15ee752 PDF

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF POWER SYSTEM APPARATUS 15EE752
MODULE-1: TRANSFORMERS
Structure:
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Standards and Specifications
1.3 Specifications of Transformer
1.4 Procurement and Installation of Transformer
1.5 Code of practice for terminal plate
1.6 Phasor Diagram and Phasor Groups
1.7 Polarity and Phase Sequence
1.8 Testing of Transformer Tank
1.9 Transformer Oil
1.10 Testing of Transformer Oil
1.11 Drying of Transformer
1.12 Testing of Transformer
1.13 Cooling of Transformer
1.14 Commissioning of Transformer
Objectives:
 Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of Transformers.
 The performance specifications of transformer.
 Demonstrate the routine tests for transformer.
 Identification of tools and equipment’s used for installation and maintenance of
electrical equipment.
 Explain the operation of an electrical equipment’s such as isolators, circuit breakers,
insulators and Switchgears.
1.1 Introduction
Power and distribution transformers are used for the purpose of power transmission and distribution respectively.
Power transformer is one of the prime components of power system. The transformer is to be operated as per the
specifications for smooth performance. It is essential to keep the down time as minimum as possible, thereby
ensuring the continuity in the power supply. As it is an important component of the system, utmost care is necessary
in its procurement, installation, testing prior to commissioning, operation and maintenance as per IS code. The
transformer is fitted with various accessories, fitments and protective devices for assisting the smooth functioning
and initiating necessary actions under abnormal conditions. Various inspection and tests are conducted on the
transformer to be installed, in the factory and at site depending upon the capacity of the transformer and facilities
available for testing. The transformer should be healthy in all respects before it is energized.
1.2. Standards and Specifications
Standards are evolved to meet a generally recognized demand, taking into account the interest of
manufacturers and users and fulfilling the needs of economy. At present, a product cannot even be visualized
without a standard. A standard is a useful guide in all facets of a product - conception, design, manufacture, testing,
installation, operation, maintenance etc. The international standards published by IEC (International Electro
technical Commission) are accepted universally. However each country has its own National standards which are
based on particular requirements and practices of that nation. Indian Standards Institution (Bureau of Indian
Standards) publishes IS standards. The manufacturers and users in India have to follow IS standards and IEC
standards. The word specification or rating denotes the assigned numerical value of capabilities. The transformer is
assigned with certain definite ratings. These assigned ratings are guaranteed by the manufacturer. These ratings are
DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 1

confirmed by acceptance test to the satisfaction of the customer. Essential ratings are marked on the rating plate
fixed on the equipment.
Need for standardization of specification: Transformer is a job specific (tailor made) product and
requires effort in its design and drafting, even if a single parameter is changed. Standardization of the specification
and design parameters of this vital equipment of energy transport will not only help in ensuring optimal deployment
of available resources but also go a long way in economizing the capital costs. Efforts to standardize transformer
specification have been made in different forums. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) report and the Central
Board of Irrigation and power (CBIP) specifications are the outcome of a concerted effort over years.
1.3Specifications of transformers
The specifications of transformers should be supplied to the purchaser. The transformer is to be operated as
per the specifications in order to avoid failure. The life expectancy of transformer is increased by proper handling.
1.3.1 Standard specifications of a Power Transformer

Indian standard IS 2026 "Specification for Power Transformers" is the governing standard on Power
Transformers. This has been revised time to time and is now in five parts and is an exhaustive standard on power
transformers. The following information must be available with enquiry and order for the design and drafting of the
transformer.
Type of transformer: Separate winding transformer, autotransformer or booster transformer
 Number of phases: single or polyphase
 Frequency
 KVA Rating
 Rated voltages for each winding
 Connection symbol
 Requirements of on-load / off-load tap changers
 Impedance voltage at rated current
 Indoor or outdoor type
 Type of cooling and if different types of cooling involved, rated required power for each
 Temperature rises and ambient temperature conditions including altitude and in case of
water cooling, chemical analysis of water.
 Number of cooling banks, spare capacity and cooling pumps & fans.
 Highest system voltage for each winding
 Method of system earthing for each winding
 Insulation levels
 Over fluxing conditions
 Details of auxiliary supply voltage (for fans, pumps, OLTC, motor alarm, control).
 Controls of tap changers
 Short circuit levels of the system
 Vacuum and pressure withstanding values of the transformer tank
 Noise level requirement
 Number of rails and rail gauge for movement along shorter and longer axes
 Fittings required with their vivid description
 Any other appropriate information including special tests if any and capitization formula for
the losses.
1.3.2 Specification of outdoor type 3-phase distribution transformer up to and including

100KVA,11 KV: IS 1180 (Part1):1989
This standard specifies the requirements and tests for oil immersed, naturally air cooled 3phase, and double wound
non sealed type outdoor distribution transformers. KVA rating: The standard rating shall be 16, 25, 63 and100KVA.
 Rated Frequency: The rated frequency shall be 50Hz.

