side and cau s e an actual re vers al of power in the

defective unit that i s power feeds into the trans former s from
, ,

both side s as will be seen readily by a consideration of the

arrows denoting the direction of ins tantaneou s current flow
in F i g 1 39
. .

T his S hows that the good transformer as well as the defective ,

one become s heavily overloaded and plainl y S hows that plain

,

overload protection would cut out both transformers in equal

time T he diff erential connections however cut out only
.
, ,

the defective unit and throw the full load on the other remain
ing units T hen if the load i s too great to be safely carried
.
,

the overload relays mu st nece ssarily cut out the good un it

to prevent it from damage which re sults in unavoidable inter
,

ruption T hi s would seldom occur ; for example in our previous

.
,

example of three transformers carrying a load of kva .

,

if one goe s bad the others mus t each carry a load of 600 kva
, .
,

whi ch i s only 5 0 per cent overload and S hould be carried without ,

di ffi culty S hould two transformers go bad however it i s

.
, ,

obvious that one transformer of 400 kva could not carry a .

load of kva and the relays have no alternative but to cut

.

out the last remaining tran sformer to save it .

P O W E R DI RE CTI O N AL
- - RE L AY P RO TE CTI O N

It i s quite evident from the foregoing that a power directional -

relay may be installed in the load side of the tran sformer to give
adequate protection E xce ss current (overload ) relays are
.
-

installed in the load S ide as before N ow should an internal .

s hort develop in the tran sformer the reversal of power in the ,

s econdary cau se s the power directional relay to trip thi s S ide

-

of the transformer thu s re l ieving the overload on t he other

,

transformers in the bank and then the exce ss current relay

,
-

cuts the transformer out on the line S ide thus completely ,

is olating it In this connection the exce ss current relays give

. ,
-

protection against overload in the l ine or load pas t t he trans

former and power directional relays - .

O th er D ifi er en ti al M eth o ds S pecial relays which a ecom

.
—

p li s h the s ame protection are s ometime s built

,
in which the ,

actuating winding i s wound in two sections T he se sections .

1 46 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

the relay close s the contacts F igure 1 40 s hows a plu nger .

type relay with a double winding connected for diff erent ial ,

pro tection A i s the large power transformer arranged with

.

serie s tran sformers B and B which s upply the r elay winding

'

D and C N ormally the se currents O ppose each other produc

.
,

i ng no e ff ect on the plunger E Bu t S hould one current reverse .

,

due to a short circui t in A both assist in raising plunger E , ,

which close s contacts F and G completing the ci rcui t t o trip ,

coils H and I and O pening breakers J and K .

J I W Y

F ro . 1 42 —
. D i ff er en t i a l p r o t ec t i on of t w o t r an s f or m er s on t h
r ee- ph ase ci r cu i t .

A nother type of relay uses two s olenoids operating a pivoted

lever which carries the contacts T hi s i s shown diagram m atic .

ally i n F i g 14 1 T he two plun gers E and E work under the

. .
'

' '
influence of the solenoids D C and D C N ormally curr en t .

from transformer B in winding D oppo ses current from t rans

'

former B in winding C resulting in no pull whi l e current in

"
'
, ,
' '
D assis ts that in C re s ulting in a maximum pull
, S hould the .

c u rrent in C an d 6 reverse , t hen plunger E i s pulled up and

 M OTORS , TRA NS F ORM E RS , G E NE RA TORS , A N D L I N E S 1 47

p l u nge r E
'
lo s ing
,
i t s attraction f all s down
,
T hi s move s
. t he

lever L on i t s axis M , closing contact s F an d G and t r ipping

the breakers .

P ol yph as e Transf ormer P r otecti on F or the sake of cl arity ,

—
.

all connections have been shown si ngle p e - has T w o-

p h ase .

req uires t w o duplicates of t he single-phase In t hr ee phase .

—

work the transformers are general ly worked i n banks of t hree

,

phase sets ; that i s , if on e transformer in a set goe s bad t he ,

others i n that same set go out als o leaving the other set s in
,

the bank t o carr y the load E ach three ph ase set requi res only
.
-

two re l ays but requi re s three serie s transformers on each side

,

of the transformer .

F igure 1 42 S hows a typical three phas e differenti al pr oteo

-

tion connection for a three phase set -

.

P RO TE CTI N G THRE E -P HA S E S TA R-D EL TA BA N K S

A t hree phase bank

-
of tar-delta transformers having a
s ,

gro u nded neutral , attempt s t o mai ntai n the voltage equal

on all phase s in case of overload or short-circuit AS a resul t .

in t he cas e of a grou nd on t he l ine t he t ransformers wi ll supply

,

current t o t he grounded wire irres pective of whether t hese

,

transformers are at subs tations or generating st ations In .

other words if a sm all bank of transformers i s conn e cted t o

,

a large sys tem and has i t s neutral grounded it will be su b ,

j ect ed t o a s hort - circuit every time there i s a ground on t he

s ys tem . F or thi s reas on , s mall banks S hould have the i r neutrals

i solated , n ot onl y be cause Of the strai n which f r equent S hort
circ u i t s t hr ow on them but also on a ccou nt of t he frequen t
,

in ter ruptio ns they entail .

T he above argument ap pli es principally t o hi gh voltage -

syste m s , but it is necess ary t o consider t he same conditions

on low voltage four wi re sys tems F our-wire sys te ms are
- -
.

generall y used when there i s a large amount of si ngl e ph ase -

load t o be dis tributed , and as a r esu lt t he voltage on the three

phase s i s li able t o be unbalan ced When a bank of delta s tar
.
-

tran sformers i s connected onto su ch a system t he que stion ,

of grounding the neutral must be consider ed carefully As a .

general rule , it i s unsafe to make such a g roun d if the t ransforme rs

1 48 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

ar e s mal l bu t if they are compar atively large it may be a d

, ,

visabl e t o utili ze t hem t o as sis t i n m ai ntaining balan ced thr ee

phase voltage T hi s balancing i s e ff ected by drawin g cu r rent
.

from the hi gh voltage phase and supplyi ng it t o the low-voltage

-

phase with the result that there i s a flow of current in t he neutral

, .

T he possibility of bur ning out the transformers can be pre

vented by ins talli ng an overload relay in t he neutral and con
n ect i n g it SO t hat i t w ill soun d an al arm or automati cal ly open

the neutral .

It frequent ly ha ppens t hat st ar delta tr ansformers are con

-

necte d t o t he main circ uit through fus e s and trouble i s en cou n

tored when a single fu se O pens If the transformers are supplying

.

a motor load and t he neutral i s ungrounded the motor may ,

run single phase and damage the motor ; on the other hand
-
,

if the neutr al i s grounded two of the transformers will carr y

,

all t he load at a much lower power factor than normal Unless .

there i s a means of indicating a blown fuse the tran sformers ,

may carr y the overload until burned out A re lay in s tall ed .

in the neutral and arr anged t o give an alarm seem s t o be t he bes t

means of protection when viewed from the various angle s .

P r ot ecti on of G en er ator s Before the advent of thoroughly

—

reliable r evers e power relays it w as con sidered bad practice

-
,

t o prote ct the generators by overload relays becau se they could

not be set accurately and once they started to trip the cu rrent
, ,

mus t be reduced ve r y low in order to have them reset T he .

undesi rabi l ity of this i s real i zed when the momentary ex

change of power between machines as for in stance in syn , ,

chr on i zi n g i s considered
, T hi s rus h i s not at all serious as it
.

quickly sub side s ; but if the relay trips the breaker when there
i s no cau se for it then there i s a di s advantage
, .

T he main cause of danger i s in a S hort circuit occu rring -

in a winding A S this S hort may be only a few tu rns it might

.
,

quickly burn out a generator unless instantly de tected and

isolat ed If both ends of each winding are acce ssible t his
.

becomes a s imple case of protection by the diff ere ntial meth od .

As shown in F i g 1 43 the three windings ar e connecte d i n Y , with

.

S i x current transformers as s hown .

A s in the case of tran sformer protection if the s ame current ,

flows in through one transformer and goes out through t he

15 0 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

to carry i t s share of the load but may become motored If , .

the refus al to carry load i s due to a S hort circuit in the wind -

ing it may als o cau se a revers al of power which wil l intensify the
s hort circuit
-
T o guard agains t this the power directional
.
,
-

(reverse power or reverse o verload ) relays may be ins talled

- -

between the generator and bus T he se relays s hould be set

.

w ith a time setting of 1 or 2 see on the exce ss current element .

-

as there are often heavy surge s of current which may flow

between machine s due to li ne sw itching or synchronizing and a

time setting which i s too S hort wil l cause unnecess ary tripping .

E ven when the machine s are protected in thi s manner every ,

generator or prime mover should be provided with an over s peed -

de vice which prevents the machine s from s peeding as occa ,

sions may occur where neither exce ss current di ff erential con -

n ect i ons nor power directional rel ays wi l l give the proper pr ot ec
-

tion ag ai ns t this .

P r otecti on of S in g l e Lin ea Whil e trans mi ssion li nes are

—

seldom damaged by overload s except by an ar e at one par

,

t i cu l ar point yet the great maj ority of di s turbance s originate on

,

the lines owing to S hort circuits caused by the line s thems elve s
-

fall ing or becoming grounded or arcs starting from something,

s horting the wire s as for ins tance a cr ossw i r e dropping acro ss

,

the lines T herefore it become s nece ss ary to dis connect a faulty

.

line very quickly in case of short circuit T o do thi s overload -

.
,

relays are ins tal led in each line to be protected E ven on a .

s ingle phas e line

- two transformers should be employed as a
,

double ground on oppo site lines may occur at such points

that they cause a S hort circuit in which the protective tran s
-

former i s cut out T he connections are S imilar to those de

.

scri bed for the induction motor in F i g 1 30 and need not be .

duplicated A dditional s chemes for line protection are di s

.

cuss ed under the pilot wire and s plit conductor sys tem s
- -
.

P r otecti on Ag ai n s t G r ou n ds I f a three phas e line i s grounded

—

.
-

solid at the neutral then adequate protection i s obtai ned by

,

the usual line relays S olid g rounding however has been

.
,

S hown to be unde sirable for other rea s ons in s ome cases and ,

therefore the neutral i s grounded through a current limiting -

resi s tor In such case s it be comes nece ss ary to provide addi

.

t i on al protection agains t line grounds, and thi s i s accomplished

 M O TORS , TRA N S F ORM E RS , GE N E RA TORS , A N D L I N E S 15 1

by ins erting a relay in the neutral connection of the line relays .

T hi s relay i s then actuated by any unbalanced current whic h

may flow in the neutral .

T hi s relay may be a plain cu rrent relay set to O perate on a

-

low value of current as in the case of a syste m w ith the neutral

grounded through a comparatively low re si stor Or it may .

be a watt relay u sed with the connections S hown in F i g 1 44 . .

F l EDER
'

RELAYS . £76 .

WATT R£LAY

Of G ROUN D
C URRE N T

F ro . 1 44 —
. G r ou nd p r ot ec t i o n u si n g a w at t l
r e ay .

T he current coil i s inserted in the neutral bet ween the trans

formers and line relays while the pote ntial coil i s energized by
,

t he drop in voltage across a re si s tor in the neutral of the poten

tial transformers .

T hi s relay i s set to operate at a very low value of about 1

amp or le ss It has an adj ustable time element and can there
. .

fore be set to select between succe ssive sections of line .

 C HA P T E R X I I

P ROTE CTI O N OF P ARALLE L F EE DE RS

When S ubstations are tied into the main generating station

or when important indu strial concerns are to be supplied with
uninterrupted service reliance i s not placed in one S ingl e tran s
,

mission l ine G enerally there are a number of l ine s run and

.

connected in parallel T he se li ne s may or may not run on the

.

s ame pole s or the same right of way T hen in the event of

- —
.

a crippled line protective relays are provided to di s criminate

,

immediately and is olate the defective line while the other l ines
ins tantly assume the increased load without a s econd s inter ’

ruption T he following report taken from the Thi r ty fif th

.
,
-

A n n u al Con ven ti on P r oceedi n g s of the A I E E s hows the . . . .

,

vast saving which may be expected from the u se of properly

protecte d parallel feeders :

S AVI N G S E F F E CTE D BY A P ARA LLE L O P E RATI O N

O F F E E DE RS

T he sa vi n g s w hi ch can be eff ected by a par allel oper ation of f eeders

depen d i n a l ar g e deg ree u p on t he desig n of t he tr an smi ssi on system an d
t he r atio of t he capacity of t he li n e to t he cap acity of t he i n divi du al
s yn chro n ou s con ver ter s or tr an sf or m er s w hi ch ar e su ppli ed by thi s

f eeder. I n on e system s u pplyi n g con ver ter s var yi n g f r om 5 00 to

kw i n S i ze tog ether w i th step dow n tr an sfor m er s i n su bstatio ns
.
—

of an d kw capacity an d also i n du stri al su bstatio n s on t he

.

pr em i ses of cu stom ers r an g i n g f rom abou t 5 00 t o kw i n capacity .

,

i t w as esti m ated that i f t he f eeders cou ld be oper ated i n p ar allel then a

s avi n g of 20 per cen t cou l d be m ade i n t he am ou n t of i n vestm en t .

A s t he i n stall ati on i n q u esti on had a book val u e of abou t

there w as a p ossible savi n g estim ated at T his com pany
has been oper atin g f eeder s i n m ulti ple f or abou t t w o years D u ri n g this
.

period it has r eali z ed n early 40 per cen t of t he possi ble savi n g i n t he

i nvestm en t i n f eeder s an d this has been secu red by an actu al r edu ctio n
,

i n t he n u m ber of f eeders n otw ithstan di n g a co n si der able i n crease i n

,

t he m axi m u m load .
15 4 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

Asan example of how i nverse time limit relays may di s - -

crimi nate consider the parallel tie lines in Fi g 145 T he genera

, . .

t or bu s i s tied t o the s ubstation bu s with five three phase -

t rans mis sion l i ne s A B C D and E and the se lines are equ ipped
, , , , ,

with circuit breakers and relays at both ends .

N ow suppo se a short circuit occurs at X A ru sh of cu rrent

-
.

fl ows dir ectly from the generating bu s S ay for example it .

amounts t o amp A nother rus h o ccurs over the lin es

.

A C D and E and t hr ough the su b bu s back to the S hort

, ,
-
,

at X S ay this amounts to
. amp T hi s i s di vided between .

F ro . 1 45 —
. E lem e
n t ar y di a g r am of p ar allel f eeder pr ot ecti on by i n ver se ti m e
di s cri m i n at i on .

the four feeders A C D and E each taking one four th S O the

, , ,
-

current in each i s amp It i s very evident that if all the .

relays are set equally the on e ha ving amp will go out

,
.

much quicker than the one s having amp Likewi se .

the on e having ( B from s u b bu s ) w ill go out quicker than -

the ones having onl y amp .

T he greater the number of line s t he g reater t he diff erences ,

of current during a short circuit and the more protection - .

S uppo se however it i s not a dead S hort but merely a

‘

, ,

high re sistance S hort making only a moderate overload T hi s

-
,
.

thr ows the action on an entirely di ff erent part of the time

curve and the relays may or may not distinguis h which i s the
,

defective feeder .

It i s very evident that the selective action cannot be obtained

” “
from 1 5 0 per cent overload to a dead short and S ince this ,

can be done with power directional relays the selective inverse -

,

time limit relay system i s only employed where low initial

- -
 P ROTE C TI ON OF P A RA LLE L F E E DE RS 15 5

expense i s of paramo u nt importance and absolute continuity

of servi ce a secondary consideration .

Th e Bal anced P r ot ecti on S ys t em When there are a com —

p a r at i vel y lar ge num ber of parallel feeder s which may be divided

int o pairs quite effi cient protection may be Obtained by us ing
,

a simple excess-current (overload ) relay conne cted di fi eren ,

t i all y to the two lines much in the s ame manner as that de s cri bed
under di fi eren t i al transformer protection In thi s case, if
- .

S TATI ON A

FM ?

VA U LT

F ro . 1 46 —

. T h r ee vi ew s of bal an ced p r o t e c t i on of tw o p ar all el li n es . ( N ot

d i s c ri m i n ati n g) .

trouble occurs in one feeder then both feeders in the pair go out
, .

If however both feeders develop tr ouble at once as might be

, , ,

t he c as e if both sets were carried on the s ame pole line then ,

neither set woul d go out unl e ss equipped with suitable react ors ;
or if equipped with plain overload relays t he whole substa t ion ,

might go out unl ess there were enough li ne s to enable t he inve r se

time li m it relays to trip out the bad feeder by their selective
-

ti m e delay C onsider F i g 1 46 T he transformer on t he first

. . .

feeder i s connected w ith i t s secondary in serie s with that of

t he other transformer N ormal ly the currents ar e as s hown
.

by the arrows and no current flows through t he relay T hen .

con s ider the s ec ond figure A short circuit has occurred at X

.
-
.
156 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

T here i s an overload on both line s but the current has ,

reversed as shown ; it now bucks the opposite transformer

with the re sult that the two currents from both flow through
the relay which clo se s and trips out both breakers at station
,

B T hi s relieve s the overload on the good feeder but the over

.
,

loa d sti l l exis ts On the shor t ed feeder C onsequently there .

,

i s again an unbalancing of current in the current transformers

at the station A and thi s unbalancing cau se s the relay at s tation
,

A to trip out both feeders at station A thereby i solating both ,

feeders at both end s A n open circuit in either line wi l l als o

.

cause an unbalancing and tripping of relays .

It will be noted that both subs tation breakers are tripped no

matter on which feeder the trouble occur red also that if a simul ,

t an eou s S hort occurred on both feede rs neither breaker would ,

t rip as the current in both transformers would reverse giving ,

t he same e ff ect as normal direction .

T hi s can be overcome by correctly in serting reactance s

in the substation end in one feeder an d in the generator end
of the other feeder as wil l be more fully explained under the
,

S plit conductor S ys tem

-
.

A fter the tripping of a pair of line s it i s the cus tomary pr ac,

tice to locate the good line and put it back in service with straig ht
overload protection in place of the di ff erential protection
, .

In order to protect agains t s hort circui ts on the substation-

bus its e l f or agains t any po ss ibility which would not cause an

,

unbalancing of currents or a relative revers al of current on

,

a group of parallel feeders the generator end of all feeders

,

s ho ul d be provided with inver se time limit relays having com

- -

p ar at i vel y high s etting s With thi s. arrangement it often ,

happens that if the fault occurs on the line between the main
and subs tation the substation relay clears the fault very
,

quickly at the substation end S O that the invers e time limit

,
- -

relay on the faulty line only at the generator end trips thu s ,

leavi ng the good line of the pair connected at the main s tation .

T hen if a voltmeter i s connected at t he substation to as certain

which lin e i s ali ve, the good line may be quickly put back in
ser vice .

D ifi er en ti al bal an ce r elay P r ot ecti on

- - I n thi s sys tem it
.
—

i s nece ss ary to have a large number of parallel feeders or t i e

15 8 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA YS

diagrams of instantaneous balance relays and time delay re lays

are shown in F i g 1 49 . .

S pli t con du ct or S ys tem

- T hi s method utilize s a cable with .
—

two wi re s in parallel ins tead of a S ingle wire A two-phase .

cable would thus have eight wire s and a three phase cable ,
-

F ro . 1 49 .
—
C on n ec t i on s of G . E . l l
over oad re ays a n d bal an ced c u r r en t l
re ays

f or pr ot ec ti on of p ar all el li n es
.

six wi re s F igure 1 5 0 s hows the two wi re s of one ph as e of a si x

.
-

wire cable T he other two set s would be connected in a si m i lar

.

manner A di ff erential-current transformer i s u sed havi ng

.

two pri m arie s which buck each other on balanced current an d,

therefore produ ce no current in t he relay during normal opera
,

tion S uppose a defect occurred bet ween t he t w o lines as in

.
 P ROTE C TI ON OF P A RALL EL F E E DE RS 15 9

F ig 15 1
. currents would no longer divide equally but less
. T he
would flow in one line than the other T his unbalancing of

"
.

current would excite the relays and open t he breakers at both

S u mo A S TATI O N 3

m ore-
s wu
con s u m e

as s u m -
e l u men n . m m M
a re ou r t ran s m it s cc M m new

F ro . 15 0 —
Sc hem at i c di a gr am of c o n n ec t i on s of t he s pl i t co n d u c t o r s y s t em .

end s eff ectually i solating the cable F igure 15 2 shows t he

,
.

conditions of a low re sistance fault .

However a s hort only between two sections of the same

,

line would cau se no damage ; but s uch a short seldom occurs .

man I n t ern et
M 1 Co m mon

F ro . 15 1 .
—
D i r ec t i o n of p ow er flow w i t h s ho rt.

G eneral ly one pair hort circuits to another pair However s -

.
,

if one pair shorte d to either wire of another pair the currents ,

in the two conductors would be unequal and the breakers at

both end s would trip out If however the two sections of .
, ,

Si m on A

F ro . 15 2 —
L en t gh of ar r ow s re pr ese n t t h e i n t en s i t y of t he pow er t h r ou gh t he
f au t l .

the same li ne shorted together and these shorted to two S i m ilar

s ection s the current s would s till be balanced and no prote ction
,

result T his i s overcome by ins talling a reactance in the li ne s

.

as s hown in F i g 1 5 3 It will be noticed that a reactor i s in one

. .
1 60 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

side of t he spli t at one end of the cabl e and a reac t or i s in the

O pposite S plit at the oppo site end N ow if both s plits S hort .
,

circuit the current i s no longer balan ced due to the reactor

, , ,

and the relays trip out the breakers F or further details see the .

paper by W H C ole on S plit C onductor C ables Balan ced

. .
,
“
- —

”
P ro t ecti on P r oceedi ng s A I E E J uly, 1 9 1 8 p 7
, 93 . . . .
, , . .

