2.

a)

Sintering is a process of agglomeration of fine mineral

particles into a porous and lumpy mass by incipient fusion
caused by heat produced by combustion of solid fuel
within the mass itself. The sintering process is a pre-
treatment step in the production of iron, where fine
particles of iron ores and also secondary iron oxide wastes
(collected dusts, mill scale etc.) along with fluxes (lime,
limestone and dolomite) are agglomerated by
combustion. Agglomeration of the fines is necessary to
enable the passage of hot gases during the blast furnace
operation.

Sintering has been referred to as the art of burning a fuel

mixed with ore under controlled conditions. It involves
the heating of fine iron ore with flux and coke fines or
coal to produce a semi-molten mass that solidifies into
porous pieces of sinter with the size and strength
characteristics necessary for feeding into the blast
furnace.

Although simple in principle, sintering plant requires that

a number of important factors in its design and operation
be observed to attain optimum performance. A simplified
schematic flow diagram of sintering process is at Figure
below
2.b)
The sintering process starts with the preparation of the
raw mix. Materials consisting of ore fines, fluxes, in-plant
waste material, fuel and return fines are stored in storage
bins. They are mixed in the correct proportions using
weigh hoppers/disc feeders, one per storage bin. For the
return fines sometimes an impact meter is used instead.
Weighing is continuous, as is the whole sintering process.
The weighed materials pass along a conveyor to the
primary mixing drum where water is added either
manually or as a calculated percentage of the weight of
material entering the mixing drum.

Coke breeze is need to be crushed (normally in four roll

crusher) to obtain the correct particle size (0.25 mm to
minus 3 mm) for enhancing sinter productivity and
reducibility. Less than 0.25 mm coke size has a negative
effect on the productivity, while size fractions of – 3.15
mm to + 1.00 mm shows better yields.

Fluxes namely limestone and dolomite are crushed

(normally in hammer crushers) to obtain a minimum of 90
% of – 3 mm fraction.

Intimate mixing of the feed materials is one of the most

important. A pre-mix (usually called base mix) of the
sintering ores, steel plant waste oxides, fluxes, and solid
fuels is made in a revolving primary mixing drum is
transferred to an open base mix blending yard. The
blended base mix is then supplemented by small trim
amounts of flux and solid fuel. This total feed mixture is
the subject to a water addition within a mixing device
such as a balling drum or disc. These mixers are operated
to produce small size nodules or pellets which
significantly improve the permeability of the sinter bed.
balling drum is also called secondary mixing and
nodulizing drum.

The amount of primary water added is proportional to the

weight of base mix entering the balling drum. Water
additions in the balling mixers are now automatically
controlled these days .The secondary water feed set point
is frequently taken as a proportion of the base mix belt
weigher.
The continuous sintering process is carried out on a
traveling grate of sinter machine that conveys a bed of
prepared mix (sinter mix). The sinter mix is carefully
conveyed to the sintering machine to ensure that
permeability is maintained. In transferring the sinter mix
from the balling mixer to the grate of the sintering
machine, it is essential to feed the material carefully so as
to provide a uniform, homogeneous bed and to prevent
compacting of the bed. To avoid a direct drop of feed onto
the grate, a hearth layer of about 25 mm to 50 mm of
coarse (already sintered) material is fed first onto the
traveling grate. Feeding devices typically include a roll
feeder in conjunction with chutes which act to avoid
compacting the sinter mix. Design of feed hoppers and
feeders for distributing the prepared sinter mix into these
hoppers is equally important since, if the sinter mix is
compacted or segregated during handling and loading
onto the grate (pellet), all of the advantages gained
through good feed preparation may be lost. After this the
sinter mix is leveled.

The bed depth is set and kept constant by adjusting the

cut-off plate which is fitted with probes to sense the depth
of material and automatically vary the roll feeder speed.
The quantity of material in the feed hopper itself is held
constant by automatic adjustment of the feed rates from
the individual sinter mix bins.

Once the sinter mix is charged onto the travelling grate,

metal bars or rods already inserted longitudinally along
the grate for a distance of about 2 m to 4 m help to loosen
up the mixture to enhance permeability.
Thereafter the surface of the sinter mix is ignited near the
head or feed end of the travelling grate using a mixed gas
(coke oven gas and blast furnace gas), or only coke oven
gas or only blast furnace gas. In case of only blast furnace
gas, it is usually preheated. Proper ignition of the sinter
mix is important. Poor ignition results in spotty burning
and may leave unsintered material over the surface of the
bed. Conversely, too intense an ignition flame can result
in slagging over the bed and reduced sintering rates. The
radiant hood ignition furnace provides good ignition. The
calorific value of the gas mixture and the set hood
temperature are controlled. A separate control system is
provided to maintain a fixed hood pressure by adjusting
the wind box dampers immediately under the ignition
hood.

