114 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

est modulating frequencies are artificially boosted before transmission and correspond-
ingly attenuated after reception, to reduce the effects of noise.
Wideband FM is used for broadcast transmissions, with or without stereo multi-
plex, and for the sound accompanying TV transmissions. Narrowband FM is used for
communications, in competition with SSB, having its main applications in various
forms of mobile communications, generally at frequencies above 30 MHz. I; is also
used in conjunction with SSB infrequency division multiplexing (FDM), which will be
discussed in Chapter 15. FDM is a techniquefor combining large numbers of channels
in broadband links used for terrestrial or satellite communications.
Two basic methods of generating FM are in general use. The reactance modula-
tor is a direct method of generating_ FM, in which the tank circuit reactance, and the
frequency of an LC oscillator, is varied electronically by the modulating signal. To
ensure adequate frequency stability, .the output frequency is then compared with that of
a crystal oscillator and corrected automatically as required. The alternative means of
generating FM, the Armstrong system, is one in which PM is initially generated. but
the modulating frequencies are correctly bass-boosted. FM results in the output. Be-
cause only small frequency deviations are possible .in the basic Armstrong system,
extensive frequency multiplication and mixing are used to increase deviation to the
wanted value. The power and auxiliary stages of FM transmitters are similar to those in
AM transmitters, except that FM has an advantage here. Since it is a constant-ampli-
tude modulation system, all the power amplifiers can be operated in class C, i.e., very
efficiently.

MULTIPLE-CHOICE
QUESTIONS
Each of the following multiple-choice questions consists of an incomplete statement
followed by four choices (a, b, c, and d). Circle the letter preceding the line that
correctly completes each sentence.
I. In the stabilized. reactance modulator AFC
system,
a. the discriminator must have a fast time
constant to prevent demodulation
b. the higher the discriminator frequency,
the better the oscillator frequency stabil-
ity
c. the discriminator frequency must not be
·100 low, or the system will fail
d. phase modulation is converted into FM
by the equalizer circuit
2. In the spectrum of a frequency-modulated
wave
a. the carrier frequency: disappears when
the modulatilin index is larg<>--
b. the amplitude of any sideband depends
on the modulation index
c. the total number of sidebands depends
on the modulation index
d. the carrier frequency cannot disappear
.· 3. The difference between phase and fre-
quency modulation
a. is purely theoretical because they are the
same in practice
b. is too great to make the two systems,
compatible
c. lies in the poorer audio response of
phase modulation
d. lies in the different definitions of the
modulation index
 FREQUENCY MODULATION 115

4. Indicate thefalse statement regarding the a. remains constant

Armstrong modulation system
a. The system is basically phase, not fre-
quency, modulation.
b. AFC is not needed, as a crystal oscillator
is used.
c. Frequency multiplication must be used.
d. Equalization is unnecessary.
5. An FM signal with a modulation index m1 is
passed through a frequency tripler. The
wave in the output of the tripler will have a
modulation index of
a. m/3
b. m1
c. 3m1
d. 9m1
6. An FM signal with a deviation 8 is passed
through a mixer, and has its frequency re-
duced fivefold. The deviation in the output
of the mixer is
a. 58
b. indeterminate
c. 8/5
d. 8
7. A pre-emphasis circuit provides extra noise
immunity by · a. sum signal modulates the 19 kHz sub-
a. boosting the bass frequencies
b. amplifying the higher audio frequencies
c. preamplifying the whole audio band
d. converting the phase modulation to FM
8. Since noise phase-modulates the FM wave,
as the noise sideband frequency approaches
the carrier frequency, the noise amplitude
b. is decreased
c. is increased
d. is equalized
~'- When the modulating frequency is doubled,
the modulation index is halved, and the
modulating voltage remains constant. The
modulation system is
a. amplitude modulation
b. phase modulation
c. frequency modulation
d. any one of the three
10. Indicate which one of the following is not
an advantage of FM over AM:
a. Better noise immunity is provided.
b. Lower bandwidth is required.
c. The transmitted power is more useful.
d. Less modulating power is required.
11. One of the following is an indirect way of
generating FM. This is the
a. reactance FET modulator
b. varactor diode modulator
c. Armstrong modulator
d. reactance bipolar transistor modulator
12. In an FM stereo multiplex transmission, the
carrier
b. difference signal modulates the 19 kHz
subcarrier
c. difference signal modulates the 38 kHz
subcarrier
d. difference signal modulates the 67 kHz
subcarrier