A short c ircuit on one cable naturally overloads all the cable s

-
,

but if the other cable s are intact the current will divide equally
in the s plit conductors and t he relays will not be energized ,
no matter what the overload As in the previou s example .

thi s i s excellent protection but i s very expen sive requiring ,

CI RCUI T

To Re ay l To Rel a y
F ro . 153 —
. S h ow i ng t he u s e of r ea c t o r s i n t he s pl i t con du c t o r s y s t em .

reactors and large cable s T he same protection is given by .

using power dir ectional relays (to be de s cribed later ) and thi s
-

h i
has di s couraged t e extens ive u se of the s pl t conductor sys tem
-
.

Th e P il ot w ir e S ys tem
- As has already been s hown diff eren
.
-
,

tial relays are practically indis pen s able in prote cting trans
former bank s by instantly cutting out a defective unit without
interrupting the service C losely allied with this prote ction .

is the diff erential protection of parallel feeders , cal led the pilot
wir e sys tem .

Referring to F i g 1 5 4 the main generating station i s tied

.

into the s ubstation by means of several feeders E ach feeder i s .

equi pped with circuit breaker current transformers and r elays ,

at each en d P arallel to the feeders are two s mall wire s gen

.
,

orally about N o 10 B S gage connecting the two trans

. . .
,

former se condarie s and relays in serie s Under normal con .

di t i ons no current will flow in the pilot wire s as the secondary

,
” “
windings are arranged to buck each other re s ulting in zero ,

current regardle ss of load Th e direction of the current is as

,
.
1 62 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

tial relays thus enabling them t o distinguis h between a short

,

in a feeder and an overload in or pas t the substation .

T hi s method of protection although widely u sed in E urope , ,

has not met with much favor in this country ex cept on s mall ,

s ys tem s where the subs tations ar e clo s e together as the cos t ,

of the pilot wires i s quite high ; be side s the same protection ,

i s a ff orded by power directional relays which wil l be de s cribed

-
,

later .

A nother di s advantage of the di fi er en t i al method of proteo

tion i s that anything which may damage the transmi ss ion line
woul d be very liable to damage the pilot wire s and it i s very ,

evident that if they become O pen circuited the relays can -

,

not O perate no matter how severe t he di s turbance T hen if .

the pilot wire s become s horted even t hough the feeders are ,

intact the breakers will open

,
.

T o this i s added the great danger that a high ten sion feeder -

in falli ng or breaking may catch onto the pilot and introdu ce

, ,

a dangerous potential into the station .

P ilot wire sys tem s frequently make u se of current tran s

-

formers with a normal se condary current of } 5 amp with .

relays wou nd corre s pondingly T hus if a 300 to } 5 amp trans .

, .

former were u sed and the relay set for , amp the system would .
,

clear a ground drawing as low as 1 5 0 amp It has been cal .

cu l at ed that if a N o 1 0 pilot wire i s u sed the s e relays can be

.
,

operated succe ssfully where t he stations are between 2 and 3

mile s apart the maximum allowable dis tance depending upon
,

the setting of the relay whi ch in turn i s determined by the mini

,

m u m g rou nd current which i s expected to flow during trouble .

F urther in formation on thi s subject i s given in a paper by

R F S CHU CHA RD T on P rotective Relays ,
” “
. . Tr an sacti on s
A I E E
. . Vol XXXVI , p 383 1 9 1 7
. .
, . .
, .

S ometime s a loop or ring system contains so man y su b

s tations that the time intervals which it i s nece ss ar y t o allow ,

between relays in serie s add up to an uns afe amount on t he

,

relays at the generating station I f the loop covers a smal l t er ri .

tory in may be convenient to install pilot wire s between some of

,

the subs tations T he connections are as s hown in F i g 15 5 and it

. .

will be observed that under normal conditions t he current

tr an formers at each end of a conductor a e s hor t cir cu ited
s r -
 P ROTE C TI ON OF P A RALL EL F E E DE RS 1 63

upon ea ch other through t he pi lo t wire However t he pilot .

,

wire may have su ffi cient resis tance so that the cu rrent will
divide and part of it leak through the relays at each end T here .

fore current transformers ar e used which have a secondary

,

rating Of or s ometimes 1 amp which decrease s the potential

.
,

drop between the two ends of the pilot w ire and at t he same

OF LOW

F m l 55
.
—

. Pi l ot w i re s ys tem a a ged s o t h at se
rr n con d ar y cu r r en t n or m a ll y ci r cu

l ates bet w ee s t ati on

n s.

time requi res t he use of a relay which O perate s on a smaller

current and consequently has a higher impedance so that
le ss cu rrent will leak through it .

When a s hort circuit or g round occurs on the line between

-

t he two sub s tations the current transformers at t he t w o ends

,

are no longer short circuited upon each other but the currents
-
,

which they produce are opposed to each other so that c u rrent

must flow through t he relays an d t rip ou t t he circuit breakers
at each en d .
1 64 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

P ARALLE L -F E E D E R p n or s cr ron BY PO W E R DI RE CTI ON AL

-

RE LAY S

T his ystem of protect ion which i s u sed exten sively on radial

s ,

dis tribution sys tems utilize s exce ss current relays Of t he induc

,
-

tion type at the generating end Of t he trans mi ssion lines and

p ower d irectional
-
relays at the sub s tat ion or receiving end of
t he line Referring to F ig 1 5 6 the generator bu s G i s tied
. .

t o t he subs tation bu s S by t hree parallel three phase line s -

A B an d C
, T he exce ss current relays and circuit breakers
.
-

FIG . 15 6 .
—
E lem e n t ar y u se of pow er di r ec ti o n a l l
r e ay s on p ar allel f eeder s
T rip an d pot en t i al con n ec t i on s om i t t e d .

ar e hown at E and the power directional relays are shown

s -

at R N OW assume a short at X As has bee n previously

. .

s hown a heavy current flows through the relay on line B an d

, ,

also but Of less magnitude on the line s A and C Bu t the

, ,
.

current in relay R on line B has reversed with re s pect to the

bu s voltage C on sequently this relay trips out the sub station
.

end Of this line relieving the excess current on line s A and C

,
.

T he overload still continue s on line B until exce ss current -

relay E trips out the breaker on the generating end thus com ,

p l et el y i s olating the defective feeder F igure s 1 5 7a and 1 5 7b .

s how t he typical connection s for power directional relays -

1 66 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

in operation if de sired but it may be pro vided with any time

,

delay desired by mean s Of the setting on t he excess current

-

members Of the power directional relays

- .

A nother advantage of the cro ss connected system i s that

-

the relays may be set to clear a fault which draws le ss than

full load current on each feeder T his enables the correct
-
.

clearing of trouble on a sys tem having t he neutral g rounded

 P RO TE C TI ON OF P A RALL E L F E E DE RS

thr ough such a hi gh resistan ce t hat t he total load an d trouble

current may be less than the maximum load c u rrent of that cable .

If the parallel feeders happen to be on a system with more

than one generator station t here may be occasion s when the
,

power flow i s firs t one way and then in the Opposite direction .

With the ordinary connections thi s Often necess itates a chang e

,

F ro . 15 9 —
. . l h l l
C o n n ec t i on s of G E po y p a se po w er di rect i o n a re ay an d o ver load
re l g
ay s f or p r ot ect i n h h
a t hr ee-p ase s y s t em w i t g l
u n r ou n ded n eu t r a.

in the relay setting but with the cross connected system

s, -
,

the need for this change i s obviated as the adj us tment i s the ,

same regardle ss Of the direction of power flow .

S ome man uf act u rer s and us ers cl aim that h

t e cro ss connected
-

s ys tem i s more economic al than the s pli t c onductor or the -

pilot wire system becaus e it d oes not requ ire extra cable s
-
, .

T hey also claim i t t o be superior t o the balan ced protection

1 68 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

using t i pai r because t he cro

wo- n - onnected system cuts
,
-
ss c

out only the defective feeder while the balan ced sys tem cut s ou t
,

both feeders and the good one mu st be located in s ome other

,

manner before it can be put back in service .

T he s chematic diag ram Of F i g 1 61 s hows the connections .

of cross-connected r everse power relays applied to a system -

F ro . 1 60 —
. C o n n ec t i o n s f o r G E
. .poly p h ase po w er di rec t i on al rel ay a n d o ver
l l
oa d r e ay s f or p r ot ec t i n g a t h r ee p h ase gr ou n d ed n eu t r al cir cu i t
- .

consisting of a generating stat ion and a substation connected

by two parallel feeders T O simplif y it the diagram shows
.
,

o nly one ph as e of each feeder A comple t e diag ram for a pair .

of three phase feeders i s s hown in F i g

-
1 62 Here however . .
, ,

the tripping circuit i s omitted .

It should be borne in m ind that while shown i n F ig s 1 6 1 , .

and 1 62 for a comparatively simple condition thi s s cheme ,

can be used with equal success in any part of a compli cated

network W hile preferably t he cables in t he parallel system
.
, ,
170 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

quently there i s no force tending to operate the relays On .

the other hand if trouble occurs on a cable within the section

, ,

the current through the defective cable w i ll be higher than that

in the others and the exce ss current from i t s cu rr ent tran sformers
mu st therefore pass through the relays While under thi s
, , .
,

unbalanced condition current will flow t hr ough all the relays

, ,

it will be observed that the current i s in the pre per direction

to cause the relay to act only in the relays at each end of the
defective cable s .

In F i g 1 62 are s hown pallet s witche s connected in the trans

.

former secondary circuit T he se are also connected mechan .

i cal l y to the operating mechani s m of the breaker so that when

the breaker open s the current transformers on the feeder con
trolled will be s hort circuited By thi s method a cable can
-
.

be cut out of service without interfering with the electrical

balance in the current transformer circuit -
.

F ro . 1 63 —
. C on n ect i ons of We sti n gho se dou ble
u con t a ct l
r e ay ( s how n f or on e
p h a e o nl y )
s .

D i fi er en ti al - pow er - di r ecti on al or D ou bl -
e con tact Rel ays .

I t wi l l benoticed that when the cross connected relays are applied -

to two parallel feeders they are actually in parallel and one clo se s
, ,

with power in one direction and one wi th power in the other .

T herefore in stead of u sing two relays it i s po ss ible to put

, ,

two contacts on the upper element to perform the s ame dutie s .

T hu s if the di s k turn s to the right it clo se s one contact and

, ,

if it turns to the left it clo se s the other contact

, .

T hi s i s clearly s hown in F i g 1 63 which shows two line s .

, ,
 P ROTE C TI ON OF P A RA LLE L F E E DE RS 1 71

feeding from or t o t he bus C T he transformers are diff eren

.

t i all y connected i e if the load i s divided normally the current

, . .
, ,

merely circulates thr ough the transformer secondarie s and

will not pas s through the relay as there i s as much tendency ,

to flow one way as the other .

Bu t should one current reverse due t o a short ci rcuit t here i s

-
, ,

an immediate fl ow Of cu rrent in the relay and i t s direction i s such

that it causes the upper di sk to tu rn in the proper direction
to close the contacts which trips the breaker on the defective
,

line T his is true whether the power i s flowing into or out Of

.

the bus It i s the revers al Of cur rent with re s pect to t he bu s

.

voltage that determine s which way to trip .

As before F i g 1 63 shows only the protection of one w ire

,
.
,

but it mu s t be remembered that the others are similarly pr o

t ect ed with the voltage connected to the bu s which gives a
normal lag of voltage 30 deg behind the current at 1 00 per .

cent power factor T he nece ssity of this as we l l as the method

.
,

Of determining the c orre ctness Of thi s ph as e relation has been ,

dis cu ssed previou sly .

R
D I S AD VA N TA G E S O F C O S S C O N N E CTE D S Y S TE M S
-

T he u se Ofcross connected relays or double contact reverse

- -

power relays has the s ame dis advantage as any other balanced
s cheme in that trouble that occurs on the bu s bars or on all the

feeders simultaneou sly cannot be automatically clear ed .

A nother dis advantage i s encountered when an attempt i s

made to cut in a new fee der Assume that the feede rs are
.

heavily loaded and arrangements are being made to swi tch

in a new one If the attempt i s made to close the switch on
.

the substation en d first the new feeder wi ll be tripped out

, ,

whereas if it i s fi rst closed in from the generating station end

, ,

the feeders carrying the load will be tripped ou t When only .

one line i s in service the chance Of tripping ou t the new line

,

while s witching it in from the subs tation end i s the same as t he

chance of tripping out the loaded li ne by doing the s witching
from the generator end but in either case there i s no danger unle ss
,

the loaded li ne i s carrying a current twice as great as the relay

setting .As the number of lines in service i s increas ed t he
l 72 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y 8

possi bili t y of t ri ppi ng ou t t he li ne at t he su bs tat i on be

n ew

comes g reater , w hil e t he poss i bili t y of t r i i

pp gn ou t t he

F ro . “ 34 —
. C o n n ec t i ons of G E. . l
o ver oad re ay s , l dou ble co n t ac t pow er di rec
l
t i onal an d au xi i ar y r e lays f o pr otec t i o
r n of par allel li n es .

line s at t he generating station become s less as s hown by t he

following table
N u m ber t i m es l oad -per -f eed er m us t be
of
g r eat er t han r ela set t i n g i n or d er t o
g
tr i p r es k et
at su bs t ati on at g en er at i n g st at i on

2 2
1 36 3
I M 4
5
174 P ROTE C T I VE RE L A Y B

T he same t rou bl e is li kely t o be en cou n t ered in case on e

li ne shoul d be opened acci den t all y .The obvi ous rem edy
f or t his con di t i on is t o g i ve t he over l oad elemen ts of t he rel ays
so hi g h a set t i n g t hat t he n or mal l oad curren t cann ot possi bl y
-

oper ate t hem .

By doi n g t hi s , how ever , t he previ ous ly st ated advan t ag e

of set t i n g r elays t o t ri p on a faul t curren t less t han fu l l l oad

is l ost. I t t hen becom es n ecessar y t o c hoose w hi ch g ives t he

most desi rable pr ote ct ion . T he poss ibi lity of t r ippin g ou t
t he b reaker when a n ew f eeder is cu t in can als o be over com e
by mec hani cal ly hol di ng t he su bst at ion relay of that feeder , w hil e
c ut t i ng i n first at t he su bs t ation an d t hen at t he g ener ati ng
ti on
st a .

Anot her m et hod of prot ect ing parallel feeders by t he di fi er

en t i al m et hod i s shown in F i g 1 64 T hi s method u ses a
. .

po l y p h ase double contact p ower directional relay in connec t ion

w ith t hree overload induct ion type relays T here are in addi t ion
.

t w o au xi lia r y relays in the trip circuit which as wi ll be seen from a

,

study of the conne ct i ons , prevent t he t ripping of t he se cond

breaker ( after t he first has trip ped) du e t o t he reboun d of t he

di sk in t he relay .

Additional diagram s illu strating the connection s of a power

directional relay and over cu r rent relay are shown in F ig s 165
-
.

and 1 66 .
 C HA P TE R X III

P ROTE CTI O N O F RAD I AL , RIN G AN D N E TW O RK

S Y S TE M S

On e Of the most important use s of the protective relay i s t o

locali ze and is olate a defective feeder or piece Of apparatus
in a radial system of trans miss ion whether the tran smission ,

be con fined to sm al l units in one building or a sys tem cover ,

ing mile s of line s T he principle Of application and de sired

.
,

result i s all the same A radial s ystem i s one in which there

, .

1 67 —
. l
O n e- i n e di a g r am of s i m pl e l
r ad i a s ys t em .

is a main generator or generators feeding a main bu s (s ome ,

times sectionali zed ) which in turn feeds several smaller busses ;

,

the se in tu rn each feed several more feeders or machines and ,

s o on . E ach subdivi sion i s pro te cted by circuit breaker and

overload relays F igu re 1 67 s hows t he diagramm ati c layout
.

Of a radial s ys tem In A O trans mission t hr ee phase i s gen

. . .
-

er all y u sed but ins tead of s ho w ing the three wires in t he diagram
, ,

the three wires are repre sented by a single line .

T he main generators A B and C supply the main bu s

, , , ,

D with energy F rom this bu s are shown two three phase

.
-

175
1 76 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

lines E and E which in tu rn supply t he buss es G and H In

, .

general practice there will be a large number of li nes taken from

bu s D but for the sake of clarity only two are shown T he .

busses G and H may be in subs tations many miles away and

E and F long dis tance high tension tran s mi ss ion line s or
-
,
-
,

G and H may be di stribution boxes in a factory or power plant

and E and F a few feet of cable or bu s .

T apped ofi t he bu sses G and H are line s I J K and L which , , ,

supply bu sse s M N O and P , T he se bu sse s have more feeders

, .

tapped on A ltho u gh at each subdivi sion only two line s are

.

Re a r Vi e w
F m 1 68
. .
—

C om p let e d i a g
r am of e ac h el ay s how
r n in F ig . 1 67 .

shown it must be remembered that the number Of line s i s

,

unlimited electrically F or ins tance bu s G might s u pply a

.
,

dozen feeders and bu s H might supply another 20 or 30

,

feeders and busses .

Immediately as each line leave s the bu s it i s supplied with ,

a circuit breaker and right after the circuit breaker come s a

current transformer which actuates an overload relay which ,

in tu rn i s arranged to trip the breaker .

As s tated before the li ne E repre sents three separate wire s

,

in actual practice T he relay i s in reality three separate relays

.

O perated from three current trans formers and the circuit

'

breaker i s a three pole breaker In other words if F i g 1 67

-
.
,
.

were fully drawn out each feeder relay and breaker would
, ,
178 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

S ay that rel ay Q i s set ac cording t o cu rve 3 rel ay T curve 2 , ,

and relay Z cu rve 1 N ow suppose the overload amounted

.

t o 200 per cent of full load Relay Z trips first (in 2 .

relays T and Q would requ ire 4 and 6 sec res pectively S o t he . .

action is perfectly selective at 200 per cent load .

S uppo se the overload w as 400 per cent Re lay Z st ill trips .

first (in Bu t an actual short circuit might draw -

about per cent or in any cas e over per cent load .

C ons ider the curve s at thi s point T hey inters ect T herefore . .
,

Percent Load Required t o Tr ip

F ro . 1 70 —
. Tim e load cu r ves of a Wes ti ghou se bell ow s
n t y pe over oad l l
r e ay .

the action i s no longer selective but at heavy overloads t he action ,

i s almost instantaneou s T herefore relays having cu rve s

.
,

s imilar to F i g 17 0 are not suitable for radial protection

. .

D efi ni t e Ti m e Let u s consider the defi n i t e time li mi t

.
— - -

relay Relay Z may be set for 1 sec relay T for 2 sec and
. .
,
.
,

relay Q for 3 see I t i s now evident that no matter what the

.

overload if the relays act according to their setting the most

, ,

distant feeder will go out firs t So it would seem that a defini t e .

time limi t relay should be sati sfactory

-
.

Bu t it i s not ne cess ary to trip a 1 5 0 per cent load as qu ickly

as a s hort circuit N or is it well t o sustain a sh ort on line
-
.
 RA DI AL , RI N G A N D N E T WORK S YS TE M S 1 79

E for 3 sec The obvious remedy is to set the time cl oser How
. .

ever there may be four or five subdivisions of the radial sys tem
,

and practice has shown that i t i s useless to depend on a bell ows

relay for such cl ose time In t he first place it takes considerable
.
,

t ime t o test and set t he correct t ime and t hen i t i s not per ,

manent as the leather Often dr ies ou t and changes the time

s o that at a critic al moment t he rel ay will n ot is olate i t s feeder

line properly .

Inver s e defi ni te mini mu m Tim e E vi den t l y the lines must

- - —

.
,

be protected by an easily set permanently accurate relay and one

-
,
-

which combines the features of an inverse time li mit relay at - -

Percent cum R i d t Cl e Com et s

‘

q re o os

F ro . l 71 —
. Tim e load cu r ves of a We sti n gho u se i n d u c t i o n t y pe l l
over oad r e ay .

moderat e overloads h
with t ose of a defi ni t e time -limit at heavy
-

overloads T he induction relays de s cribed in a previous chapter

.

meet the se conditions very satisfactorily C onsider t he curve s .

of t he induction relay shown in F i g 1 71 . .

S ay relay Z is set according to curve 3 ; relay T to cur ve 8 ,

and relay Q to cur ve 1 0 C ons ider 1 5 0 per cent load Relay

. .

Z trips in sec T he time i s now selective

. T he farthe st .

relay take s sec the next 1 % sec the next 2 sec T hu s

. . .

t he ti me i s always s elective wi th a relay of thi s type F igure 1 72 .

gives cu rves of another type of induction relay .

M i n i m u m Ti m e T he next que st ion i s how many line s

—

.
,

or subdivi sions can be protected or in other words how close , ,

can t he setting s be and still have accur ate select i ve acti on .