As the sinter mix moves along on the traveling grate, air

is sucked down by a draught fan through the ignited sinter
mix layer to burn the fuel by downdraft combustion. As
the grates move continuously over the wind boxes toward
the discharge end of the strand, the combustion front in
the bed moves progressively downward. This creates
sufficient heat and temperature, about 1300 deg C to 1480
deg C, to sinter the fine ore particles together into porous
clinkers. Gas circuit is to be fully leak proof, not allowing
false air to be sucked by the system. This saves power in
the waste gas circuit.

An important part of the sintering process is burn-

through. The location along the traveling grate where the
combustion front touches the bottom of the bed is called
the burn through point. Burn-through point should ideally
occur near the end of the strand bed. It is controlled by
altering the strand speed. A number of variables affect the
burn-through point, such as strand bed depth, water
content and the quality of the sinter. Burn through is
normally detected by temperature probes under the sinter
bed. Burn through should be achieved but must not occur
too soon after the ignition hood. The draught on the strand
is maintained at a preset value by controlling the main fan
louvers from pressure measurements in the wind main.
This governs the point at which burn through occurs.

The strand speed is either controlled manually, or by

measuring the waste gas temperatures as an indication of
the burn-through point. If it occurs too early, the average
waste gas temperature rises. If it occurs too late, the waste
gas temperature decreases and the strand speed is slowed
to compensate. Wind box temperatures can be used to
improve the monitoring.

3.a)

3.b)

There are several factors which affect the process of

sintering, productivity of the sinter machine and the
quality of the sinter. Major amongst them are given
below.

• Effect of iron ore fines quality – In the sintering

process main raw material used is iron ore fines, Quality
of the iron ore fines influences the process of sintering to
a great extent. An increase in the mean size of the iron ore
fines promotes the productivity of the sintering machine,
saves the specific fuel consumption but reduces the sinter
strength. Dense low alumina iron ores gives a better sinter
strength and lower specific fuel consumption. Very high
level of microfines in the ore decreases the granulation
efficiency and, consequently, decreases the bed
permeability and affects productivity of sintering
adversely. The iron ore porosity has effect on the sinter
porosity and its physical and metallurgical properties.
Iron ores with high loss on ignition affects the sintering
process in a negative way by reducing the productivity,
increasing the specific fuel consumption and reducing the
sinter strength.

• A higher percentage of silica in the sinter mix

counters the effect of high alumina in the ore. It is always
desirable to have alumina/silica ratio in the sinter mix as
0.5 or below.

• Alumina plays an important role in reshaping and

coalescing process during the sintering process by
changing the physiochemical properties of the primary
melt. This leads to a unique sinter pore structure. It has
been seen that the pore area increases drastically and the
pore shape becomes more irregular as alumina increases
from 1.6 % to 2.4 %. There is a tendency of increase in
the reduction degradation index (RDI) of sinter above a
certain alumina content.

• Effect of flux – In sinter mix lime stone or lime

and dolomite or calcined dolomite are added as basic
fluxes while sand or quartzite fines are used as acidic
fluxes. The fluxing oxides in the sinter are to modified the
blast furnace (BF) slag chemistry in such a way so as to
have desired characteristics of the BF slag. Basic fluxes
added to the sinter mix in the form of lime and calcined
dolomite also act as a binder in the sinter mix and improve
the fine particles agglomeration. They improve the
productivity of sinter machine and reduce the specific
solid fuel consumption. Size distribution of fluxes is
important for the sintering productivity.

• Adequate size distribution (low dispersion, hih

average particle size) allow for higher sinter bed
permeability and consequently higher sintering process
productivity. Higher mean size of the sinter feeds
normally allow for higher permeability of the sinter bed.

• The sintering performance depends on the

efficiency of the mixing of the components of the sinter
mix and granulation of the sinter mix in the mixing drum.
This activity carried out in two mixing drums then being
carried in a single drum gives better performance with
respect to permeability of sinter bed and hence results in
improvement in sintering productivity.

• The sintering mechanism consists of two

different phenomena namely physical phenomenon of
heat transfer from the top layer due to the bottom layer
due to the action of the sucked air passing through the bed
and chemical phenomenon of fuel combustion generating
heat and a chemical reactions front. These two
phenomena are independent and should have the same
propagation speed to ensure maximum flame
temperature. The equilibrium between these two
phenomena is important for the high performance of the
sintering process, low specific fuel consumption and high
quality of sinter.
• The sintering bed needs a good permeability for
the air to be sucked trough the sinter mix. A good
permeability of the sinter mix will ensure a high strand
productivity and a proper efficiency of the solid fuel
burnt.

• Moisture of the sinter mix plays an important role

in the granulation process and hence affects the sinter
productivity. Moisture forms liquid bridges between
particles for beginning the granulation process. Capillary
forces are responsible to decrease the distance between
the particles and increase the granules resistance.
Moisture content is to be optimum since the excess of
moisture has a harmful effect on the granules and on the
sinter bed permeability and stability.