REVIEW PROBLEMS
1. A 500-Hz modulating voltage fed into a PM generator produces a frequency deviation
of2.25 kHz. What is the modulation index? If the amplitude of the modulating voltage is
kept constant, but its frequency is raised to 6 kHz, what is the new deviation?
2. When the modulating frequency in an FM system is 400 Hz and the modulating volt-
age is 2.4 V, the modulation index is 60. Calculate the maximum deviation. What is the
modulating index when the modulating frequency is reduced to 250 Hz and the modulat-
ing voltage is simultaneously raised to 3.2 V?
3. The equation of an angle-modulated voltage is v = 10 sin (W8 t + 3 sin I0 4t). What
116 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

form of angle modulation is this? Calculate the carrier and modulating frequencies, the
modulation index and deviation, and the power dissipated in a 100-0 resistor.
4. The center frequency of an LC oscillator, to which a capacitive reactance FET modula-
tor is connected, is 70 MHz. The FET has a gm which varies linearly from 1 to 2 mS, and
·abias capacitor whose reactance is 10 times the resistance of the bias resistor. If the fixed
tuning capacitance across the oscillator coil is 25 pF, calculate the maximum available
frequency deviation.
5. An RC capacitive reactaqce modulator is used to vary the frequency of a IO-MHz
oscillator by ± 100 kHz. An FET whose transconductance varies linearly with gate volt-
age from Oto 0.628 mS, is used in conjunction with a resistance whose value is one-tenth
of the capacitive reactance used. Calculate the inductance and capacitance of the oscillator
tank circuit.

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe frequency and phase modulation, giving mechanical analogies for each.
2. Derive the formula for the instantaneous value of an FM voltage and define the modu-
lation index.
3. In an FM system, if m1 is doubled by 'halving the modulating frequency, what will be
the effect on the maximum deviation?
4. Describe an experiment designed to calculate by measurement the maxim~m deviation
in an FM system, which makes use of the disappearance of the carrier component for
certain values of the modulation index. Draw the block diagram of such a setup.
5. With the aid of Table 5-1, estimate the total bandwidth required by an FM system
whose maximum deviation is 3 kHz, and in which the modulating frequency may range
from 300 to 2000 Hz. Note that any sideband with a relative amplitude of 0.01 or less may
be ignored.
6. On graph paper, draw to scale the frequency spectrum of the FM wave of Question 5-5
for (a) fm = 300 Hz; (b) fm = 2000 Hz. The de".iation is to be 3 kHz in each case.
7. Explain fully the difference between frequency and phase modulation, beginning with
the definition of each type and the meaning of the modulation index in each case.
8. Of the various advantages of FM· over AM, identify and discuss those due to the
intrinsic qualities of frequency modulation.
9. With the aid of vector diagrams, explain what happens when a carrier is modulated by
a single noise frequency.
10. Explain the effect of random noise on the output of an FM receiver fitted with an
amplitude limiter. Develop the concept of the noise triangle.
11. What is pre-emphasis? Why is it used? Sketch a typical pre-emphasis circuit and
explain why de-emphasis must be used also.
12. What determines the bandwidth used by any given FM communications system? Why
are two different types of bandwidth used in frequency-modulat...J transmissions?
 FREQUENCY MODULATION 117

13. Using a block diagram and a frequency spectrum diagram, explain the operation of
the stereo multiplex FM transmission system. Why is the difference subcarrier originally
generated at 19 kHz?
14. Explain, with the aid of a block diagram, how you would design an FM stereo
transmission system which does not need to be compatible with monaural FM systems.
15. Showing the basic,,circuit sketch and stating the essential assumptions, derive the
formula for the capacitance of the RL reactance FET.
16. Why is it not practicable to use a reactance modulator in conjunction with a crystal
oscillator? Draw the equivalent circuit of a crystal in your explanation and discuss the
effect of changing the external parallel capacitance across the crystal.
17. With the aid of a block,diagram, show how an AFC system will counteract a down-
ward drift in the frequency of the oscillator being stabilized.
18. Why should the discriminator tuned frequency in the AFC system be as low as
possible? What lower limit is there on its value? What part can frequency division play
here? -
19. What is the function of the balanced modulator in the Armstrong modulation system?
20. Draw the complete block diagram of the Armstrong frequency modulation system
and explain the functions of the mixer and multipliers shown. In what circumstances can
we dispense with the mixer?
21. Starting with an oscillator working near 500 kHz and using a maximum frequency
deviation not exceeding ±30 Hz at that frequency, calculate the following for an
Armstrong system which is to yield a_center frequency precisely 97 MHz with a deviation
of exactly 75 kHz: (a) starting frequency; (b) exact initial deviation; (c) frequency of the
cry~tal oscillator; (d) amount of frequency multiplication in each group. Note that there
are several possible solutions to this pr_oblem.