1 80 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

It i s not saf e t o sust ai n a short cir cuit m ore t han 2 see on t he

- .

generat or ; t hi s l i m i ts t he fi rst division to 2 sec T he las t .

subdivi si ons may be i nst an t aneous T he num ber of divi si ons

.

F ro . 1 72 —
. Ti m e l oad curves of a G . E . i n du ct i on t ype l
re ay .

in between depends on the accuracy of the relay and t he t ime

it take s the breaker to open .

i
F g ure 173 give s the time taken by variou s b re aker s bet w een
the ins tant Of tripping and O pe n ing of the circuit which rel ieves
the overload It will be noted that
. se e i s a fair value t o al low . .

F ro . l 73 —
. l h
T y pi ca t i m e c ar act er i s t i cs of oi l ci r cu i t br eakers .

( 1) vol t s , 2 000 am peres ( 2)

. l
vo t s , 3 00 am peres . ( 3) l
vo t s ,

3 00 am per es .

T herefore ,if t he relays were perfect each subdivi sion could ,

be set with see to maintain s elective

. action B u t the .

time of the circuit breaker may vary slightly so it i s better ,

to all ow sec T hen allow

. see for any inaccuracie s .
1 82 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

an d F sec and G and H in s tantan eous

’ ’ ’ ’
set E for . T he reverse .

power relays are set very close for in stance a bout se e N ow , , .

if a short circuit occurs on any line the reve rs e power relays kick
-
,
-

out the breaker at the receiving end in s ee If the short had .

occurred on a feeder between G and M the overload relays at ,

G would fi nis h i s olating the shorted feeder in sec leaving t he .

,

good feeders to handle the load without a second s interru ption ’

.

If the short had been between D and G the reverse power relays ,
-

would have isolated one end of the defective line in sec and .

the relays at D would have i solated the other end in 2 sec again .
,

allowing the good feeders to assume the total unin t errupted load .

o— o Indicates Overload R
elay

FIG . 1 75 .
—

Radi al s y s t em f or m i n g n e t w or k .

If however all the line s between D and G should be come

, ,

s horted as might be the case if all were carried on the s ame

,

pole line then the s tations G M and N and all their loads would be
, ,

dead unle ss other means were taken to supply them S uppo se

,
.

s tation G ins tead of being diametrically O pposite to station

,

H should be about an angle of say 30 or 40 deg It would not

, , , .

cos t much to have a line run from G to H T hen if all the lines .

from D to G go out the stations G M and N would be fed over

, ,

the tie line between H and G In a similar manner if .

,

the line s between D and H went out then H s lo ad i s as sumed ,

’

by G .

In a similar manner a line may run from M to 0 so even if all

, ,

the line s from D to G or from G to M or if G itself goes out O f

, ,

commission the re s t of the sys tem i s still suppl ied

,
.
 RA DI AL , RI N G A N D N E T W ORK S Y S TE M S 1 83

It wi ll be noted that power may flow from G to H and from

H to G ; or from M t o O and from O t o M T o pro tect these .

feeders properly as we l l as to protect an y parallel feeders in

which the power may flow in either di rection t he power diff eren ,

tial relay i s u sed T his does not dis crim inate between direction
.

of power fl ow as long as the load divide s equall y between the

two lines Bu t if the power in one line revers e s due to a sh ort in
.

that line the relay immediately detects it and trips that breaker
, .

A nother typical network system with i t s time setting i s shown in

F ig . 1 75 .

Th e Ri ng S ystem When several substations are fed from

.
—

one main generating station and their geographical location i s ,

favorable the ring system form s one of the be st ways of secu r ing
,

u ninterrupted service with a mi nimum of expense for feeders etc , .

T he r ing system in i t s elementary form has been treated under

the chapter on A pplications of D C P ower D irectional Relays,
“ ” -
. .

while the condition s of se r vice expe ri enced such as low voltage

and phas e di stortion have been treated under the chapter on
”
C haracte r i s tic s of E lect ri cal D isturbance s .

Whi le theoreticall y it i s possible to include any number of

subs tations in the ring yet in actual practice the number is
,

l imited to four or five for two re as ons : F irs t the be s t relays m ade ,

wil l not select with absolute precision clo ser than } 5 or of a

” “
second and second the maximum time that a
, , s hort s hould be

held on before clearing i s about 2 sec Of course , thi s ru le .

i s not ri g id but repre sents the be st practice

,
.

Let u s consider the elementary ring again as s hown in F i g .

1 76 .T here i s a main generating station at A with sub stations

at B C D and E
, ,
Although the transmission l ine i s s hown
.

by a single l ine for the sake of simplicity yet it wil l be under

, ,

s tood that each l ine if drawn out with trans formers and relays

would assume the appearan ce of the insert At station A .

,

the line s are protected by simple accurate overload relays , ,

while each substation has A C power directional (reverse . .

-

power ) relays at both ends T he se relays are set so that they .

will never trip when power flows into the su bstation no matter
what i t s magnitude but will o nly t ri p w he n an overl oad flows
,

away f ro m a substation .

G oing around the rin g in the direction the relays

1 84 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

On the furthe st side of each station are set with decre asing time
element ; for instance A 2 sec B 1M sec C 1 sec .
,
.
,
.
,

D M sec and E . in s ta n taneou s G oing around in the di r ec .

t ion t he relays on t h e outgoing sides would be set as

foll ows : A 2 sec E 1 M sec .D ,
1 sec C M se c .
, .
, .
,

B instant aneou s

F ro . 1 76 —
.
—
l
O n e i n e co n n ec t i o n di a g r am of t he ri n g s y s t em . I n s er t s how s t he
c o m pl et e di a r am ofg c o n n ec t i o n s a t eac h s t at i o n .

N owremembering that a relay starts to function only when t he

power flows away from a subs tation consider t he e ff ect of a ,

s hort at X P ower starts to flow from A through B and C

.

into X and al so through E and D into X T hus the relays .

on the far sides Of B and C start to operate but as C i s set for ,

1 sec and B for 1 M see it i s evident that the breakers at C wi ll

. .
.

”
O pen and relieve the
“
short from both B and C On the other .

side of the ring t he relays on the far side of E and D s tart to

,

Operate but since D i s set for 1 sec and E f or 1

, M s ee it i s again . .
1 86 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

tance inductance and capacity of the original l ines and deter

,

m ining the divis ion s of load from thi s m i n iature syst em .

In actual o peration it will u sually be found that there are

,

several feeder s or sub station s which may be i s olated in an e ff ort

t o locate the trouble if it i s not i solated by automatic prote o

,

tion T his condition may be obtained by having a number

.

of breakers open at the fir s t ins tant of trouble F or instance .

,

in F i g 1 75 i s shown a feeder between s tations N and S which

.

i s u sed mo s t for maintaining correct voltage regulation In -

.

cas e of trouble however it would be po ssible t o di spense with

, ,

thi s until the trouble w as cleared up on the re st of the system .

We have therefore as sumed that the circuit breaker on section

, ,

A in the sub station i s equipped with an in s tantaneou s relay If .

it should happen that the trouble i s on thi s section of line the

relay in station S will operate after M sec and clear the trouble ; .

but if the trou ble i s not on this particular feeder no harm ,

wil l be done and the load that i s supplied from it will not be
interrupted In order that sync hronizing and other switching
.

on the system shall not cau se interruptions it is as sumed that ,

the minimum time limit of M see i s nece ssary If such a . .

setting i s u sed and a short circuit occurs at the point Z the

,
-
,

relay i n s ubs tation N will require M see to operate and there .

,

will be a further M sec required for the circuit breaker to open

. .

T he relays at sub station P will not begin to operate until the

s witch at sub s tation N h as opened becau se it i s as s umed that the
,

s hort circuit i s clo se to the latter s ub s tation an d there i s

-
con ,

sequently no unbalancing at s ub s tation P

, T here will therefore .
,

be s till further delay of M sec at subs tation P before the trouble

.

i s fi nally cleared It i s for thi s reas on that the de fi nite time

.

limits in the tie feeders between substations P S and T have ,

been shown to be higher than appears nece ssary at firs t sight .

With the setting s hown in the se subs t ations it will require more
than 2 see to clear a case of trouble should it occur in either
.

s ection B or C F or thi s reas on it may be thought advi s able

.

to adju st the relays at subs tation T so that they have a l ower

time setting with the re sult that one of them will O perate on
,

practically all cases of trouble but as in the case of section A , , ,

thi s wil l not re sult in an y interruption of service ; it will merely

trip out a circuit breaker that can later be clo sed by the attendant .
 RA D I AL RI N G A N D N E T W ORK S
, Y S TE M S 1 87

T he se
illustrations show how to adapt relays to complicat e d
system s thu s securing all the advantage s which can be obtained
,

from a clo se interconnection of stations and substations .

P RO TE CTI O N OF S Y S TE M S BY UN D E R-VOL TA G E A N D E XCE S S

CURRE N T RE LAY S

A nother ystem successfu lly employed t o protect a ring

s

s ys tem util ize s a combinat ion of under voltage and excess -

current relays In this syst em all t he breakers at each su b

.

s tation are mechanically locked in clo sed po sition and thi s ,

l ook can never be O pened by exce ss current but only by low

voltage When the voltage fall s to a certain predetermined
.

value generally about 70 per cent of normal the under voltage

,
-
,

POTENT
IAL

LOCKS

F ro . 1 77 —
. C on n ect i o n di ag r am f or pr ot ec t i on by over -cu rr en t a n d u n der - vo
l t age
l
re ay s .

relay operates and open s the lock on the breaker ; then an exce ss
current operating the excess current relay i s free t o trip the
-

breaker T he object of this arrangement i s that t he voltage

.

will fall only in the immediate vicini t y of the short circuit -

,

s o although the short circuit current extend s all the way back
-

to the generators yet on l y the breakers in the immediate vi

'

ci n i t y of the s hort circuit will be unloc ked and al lowed to trip

-

upon the exce ss current .

When stations are quite close together the breakers in an ,

unaff ected section may sometime s be unlocked on t he occurrence

1 88 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

of a heavy disturbance but in thi s c as e the short circuit will

, ,
-

u sually be locali zed by the inverse time element selectivity

- -

of the exce ss current relays which wi l l clear the trouble before

-
,

the other relays trip the unlocked breakers .

F igure 1 77 s hows the diagram of connections of this com

bination T he potential trans formers supply the under
.

voltage relays which normally have their contacts open .

T he auxiliary relay i s energized by a service transformer

and this relay in turn operate s the electrical lock s on the breaker
u sing the same tran sformer for i t s energy supply Both the .

auxiliary relay and the locks on the relays are normally energized
and are de e nerg ized either by the functioning of the under
-

voltage rel ays or the lo ss of station voltage As i s shown .

in the diagram one set of relays may control a number of circuit

breaker locks and each lock i s provided with an individual
,

cut o u t s witch and a pallet switch to open i t s circuit after

-

functioning .

When the li ne potential dr O ps to a predetermined value ,

one or more Of the under voltage relays clo se their contacts

-
,

thu s de energizing the auxiliary relay w hich in turn de energize s

-
,
-

the electrical locks on the bre aker thu s releasing the latch
,

and leaving the breaker free to be tripped by t he exce ss current -

relays If the voltage doe s not fall low enough then the
.
,

breakers cannot be opened by an exce ss current .

1 90 P ROT E C TI VE RE L A Y S

T o g ive warn ing of such abnormal condi tio ns or actu all y ,

t o di s connect a circui t shoul d practice so determine an over

, ,

voltage or an under voltage relay may be ins tall ed S uch a

-
.

relay i s shown in F i g 1 78 It is the same in construction and

. .

principle of Operation as t he previously des cribed overl oa d

relays except that the windi ng s are wound t o stand t he im
,

pres sed voltage In the over voltage relays the cont ac ts

.
-
,

close when the voltage exceeds a

certain predetermined point which ,

either t ri ps a breaker ring s a gong , ,

or give s some other signal to t he

O perator that the voltage i s t oo high

and require s at tention .

T he t ri pping voltage may be va r ied

over wide range s generally between
75 per cent and 1 60 per cent of
normal and a time delay may be ,

O btained if de sired S o if a circui t .

i s normally run n ing at 1 1 0 v it be .

,

comes po ssible to tri p it or r ing a ,

bell if it goes t o 1 1 5 or 1 20 v or
,
.

higher .

In the under voltage relay t he -

,

windings are arranged so that t he

voltage tends to keep the cont acts
open T hen should t he voltage drop
.

F m 1 79. S ol n oi d t y pe u n
—
e to 75 or 80 or whatever the relay ,
r el ay ( G en e al r
i s set there i s n o longer torque
’

enough to hold them Open so they ,

clo se and generall y sound an alarm .

Th e S ol en oi d Rel ay T he solenoid principle as wel l as the

—

induction pri nciple may be used to indicate the conditions of

over voltage and under voltage but i ts action i s much rougher
- -
,

in adju stment than the induction In the over voltage relay .

-

the plun ger i s arranged t o move upward and clo se contacts on

over voltage On the under voltage the solenoid normally holds
-
.
-
,

the plunger up and c ontacts open but on a fall in voltage the , ,

plunger drops and the contacts cl ose A solenoid relay i s shown .

in F i g 1 79 . .
 M I S CE LL A N E O US RELA Y S 191

In connecting the potential circuit i s connected directly

,

acro ss the line like a voltmeter ; or in the case of high tension

,
-

work it i s connected to the secondary

of the potential transformer .

Un der cur r en t Rel ays

-
I n such cir .
-

cuits as the constan t current arc system -

,

s ome s ignal mu s t be given if the current

drops t oo low In other places there

.

may be condit ion s which require an i n

di cat i on of low current T o provide .

this a regular induction type relay i s

,
-

u sed except that the current tend s to

,

keep the co ntacts open T hen if the .

current drops to a cert ain predetermined

value there will no longer be enough
current to hold them open and th u s they ,

clo se and give a signal or trip a breaker .

T he se relays are al s o u s ed to shut down

F m 1 80 _ Wes t i n g ho se . 0 u
au t om at rc su bst at ron s t el eg aph t y pe D C ove
“
.
r . . r .

el ay
O ver l o ad T el eg r aph Rel ay I n F ig 1 d I n t an t an w u s
—

. .
°? r s

t p ri .

1 80 1 8 s hown a t ype of srm pl e overload

relay which i s connected by circuit to a s hunt In the diagram .

matic s cheme of part s F i g 1 8 1 the , .

,

iron armature A carrying the contact ,

B and pivoted at C i s held in i t s ,

normal po sition ( contacts B and D

open ) by the ten sion of t he s pr i n g
'

E T hi s s pring i s attached to an
.

adj us table arm F secured to the frame

G by the thumbs crew H Ar m F .

carries a s cale calibrated in millivolts .

T he arm that carrie s contact D i s

in sulated at I from the main frame .

G T he terminal s K and K of the

.
’

F ro . I SL S hem at i
—
c di g c
"
coil J are connected t o a shunt which
gr am of ove l oad t eleg r aph i s in serie s wi t h the li ne and t here
r
“

,
t yp e re1ay
fore takes a current proport i onal to
the main current If the relay i s set for 5 0 m v then when
. . .
, ,

t he current in the s hunt produce s a drop of 5 0 m v the . .

1 92 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

armature A i s attracted closing the contact s B and D which

, ,

clo ses a circuit from L and L to the circuit breaker s trip coi l ,
’
.

F i gure 1 82 give s the diagram of connection s of the relay and

circuit breaker under normal load the path of the curren t s ,

being s hown by arrowheads A n overload cau se s the relay

.

contacts to clos e the trip coil circuit to the breaker and t he

-

latter O pen s the circuit thu s relieving the overload on the

,

sys tem In in stallations where the potential trip coil circuit

.
-

i s connected to the circuit to be controlled the overload trip ,

F ro . 1 82 . l g ap h
Te e r t y pe l
r e a y co n n e c t ed i n t he c i r cu i t .

att achment on the breaker should always be connected in the

circuit since dead short circuit on the line may cau s e the volt
,
-

age to drop so low that it will not Operate the potential trip
.

coil on the breaker T hi s allows the overload attachment

.

on the breaker to be s et high for protection against sh ort ,

circuit s or other violent di sturbances but the relay i s set so as ,

to give protection again st moderate overload s .

P RO TE CTI O N A G AI N S T RE VE RS E D P HA S E

If a three phase motor i s di s connected from a circuit and the

-

phase s reversed when it i s reconnected it will naturally run back , ,

ward S u eh a reversal may occur and has occurred when

.
, ,

the motor i s di s connected for repair s through an error in recon ,

n ect i n g load s at the power hou s e or sub s tation or from a number , ,

of other caus es .
1 94 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA YS

mally the volt age t ends t o rotate the disk t o t he right and k eep
,

the contac ts open Bu t s hould one phas e be revers ed or shoul d

.
,

one phas e fail or should the voltage dr op below 75 per cen t

,

of normal then the contacts close and Open a breaker Reversal

, .

of a phas e act ual ly reverses the direction of rotation causi ng ,

the contact s t o clo se very quickly T hi s relay will not preven t .

a three phas e motor from ru nning single phas e if one phase

- -

O pen s while running It wi l l however prevent t he m ot or

.
, ,

F ro . 1 84 —

. Sc hem at i c di ag r am of con n ect i on f or ph ase

r ever se- l
r e ay .

from s tarting again In the case of an elevator motor thi s i s an

.

advantage as it allows the car to run to a floor and s t ep even

though one phas e should O pen w hile the car i s between floors .

S er vi ce r es t ori n g Rel ays

-
T here are many case s in which
.
—

it i s nece ssary actually to open the breaker to clear a s hort

circuit as for in stance an arc acro ss two line s which is
, , ,

kil led the in stant the breaker opens T hi s permits the feeders .

to be put back in service immediately .

If the circuit breaker i s reclo sed automatically within a

se cond after the tran sient trouble has occurred the s ervice ,

will be restored in tim e to prevent induction m et er s from

s talling .
 M I S CE LL A NE O US RE LA Y S 1 95

T he rvi ce restoring relay syste m has been devel oped t o

se -

perform this operation withi n the shorte s t po ssible time and

thus redu ce all di s turbances t o a mi ni mum thereby greatly ,

improving t he service S hould a pe rmanent defect occur

.
,

the system wi l l allow t he breaker t o remain open until the

defect i s cleared .

A s chematic diag ram of O peration i s shown in F i g 1 85 . .

A n y type of overload relay may be employed to trip the circuit

F ro . 1 85 —

. C on n ec t i on s of au t om at i c s er vi ce- r es t o r i n g s y s t em .

breaker on overload as previously des cribed A voltage trans .

for mer on the feeder outside the circuit breaker i s connected s o

t hat i t s potential opposes that of another voltage transfor mer
connected t o the busbars T he restoring relay which i s .
,

similar to a magnet s witch i s connected in serie s with the s e

,

two voltage transfor mers Before a short circuit occurs both

.
-
,

voltage transfor mers are subj ected to t he Same conditions

so that no current will flow through the res toring relay ; but

when a short circui t occu rs and the circui t breaker has been
-

O pened by the overload relay current will be forced by t he

,

busbar transf ormer B into the feeder transformer A through ,

the restoring relay T he restoring relay will then close i t s

.
1 96 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

contacts which in t urn wil l close the circuit breaker which

, , , , ,

Of cour se mu s t be of the electrically clo sing type as well as

,

elec t rically tripping .

In case of a permanent defect on the feeder the re storing ,

relay would continue to open and clo se the circuit breaker

inde fi nitely as each time the breaker clo s e s the overload
, ,

relay O pen s it T o prevent thi s a limiting relay similar to the

.
, ,

over voltage relay but equipped with weaker s pring and heavier
-
,

damping ma g nets so that i t s action i s sluggi sh i s connected ,

Posi ti on -
l~ 2 3 J I I 3 4 g
o lo
3L :
0 0 1 o p

ard 7
!oel e
l3 0 :
o o

35 0 1 g
)4 0

00 1 o io 'o in:
1 7
hros
'

F ro . 1 86 —

. C om p l et e di a g r am of co n n ec t i on s , s how i g
n co n t r o l sw itc h g aphi c
, r

am m et er , e t c .

in such a manner that while t he circuit breaker i s open it i s

s ubjecte d to the s ame di ff erence of potential that i s operating

the re s toring relay E very time the circuit breaker opens the
.
,

limiting relay contacts begin to clo se and due to i t s heavy ,

damping they do not return to the st arting point immediately

,

after the circuit breaker i s clo sed After the circuit breaker .

has O pened and clo se d a predetermined number of time s thi s ,

relay clo se s i t s contacts thu s s hort circuiting the re storing relay

,
-

and preventing further O peration .

T hi s sys tem i s often inst alled at sub s tations having no

1 98 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

tacts thu s energ izing the closing coil of the breakers T hi s t akes
, .

con siderable cur rent and see as will be seen from the fourt h .

line Immediately on the clo sing of the breaker the curren t

.
,

in the r e s toring relay cease s (fi rs t line) ; the clo sing coil i s

de energized and the current continue s normal in t he feeder as
-

s hown in the second line

T hu s it will be seen that only see i s requ i red from t he .

fi rst ins tant Of overload to the in s tant O f re sumed servi ce .