5.a)

5.b)

The blast furnace productivity is the quotient between

possible gas throughput per unit of time and required
specific gas generation for one ton of hot metal (HM).
Hence an increase in the productivity on the one hand
requires an increase in the gas throughput, which implies
improvement in the furnace permeability and on the other
hand a reduction in the specific gas requirement, which
means a reduction in the specific consumption of reducing
agent. Blast furnace productivity is usually expressed in
tons of hot metal produced/day/Cum of working volume.
. There are many factors which influence the productivity
of a blast furnace. Major amongst them are described
below

• Raw materials – Besides fuel/reducing agent,

there are basically two types of major raw materials are
charged in a blast furnace.

1. The first one is iron bearing materials which are

sinter, pellets and calibrated iron ore (CLO). The higher
is the iron (Fe) in these materials means lower gangue
material is going inside the furnace which needs to be
fluxed for slag formation. Hence higher Fe content helps
in the reduction of slag volume. As per thumb rule 1 %
increase in the Fe content increases the BF productivity
by 1.5 % to 2.5 %.

2. The second raw material is the different type of

fluxes (limestone and dolomite). Lime stone and dolomite
when charged in the blast furnace gets calcined inside the
blast furnace. This calcination reaction needs heats which
result into increase in the specific fuel consumption. If
these fluxes are charged through sinter or pellets then the
calcination reaction takes place outside the blast furnace
and the blast furnace working volume is more effectively
used by the iron bearing materials. This in turn improves
the blast furnace productivity. Generally reduction of 100
Kg of flux in the burden improves the BF productivity by
3-5 %.

• For achieving higher productivity in a blast

furnace it is essential that burden material provides high
permeability and homogeneity across all furnace
temperature and reaction zones. Further the burden
material should have high reducibility to promote short
retention time. Burden materials should also have low
content of tramp elements such as zinc, lead and alkalies
to avoid process disturbances.

• Blast furnace productivity greatly depend on the

quality of sinter. Sinter should have optimum grain
distribution, high strength, high reducibility, high
porosity, softening temperatures greater than 1250 deg C,
constant FeO content in the range of 7-8 % and constant
basicity.

• Fuel/reducing agent – Two types of

fuels/reducing agents are used in the blast furnace. These
are metallurgical coke (BF coke) which is charged from
the top and pulverized coal/ natural gas/ coke oven
gas/oil/coal tar which are injected at the tuyere level.

• Control of burden distribution plays an important

role in the improvement of the productivity of the blast
furnace. The burden distribution control ensures a stable
burden descent, adjusts the flow of gasses in the wall (this
avoids high heat loads without generating inactive zone)
and helps in achieving a good solid gas contact.

• Decreasing the silicon content in the hot metal

has a positive effect on the blast furnace productivity.
Decrease in the silicon content is achieved due to better
ore-coke relation and movement of cohesive area
downwards. This generates a lower volume for the
transfer of silicon to the hot metal. Decrease of silicon
content in the hot metal by 1 % improves blast furnace
productivity by 4 % to 12 %.
• Properties of slag has considerable effect on the
blast furnaace productivity. Lower specific volume of
slag of lower viscosity improves the productivity of the
blast furnace.

• Tapping practice has an important role to play in

achievement of high productivity in a blast furnace. Good
tapping practice will involve good tap hole length, timely
opening of the tapping, control of tapping speed, proper
hearth drainage and closing of tapping after furnace
becomes dry. Quality of tap hole mass is very important
for good tapping practice.

• Automatic process control improves the furnace

productivity since it minimize consumption of reductant,
avoids furnace process disturbances such as hanging,
slipping, scaffolding, gas channeling etc through an
immediate counteraction by the system, stabilizes hot
metal and slag parameters etc. the effect of automatic
process control on the blast furnace productivity is in the
range of 3 % to 5 %.

• Blast temperature is other parameter which

influence the productivity of the blast furnace. Blast
furnace productivity will improve by 1 % with the blast
temerature increasing by 100 deg C.

• High top pressure also improves the productivity

of the blast furnace. With every increase of top pressure
of the blast furnace by 0.1 Kg/Sq cm there is an
improvement in the productivity of the blast furnace in the
range of 0.5 % to 1.5 %.
• Decreasing of fines content in the charge
materials improves blast furnace productivity in the range
of 0.4 % to 0.7 %.

5.b)

Considerable quantities of heat are required in order to

carry out pyrometallurgical processes. Heat balance is an
accont input and output of heat in a process. Other
considerations such as chemical equilibria , eaction
kinetics are incoperated but they are optional depending
on their utility. Table below shows the heat input and
output from 0-100%.

Heat input
0% 100%
Heat generated by Heat generated by
formation of silicates in formation of iron carbide
slag=1.39% ,CaO etc =1.42%
Combustion Sensible heat of
C+1/2O2=CO 41.51% blast=13.89
Combustion
C+1/2O2=CO 41.79%
 Heat output
0% 100%
Heat absorbed by Heat losses
reduction of iron oxides
=24.78%
Heat absorbed by other Heat absorbed in blast
endothermic reactions expansion= 0.31%
=29.82%
Decomposition of water Sensible heat of exit
in blast = 5.28% gases=11.0%
Heat in molten iron Heat in molten slag
=5.45% =10.31%