If however the short circuit i s not removed upon the opening

, ,
-

of the breaker then when the breaker reclo se s the s hort circui t
, ,
-

F ro . 1 88 .
—
O s ci llog ap hr r ec o r d s how i g op
n er at i o n on a per m an en t s hor t .

current immediately operate s the overload relay and again trip s

the relay until the sluggi sh limiting relay prevents further action .

T hi s i s plainly s hown in F i g 1 88 where the s hort i s s hown .

,

interr upted as before and the breaker closed again but instead
, ,

of re suming normal current the current i s again exce ssive ,

as s hown .

T he service re s toring sys tem has proved i t s eff ectivene ss

-

in many case s and i s recognized as an invaluable aid in securing

cheap effi cient and e ff ective service
, .

Bell r i n g in g Rel ays

-
I f a circuit breaker i s tripped out
.
—

and the station attendant ins tead of being near at hand where ,

he can see and re set it i s some di s tance away a bell ringing , ,

-

relay may be u sed T his mu st ring the bell or alarm until

.

s ome notice or action i s taken if t he breaker O pen s due to t he

protect ive relays tripping but it i s not nece ss ary to ring the ,

bell if the breaker has been opened intentionally T he relay .

s hown in F i g 1 89 with the cover removed will meet the fore

.
, ,

going requirements A s chematic connection diagram i s given

.

in F i g 1 90 and the O peration i s as follows :

’

.
 M I S CE LL A N E 0 US RE L A Y S 1 99

T he two elect romagnets A and B ar e ar ran g ed t o at t ract

the iron armatur e C pivoted at D whi ch clo s es contact s E ,

F ro . 1 89 —
. Bell-r i n gi n g l
re ay f or ci r cu i t br eakers .

F ro . 1 90 —
D i ag r am of co n n ec t i o n f or bell -r in ing g r el ay .

and F when attracted T he solenoid A i s placed in series with

.

the trip coil and relay contacts of the breaker so that when t he ,
200 P RO TE G TI VE RE L A Y S

relay clos es it energizes solenoid A T his attracts armatu re C .

and clo ses both contacts E and F C ontact E clo s es the circuit
.

to solenoid B through a resistance G and contact F clo ses t he ,

circuit to a bel l or alarm H N ow even though the ci rcuit

.
,

to A i s O pened as it would be if t he breaker opened solenoid

, ,

B s till holds the contacts closed and the bel l wi ll continue to

ring until the s wi tch I i s opened for an in stant which allows the ,

armature to drop and the contacts to open T he se relays .

can be us ed when a direct current circuit i s available for trippin g

-

the breaker I t will al s o be seen that should the breaker be

.

tripped by hand the relay cannot operate consequently

, ,

the bel l rings only on automatic tripping .

T em per atu r e Rel ays When large power units are u s ed

—

in generating and transforming electric energy some means ,

mu s t be employed to keep the windings cool when they ar e

heavily loaded as the capacity of a machine i s limited largely
,

by the maximum temperature which the insulation will stand .

F rom thi s it follow s that if apparatu s i s in s talled to remove

the exce ss heat and keep the temperature within allowable
limits then a given machine will have a greater capacity than
,

one in which no such cooling devices have been employed .

T here are several method s of cooling electric machine s T he .

s imple s t i s by immer s ing the whole machine in a tank of oil

( as in the ca s e of an oil cooled tran s former

-
) where the heated
O il ri s e s to the t o p cool s O ff and sinks again to carry away
,

more heat T he cooling of the Oi l i s sometimes hastened

.

by ins talling coils of pipes in the top of the oil and pumping
cold wat er through the pipes .

It i s Obviou s that thes e method s cannot be u s ed for genera

tor s or motors so cold air i s resort ed to large motor operated
, ,
-

blowers forcing the air through suitable ducts or channel s in

the iron and windings .

In a few in s tance s the ligh t load lo sse s have been so low

,
-

that there i s no necessity for operating the blower motors

when the machine i s unloaded N either i s it necessary to s tart
.

them for a short time heavy l ead It i s when the units get
- .

hot that the blowers mu st s tart F or this purpo se temperature

.

relays may be u sed T hey s tart the blower motors when the
.

protec t ed apparatu s reaches a certain high temperature and

20 2 P RO TE C TI VE BEk l Y S

coefficient and ar e each equal t o res is tance of the copper w i re

explor ing coil B at i ts nor m al te mperatur e T he four res is tors .

are connected in br idge arran gements t he po t ential be i ng su p ,

pl ied at 1 and 2 and the movi n g coil (in pla ce of galvanometer )

at 3 and 4 .

NOV D C . . .

F ro . 192 —
l
E xt e r n a d i ag r a m O f c o n n e c t i on s O f D C . . t e m pe r a t u r e l
r e ay .

F or a moment consider F igs 1 93 a b and c In the , .

,
.

firs t F i g 1 93 a the re s i s tance of the exploring coil i s le ss than

,
.
,

the other three so current flows fro m left to right T hen .

,

as it gradual ly get s warmer i t s re s i s tance increas e s until it ,

F ro . 193 —
. S h ow i g n t h e di r ec t i o n of c u r r en t in t he m ovi n g -co i l ci r cu i t .

becomes equal when no current flow s (F i g 1 93b) A further

,
. .

increase in re sistance (temperature ) cau s es the current to revers e ,

and the higher the re sis tance the greater the current in the ,

moving coil .

N ow returning to F i g 1 92 it will be seen readily that if the .

,
 M I S CE LL A NE O US RE L A Y S 203

current cau s e s the coil to turn to the right then when it reaches ,

a certain amount the contacts G will clo se T his completes

,
.

the circuit to the closing coil I which closes a breaker and st arts
the motor s blowing or rings a bell etc When the breaker
, , .

clo s e s auxiliary contacts open the circuit to relieve the relay

,

contacts T he apparatu s gradually gets cooler and the re si s tance

.

of the copper wire exploring coil which i s wound in the machine

decrease s until the current in t he moving coil has reversed
to such an extent that contact H i s clo s ed T hi s complete s .

the circuit to the t rip coil J and the breaker O pens .

If the voltage of the D C circuit varies it will aff ect the . .

,

accuracy somewhat but thi s error i s extremely s mall at the

,

balancing or reversing point consequently thi s i s the point ,

generally cho sen at which the relay clo s es i t s contacts on high

temperature While this arra n gement may be us ed t o protect
.

either A C or D C apparatu s it require s a con stant D C

. . . .
, . .

s ource for i t s O peration .

A C T em per atu r e Rel ays

. . When it i s de sirable to have —

the relay trip out the circuit in the event of exce ssive tem
p er at u r e the
, A C temperature relay
. i s.generally u s ed as it
may be arranged to trip out the circuit on high temperature ,

but only if the exce ssive current i s still flowing F or in s tance .

,

s ay it i s a generator that i s being protected T he exploring .

coil would be wound an d imbedded in t he s tationary part and

cons equently attain the same temperature as the part in which
it i s imbedded D u e to a quick heavy l ead one portion of
.
, ,

the machine may attain a quite high temperature but before ,

thi s temperature can reach the search coil the load may decreas e , .

Bu t the heat in diss ipating from the hotte s t part may s till
, ,

continue to rai s e the temperature of the cooler part s and then ,

in a short time the search coil may g et hot enough to trip the
relay S till there being very li ght load the machine , as a whole
.
, ,

i s actually cooling and will continue t o cool .

T hi s s how s the necessity of u sing a relay that wi ll not trip

when the temperature i s high unless there i s also a heavy l oad ;
nor will it trip on a high load unless the temperatur e i s high .

It takes both high temperature and high load to operat e the

relay T he connection s internal and external of thi s relay
.
, ,

i
are s hown in F g 194 T hi show the regular induction type
s s . .
-
204 P ROTE C TI VE RELA Y S

el ement A with disk B arranged in t he regu lar manner so t hat ,

movement of t he di sk closes t he contacts C I t will be noticed .

that t he current t ransformer supplies two ci rcuits ; one excites

the main coil of the relay and the other fu rn i shes potential
to the bridge arrangement T his bridge arrangement consi s ts
.

of two unchang ing arm s D and E (usually placed inside t he

C(I F F ENT

F ro . 1 94 —
. C o n n ec ti o n di a g r am of A O t em per a t u r e
. . l
re ay .

relay) and two search coils imbedded in the winding of the

generator or transformer being protected .

T he other actuating winding of the relay ( on the two pole s )

i s used in place of the galvanometer S ince the torque on the .

di sk i s the r eacti on or the multipl ication of the currents in t he

two windings it i s very evident that even though t here i s a
,

heavy current flowing in the main coil it will not trip if there ,

i s no current in the other two pole s ( due to unbalance of bridge ) ;

’

neither can the relay act if the s earch coils get hot enough to
 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

F ro . 195 .
—
Rel ay sw i tc h w it h c ar bo n c o n t a c ts .

F ro . 1 96 .
—
Rel ay sw i tc h wit h co n t a ct s a t t op .
 M I S CE LL A NE O US RE L A Y S 20 7

di sk C agai ns t the two s tationary carbon contacts D and D .

S hort circuiting the s e contacts clo s e s the circuit of the s hunt

-

t rip coil on the circuit breaker T he contact s being of carbon

.

will carry a heavy current and will not s tick In another form .

of relay s witch F i g 1 96 the pl u nger simply pus hes up a pivoted

,
.
,

arm thu s clo sing the two contacts D and D

,
.

F ro . 1 97.
—

W es t i n gho
u se l
m u t i - co n t ac t l
re ay .

S ometime s it i s des irable to trip two or more breakers at

once with the s ame relay s witch In thi s cas e the dis k i s .

generally made of copper and two or three sets of s tationary

,

cont acts are u s ed thu s closing two or three circuits s i m u l t a

, .

n eou sl y A nother multi contact relay i s s hown in F i g 1 97

.
-
.
20 8 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

It must be remembered that the arcing at the relay conta cts

will always be a great deal more severe when O pening a circuit
than when clo s ing one F or this reason a relay s hould never
.

O pen the trip circuit once es tabli s hed If the trip circuit i s fed .

from the load side of the breaker it will be opened automat ,

i cal l y when the breaker opens and the circuit will be dead when
the relays reset S hould it be nece s sary to connect the shun t
.

F ro . 1 98 —

Wes t i gh
n ou s e t r an s f er l
r e ay .

tr ip circuit to the line side of the breaker or if a separate circuit ,

i s us ed then a s witch mu s t be arranged to O pen the trip circuit

,

as soon as t h e breaker opens thu s relieving the relay contacts

,

of thi s duty .

Tr an sf er Rel ays T O prevent the failure of trip cir

.
—

cuits as well as to apply relays where a direct current i s not

available serie s trip or circuit opening relays may be u sed
,
- -
,

but their inherent fault of Opening a breaker on slig ht vibra

tion has dis couraged their u se However by u si n g a transfer
.
,
”
relay as it i s called the advantage of the series trip relay may
, ,
-
21 0 P RO TE C TI VE RELA Y S

in opposi ti on to the current in coi l J t en ds t o dem ag neti ze t he

core M and it los es i t s attraction for the plunger I all owin g ,

coil H to pull it up T his changes the s witch at t he t op t o

.

the po sition s hown in F i g 200 It will now be noted that t he

. .

current i s fl owing through the trip coil L which will trip the ,

breaker .

F ro . 20 1 .
—
D i ag r am of t r an sf er l
r e ay con n ecte d o n t hr ee phase
- ci r cu i t . Lef t
ha l
n d r e ay t r i pped .

F igure 20 1
how s three single phas e relays protecting a three
s -

ph as e line in connection with three tran sfer relays When the .

plungers are all down the trip coil i s entirely in sulated fro m
,

t h e serie s circuit If any one two or three relays operate

.
, ,

t hey will complete a circuit through the trip coil and current
t ran sformer s under any condi t ion s that may ari se T he over .

load relay A gives the nece ss ary accuracy while the transfer ,

relay give s the advantage of a serie s t rip or circu it opening -

system .

Hi g t en s ion Relays I n u si ng an overl oad relay on a high

h - .
—

t ension circuit , i t has generally been cus tomary to u se high .

 M I S CE LL A NE O US RE LA Y S 21 1

tension current transformers which of cours e thoroughly , , ,

in sulate the relay circuit from the high tension primary and allow -

the relay to be placed on the board When the current i s over .

1 00 amp it requires only one turn

. a s traight wire ) in the
primary and cons equently the in sul ation of the primar y becomes
a comparatively easy matter C urrent tran sformers of one .

turn are Often built right around the terminal bu shing s of a

circuit breaker u sing the terminal ,

rod its elf as the primary .

When the current become s less

than 1 00 amp the primary mu st .
,

consis t of more than one turn and ,

the in sulation becomes a di ffi cult

matter es pecially on an extra h gh
,
i

tension circu it as for in stance a ,

v or a-
. v line -
. .

T o overcome thi s the complete ,

relay such as the plunger type may -

be mounted on a pillar in sulator and ,

connected directly in the high ten sion -

line T hen if the plunger i s attached

.

upward due to overload it pull s t he

, ,

long in sulated c h ain which me

, ,

ch an i call y O perate s a s et of trip con

tacts thu s clo sing the trip circuit to

,

the breaker T hi s chain i s made out

.

of m i ear t a li nks the number varying, F m 202 W t i gho se H —

. es n u .

T 1 m m r el ay m o n t ed o n
according to the potential 0
3 r u

Do“ m ma t o r
.

s
A v circuit s hould be su p
'

-
.

plied with 1 2 links on account of surge s ; a with 20 links

and a with 30 links T hi s allow s the solenoid to be .

moun t ed on a dis connecting s witch or other in sulated support

and the trip contacts to be in the most convenient location .

W estin g h ou s e Hig h t en s ion r el ay C om bi n ati on Reali z

- - —

ing the great advantage of an accurate high tension relay -

,

and the inabili t y to secure accuracy with a solenoid type the ,

high tension induction and tran sfer relay s hown in F i g 202

-
.

w as developed It consis ts of the accurate induction type

.
-

relay (previou sly de s cribed ) and a tran sfer relay mounted on

212 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

a sma l l panel w hich in turn i s mounted on a pillar insu lat or

,
.

Ins tead of the transfer relay plunger operating t he switch -

,

it merely pull s the m i ear t a chain which clo se s the low t ension ,
-

trip circuit contacts

- .

T he induction relay retains all i t s inherent characteris tic s

of invers e defin it e min imum time i ts selective action perma
,
-
, ,

nen eo of accuracy etc and the transfer relay add s the positive
,
.
,

tripping motion u sing the A C current energy for operation and

,
. .

not depending on an auxiliary trip circuit T ogether they for m .

,

an unexcelled protective relay for high tension circuits being -

,

readily adapted to simple circuits radial sys tems and paral lel ,

feeders .

TI M I N G RE LAY S W I TH A CY CLE C O UN TE R

Before the introduction of the cycle counter , the generally

approved method of determining the time delay of a protective
”
relay w as to u se a stop watch or chronometer starting t he ,

watch simultaneou sly with the application of overload and

s topping it at the in s tant of tripping With the Older relays .
,

having a time delay of several s econd s thi s method gave satis ,

factory res ults but with the pre sent day relays de s igned with
,
-
,

watt hour meter accuracy and capable of being s et within

-

fractions of a second it i s O bviou s that the stop watch method

,
-

i s not at all suitable .

A s top watch at bes t cannot be relied upon clo s er than about

M s e c . and
,
when to thi s i s added the per s onal error of
s tarting and s toppi n g it give s a po ss ible error almo s t as great
,

as the time between variou s s ectionalizing relays It i s not at .

all unu sual t o s et s ectionalizing relays in a radial s ystem only

M s e c
. apart and in ,s ome ca s e s good re s ult s have been obtained
with relays set only M sec apart . .

T o meas ure the time delay of a protective relay accurately

and au t omatically i s the function of the cycle counter T his .

instrument i s shown in F i g 203 while two interior views are .

,

s hown in F ig s 204 and 205 . .

P r i n cipl e of O per ati on T h e cycle counter con s i s ts e ss en

.
—

t i all y of a sel f winding clock in which the es capement wheel

-

or pendulum i s replaced by a polarized relay T he diagra m .

214 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

of attracting and repelli n g opposite ends of the armature T he .

action i s as fol l ow s :
Assume that during the first cycle of appl ied current the ,

F ro . 2 06 —
. Sc hem ati c di ag l
r am of cy c e cou n t er .

F ro . 207 —
. C on n ect i on s f or tes t i n g l
ci r cu i t - c o s i n g l
r e ay w it h l
cy c e cou n t er .

current fl ow s from the l_to the T terminal T hi s wil l produce

-
.

an N pole on the armature end of the right hand electromagnet

- -

an d an S pole on the corre s ponding end of the left hand ele ctr o
- -

magnet A s both end s of the armature are polarized N t he

.

rig ht han d end will be r epelled an d the left hand end attracted
- -
.
 M I S CE LL A NE O US RELA YS 215

Du ri ng t he c nd hal f of t he cycl e t he current is r eversed

se o , ,

and now the right hand end i s attracted and the left hand
- -

end repelled which naturally resu lts in one o s cillation of the

,

bar B and the es capement of one tooth F rom this it will .

readil y be seen that the w heel moves one tooth per cycle as
long as the electromagnet s are energized A s mall electric .

motor controlled automatically r e win ds the main clock

, ,
-

s pring when it has unwound a certain amount T his keeps

,
.

an even tension on the es capement and the electromagnets ,

are thus not depended on to drive t he m echanism , but simply

to regulate i t s s peed .

Tim i n g a C ir cui t cl os in g Rel ay D etermining t he t ime

- —

delay n ow becomes a problem of energizin g the el ectromagnet s

( c on f er

F ro . 2 08 —
C on n ec t i on s f or t es ti n g ci r cu i t p
o eni n g l
r e ay w it h cy c e l cou n t er .

simultaneou sly with t he appli cation of load an d de-en erg i z

ing them upon t he instant of tripping T his i s most easily .

done by temporarily dis connecting the relay from the circuit

an d connecting to a te s t circuit with connection s as s ho w n

in F i g 207 us ing a lamp bank or other suitable resis tance

.
,

for t he load and a s witch by which this l ead m ay be quickly

applied While adj usting the load it i s best t o dis connect the
.
,

lead at A to avoid unnecessar y wear on the counter A nother .

s witch may be provided for thi s purpo se if de sired Af ter .

adju sting the load the main te sting s witch i s opened the relay
,
-
,

allowed t o reset fully and the cycle counter pointers set on

,

zero T hen the s witch i s clo sed thu s applying load and poten
.
,

t ial to the relay an d counter T he counter revolve s one tooth per

.
,
21 6 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

cycle unti l the relay contacts close w hen they short circu it t he
, ,
-

es capement electromagnets and thus st op the counter instantly .

T he number of cycle s indicated divided by t he normal i re ,

q u en cy of the te s ting circuit w i ll gi ve the,

time delay i n s econd s .

F or i n stance if us ed on a 25 cycl e circuit and t he counter indi

,
-

cat e s 5 0 cycle s t he time will be 2 sec ; if on a 30 cycle ci rcu it then

,
.
—

t he t ime will be 1 % sec and so on .

,
.

A number of operating companie s do not reduce t he cycles

to second s but t he testi n g report s and curves g ive the ti m e delay
,

directly in cycles thu s afl or di n g units which are more easi ly

,

handled than fractions of a second .

Ti mi n g a C ir cu it openi n g Relay
-
I n determining t he t ime
.
—

delay of a circuit o pening relay it i s simply necessary to con

-
,

n ect the e s capement solenoid s in s erie s with the relay contact s

as s hown in F i g 208 C lo sing the main tes ting s witch energizes

. .

both relay and counter simultaneou sly and the counter stops
the instant the contacts open .

F ro . 209 —
. C o n n ec t i on s f or tes t i n g com pl et e pr ot ecti ve eq u i pm en t .

Timi n g th e Br eak er Realizing that it i s

or O il S w i tch —

necess ar y t o make allowance for the time taken by the breaker

or oil s witch and i t s auxiliary equipment to open the circuit ,

it is s ometimes preferable , in a clos ely set system to time the ,

2 18 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

a ring system T his tie feeder i s protected by reverse overload

.
-

relays .

Relays 3 should be set for about 2 sec ; relays 5 f or 1 M sec ; . .

r elays 6 and 7 f or s ec ; and relays 8 for 1 sec . .

7
2 7/ fi / V

F ro . 210 —
. I n di cat i n g t he l
u s e of r e ay s on t yp i ca l pow er s t at i on .

The high ten sion i s stepped down by two transforme rs at

A . T hese are protected by instantaneou s diff erentially con ,
-

n ect ed rel ays 4 and overload relays 9 set low abou t 1 sec T he .
 M I S CE LL A NE O US RELA YS 21 9

low t ension bu s feeds three rotary converter s which feed a

-
,

three wire direct current system a storage battery and a direct

- -
,

current motor load Relay 1 0 may be an overload relay with

.

under voltage and over voltage auxiliary relays Relay 1 1

- -
.

should be a high grade reverse current relay Over voltage

- -
.
-
,

overload underload and under voltage relays may also be u s ed

,
-
.

Relay 1 2 sho ul d be an overload relay set about M see or in stan .

t an eou s .

At ubstation B the high tension i s steppe d down and pro

s

tooted as before T hi s s econdar y bu s may feed a load of

.

s ynchronou s motor s a three wire alternating current sys tem and

,
- -

a constant current l ighting circuit Relays 1 3 may be overload

- .

or revers e phase Relays 1 4 should be overload with addi

.

t i on al under voltag e and over voltage relays

-
Relay 1 5 should -
.

be an un derload relay .

F rom the main station i s run a radial system of parallel

feeders Relays 1 7 1 9 and 2 1 are revers e power relays set
.
,
-
,

about sec ; relays 1 6 1 8 and 20 are accurate overload

.
,

invers e defin i t e minimum rel ays of the induction type Relays

,
-
.

1 6 are s et for 1 M sec ; 1 8 for 1 s ec ; and 20 for M s ec . At . .

each subs tation bu s are taken Ofi a variou s number of loads

'

and each i s protected by relays which may be of the plunger

type as long as they operate in quicker time than the protecting
s ectional izing relays .

It i s evident that no one layout wil l suffi ce for all system s ;

neither can invariable rules be laid out for the u s e of any relay .

It becomes a study of each individual system but with a kn owl ,

edge Of the various loads and how they divide in the event of ,

s hort circuits
-
together with the kn owledge of the maximum
,

currents it becomes comparatively easy to apply relays and set

,

them to give adequate protection and reduce u n intention al

interruption s to an almo st negligi ble quan tity .
 C HA P T E R XV

TE S TI N G D I RE CT CURRE N T -
RE LAY S

No matter how carefully a relay i s con structed or tes ted i t ,

i s always w ell to remember that no piece of apparatus i s i af al

li bl e. F or thi s reason all relays s hould be tested before instal l
,

ing and should be subj ected to periodic te s ts after installation

, .

In well equipped meter shops will be found adequate appa

-

ratus such as meters lead s and batteries for maki n g simple

,

or elaborate tes ts as the case may be T hi s chap ter will there

, .
,

fore treat mainly of tests made on the relays while in service

, .

In stalli n g P ractically ever y manufacturer g ives complete

—

and elaborate direction s for the in s tallation of hi s par ticular

type of relay and these instruction s of cour se should be care
, , ,

fully followed t o Obtain correct results In general they deal .

,

with mechanical features such as seeing that the moving part s

are free ; that there i s no dirt or packing material in the relay ;
and that there are no loo s e s crews or nuts or damaged par ts .

A diagram of connection s als o accompanie s each relay and thi s

should always be u s ed in the ab s ence of another authoritat ive

diagram which might be u sed to include other instruments

,

in the same circuit A relay should always be mounted on a

.

fir m solid support such as a switchboard

,
It mu s t be a cces .

sible for easy i n s pection and te s ting and never mounted in a ,

place where it will be subj ected to excess e s in temperature ,

moi sture des tructive fumes or s tray field s In cas e a rel ay

,
.

mus t be in stalled in a du sty place for in stance a flour mill or , ,

cement mill it mu st never have open contacts ; they mus t

,

always be enclo sed ; preferably in a glass cover If a cover does. .

not acco m pany the relay the relay sho ul d be enclosed in a gl a ss

,

covered du st proof box -

.

T he circuit breakers and s witches too mu s t receive periodic , ,

attention in order that they should not fail at a critical moment .

In fact manufacturers sometime s recommend that the w hol e

,

2 20
222 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

connecte d pl us ,
v When a separate tri p is u sed t he live
.
,

parts of the trip circuit s hould be tested for grounds A te st .

sho ul d also be ma de between t h e coil circuit and trip circ u it

t erminals F i gure 2 1 2 show s the method of procedure

. On e .

lead i s held on the frame preferably on an unenamelled s crew

,

head and the other i s touched to terminal A and B If not hing

,
.

F ro . 212 —

. G r ou n d-tes ti n g a bell ow s t y pe l
re ay .

happen s the lead i s then touched to trip terminals C D and E

, , .

I f thi s shows intact in sulation touch one lead t o terminal A ,

and one lead to C D and E in succe ssion If a dead m etal t o

, .
-

metal connection i s present lamp 2 ( F i g 2 1 1 ) will light ; other

,
.

wise nothing will happen If due to i n su fli ci en t insulation

.
,

the ground w ill often show up by a slight ar e or smoke T he .

A B C D E F

F ro . 2 13 —
. G r ou n d- t es ti n gaD ’
A r s on val t y pe r e ay .l

relay cover s hould always be on during ground tes ts an d often ,

it i s advisable t o test first with the contacts open and then

again with them clo sed .

F igu re 2 1 3 shows how t o test a movin g coil D A r son val

’

type relay In this there are three separate circuits so i t i s

.
,
 TE S TI NG DI RE C T C URRE N T RE L A Y S
- 2 23

n ecess ary to tes t between each circ ui t and frame and from each ,

circuit to the others If A and F ; B and E ; and C and D are

.
,

circuit terminals fir s t t Ou ch one lead to the case and one lead

, ,

to A B C D E and F in su ccession ; then touch one lead to A

, , , ,

and one lead to B C D an d E in succe ssio n ; then one lead to B

, ,

and one l oad to C and D .

T es ti n g Rel ay S w i tch es T he relay s witch i s perhaps the

.
—

easies t piece of protective apparatu s to tes t F irs t make .

sure that all s crews and nuts are tig ht ; that it i s firmly
mounted ; no loo s e connections ; and that the contacts (if metal )
are clean and bright and not burnt ,
.

If they are burnt or pitted take a piece of fi n e emery cloth ,

( never u s e crocu s paper it leave s a muddy

,
depo s it ) and doub ,

lin g it work it back and forth between the contacts which should
, ,

be held firmly again s t the emery In thi s way g rind the su r .

,

faces until they meet accurately .

T hen energize the s olenoid by connecting to a circuit of the

correct voltag e and see that the plunger ri ses freely and quickly
and clo s es the contacts po si t ively and fi rmly If the trip .

circuit i s operated from a storag e battery it i s well to see that ,

the plunger ris es s atisfactorily when the s olenoid i s energized

on 70 per cent and 1 30 per cent of the normal volt ag e T his .

i s to in sure correct operation no matter how low or high the

battery voltage may go F ailure to operate should be care
.

fully investigated and the cau se removed It may be due .

to foreign substances bent parts or rubbing magnetic su r face s

,
.

Var iou s T esti n g Loads I f a D C circuit i s available and the

.
-
. .
,

relay to be te sted i s of the millivolt type a portable lamp b an k ,

or a load box as shown i n F i g 2 14 may be u sed with connection s

.

as shown in F i g 21 5
. If unde sirable to t rip the breaker in
.

making the t es t subs titute a lamp as s hown

,
.

Lo ads f or S er i es type Rel ays

- T he series type such as the .
—
-
,

plunger relays are not so convenient to test as the whole load

, ,

mu st be pas sed through the series coil If at all po ssible .

,

this i s done by building up the load until the breaker trips .

T hi s tes t can Often be made at night when an occas ional

interruption does not harm the s ervice If the load i s large .
,

water rheo stats may be u sed A large barrel filled with water .
, ,

with an elec t rode at the top and bottom will handle co n sider
224 P RO TE C TI VE REL A Y S

abl e l oad T he vari at i on is obt ai ned by conti nually addi ng

.

s al t
, m ean whil e w at ching t he ammeter and noting t he point
at w hi ch t he rel ay t ri ps As an il lustrat ion of how g reat a
.

F ro 2 1 4
.
—
. l
T y pi c a r es i s t an ce l oad boxes .

current may be controlled in this manner a barrel 3 ft deep , .

with electrodes 2 ft s quare should handle 5 00 amp easily

. .

at 1 00 v.
226 P RO TE C T I VE RE L A Y S

in compre ss ing the carbons and plat es and lowering the r es i s

,

tance thu s increas ing the current

. .

A box 1 2 in long by 6 in wide by 6 in deep s hould carry

. . .

20 amp continuo u sly at 4 v and will regulate as high as 200

. .

amp for short intervals of time T he regulation is made in

. .

infi nitely small s teps .

Leads with heavy S pring clips on the end s wi ll be found very

convenient for mak ing quick connection s and wil l carry several
hundred ampere s A n excellent make of clip i s shown in F i g 2 1 7
. . .

F ro . 217 . Bi g Br u te te s t i n g li p c .
(M ue ll er E l ec . Co )
.

T esti ng a M i ll ivol t type Rel ay

for example a millivolt
-
.
—

S ay
type relay must t rip when the load reaches 800 amp but it i s .

impracticable to get this l ead F irst dis connect the leads at .

the shu n t and the trip lead s at the relay

, G ive the u sual .

mechanical ins pection clean the contacts and ground tes t

, .

N ote the capacity Of the s hunt ; say it i s 5 0 m v at amp ; . . .

therefore at 800 amp it woul d give 40 m v

, . 50 800 . .

x) .In stead of s aying that the relay mu s t t rip at 800 amp .

we can s ay that it mu st trip on 40 m v then it s imply becomes . .

a problem to obt ain 40 m v from an ext ernal source T ake . . .

a standard s hunt giving 5 0 m v at 5 amp and connect in ser ie s . . .

with the tes ting load G radually increas e the load unti l the
.

millivoltmeter read s 40 m v and adj u s t the relay so it trips . . .

S everal t rial s may be nece ssary N ote that t he current i s .

unknown exactly but that it take s approximately 4 amp in the .

s hunt to produce exactly the s ame e ff ect on the relay as 800

am p in the s tation shunt

. T hen reconnecting the relay to the
.
,
 TE S TI N G DI RE C T C URRE N T RE L A Y S
- 22 7

station shunt we know it will trip on

, 800 amp although we
.

only tested it with a 4 amp load -

. .

T esti ng P l u n g er - Rel ays G ive the

type, I nstan t an eou s - tr i p .
—

relay a t horough mechanical in s pection carefully trying every ,

nut and s crew and looking for burnt coils and loose con
n ect i on s ; clean the contacts and then ground te st If the
- .

F ro . 2 18 .
—
C on n ec t i o n s t o boo s t or b u ck t he s t at i o n load .

current capacity i s low say below 25 amp it may be pref

, ,
.
,

er abl e to connect a jumper around the relay to complete the

circuit and then dis connect the relay from the circuit rec on ,

n ect i n g it to the te s t load If of a larger capacity it i s preferable

.
,

to build up the load on the circuit itself if this can be done ,

w ithout interfering with the service Otherwise connect .

,

a storage battery and rheo s tat as shown in F i g 2 1 8 .

,

being sure to include the station shunt in the battery circuit .

228 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

T hi s enables the main load current to be us ed in addi t ion

-

to t he t es t current ; or if the load current is al ready t oo high

for the l ower setti ngs reverse t he battery an d buck t he load
,

current down .

F or i nst anc e if a r el ay mus t t r i p on 600 am p an d t he l oad

, .

curren t is only 5 00 amp t hen the battery mu st supply the

.
,

extra 1 00 amp It is n ot necess ary to meas ure these separately

.
,

but the s tation ammeter wil l read their su m .

Testin g Ti m e-li m i t Rel ays After mak ing all connections

.
—

so t he l oad or overload
, can be quickly applied the time may
, ,

be determined with a stop watch F irs t careful ly set the rheo.

stat t o g ive the de s ired current at which current it i s d es ired ,

to t ak e the time ; dis connect and l et it fully re set T hen quickly .

apply the load and press the crown to start t h e watch ; both
at t he same ins tant P ress again to stop the watch when
.

t he contacts clo se T he watch hand indica t es in fifth s of

.

a s econd the time required to clo s e at that particular current .

A thi rd pre ss reset s the watch for the next trial .

If impo ssible to apply the load quickly quite close resul ts ,

can sometimes be obtained by building up the load and holding

down the plunger by hand releasing it an d s napping the watch
,

at the same in s tant .

By varying the load and the time setting s the time of the ,

variou s combination s can be obtained .

CURVE S A N D TABL E S

Whenever relays are te sted the re sul t s of the te st should be

,

p ermanently recorded in curve s or table s O n relay s without .

time-delay element t he actual ampere s may be plotted against

,

the setting as in F i g 2 1 9 T o do thi s set the relay for t he

. .
,

lowes t setting (say 4 then slowly raise the current

and note the reading of the ammeter j us t as the plunger rises .

S ay it take s 4 amp M ake a dot where the 4 amp hori

.
- .

ze n t al and vertical line s inter s ect C hange the s etting to 5 ; .

then it may take only amp S o make a point where the .

horizontal line inters ects the 5 vertical In the same .

way locate the current s required for 6 7 and 8 amp and draw , .
,

a curve thr ough them .

 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

C O N CL US I O N

In mak ing very accurate tests in which the trip circuit has
,

been d i s connected time mu st be allowed for t he clo sing of t he

,

relay switch and O pening of breaker In general thi s will be .

found to be or s ec s o when s etting the relays for actual

.
,

operation it must be remembered that the breaker does n ot

,

actually open until or sec after the contacts clo s e

. .

In setting time accurately t he type of relay mus t be con

,

si der ed and i t s limitation s taken into account T hi s i s e s pe .

ci all y tru e of the bellow s and das hpot relays T he bellow s unless
.
,

careful ly O iled every few month s will harden and the ti me of

,

trippings cannot be depended upon at all T he dashpot relays .

will give greatly varying time due to a ch ange in the vi s cosi t y

-

of the oil if u sed where they are subj ected to extremes in tem
p e r at u.r e T h e O i l s upplied by the maker s hould be u s ed t o

the exclu sion of all others .

When making tes ts it mu st be const antly borne in mind

,

that the circuit i s left without protection and great caution ,

mu s t be used that an overload does not occur in the interval

of te s ting S ome modern boards have their relays arranged
.

with te sting switches which automatically dis connect a relay

but connect in a s pare relay for protection during test Bu t .

even in this case too much caution cannot be u sed to insure

,

again s t materi al dam age personal injury and avoidable

,

interruption s .
 C HA P T E R X VI

TE S T IN G ALT E RN ATI N G CURRE N T - RE LAY S

S ince protective relays use the same principles of oper at i on

as are u sed in indicating in strument s it follow s that they w i ll ,

require t he same classe s of in stru ments and apparatus to tes t

them F or tes ting purpose s the relays may be divi ded into
.
,

three clas se s : T ho s e requiring current alone for their O pera

tion ; tho se requiring voltage alone ; and tho s e requiring both
current and voltage S ince the maj ori ty of relays operate on
.

current alone this class will be considered fi rs t

,
.

Relays like every other piece of mechanical apparatus are

, ,

prone to develop inaccuracies and irregularities ; cons equently

a comprehensive periodic system of testing should be developed
and rigidly followed out S ome companies make it a practice
.

to tes t relays every si x months ; others tes t after every di s

t u r ban ce which cau s es the relays t o O perate T his practice .

i s often nece ssary on t he bellows type relays but i s que stionable

-
,

for the induction type .

RE LAY S RE Q UI RI N G CURRE N T O NL Y

When co nsidering the testing Of current relays there are ,

five main points to be considered F ir st the source of tes ting

.
,

s u pply ; s econd the load and i t s regulation ; third the m easu r

, ,

ing instruments ; fourth the trip circuit ; fifth the measurement

, ,

of the relay time of O peration .

If poss ible there is only one correct way to test a relay and
, ,

that i s to make a dead short circuit on the protected apparatu s

,
-

and see if the relay operates and opens the breaker However .
,

thi s i s seldom po ssible or de sirable as it not only throws a ,

heavy strain on all the apparatu s including the generators , ,

but entails a momentary interruption to the s ervice However .

,
”
an occ asional accidental s hort which i s properly cleared
“

23 1
23 2 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

is the best assurance that the protective apparatus as a whol e

i s functioning properly .

Th e S our ce In stead of waiting for the accidental short

—

circuit to occur it i s cu stomary to subj ect the relays and auxil

,

i ar y apparatus to periodic te s ts whi ch indicat e that t hey are in

condition to clear actual trouble T hus in test ing the relays .
, ,

are dis connected from the circuit and current supplied from ,

an independent source T he trip is al so disconnected fro m .

the circuit breaker and a signal lamp or cycle counter connected

,

in to determine the time S ince the i ndependent source of .

tes ting supply need only supply the losse s of the relay and ,

these lo sse s amount to only a few wat ts ( 1 00 at the mo st ) it is ,

cu stomary t o u se the ordinary li ghting circuit as the source .

Oftentimes when there are a large number of relays in one loca

,

t ion to be te s ted a line or s ource i s conveniently suppl ied

, .

Of cours e the s ource mu st be the s ame frequency as the normal

,

frequency upon which the relay work s and it mus t fir st be

as certained that the lighting circuit i s not fed from a storage
battery or s pare unit as i s often t he case in order t o provi de
, ,

an unfailing source of light in case all other apparatus fails .

Th e Load T h e relay it self mu s t now be cons idered

—

. It .

may be of t he serie s type in which case the winding i s generally,

heavy often being of heavy copper strap wound on edge and

, , ,

in many case s a single bar passing through the relay T hi s

, .

i s known as the pri mary type Or it may be wound to operate .

from the s econdary of a serie s tran sformer T his i s known .

as the secondary type and the s tandard practice i s to u s e appr oxi

mately 5 amp for i t s O peration Loading up a primary relay

. .

s ometime s become s a diffi cult matter especially in the larger ,

size ,
but loading a secondary relay become s a very s im ple
matter A s a 5 amp relay require s only a few volts to force
.
-
.

the necessary current through it an additional current limiting ,

-

resistance or reactance i s generally u sed in series if the current ,

i s to be taken from a 1 1 0 v circuit T hi s m ay be a lamp -

. .

bank a resistance unit a re sistance or load box , or a choke

, ,

coil or reactance or impedance coil

, .

Reactances are seldom u s ed as the wave form of their curren ts ,

i s liable to be peaked and while pre ent day relays are but
s -
,

s lightly aff ected by di s torted wave forms it i s unde sirable t o ,

234 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

in series Between each unit and at the ends i s connected a

.

single pole double t hrow knife s witch

-
,
-
N ow if the fi rst switch -
.

i s placed up the s econd down (as shown in F i g

, then the .

firs t unit i s connected directly acro ss the t w o termi nals If .

the third s witch is placed up then the t hi rd unit i s placed in ,

parallel T hen a switch may be left O pen and say the fifth
.
,

s witch i s placed down Th en units 3 and 4 are in serie s but

.
,

t he two in s erie s are in parallel with 1 and 2 .

T hu s it i s evident that t hi s arrangement permits of a varia

tion from all in parallel to all in s erie s with any combination ,

F ro . 22 2 .
—

C a r bo n r h eos t at .

Of s eries parallel If 1 0 0 ohm 1 00 watt un i ts are u s ed the r e

-
.
-
,
-
,

s i st an ce of the arrangement may be varied from 1 6% ohm s

to 600 ohm s or in terms of current on a 1 00 v circuit from
,
-
.
,

6 amp to . amp .

F or heavy loads a water rheostat i s often u s ed

,
T hi s merely .

con si s t s of two metal plate s placed in a pail or barrel of acidu

, .

lated or salted water T he current strength i s varied either

.

by varying the dis tance between the plat e s or by varying the

dens ity of the solution In thi s type the plate i s lowered into
.

the solution thus presenting more and more act ive surface
,

and increas ing the re sultant current accordingly .

Car bon Rh eostat A nother form of l ead w hich i s quite

.
—

widely u sed i s the carbon compre s sion rheo stat T his utilizes
,
.

the varying resis tance produced between a metal and carbon

 TE S TI NG AL TE RNA TI N G- C URRE N T RE LA Y S 235

under varyi ng pressure A very u seful carbon rheostat i s shown .

plainly in F i g 222 . .

S li de Resi stor Of tentimes due to a variable line vol t age

.
—

, ,

the proper current cannot be obtained exact ly T o overcome .

this a very fine variable resistance i s employed similar to

,

F i g 223
. T hi s i s an insulated tube , wound with re sis tance
.

” “
wire and arranged with a s lider which may be moved
,

back and forth thus cutting in or out resistance in very

,

s mall s tep s T his resistance may be connec ted in parallel

.

w ith the load but the general practice i s to connect a slide of

,

F ro . 223 —
. h
O m ic s l i de r es i s t o r .

about 200 ohms in s erie s wi th another res is tan ce of 5 0 or 1 00

ohms thus li miting the current to a total variation of about
,

1 M amp and obtaining larger variation s on the main load box

.
-
.

P hant om Loads T he voltage required t o force current

.
—

through the relay windings i s very low amounting to le ss tha n ,

5 v in many cas es
. If current i s drawn from a 1 1 0 v circuit
.
-
.
,

by a serie s l ead it i s evident t hat only 5 v i s actually u sed

,
.
,

leaving 1 05 v to be wasted in forcing current through the load

. .

Instead however of using 5 amp at 1 1 0 v merely to obtain

, ,
. .

5 amp in the relay we may tran sform from 1 1 0 to 5 v and will

.
,
.
,

get 5 amp at 5 v from the secondary while the primary only

. .
,

supplied t he same watts plu s the primary lo sses at 1 1 0 v .

T he figure 5 w as only assumed in the foregoing cas es to illu s

trate the necessity of secondary voltage In actual practice .
,

the vol tage i s neither known nor de sired to be known as it i s

varied until it produces the proper current which alone mu st
236 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

be measured regardless of whether the voltage i s 1 or 2 or 8

,

or 1 0 v T hi s i s cal led a phantom load as it permits of a large

.
,

testing current and still draws only a small current from the
tes ting supply T his will be g iven further consideration under
.

testing co n nection s T ypical phant om load s are sho w n in

.

F ig . 224 .

F ro . 22 4 —
. T y pi c a l pha n t om l oad boxes .
( S ta t es C O ) .

S tan dar ds .
—

T he
tandard in strument for te sting current
s

relays i s an amme t er T hi s should be a high cla ss in s trument

.
-
,

having reliable accuracy rugged in construction dead beat , ,

-

when current i s applied it should not overs wing the mark , ,

but indicate it quickly without o s cillation or vibration ) It .

should be correct on wide variation s in frequency and have ,

large Open division s making it easily read T he selection

, .

of an ammeter i s a pr e posi t i on demanding careful consideration

from a great many points of view .

T h e induction principle i s generally conceded to be the be s t

for an all around good instrument and an exponent of the induc
-
,

tion type i s shown in F i g 225 T hi s embodies all the above . .

enumerated points and wil l give good service if handled cor

,

r ect l y T hi s ammeter i s arranged with two capacities

. F or .

ins tance if the two lin k s span t he two outside po sts marked
, ,
”
10 ampere s as in the illu stration the pointer deflects to ,

full s cale on 10 amp but if the links span the two posts marked
.
,
“ ”
5 ampere s then full s cale deflection i s obtained on 5 amp -
.

When the relays to be te sted are all about the s ame capacity
and are 1 20 amp or less it i s po ssible to get an ammet er which
.
,

reads full s cale on the de sired current F or instance instead .

,
23 8 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

former F or higher current the tran sformer in F i g 227i s used

.
, . .

T w o range s may be supplied 400 amp and amp T he

, . .

primary i s formed merely by passing the wire or cable through

the hole T he ammeter i s connected to the secondary terminals
. .

By pas sing two turn s through the hole the ratio i s changed ,

from to or from to according to the

transformer u sed F our turns change the ratio s to 1 00 : 5 and
.

400 : 5 re spectively If the current i s greater than

. amp the .

1 0 amp range on the meter i s u sed making it po ss ible to measure

-
.
,

up to amp u sing the same ratio or rather

.
, T here
i s a sli g ht error when u sed in thi s manner .

Th e Tr ip C i r cu i t T he simple st way to tes t the trip circuit

—

which operate s from a separate source is to dis connect the

lead s fro m the breaker and subs titute a lamp If this i s i m pr ac .

t i cabl e the lead s s hould be di s con n ected from the trip circuit
,

of the relay and the terminal s connected to a source of supply

,

in serie s with a lamp If the relay i s circuit clo sing (shunt trip )
.
-

the pilot or sig nal lamp will light when the relay trips If the .

relay i s of the circuit opening type (serie s trip ) the lamp is

-

normally lig hted but goes out when the relay trips When
, .

te sting a shu n t trip relay the contacts O pen the circuit when the
-
,

relay resets and may burn them slightly T herefore u se

, .
,

a s mall lamp in te sti ng and before the last time the relay close s
,

clean the contacts thoroughly with a piece of fi n e emery cloth

or paper N ever u se the red crocu s paper as it often leaves
.
, ,

a muddy coating on the contacts which prevents good electrical

contact It i s good practice after cleaning the contact s to
.
, ,

draw a piece of ordinary paper or cloth between the contacts

in order to remove all traces of emery du st .

After cleaning try the relay j us t once t o make sure that

,

nothing w as damaged in clean i ng .

T im in g th e Relay F or ordinary relays except thos e u s ed

—

.
,

for sectionalizing a stop wat ch does very nicely for determining

,

the time F irs t the load i s adjusted at which the relay i s t o

.
, ,

be t imed ; the relay i s al lowed to reset fully and then the watch ,

is snapped to start it and the load s witch clo sed at the same
instant T he i n stant the relay trips (lights t he signal lamp )
.
,

the watch i s stopped and the time noted T he third snap .

re sets the watch on zero, r eady f or the next trial .

 TE S TI N G AL TE RN A TI N G- C UBRE N T RE L A Y S 23 9

more accurate time as i s required for sectionali zing relays

F or ,

on a radial or ring system it i s necess ary t o use a cycle counter

, .

T his w as des cribed in a previous chapter .

THE A CTUAL TE S TI N G

When all the apparatus including load box ammeter stand , ,

ard trip lamp and various leads and tools are ready and before
, , ,

t ouching t he relay there are two things to be done on e of

, ,

paramount importance and one a smaller detail F i rst s hort .

,

ci r cu i t the cu r r ent tr ansf or m er right at the secondary leads .

A current transformer mus t never be O pen circuited when there -

F ro . 228 —
T es t i n g a l
r e ay u si n g a se p ar a t e t es t i n g s ou r ce an d trip ci r c u i t .

is load in the primary as it not only may harm the t ransformer ,

but it may induce a voltage of several thous and volts making ,

it a source of great pers onal danger N o harm can come of .

s hort circuitin g a current or s erie s tran sformer

- M any modern .

install ations have a permanently mounted switch which short -

circuits the secondary but in i ts absence a s hort lead with t w o

, ,

heavy s pring te s t ing clips should be used and fas tened so that
-
,

they cannot poss ibly drop off T he second point i s to wipe .

O ff all the dus t or dirt from the cover before removi n g it .

Ass uming for the fi rs t example that it i s a 5 amp bellows

, ,
-
.

relay which i s to be tested It O perates from a s eries transformer

.
240 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

placed in the high tens ion line A separate source i s avail

-
.

able for te sting and a lamp load i s u sed T he tran sformer .

i s s hort circuited the relay di s connected at both top and bottom ;

-

t he load ammeter relay coil and s witch all connected in s erie s

, , ,

acro ss the line ; and the trip connected in with a signal lamp as ,

in F i g 228 . .

Of cours e if the circuit may be interrupted it i s not nec

, ,

e ss ary to dis connect the trip ; the breaker its elf actually may
be opened when the relay trips T hi s i s really preferable but .
,

often impo ssible to do T he s witch i s clos ed the load adj us ted

.
,

until the meter s how s the correct current pas si n g ; then the switch
i s opened and the relay fully reset Q uickly c l o s i n g the s witch .
,

s nap the s top watch to s tart in and the in s t an t the lamp light s ,

( or the breaker trip s ) s n ap the watch to s top it ,

T hi s giv es the .

time of delay betwee n overload and tripping .

Th e Cycl e C ou n t er T O obtain very accurate time as i s

.
-
,

necess ary with sectionalizing relays a cycle counter i s connected ,

in to automatically time the delay T he self W inding clock

,
.
-

i s permanently connected acro ss the s ource of supply T he .

es capement magnet i s con n ected in series with a re si s tor and i s ,

energized as s oon as the s witch i s clos ed T hen it starts count .

ing the cycle s until the relay contacts clo se thereby short
, ,

circuiting the e s capement magnets and stopping the counter

ins tantly T he cycle counter then i n dicate s the number of
.

cycles which have elapsed between the instant of load and clo sing
of contacts .

D ividing this number by 60 gives the number of second s

on a 60 cycle circuit and di viding by 25 give s the seconds on
-
,

a 25 cycle circuit
-
.

If a circuit opening relay i s u sed , the e s capement magnet

-

is placed in serie s with the contacts with one switch control

ling both load and trip T hen the counter s tarts when the s witch
.

i s closed and s tops when the s witch i s O pened .

S ome en g inee r prefer to leave the circuit intact and connect

s

in the testing load as shown in F i g 229 T his s cheme i s excel . .

lent provided the primary of the cu rrent tran sformer i s not

,

energi zed and there i s no po ssibility of i t s being short circuited

,
-
.

In this c as e the n at u r rl impedance of the trans former s econd

,

ary prevents any appreciable current being diverted from the

242 P ROTE C T I VE RE L A Y S

flows in the relay circuit T his i s measured accurately by the

.

transformer B and the meter C .

F or instance using transformers 400 to 5 amp when meter

,
.
,

C read s 5 amp it wi ll be known that there i s 400 amp in the

.
, .

relay circu it It may however take about 6 amp from t he

.
, , .

li n e to produce thi s current S hould one turn in trans former .

A n ot g ive enough curren t the tur n s may be increased to ,

Loa d

s can n e d a r n c am s f J af a r

F ro . 2 30 —
. Usi n g an i n ver t ed ser i es t r an s f or m er t o su ppl y a h e a vy p h an t om
c u r r en t .

two or three and the cur rent from the load increased accord
i ng ly A good combination for 400 amp i s to u se a
. to 5 .
- -

transformer at A with four turns of heavy wir e for the primary .

T he trip circuit may be connected wi th a lamp or cycle

counter as previously des cribed .

M aki n g th e Adju stm ent T here are so many diff erent makes
—

of relays and principle s of operation that it i s impo ssible to

give expli cit directions for the adj ustment of each and every
one T his however i s hardly nece ss ary as each manufactur er
.
, , ,

give s directions for readj usting hi s particular relay and of co u rse , ,

the se should be followed T here are in general t w o se par ate

.
, ,
 T
TE S I N G AL T E RN A TI N G-
C URRE N T RE L A YS 243

obj ects to be obtained by adj us tment s tarting current and —

time delay on a definite current .

In the plunger type relays the starting current i s adj us ted

-
,

by varying the po sition of the core on the stem T his stem is .

generally thr eaded and the core or plunger s crewed into po sition
,

and locked with a sets crew or lockn ut When adj usting loosen .
,

thi s set then raise the plunger (s crew it up ) to lower t he s tart

,

ing current or lower it to rai se the amount of starting current .

When the correct position is found lock the plunger fir mly ,

in position so that the exce ssive vibration found in t his type

of relay cannot j ar it loos e If there are s prings which tend
.

to off set the weight of the plunger these may als o be call ed ,

into play to change the starting current .

In the induction type the adj ustment i s generally done by

,

pu ll ing out or letting in some of the s piral s pring w hich resists

, ,

the tur ning eff ort of the disk T his i s a delicate j ob and should
.

only be undertaken by an experienced in strument man S light .

adj ustment can sometimes be made by changing the position

of the torque compensator with res pect to the base T hi s .

changes the amount of leakage flux as the base diverts more

or less of it but this changes the shape of the curve more than
,

the starting current .

T he time of the bellows and oil lagged relays i s varied both -

by the di s tance of contact travel and the size of the opening

in the needle valve T he contact dis k is generall y placed
.

loosely between two nuts on the thr eaded s haft and may be
rais ed or lowered thereby making the plunger travel a longer
,

or shorter distance and gi ving a longer or s horter time delay .

T o obtain larger variations it i s nece ss ary to grind a flat place

,

on the valve to al low greater e s cape of air or oil on long time

,
-

s ettings
. C are must be taken however that the valve i s not
, ,

ground too much It i s preferable not to touch the valve

.
,

but to make a curve or set of readings and set the relay time ,

according to this cu rve .

T he time of induction type relays i s varied by moving the per

-

manent magnets in or out .

M oving the magnet in toward the center of the disk give s a

shorter time and moving it out ( t o within M in of the edge ) .

gives a longer time G reat care must be taken that the dis k
.
244 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

does not touch the magnet as it tur ns and that there i s no iron ,

du st or filin g s on the magnets which may in time rub on the dis k .

A feather or a piece of soft iron wire (s uch as an unbent paper

-
,

clip ) are excel lent in removing fi lings

, .

Before leaving a relay make sure that every acce ssible s crew
,

and nut i s tight ; see that the contacts are clean ; no loose con
n ect i on s ; no burnt coil s or in sulation ; no dirt or du s t an d that
;
all moving parts move freely without sticking or rubbing A l so .

see that the leather on bellow s relays i s s oft and pliable u sing , ,

if nece ssary a little n eat sf oot oil to keep it s oft M ake sure
, .

that all connections are returned exactly as found If there are .

s everal connections to be removed and there i s any po ssibility

of getting them twi sted make a sk et ch of the rel ays and terminals
, ,

and number each terminal 1 2 3 etc on the sketch T hen , , , , .

, .

as the wire s are removed tie a s mall tag on each one marked
, ,

1 2 3 etc so there will be absolutely no danger but that the

, , , .
,

leads are correctly replaced T hen after al l connection s are .

completed remove the s hort on the series tr an sformer C onnect

,
.

an ammeter in parallel with the current coil and see by i t s indica

tion that current i s flowing T he ammeter will divert part .

of t he cur rent from the relay C onnect a voltmeter across .

the trip circuit terminals and see by i t s i n dication t hat the tr1 p
-

circuit i s intact right up to the relay contacts .

P l ott i n g th e Resu lt s T he time re sult s under variou s load s

.
-

are easily plotted in cu rve form or tabulated thus renderin g ,

a permanent record of the action of the relay under various

conditions and forming a ready source of reference by w hich
the time of the relay may be easily changed i n de fi nite manner ,

as might be nece ss ary due to a change in the di s tribution of the

load or the addition of various equipment .

If the results are tabulated they should be s omewhat similar ,

to the table shown in F i g 23 1 T he vertical column s are the. .

res ults of the various lever settings and the horizontal lines
are the various loads P roceed with the te s t as fol low s : S et
.

the relay to N o 1 setting and adj ust the load to on e and one
.

half times the tap setting T hus if the 5 amp tap i s u sed the
.
-
.
,

current must be amp T he column may be in actual cur rent

.

”
or in per cent load
“
A pply the load and note the time
. It .

is sec ( 3 0.cycle s on the cycle counter on 60 cycle circuit ) -

.
246 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

and then the curves plotted Intermediate time i s eas ier

fi rs t .

to locate on a cur ve than on a table .

A nother important featu re on a large system i s the keeping

of a card system giving complete data on each relay together
with i t s actual time and load setting T he layout of the system .

will g ive the identifying number on each relay on each circuit

and then by referring to this number in t he car d index the per
, ,

S e co n d s

n e w 10 n
n SB n a a

F ro . 23 2 .
—

C u r ves of firs t t a bl e i n F ig . 23 1 .

f or m an ce
of this relay under certain combina tions of load condi
tion s can be accurately forecas t T hi s als o forms an accurate .

method of retiming a system in c as e of revis ions or additions

to the load .

TE S TI N G VOL TA G E RELAY S

T he apparatus generally used for tes ting voltage relays both ,

under and over i s a small portable tran sformer a means of

, ,

varying it and a reliable s tandard Of cours e if a high enough

, .
,

s ou rce i s available it i s unnecessary to have a small s tep u p

,
-

transformer but only means of cutting the vol t age down to the
,

proper amount A s mall portable transformer i s shown in F i g

.
.

233 While designed to step down from 400 or 200 to 1 00 v

.
.
,

with accurately compens ated ratio it may al so be u sed to s tep ,

up from 1 00 to 200 or 400 v with good re sult s T he potential . .

i s varied by mean s of the adj ustable slide T hi s sl i de i s con .

 TE S TI N G AL TE RN A TI N G-C URRE N T RE L A Y S 247

n ect eddirectly acro ss the line while the potenti al i s taken be ,

tween one line and the slide thereby insuring a close graduation ,

from zero to maximum voltage .

On e form of a reli able standar d voltmeter is of the moving

coi l dynamometer type which i s w ithout question the bes t
, ,

principle of operation to u se for an accurat e reliable rugg ed , ,

test instrument Voltmeters come with two or m ore ra n ges i e

.
,
. .
,

they indicate full s cale on 1 5 0 v or by chan ging to another .

,

F ro . 2 33 .
—
We sti n gho u se por t a bl e l g
vo t a e t r a n s f o r m er .

terminal they in dicate full scale on 300 v ; or on 300 and 600

,
. .

A good combination i s a 75 and 1 5 0 v voltmeter with an exter -

.
,

nal m u ltiplier making full s cale 300 v and 600 or 75 0 v

, . .

In approaching an installation the fi rs t t hing to do i s to ,

di s connect the trip circuit and then open circuit the potential -

transformer N ever short circuit it ( as in the cas e of a serie s

.
-
,

tran sformer ) as it wil l invariably blow a primary fu se or burn

,

up the transformer T hen clean the dust and dirt from the cover
.

before opening it .

C onnect the apparatus as in F i g 234 In s pect the relay . .

mechanically tightening all s crews and nuts ; clean the contacts

,
248 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

and see that all moving parts are f ree to turn without rubbing
or friction ; see that the springs are intact no burnt coils and , ,

no fil ings clinging to the m agnet .

T hen clo se the tes t switch and see that the contact s clo se

F ro . 234 —
. T es t i n g a vol t age el ay r f r om a se p ar a te s o u r ce .

positivel y at the right voltage If de sirable a table or curve .

,

may be made showing the relation between lever settings and

clo sin g or O pening volts Or a curve may be made showing
.

the length of time required to clo se the contacts A nother set .

of te st connections are shown in F i g 235 . .

6 5 “ 0 3 !AM P

F ro . 23 5 —

C on n ect i on s f or t es t i n g a vol t age r l ay e .

P ow er - dir ecti onal Relays T es ts

on a reverse power relay
.
—

generally comprise a complete te st on the overload element

the same as des cribed pre viously and a thorough mechanical ,

i nspection is g iven to see t hat all par ts are free t o move without
25 0 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

u nder varying condi tion s and fi nally t o devise a system of prote o

,

tion which will cover the great maj ority of points for it i s fran kly
,

acknowledged that every point cannot be covered by any relay

or combination in every cas e .

T he subj ect of relays and their protection of circuits and

apparatus i s an engineering profe ssion by itself and i s capable
of great possibilities in improvement .

However even with the present relays and system s they are
, ,

so little unders tood that the economie s and improved service

resulting from the u se of relays have not been taken advantage

of by operators as fully as they should be T he n too many .
, ,

operators have not yet realized the se advantage s Others .

that have used relays to a li m i t ed ex t ent have in no way exhausted

their possibilitie s
.

T he electrical engineers of the country ar e still at work on

the subj ect of protection and uninterrupted service and are ,

graduall y and thoroughly inve s tig ating each and every poss ible
protection problem and each year see s many old problems
su cce ss fully solved S o it i s to be hoped that s oon such things
.

as burnouts and s hort circuits interrupting service will be

-

mat te rs of the past .

 C HA P T E R XVII

LO CAT I N G F AULT S I N F E E D E RS AN D W I RI N G

A lthough protective relays may sectionalize and isolat e

defective feeders and apparatus with more than human speed and
accuracy yet it i s often a diffi cult matter t o locate the actual
,

faul t In the facto r y the faul t may be in a condu i t or duct ;

.

in an underground dis tribution system it may be in a subway ,

between manholes ; or in a long distance transmi ssion system

-
,

the location of the fault may require mile s of line patrolling t o

actually see where and what the trouble may be It often .

happens that relays may i solate a line and then con siderable
time i s spent in trying to locate the fault where in other cas es ,

it may be that the fault clears immediately upon isolation .

T he foll owing chapter whi le not a complete expo sition on

the de tail s of fault location es pecial ly as applied t o high tension
,
-

line s will nevertheless give the bas ic principle s of the methods

,

us ed in fi nding the exact location of the fault .

T he mo st commonly met defect s or fault s in the wiring of

any system are : ( 1 ) open circuits or break s cau s ed by a broken
-
, ,

wire or blown fuse ; (2) short circuit s or cro sses cau sed by two
-
, ,

metal conducto rs of diff erent potenti al s touching each other ;

and (3) grounds caused by a live metal c onductor touching a
,

metal conduit or other foreign metal A n open circuit i s in .

-

reality a complete break , or condition of infi nite resis tance

in a suppo sedly continuou s conductor but there are condi ,

tion s when the fault may have any resistance from a few ohm s
to many thou sand In such cas es however the fault i s u sually
.
, ,

accompanied by a ground as for ins tance if a feeder in a metal

, ,

conduit should become open circuit the voltage might cau s e

—

the two end s to weld fast t o the conduit thu s introducing o nl y ,

a sli g ht resi stance in the line producing a ground .

A s hort circuit may be either a low re s i s tance or

-
dead -

s hort or a high res is tance s hort circuit commonly called a

,
- -
,

25 1
25 2 P RO TE C TI VE RE LA Y S

leak A dead short will usually manife s t itsel f in a violent

.
’

manner by blowing a fuse or breaker and t he f u se cannot be ,

replaced or the breaker re se t until the fault i s located and

cleared A high resistance short may not draw enough current
.
-

to blow a fu se but it con stitute s a waste of current and if the

, ,

leak be confi ned to a smal l s pace the res ulting heat may start ,

a fi r e A s before short circuits are Often accompan ied by open

.
,
-

circuits and grounds due to the violence of the short circuit

,
-

either burning the wire in two or welding it to the metal conduit .

On low pote n tial circuits a single ground cannot cau se any

-
,

damage ; but should a second ground occur on a wire of opposite

polarity the two ground s will cau se a short circuit i t s violence
,
-
,

depending on whether the ground s are of high re sis tance or

low re si s tance T here are a great many case s where it i s advi e
.

able to ground a m achine fram e or wire in order to limit the

potential betwee n any part of the circuit and the ground ; for
instance the second ar y of a 1 1 0 v li g hting circuit i s u sually
,
-
.

grounded s o that there can never be a d angerou s potential be

tween the wiring and ground in case the transformer should
s hort circuit between primar y and s econdary
-
A nother case i s .

w here the neutral of a three W ire sy s tem i s grounded so that -

the potential between either outside wire and the ground can
never be greater than the potential between either outside wire
and the neutral In te sting for faults it mu st be remembered
.

that all ground s are not accidental ; some are intentional and
mu st be taken into account in th e te st .

Appar at u s Requ i r ed P erhap s the mo st commonly u sed te s t

—

ing apparatu s i s a magneto and polarized bell such as are often ,

fou a d in the old style telephone s T hi s i s shown in F i g 236

-
. . .

T he magneto and bel l are mounted in a compact portable

carrying case connected in serie s and supplied with a long pair
,

of leads T hi s outfi t i s u sed exten sively to test wiring for opens

.
,

short s and ground s as will be de s cribed later A s pecial fus e .

testing panel i s shown in F i g 237 . .

On long line s however the magneto and bell tes t for open
, ,

circuits or rather for continuity mu s t be u sed with great cau

, ,

tion and intelligence as Often there will be enough capacity

or condenser eff ect to allow the bell to ring even though there
be an open circuit .
25 4 P ROTE C TI VE RE LA Y S

If low potential alternating current i s available a small

-
,

potential transformer properly eq u ipped with protective lamps

,

and tes t leads form s an excellent piece of apparatu s for testing

,

for grounds opens and s horts I n thi s the primary i s con

, ,
.
,

n ect ed in serie s with a fu s e to a 1 1 0 v A O circuit T he-

. . . .

s econda r y s hould have taps connected t o a dial s witch so that

any voltage from 1 00 to may be obtained in 1 00 v -

.

s tep s .

A galvanometer or a low reading voltmeter may be us ed -

in series with a few dry cells for the same purpose T hi s has .

the advantage that the resistance of the ground open or shor t ,

may be roughl y calculated from i t s indication .

T esti n g f or O pen s , S h ort s or G r o u n ds L et u s assume a —

factory runn ing a number of m et er s and lighting circuits ; s ay

one department reports that a certain motor will not run T he .

repairman takes hi s voltmeter and magneto set and going ,

to the department where the motor st epped should fi rs t con

d u ct an inve stigation among the ones who operate the motor ,

and diagnose the c as e much in the same way as a physician

diagno ses human ill s W as there any unusually heavy load
.

applied when the motor stopped ? D id the motor heat up

excessively ? D i d someone throw the starting compens ator
handle from starting to runni ng po sition t oo quickly ?
If the trouble i s merely a blown fuse the cau se of blowing ,

s hould be determined to avoid recurrence If no one can report .

any diffi culty remove the fuses and tes t the voltage on the line
,

s ide of the fu s e T hen tes t the fus e s s eparately with the magneto
.
,

or with a s pecial fuse tes ting panel such as shown in F i g 237

-
,
.

T o do thi s connect the two fus e terminals to the magneto out

,

fi t and turn the handle

,
If the bell ring s the fus e i s intact
.
, ,

but if it doe s not ring then it i s blown out On a two wire

,
.
-

circuit the voltage may be te s ted on the load s ide without

,

removing the fus es where a lack of voltage will indicate a blown

,

fu s e Bu t thi s cannot be done on a three wire or a polyphas e

.
-

circuit unless it be defi nitely as certained that there i s no con

n ect ed load as the cu rrent from another phas e may feed back
,

ward through the load and operate the voltmeter thus giving ,

an indication of g ood fu s es It takes at leas t two blown fus es

.

to kill the secondary voltag e of a polyph as e circuit with a con

 L OC A TI N G F A UL TS I N F E E DE RS A N D WI RI N G 25 5

n ect ed l oad . F i gur e 239 s hows the proper method to pursue

in locating a blown fuse .

As we are dealing with feeder and wiring faults ass ume that ,

the fuses are good but there is no voltage ; or on a polyphas e

circu it that there is no voltage on at leas t one phase P roceed
,
.

t o the next fus e j u nction neares t to the source and perform

the same tes t P erhaps a blown fus e will be found here t hat
.

kills the voltage at the motor fuse block A ss ume for the firs t -
.

cas e that a blown fuse i s found and upon replacement it blows

out i m mediately S ince the other end of the line i s open
.

circuited it s hows that there i s a s hort or a ground in this

,

F ro 2 3 9
. . l h l
A t ef t , w e n oad i s di scon n ec t ed , f u ses ar e t es t ed by con n ec t i n
—
g
l
vo t m et er b l
et w een t he i n e s i de of o n e f u s e an d t he o ad si de of a n ot er l
At h .

righ g
t , t es t i n ar ou n d t h e f u se .

line . N ow r em ove al
f l of the
u ses or con n ecti on s on both en ds

li n e . If the line i s in metal conduit connect one magneto ,

lead to the metal conduit or if it i s open wiring connect the , ,

lead to the nearest water pipe C onnect the other magneto lead .

to one of the wires in the is olated section T urn the magneto .

briskly and if the bell ring s the wire i s g rounded ; no ring

, ,

indicates an ungrounded line T ry the other lines in succession . .

A ssu m e for the pres ent that all lines in the section under te st
are free from ground s .

N ow connect the two magneto lead s one to each of two wire s

in the section under tes t and turn the handle A ringing bell .

indicates a short circuit between two wires which in this cas e

-
,

would be the cause of the blown fu ses .

It i s very s eldo m that a feeder or heavy wire will open circuit -

,

but the te st i s made by grounding the far ends of the wire s in the
25 6 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

s ection u n der test and then tes ting with the magneto between
each at the opposite end A ring will indicate a continuou s .

circuit while no ring wi ll indicate an open circuit

, .

Open circuits frequently occur in lamp cord and light wiring

by the wire breaking inside the insulation while on the outside ,

it appears to be intact T hes e cas es however are not di ffi cult .

, ,

to fi n d as they generally occur in single units such as lamps

and s mall motors and s eldom on dis tributing feeders which carry
,

a heavy load .

Accur at ely Lo cati n g th e S h or t ci r cui t Af ter localizing the -

.
—

fault to a section between two fu se centers the fault often ,

may be accurately located by a careful in s pection es pecially ,

in open wiring but if it i s in conduit and quite a lon g run in the

, ,

s ection under tes t s ome method i s nece ss ary to determine the

,

approximate location so that only the wires aff ected in s maller

s ection between two outlets need be pulled out .

A s hort circuit may be mo s t e as ily localized by a direct

-

current revers ing commutator and a compass Or a simple rever .

sing s witch operated by an as s i s tant has the s ame re s u lt F irs t .

make sure that the line i s dead at both ends ; then connect a
6 v s torage battery through an adj u stable re s i s tor ammeter
-
.
, ,

and double pole double throw reversing switch to the faulty

- -
,

line A dj us t the resis tance s o that 5 or 1 0 amp flows through

. .

the short T he assi stant i s ins tructed to revers e the switch

.

about every 1 0 sec T he cover i s removed from the nearest.

j unction box and the compass held agains t the wire If the
, .

fault i s p as t this box the compass will revers e every time ,

the as s is tant reverses hi s switch If the compas s reverses .

,

proceed to the next box and s ee if the compass works If so .

it shows the fault to be further on so a te st i s made at the next ,

box and so on until a j unction box i s reached where the compass

,

does not deflect .

A similar method that may be us ed where alternating cu rrent

i s available i s formed by pass ing 5 or 1 0 amp through the faulty .

cable and the short circuit Ins tead of the compass a s mall -
.
,

piece of tran sformer iron about 1 in wide and s everal inches , .

long i s bent in a semicircle and about 1 0 turns of N o 1 8 or

,
.

20 B S gage in sulated magnet wire wound around the

. .

center F lexible lead s are u sed to connect this winding to a

.
25 8 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

foll ow out the wir es that indicate ground s or s hort s until t he

fault i s found .

Cal cu l ati n g th e Locati o n of S h ort or G r oun d I f the s hort .

—

or g round i s on a single line whi ch may be is olated by dis con

n ect i n g at both end s and if the re s i s tance i s acc u rately known
, ,

then the location of a fau lt may be quite accu rately fo u nd

by a meas u rement of the resistance either by a Wheatstone s ’

bridge or by the voltammeter method .

F or instance ass ume two wires 5 00 ft long and each wire

, .

meas urin g ohm .

P assing 1 0 amp (adj u s ted by rheo stat and measured by

.

an accurate ammeter ) through the short as sume the potential ,

drop across the cable to be v or 800 m v T he re sis tance

. . .

of the two s ections of wire as far as the short plu s the re si s tance ,

of the s hort i s , ohm N ow connect the two far end s of

.

the cable tightly together and measure again Ass ume the
, .

voltmeter now shows v or 773 m v thus indicating that

. . .
,

parall eling the resistance of the short with the remaini ng section
of good cable reduces the resi stance from to ohm .

C ons equently the re s i stance of the good cable as f ar as the ,

s hor t may be calculated from the formula

,

X C /
x ( b
-
c)( )
a-c

in which X the total res i stance of cable to short .

a the total kn own re sistance of good wires .

b resi s tance meas ured with end s open .

c resi stance measured with end s clo sed .

Or in our example

which equal s ohm .

T hi s i s the res i s tance of two wire s to the s hort so each wire ,

will be oh m If the resi s tance of 5 00 ft i s

. ohm .
,

then ohm will repres ent 300 f t s howing that the short .
,

i s 300 ft from the beginning of the cable

. .

A ground may be l ocated in the s ame manner if the re si stance ,

of the c able be known by measuring the re sistance between cable

,

and g round with the far end of cable in sulated and then m easu r
ing the resi s tance with the far end g rounded although in this ,
 L OC A TI N G F A UL TS I N F E E DE RS A N D WI RI N G 25 9

cas e accuracy i s not high unless the li ne be comparatively long

and hi gh resistance and the ground resistance practically zero .

Tw o am m eter M eth od
-
A nother way of approximately —

locating a g round in a heavy feeder i s by the two ammeter -

method connecting an ammeter in each leg of t he circu it and

,

noting the divi sion of the current T o do thi s first clear both .

end s of the line and then j oin the two far ends together tightly .

T hen connect a 5 amp D C ammeter in s eries with each wire

- . . .
,

connecting the opposite side of the ammeters together ; fr o m

thi s j oint connect a storage battery and resistor to the groun d .

T he connections are s hown in diagram in F i g 24 1 . .

E n ds c on ne c t e dt og et he

Os bl e un d er T es t

Ros l st or
A cci d en t al G round

S t or ag e Bat t ery

F ro . 241 —
. L oc at i n g g r ou n d on a h ea vy f ee der by m eas u r i n g t he di vi s i on of
c u r r en t by am m et er s A an d B .

T he current through meter A needs to go only throug h part

of one feeder to reach the break but the current through meter ,

B mu st not only traverse the total length of one cable but al so ,

the remaining section of the grounded cable S ince the currents .

divide invers ely proportional to the resi stance of the cable

they mu st travel and since thi s re si stance i s proportional to the
length it follows that the ratio of the two meters i s inversely
,

proportional to the two lengths of cable Or the ratio of one .

reading to the su m of the two readings i s the s ame as the ratio

of the opposite s ection to the break i s to the total length .

F or in s tance if meter A read s 3 amp and meter B read s 2 amp

,
. .

and since this division i s inversely proportional to the resis tances ,

the proportion i s 3 2 A G BG Or call the whole circuit 100 .

per cent then 3 : 2 , ( 1 00 A G ) : A G or 2 : 5 X 1 00 S

-
olving .

this for BG or X gives 40 which means that the fault i s 40 per ,

cent of the total length of the cable away from the meters .
2 60 P RO TE C TI VE RE L A Y S

F orvery accurate results with the two ammeter method -

,

it i s necess ary to figu re the res istance of the ammeters and con
me eting cable s as so many feet of equ ivalent cable F or in s tance .
,

if the cable being tested i s 5 00 ft long ft for two con . .

du ct or s ) and has a resi stance of ohm per 5 00 f t and if .

,

the resi stance of the meter and connection s from the dividing
point to the cable i s found to be ohm then it i s evident ,

that the meter and connections have a resis tance equivalent

to 20 ft of cable T o measure the resistance of the meters
. .
,

pass about 5 amp through the meter on all connection s

.
,

and then with a millivoltmeter take the drop from the dividing
point between the meters to the neare st point on the cable ,

including all connection s and j oints S ay thi s i s 1 00 m v . . .

T hen the resis tance is R or v . 5 amp . ohm .

S ince the cable i s X 5 00 ft or ohm per f t it fol

. .
,

lows that it take s 20 ft to make up a resis tance of . ohm .

If the other meter measures the same then in making the fi nal ,

calculation it i s necess ary to fi gure the total length of cable

,

as ( 5 00 5 00 20 20) or ft in stead of merely .

ft S o in our previou s example the fault would fi gure 40 per

.

cent of or 41 6 ft away from the end being tested Bu t

. .

we already kn ow that the meter i s equivalent to 20 f t s o we must .

,

subtract thi s making the actual location of the fault 4 1 6

,
20 or
39 6 ft away . .

Th e F aul t Lo caliz er A much s afer method to locate a ground

.
-

in a heavy cable or feeder i s by the Westinghou se fault local

i zer . T hi s in s trument a diagram of which i s s hown in F i g 242
, .
,

has three terminal s two of which are connected to the res pective
wire s in a two wir e feeder and the other through a source of
-

D C potential ammeter and lamp bank to the groun d

. .
, T he .

central knob i s then turned until the galvanometer shows

no deflection upon pressure of the key T he point on the s cale .

that now lie s directly below the 0 mark indicate s directly the
percentage of cable l engt h to the ground On e po st i s marked .

”
red and one black so if the reading appears in red on the
“
,
”
s cale then the g round i s on the line connected to the red
,
“

po st F or exam ple if the s cale showed 60 per cent in black

.
,

then it would be known that the line connected to t he black

262 P ROTE C TI V E RE L A Y S

To part l y overcome this difficu lty the Le eds , N ort h rup

p o w er bridge h as heavy l eads permanently connected to t h e

bridge and heavy clamps on t he ends for securely clamping t o

th e cable .T his is sh own i n Fi g 243 . .

In principl e of operation t hi s bridge consist s of a sli d e-w ir e

,

br idge wi t h a ver y sens it iv e g alvanome t er mou nted m t he car ry

i n g cas e . The low resi st an ce slide w ir e is mou nted on a circul ar

F m 24 3
.
—
. Leed s dz N or t h u p pow e b i d g
r r r e.

block ins ide the cas e and arranged with a ver y pos itive movable
contact T his cont act is r igidly attached t o a sh aft which
.

carries a kn ob and pointer movi ng over a cal ibrated s cal e T he .

wi re is made lar ge enough t o carr y about 5 amp thus g ivin g .

,

a readable deflection f or a s hort movement of the contact I f .

t he occas ion demands t hi s current may be increas ed to 8 am p

,
.

t o obtain ver y accurate resul ts but thi s heavy current shoul d

,

n ot be left on longer t han i s abs olutely nece ss ary .

T he s c al e is divi ded into divis ions but the leads are ,

arran ged t o eq ual 1 0 divi s ions of the slide wire s o the pointer ,

will only go from 1 0 to 990 on t he s cale It will thus be seen t hat

.
 LOCA TI NG F A UL TS I N F E E DE RS A N D W I RI NG 263

t he slidewire actually begins at the end s of the cable thus entirely ,

eliminating le ad resi s tance .

In u sing the ins trum ent to locate g round s the line is fi rs t ,

clear ed at both end s and then one end of the cable is tightly
cla m ped together C are mus t be taken to avoid contact r esi s
.

tance here .

T he battery i s connected to pos ts marked Ba T he pos t marked .

Gr must be s ecurely grounded S u ffi cient batter y mu st be .

u sed to obtain a readable deflection from a slight change or ,

resistance mu s t be inserted if the current i s too large T he .

connections are s hown in F i g 244 . .

FIG . 2 44 —

. Dia g
r a m of co n n e c t i o n s o f L . N . p o w er br i d g e .

T he bridge locates the fault by the M u rray loop method .

If for instance the bridge i s balanced s o that the galvanometer

, ,

s how s no deflection when the pointer i s at 300 and the key i s

pressed then it mean s that the di stance from block A to the

,

fault i s
388 0
of the total dis tance .

L O CATI O N OF W HE N THE LO O P I S C O M
F A ULT S P OS E D OF
DIF F E RE N T C ROS S - S E CTI O N CABLE S

When there are cables of varying cro ss sectio n in the loop -

being te sted the fault i s u sual ly located by reducing the cables

,

to equivalent lengths of one size cable .

F or instance in diagram F i g 244 ass ume that there are

, ,
.
,

three s ections of cable of variou s sizes and that thes e sections °

are as follow s : Length A to E i s compo sed of 5 5 0 yd of .

cir mi l s length E F i s 5 00 yd of
.
,
cir mi ls and length
. .
,

F 0 is yd of cir mils T hese lengths must be

. . .

reduced by calculation to equivalent len g ths of one size and for ,

thi s purpose it i s best to select the larges t size S ince the .

2 64 P ROTE C TI VE RE L A Y S

re i tance i s inversely proportional to the cross section and

s s -

directly proportional to the length it follows that the calculation ,

i s merely an invers e proportion T o reduce the fi rst length .

,

the equation becomes

550 x:

which gives a: as 880 yd meaning that 880 yd of . cir

, .
-
.

mil cable i s equal in resistance to 5 5 0 yd of cir mil cable .

-
. .

Reducing the rest in a similar manner gives the foll owing

550 yd of
. cir mils . 880 yd of
. cir mil .

5 00 yd of
. cir m ils. 5 00 yd of
. cir mils. .

yd of . cir mi ls . yd of. cir mils . .

T hi s makes the total resis tance of the loop equivalent to

yd of. N ow if the bridge balance s at a reading
of thi s indicates that the fault i s per cent of the total
dis tanc e or equivalent yard s from E Of thi s 880 .
,

are in the stretch A E le aving only , 880 or y d .

,

whi ch i s the dis tance from E to the fault .

Bur n in g O u t th e F aul t When the fault either cross ground

—

, ,

or partial open i s of a high re sistance and it i s impos sible to locate

,

it by ordinary methods it i s s ometime s permiss ible to burn

,

it out T hi s however mus t be attempted only with the greatest

.
, ,

precaution s such as having pails of sand or reliable fir e ex t i n

g u i s her s ready for immediate u s e s hould the burning out proce s s -

s tart a fi r e .

T o do thi s connect a high potential so that it feed s current

,

through the fau lt and then incre as e the current until s ome
thing happens T hi s somethi ng may be a fir e a melted conduit
.
, ,

a ruined section of wire additional trouble communicated t o

,

other s ections of wir e or merely a carbonizing of the fault

,
.

If the fault becomes carbonized s uffi ciently to pass about

5 amp through from a low voltage battery then it i s eas y to
.
-
,

locate the fault by the previous ly des cribed method s .

In any case burning out a fault is a method which mus t be

res orted to only in an extreme cas e as practically all faults
may be located in a much safer and gentler manner by a little
clear t hi nking and sound reas oning .
266 I N DE X

Cir cu i t - b reakers , di ag r am m ati c Cu r r ent tr ansf or m er , am p er e t u rns ,

sch em e , 9 1 16
r el eas es , see Rel eases . efi ects of secon dar y load ,
1 15
ti mi ng , 21 6 h ol e typ e 237 ,

typi cal ti m e c h aracteri st i cs ,

i n h er en t er r ors , 113
1 80 m ag n eti z ati on of cor e, 1 14
C ir cu i t-cl osi ng r el ays , di ag r am s , 1 7, n ecessi ty f or 3 on 3 ph ase , 119
3 4, 41 O peni ng of secon dary 1 22 ,

G E i n verse over l oad bel

. . r ati o er r or s 1 1 3 ,

l ow s , 39 si ng l e ph ase g r ou p i n g s 1 1 7
-
,

W esti ng h ou se overl oad bel tem p eratu re ri se 1 1 6 ,

l ow s , 29 , 3 1 t h r ee ph ase g r ou pi ng s 1 23
-
,

C i r cu i t-op eni ng r el ays , 18 three w i re 1 1 7

-
,

di ag r am s , 40, 42 throu g h typ e 237 ,

G E das hp ot i nvers e over

. . t w o ph ase g r ou pi n g s 1 1 7 1 1 8
—

, ,

load 38 , W est i n g h ou se 23 7 ,

Cli p s f or t es ti n g 226 , w r ong con n ect i on s , 1 1 9

C om p ass test 2 7 6
, C u r ves , cu rr en t decr ease on g en er a

C om pensati on i n cu r r en t tr an s t or s h or t , 1 00
f or m er , 1 1 3 r at i o err or in cu rr en t tr ans
in p oten ti al transf or m er 124 , f or m er s , 1 1 4
f or tem per atu r e i n G E r el ay 8 1 . .
, r el ay accu r acy , 229
C om p ensator s tor q u e 69 92
—

, ,
r esu l ts , 246
W es ti ng h ou se di ag ram 70 , tab l es an d 228 ,

C on di t rel ays 24
, , t i m e load 77 ,

over l oad h ori z on tal bu s 2 5 , of f u se, 20

verti cal bu s 25 , of G E . b ell ow s 20 ,

C on stan ts al ter n ator

, an d tr ans of G E . . defi ni te ti m e 2 1 .

f or m er , 1 05 of G . E . i n du cti on over l oad ,

C on tactor sw i tch , 71 90 22, 1 80

di ag r am of m oder n , 7 2 of W esti ng h ou se b el l ow s , 33 ,
of ol d, 7 2 178
exploded vi ew , 7 3 of i n du cti on over l oad, 22,
l ocati on i n rel ay , 7 3 179
C ontacts , 71 Cycl e cou n er , t 2 1 2 , 240
C on t i nu i ty i n di cator , 7 4
C r oss conn ected p ow er di r ecti on al
r el ays , 165 , 1 69

system s , di s adv an tag e of , 1 7 D A rs onval t yp e relay, p ow er di r ec

’
1
C u rr ent, cal cu l ati on of s h or t ci r cu i t , t i on al , 46
101 p ri n ci pl es of operati on 45 ,

r el ays , 66 tem peratu r e 201 ,

n om en cl a u re, t 5 testi ng f or g r ou n ds 222 ,

t ap pl ates G E i n du cti on over

, . . D as hp ot typ e ci r cu i t op eni ng i n
load 78 ,
v er se over l oad, 38
W es t i ng h ou se i n du ct i on over D efin i t e ti m e del ays , 6, 2 1 , 26
load 69 ,
r el ays, 29
 I N DE X 267

Del ta, ti ons 1 20

conn ec ,
Diag ram s , radi al n e w ork , t 176, 182
an d Z conn ecti on table
-
, 12 1 seri es tri p , 40
Determ i ni n g ph as e rotati on , 131 ser vi ce res t or i ng relays, 1 8, 1 95
Di sadvan t ag e of c r os s -c o n n ec t ed sp li t con du ctor sys em ,
t
15 9
syst em , 1 71 t
s an dard G E . . f or S P in duc . .

Di ag ramm ati c sch emes, see S cha ti on over oad, l 1 36

m ati c di ag r ams . f or t hm phm f our w i re,
Di ag ram s , b att er y p rotecti on , 5 6 1 40
ci r cu i t cl os i ng separ ate tr i p , 1 7 g rou n ded, 139
s i n g le-ph ase, 34 u n g r ou n ded, 1 38

stan dar d G en er al E lectri c , f or t w o-ph as e, 1 3 7

41 Westi ng hou se, f or i ndu cti on
Wes ti ng h ouse, 34 over load, 1 35

p
o eni ng , 1 8, 40 f or p ow er di recti on al , 1 66
t
s an dar d G eneral El ectr i c, w att rel ays , 1 29
42 temperatu re rel ays 1 92, 204 ,

W esti ng house, 41 testi ng , vol t ag e, rel ays , 248

C onti n ui ty in di cator , 74 w i th cycle cou n ter , 2 1 4, 239
D C ri n g sys te m , 63
. . w i th ou t di scon n ecti n g , 241
di fl eren ti al g en erator p roteo three-ph ase overload, 1 34
tion 1 49 ,
t hree w i r e cu rren t tr ansf or m er ,
dou b l e contact p ow er di r ec 117
ti on al 1 70 1 72 , ,
ti mi ng p r otecti on eq ui p m ent ,

el em en tar y over load p r otecti on ,

216
1 33 tr ansf er rel ay , 209
p l f eeders, 61 , 85
ar al l e t w o-cu rrent t ransf or m er on 3
radi al sys t em , 30 1 7 5 , 177 , w i re, 1 1 7
ri ng sy stem , 1 84 ph ase overload 1 34
t w o- ,

f ailu re of p ri m e m overs , 5 9 , 60 typi cal layou t 2 1 8 ,

f use tes t in g , 2 5 5 W esti ng h ou se b ell ow s 34 41 , ,

G E f or pow er di r ecti on al , 167,

. . cr oss con n ected 1 69
-
,

1 68 i n du cti on overl oad 1 35 ,

i n tern al , 94 overl oad tel eg r ap h 19 2 ,

i nsu l at i on testi n g , 222 pow er di r ect i on al , 1 70

m odern con tactor sw i tch , 72 rever seph ase 194 ,

n etw or k p r otec t i on , 1 87 torqu e com pensator , 70

ol d con tactor sw i tch , 7 2 Z-conn ecti on , 1 22
over voltag e si g n al , 65 Diff er enti al pow er di r ect i on al , 96,
p arall el f eeder r adi al syst em , 170
181 l t
n om en c a u r e, 6
p ow er di rect i on al rel ays , p rotect i on p ar allel f eeders 1 5 6 ,

pr otecti on of b attery an d r o D i r ect cu rr ent p ow er di r ecti on al re

tary 5 8 , lays 44 ,

of p ar al l el f eeders , 1 5 4, 1 5 5 , appli cati ons 5 5 ,

15 7, 1 61 ,
1 63 , 1 73 relays t esti ng 220
, ,

of transf or m er ,
l 45 als o see r i ng system s 62 ,

P r otecti on . Di recti on al rel ay n om en clatu re 5

, ,
268 I N DE X

D i s t u r b an ces , c h ar ac ter i s ti cs of G en eral E lectri c Relays , sol en oi d

A C . .
, 98 ltag e 1 90
vo ,

D ou b le con ac t t l
r e ays , 172 str ap w ou n d over load 2 7 ,

u n i t typ e 28 35 , ,

G ener ators p rotecti on of 1 32 1 48

, , ,

G rou n ds cal cu lati on of locati on 25 8

, ,

E fl ect of f requ en cy tran sf or m er

'

on , p r otecti on ag ai nst 1 5 0 ,
1 24 testi ng f or 22 1 25 4 , ,
of l ow vo ltag e , 1 05 G r ou pi ng s tr ansf orm er cu rr en t si n
, ,

of over oad, l 98
g l e ph ase 1 1 7
-
,
of secon dar y load , 1 15 t w o ph ase 1 1 7
-
,
of s r ay t fields , 92 th ree-ph ase 123 ,

of u n b alan ced sh ort ci r cu i ts , 1 06 potenti al t w o ph as e 1 25 ,

-
,

of w ave f or m , 1 24 th r ee ph ase 1 26 -
,

E lectri cal ly p
o er a ed ci r cu i t t b reak
ers , 7
E l em en tary di ag r am s , see D i ag ram s
and al so S ch em ati c di a Heavy cu r rent r elay testi ng 241 ,

g r ams .
Hi g h ten si on relays 2 1 0
-
,
E rr ors , i n h er en t i n cu r r en t tr an s Hol e-typ e tr ansf or m er 1 1 3 ,
f or m er , 1 1 3 Hor i z on tal bu s typ e rel ays Con di t ,

l
over oad,25
G E p ow er di r ecti on al
. .
,
49

F ai lu r e of p ri m e m overs 59
How t i m e del ays ar e ob tai n ed , 23
,

t
of r o ary con ver t er , 58
F au lt local i z er 260 ,

F au lts b u rni n g ou t 264

,
I m p edan ce, h ead li n es 1 02
,
over
l ocati on of 25 1 ,

F eed ers see P ar al l el f eeders

,

.
thr ee con du ctor cable 1 03 ,
,
I n dex p l ate G E i n du cti on r el ay
F i re ri sk f rom f uses, 1
. .
, ,

F i rst f u se, 1 77
F l exi b le lam p load 233
op erator s tr an s cri pt 78
’
,
,

F r eq u en cy l t
relay , n om en c a u re, 5
W esti n g hou se i n du cti on r el ay ,

69
F u ll y au tom ati c ci r cu i t b reak er , 7
I n di cator , ti n u i ty 74
Ri ses fir e ri sk f r om
, , 1
con ,

I n du ctan ce over h ead li n es 1 02

testi ng 25 3 25 5 , ,
, ,

I n du cti on am m eter 237

ti m e l oad cu r ve of
-
,
20 ,

I n du cti on typ e r elays 66 ,

G E over load 75
. .
,

pow er di recti onal 9 3 ,

G en er al E lectri c Rel ays ,

bel low s vs sol en oi d p lu n g er 82
.
-
,

overl oad, 39 W esti ng h ou s e overl oad 65 .

das hp ot typ e, 38 p ow er di r ecti on al 90 ,

i ndu cti on overl oad, 75 r evers e ph as e 1 9 3 ,

pow er di r ecti on al D C . .
,
48 temp er atu re-l oad 203 ,

A O . .
, 93 voltag e 1 89 ,

r el ay sw i c t h , 206 I ndu stri al p l ants p r otecti on of 1 1 0, ,

270 I N DE X

Op e n -phas e relay , n om en cl a u re, t 6 P ow er b r i dg e, 262

Opens , tes ti ng f or , 25 4 P ow er -di r ecti on al rel ays, A O . .
, 85
Over an d u de v olt ag e
n r - l
r e ays , c -
r oss con n ec ted , 1 65 , 1 69
1 89 cu rren t leadi n g 30 de
Over head l i n es , t
resi s an ce, et c .
, 102 r
g ees, 1 30
Overl oad, efi ect of , 98 di ff eren ti al , 96
el em en ary t p rotecti on f rom ,
1 33 dou ble t t 1 70 1 72 con ac , ,

rel ease, 9 ear ly corr ecti ve f eatu r es ,

rel ays on A O . .
, 66 86 , 9 2
Con di t, 24 f ail u re of ear ly typ es, 86
G en er al El ectri c, 28, 38, 75 G en eral El ectri c, 93
W esti n g h ou se , 29 , 3 1 , 1 9 1 i r on -cl ad typ e, 87
Over vol tag e p rotecti on , 64 l atest devel op m en ts, 89
l
r e ease, 13 n om en c a u r e, l t 5
p r act i cal re q u i r em e n ts ,

88
protecti on of g en er a tors ,

P ar al l el f eeder s , di r ect cu r r en t , 60 1 49
t
el em en ar y di ag r am s , 6 1 , 85 of p ar al lel f eeders , 164
p rotecti on of , 15 2 of r i n g sys t em s, 1 83
savi n g s efi ect ed by u se, 15 2 l
r e ay s p eci ficati ons 96 ,

P h an to m loads , 235 , 242 star -delta c o n n e c t i o n ,

P h ase r otati on , 1 31 1 30
r el ay, n om en c a u r e, l t 5 t
te s i n g , 248
P i lot wi r e system , 1 60 u s ed wi th over oad l re

P lotti ng t he r esu lts , 244 lays 9 5 ,

P lu n g er type r elays , 24 W es tin g h ous e , 90

Con di t, 24 D C
. .
,
44
G en er al E lectri c, 35 appl ications ,
44, 5 5
tes ti n g ,
22 7 Con dit 5 1 ,

vs i n du cti on , 82
. G en er al El ectr i c, 49
W esti ng h ou se, 26, 29 t
s or ag e batter y pr o t ec
P ol ar i ty di recti on al relay, n om en tion 5 8 ,

cl at u r e, 5 Westin g h ous e D A rs on
’

P ol ari z ed p ow er di recti on al relay 47 , val , 46

P ol yph as e poten tial transf or m er polar i zed ,
47
g r ou pi n g s 1 24 ,
P r ecau tions in tes tin g , 230
t r an sf or m er p r otect i on 1 47 ,
P r i m e m overs , f ail u re of , 5 9
P oten ti al tr an sf or m ers accu r acy , , P r i n c i p l es o f O p er at i o n , c i r cu i t
1 12 breakers 7 ,

com p en sati on , 1 24 Con di t overl oad 23 ,

efi ect of f req u en cy , 1 24 pow er dir ection al 5 2 ,

of w ave f or m , 1 24 con tactor s w i tch 7 2 ,

p ol y p h as e r ou pi n g s 1 24, cycl e cou n ter 2 1 2

g , ,

1 25 , 1 26 G en er al E lectr i c air val ves ,

tem p er atu r e ri se 1 24 ,
36, 37
u se on overv oltag e 1 24 ,
D C
. . pow er dir ecti on al , 5 0
 I N DE X 271

P rin ci pl es of p
o era ti on ,
G en eral P r otecti on , u n der cu rr en t , 64
El ectri c in du cti on over u n dervo ltag e , 65
load , 75 P rot ecti ve rel ays , 1, 3
s er i es overl oad, 25 n om en c a u r e, l t 5
Leeds an d N or t h ru p pow er pr in ci pl es of oper ati on ,
4
br i dg e, 263 P u n c t u r e tes t 22 1 ,

overl oad r el eas e, 9

overvol ag e r el eas e, t 13 Q
protecti ve r elays 4
Qu al if yin g ter ms 6
,

s h u n t tr i p attach m en t 1 0
,

Qu i ck r es etti n g ai r val ves ,

,
36
testi n g tr ansf or m ers 22 1 ,

u n derload release 1 1 ,

u n der vol tag e rel eas e 1 2 ,

W es tin g house A O t em per a . . Radi al dis t r i bu tion s ys tem , 30

tu r e load 204 ,
n etw or k , 1 82

bel low s overl oad 32 ,

par al l el f eeders 1 81 ,

bell r in g in g 1 99
-
,
prot ect ion of 1 75 ,

cycle cou n t er 214 ,

Rat io er r ors , 1 1 3
D A rson val , 45
’
Rel ati on of var i ous par t s G . E . rel ay,

D C defin i te ti m e, 27, 29
. . 79
D C tem per atu r e, 20 1
. . Rel ay ch ar acter is t ics 1 08 ,

f au lt local i z er 261 ,
con tacts 7 1 ,

i n du cti on 66 ,
s peci fic ati on s over load 83 , ,

polar i z ed 47 ,
pow er dir ecti on al 9 6 ,

teleg r aph 19 1 , s w i t c h es 1 7 205

, ,

tr ansf er 209 ,
tes t in g 223 ,

P r op er conn ecti on s f or 3 ph as e 1 20 -
,
Rel ays an d tr an sf or m ers requ ir ed ,

P r ot ec t i on el em en tar y o verl o ad di a
,
1 33
g r am , 133 Rel eas es f or cir cu it br eakers ,
7
g en er ator s , 1 48 over l oad, 9
g r o u n d, 1 5 0 over vol ag e, t 13
i n du str i al plan ts , 1 10 s h u n t t r ip , 9
l in es 1 5 0
,
u n der l oad, 10
m otors 1 32 ,
u n der vol ag e, t 12
n etw or ks 1 75 , ,
1 85 Requ ir em en ts , p r act i cal pow er dir ec
o ver vol t ag e, D C . .
, 64 t i on al r e ay, l 88
parall el f eeders 1 5 2 , Res is tan ce ,
h ead lin es
over ,
1 02
pol yph as e tr an sf or m ers , 147 th r ee con du ctor cable
-
,
1 03
r adi al s ystem s 1 7 5 , u n i ts , 233
r everse ph as e 1 92 ,
Resu l ts , c u rve of , 246
rin g s ys t ems , 1 83 plott i n g ,
244
t
r o ar y con ver er s , t 1 39 t abl es of ,
245
s tor ag e batter ies ,
55 Rever s e cu rr en t r el ays , s ee P ow er
s yn ch ron ou s m otors 1 36 ,
dir ect i on al r el ays .

th r ee ph as e ci r cu its 1 34
-
,
ph as e pr ot ect ion
, ag ai n s t , 192
tr an s f or m ers 1 40 ,
r elays 1 9 3 ,

t w o ph ase ci r cu i ts 1 34
-
, tes tin g 249 ,
272 I N DE X

Ri n g t
s ys em s , t
al ern a tin g cu rr en t, S h ort ci rcu i s , t tes tin g f or , 25 4
175 vec or t
di ag r am s , 1 07
di r ect cu rr en t ,
62 S hu n t tr ans for m ers , 1 1 2, 1 22
m or e th an on e sou r ce, 1 85 S h u nt-tr i p, 9
par all el f eeders , 1 85 ttac h m en t 1 0
a ,

protecti on of 1 83 ,
el em en tar y di ag r am 1 7 ,

Rotar y con ver ters p r otection of , ,

1 39 s ch em ati c di ag r am 9 ,

Rotation of ph as es 1 3 1 ,
S i g n al r elay n om en cl at u r e 6
, ,

S i n g l e ph as e g r ou p in g s 1 1 7
-
,
8
S l i de r es is tor , 235
S avi n g s , u s e of p ar al lel f eeders , 1 5 2 S ol en oid pl u n g er r el ays , 24
S c h em ati c di ag r ams , al s o see P r in c i over l oad, 25
ples of oper ation . t
vol ag e, 1 90
bell r in g in g r el ays , 1 99 vs . i n du cti on , 82
c ir cu i t b r eak ers , 9 S ou r ce f or tes t in g 232 ,

Con di t D C po w er dir ec . . S ou r ces , tr i p cir cu i t 1 6 ,

ti on al , 5 2 S p eci ficat ions , over l oad r el ay, 83

plu n g er over l oad ,
24 pow er dir ect ion al 96 ,

cycl e cou n t er 2 14
-
,
S pl i t con du ctor s ys t em 1 5 8 ,

G en er al E l ec t r i c, D C po w er . . S t an dar ds f or t es t i n g , 236
di r ecti on al , 5 1 S t an dby batter i es ,
58
i n du cti on over l oad, 25 S t ar -del ta t r an sf or m er ban ks , pr o
t p w ou n d over l oad
s ra ,
28 t ect i on of , 1 47
u n i t typ e 35 ,
tion 1 30
con n ec ,

i ns ul ati on tes t ou tfi t 22 1 ,
S t ates C o ph an to m l oads 236
.
, ,

s h u n t tr i p 9 ,
S tor ag e bat t er y pr otec t i on 5 5 , ,

u n derl oad rel eas e 1 1 ,

testin g 225 ,

u n der vol t ag e rel eas e, 12 S t r ap w ou n d h ori z on tal bu s 5 3

, ,

W es tin g h ous e bel l o w s over pl u n g er overload 24 ,

l oad, 32 p ow er di recti on al 5 1 ,

D Cpow er dir ection al 47

. .
, s ch em ati c di ag r am 5 2 ,

defin i te ti m e 27 29 , , ver t i cal bu s , 5 3

i n du ction over load 67
overl oad tel eg r aph 1 9 1
S econ dar y l oad eff ect of 1 1 5 , ,
S em i au tom ati c ci r cu i t br eak er 7
-
S er i es tr an s f or m ers 1 1 2
S eri es tr i p 1 8
-
,
, l
r e ays ,Con dit, 5 1
,
G en er al E l ec t r i c, 25 , 48
S t r ay fiel ds , efl ect of , 92
,
S u per vi sor y ci r cu i t, 74
,
S w i tch es , au to m ati c oil , 7
au xil i ar y r el ay, 1 7

obj ection s t o 1 8 ,
t
con ac t or , 71 , 90
Ser i es t yp e r el ays G E over l oad 28
-
,
. .
,
r el ay, 205
tes tin g 223 ,
tes t in g 223 ,

S er vi ce r es tor i n g r elays 1 94 ,
S yn c h r on ou s m otors pr otection ,
of ,

S h or t cir cu i ts accu r at el y locatin g

, ,
1 36
25 6
c al cu l a tion of cu rr en t ,
101
eff ec t of un bal an ced ,
1 06 T able s h ow in g com par ison Z an d

t
n a u r e of , 1 00 delta 1 2 1 ,
274 I N DE X

Vol tag e r el ays , tes ting , 246

tr ansf or m ers ,
1 1 2, 1 22, 247
Un bal an ced short ci rcu its , t of
eff ec ,

1 06
Un der c ur r en t protection , 64
r el ays , 19 1 W ar d Leon ar d r es is tan ce u n i ts , 233
Un derload r el eas e, 1 0 W at t r elay, n om en clatu r e 5 ,

Un der voltag e, an d excess cu rr en t W es tin g h ous e f aul t locali z er 260 ,

protection , 1 87 r el ays , A O
. . pow er di r ection al,
protection , 65 90
rel ays , 1 89 bel low s overl oad 29 32 , ,

r el eas e, 12 bell r in g in g 1 99
-
,

Uni t type r el ays , 28, 35 cycl e cou n ter 2 1 3 ,

‘
Use of poten ti al tr an sf or m ers on D C pow er di r ect ion al D Ar
. .

overvol ag e, t 1 24 son val , 46

polar i z ed ,
47
h i g h tens ion 2 1 1 ,

in du ction over l oad 67

‘

tem per atur e load 203 ,

q u ick res ettin g 36

Val ves , , vol t ag e, 1 89
Var ious par ts r el ati on of
, ,
in G . E . in ter l ock in g , 96
r el ay , 79 m ul t i con t act , 207
Z -conn ec tions ,
1 22 o bs ol ete defin i te ti m e, 26

Vecto r di ag r ams , s h or t cir cu i ts , 1 07 o ver oadl teleg r aph ,

19 1
thr ee-ph as e cu rr en t tr ans r el ay s w i t ch 206 ,

f or m er g r ou p i n g s , 1 23 r everse ph as e 1 93 ,

p o t en t i al t r a n s f o r m e r s er vi ce r es t or i n g , 1 94
g r ou p i n g s 1 25 ,
tr ans f er 1 9 208 , ,

t w o phas e c u r r e n t t r a n s
- W h at ar e pr otecti ve r el ays 1 ,

f or m er g r ou pin gs 1 1 8 , W ron g con n ections on thr ee ph as e ,

p o t en t i a l t r a n s f o r m e r 1 19
g rou p i n g s 125 ,

Z conn ection 1 20
-
,

Ver tical bu s r el ays 25 5 0 , ,

Vol tag e r elays 1 89 , Z -c on n ection s , advan ag es of , t 1 20

n om en clatu r e 5 ,
var i ou s , 1 22