 Nominal system voltage: Nominal system voltage shall be chosen from 3.3, 6.6 and 11KV.
 No Load voltage ratio: 3300/433-250V, 6600/433-250V or 11000/433-250V.
 The winding connection and vectors: The primary winding shall be connected in delta and the secondary
winding star Dyn11 (IS 2026 (part 4); 1977) so as to produce a positive phase displacement of 30° from the
primary to the secondary vectors of the same phase.
 Tapping ratings and tapping methods. The number of tapings, winding tapped i.e. primary or secondary are
to be specified. The total change in voltage as percent of total voltage and percent voltage change per tap
change are to be specified. Egg. Total change in voltage is ±10% and is achieved by changing taps with
±1.5% per tap.
 The transformer tank and the transformer oil shall comply with the requirements (IS 335;1983).
 Standard fittings: Details pertaining to the following standard fittings shall be given.
 Earthling terminals
 Oil Level gauge
 Lifting Lugs
 Rating and terminal marking plates
 Breather
 Drain cum sampling valve (3/4 nominal size threads) preferably steel with plug.
 Oil filling hole (11/4 nominal size thread) with cover (for transformers without conservator).
 Terminal arrangements
 Mounting arrangements
 Insulation Levels
 Limits of temperature rise
 Losses and impedance values
 Ability of transformers to withstand external short-circuit
 Any other required relevant information shall be provided.
1.4 Procurement and Installation of Transformers Inquiry:

In the initial stage of a transformer inquiry there is nothing as important as a full and explicit statement of the total
requirements that, from the users' point of view, have to be met and from the manufacturers stand point have to be
considered. Frequently, inquiries are received giving insufficient information concerning the relevant details, so with
a view to saving both time and trouble. The general information should be given when issuing transformer enquiry.
 Planned Project
 Requirements of Load
 Location, environmental conditions, ambient temperature, rain, dust etc..
 Sub-station Layout, system voltage and fault Levels.
 Civil engineering requirements such as room, foundation, trenches for cabling, ventilation aspects etc.
 Limits of variation of the supply voltage and/or frequency, coil lug, earthy nag etc.
1.4.1 Tenders
 The submission of comprehensive and informative tenders is essential from all points of view to all parties
concerned to facilitate the duties of others to the greatest possible extent. In addition, to price,
manufacturing period, conditions of payment, mode of supply, service after sale, maintenance contract,
essential and extra data as per the inquiry, quotations should give the following specifications and
performance.
 Type of transformer
 Type of tank
 Type of cooling i.e. self cooled, water cooled, forced oil
 cooled etc.
 Core loss at normal voltage and frequency
 Copper loss at rated load
 Percentage regulation at up
 Percentage regulation at 0.8 lagging pf (or at any other specified pf)
 Percentage impedance and reactance

 Efficiency at up at 5/4, 1/1, 3/4, 112 and 1/4 full load.

 Performance reference temperature i.e. 75° C.
 Ambient air temperature or assumed temperature of cooling medium, permissible overloads
 Oil quantity
 Net overall dimensions
 Net weight of core and windings, tank and oil
 Shipping specifications (for export tenders)
 Insulating medium between windings and tank i.e. air or oil.
 Primary and secondary connections
 Overloads
 Locations
 Tapings used for the following purposes.
 Primary tapings to vary primary voltage
 Secondary tapings to vary secondary voltage
 Primary tapings to vary secondary voltage
 Secondary tapings to compensate for variations in primary voltage
 Details about the fittings with the transformer.
 In comparing tenders, the simple and effective procedure is to tabulate the data submitted by different
manufacturers, on a sheet, so that a comprehensive summary can be made. Based on the price and
performance parameters indicated, depending upon the priority of the organization an order shall be placed
for supply of the transformer.
1.4.2 Dispatch
The transformer is dispatched by the manufacturer by one of the following methods depending upon the
size and local conditions. Dried out - filled with oil, ready for service' (small transformers) With oil covering core
and coils only (medium transformers) Without oil in the tank, filled with nitrogen at pressure slightly above the
atmosphere pressure (large transformers). In majority of the cases accessories like radiators, bushings, explosion
vent pressure relief valve, dehydrating breather, rollers, Buchholz relay, conservator, pipe work, marshalling box are
separately dispatched. Transformer oil is sent in separate sealed containers. When transformers are dispatched with
inert gas, positive pressure must be maintained throughout the period till the gas is replaced by oil. The transformer
may be packed in a strong wooden packing and / or may be sent without packing case or crate depending upon the
conditions of transport. Special care is to be exercised finally to prevent movement of the core and windings during
transit. To send small and medium transformers trucks and large transformers road trailers or rail wagons are
generally used.
1.4.3 Inspection upon arrival at site:
Immediately after arrival at site, it should be inspected for possible damages during transit. The nitrogen
gas pressure should be checked. Positive pressure if not found, indicates that there is leakage, and there is a
possibility of the moisture entering the tank during transit. This can be as certained by dew point measurement
which indicates the amount of surface moisture content in transformer insulation. Internal inspection should be
carried out to the extent possible through inspection covers. Particular attention should be paid to the connections,
bolt links, coil clamping bolts, tap changers. Current transformers and the general insulation. Break down strength
of oil of transformer tank\ and drums containing transformer oil should be examined carefully. An inspection of the
transformer on arrival at site is to be carried out preferably in the presence of the representative of the manufacturer.
1.4.4 Storage:
The transformers arrived at site and likely to be installed immediately do not need elaborate storage. In case
of delayed installation, it requires proper storage to avoid influx of moisture, effect of rain / dust etc. It is preferable
to store the transformers indoor on proper flooring with protective covering. The oil should not be drained unless
there is a provision of filling inert gas. The transformers are provided with lugs and shackles for the purpose of
lifting. The following means are normally used for lift nag operations.
 Overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
 Jib crane
 Derricks
 Jacks and winches
 The overhead crane and jib cranes are the convenient and safe means. Precautions mentioned below should
be complied with:

 Transformers should be lifted only through lifting points ,/ Cover must always- be bolted in position
 Proper balance should be maintained while lifting.
1.4.5 Installation:
Location, site preparation and foundation details:
The location may be indoor or outdoor. For indoor installation, the following aspects should be considered.
 Ventilation
 Noise level
 Space required for movement, maintenance etc
 Trenches for cables
 Minimum clearances between the transformer and the walls should be as follows.
 Clearance on all four sides of wall: 1.25 m
 Clearance on all three sides of wall: 1 m
 Clearance on a wall on backside only: 0.5 m
 The clearance of 0.5 m (minimum) should be provided between the top most point of the conservator and
the roof.
 Ventilation area: The ventilation area required is as follows.
 Outlet: 2m2 per 1000 KVA
 Inlet : 1m2 per 1000 KVA minimum
 Indoor transformers having oil capacity of more than 2000 liters should be provided with soak pits.
 Power cables and control cables should never be run in the same conduit or cable tray or and windings
during transit. To send small and medium transformers trucks and large transformers road
 trailers or rail wagons are generally used.
1.4.5 Inspection upon arrival at site:
Immediately after arrival at site, it should be inspected for possible damages during transit. The nitrogen
gas pressure should be checked. Positive pressure if not found, indicates that there is leakage, and there is a
possibility of the moisture entering the tank during transit. This can be as certained by dew point measurement
which indicates the amount of surface moisture content in transformer insulation. Internal inspection should be
carried out to the extent possible through inspection covers. Particular attention should be paid to the connections,
bolt links, coil clamping bolts, tap changers. Current transformers and the general insulation. Break down strength
of oil of transformer tank and drums containing transformer oil should be examined carefully. An inspection of the
transformer on arrival at site is to be carried out preferably in the presence of the representative of the manufacturer.
1.4.6Storage:
The transformers arrived at site and likely to be installed immediately do not need elaborate storage. In case of
delayed installation, it requires proper storage to avoid influx of moisture, effect of rain / dust etc. It is preferable to
store the transformers indoor on proper flooring with protective covering. The oil should not be drained unless there
is a provision of filling inert gas.
1.4.7Handling:
The transformers are provided with lugs and shackles for the purpose of lifting. The following means are normally
used for lift nag operations.
 Overhead travelling crane or gantry crane
 Jib crane
1.4.8 Foundation:
No special foundation is required for the installation of a transformer except a level floor strong enough to support
the weight and prevent accumulation of water. Foundations with oil drainage facilities during fire and emergency is
recommended for large transformers. Transformers should be positioned on the foundation so that easy access is
available all around to read or reach different fitments. For outdoor installations, the clearance between live parts
and neighboring structures, equipments etc., should be adhered to electricity rules. Simple, firm, horizontal and
leveled foundation is necessary. The level of concrete plinth with bearing plates of sufficient size and strength can
be adopted. The space between the plinth and base of the transformer should be prevented by use of rust proof
bituminous compound. The suitable rail tracks should be provided where rollers are used. Once the wheels of the
transformer are in final position and then should be locked to prevent accidental movement. Transformers having oil
capacity more than 9000 liters should be provided with drainage facility. For medium voltages, cable connector or
bare conductor connection is used.

1.5 Code of practice for Rating and Terminal plates: IS 1180 (part 1): 1989
Each transformer shall be provided with non-detachable rating plate of weather proof material. This plate fitted in a
visible position, indicates the information given in fig. The entries on the rating plate shall be indelibly marked (e.g.
by etching, engraving or stamping).
Terminal marking plate: Each transformer shall be provided with a terminal marking plate as per IS 1180 (part 1):
1989. This is in accordance with whichever is applicable. IS 2026 (part 4): 1981 (first revision) also highlights about
terminal marking, tapping and connectors.
1.6 Phasor Diagram and Phasor Groups
Phases are used to represent the induced emus in pharos diagram of a transformer. The direction employed for the
rotation of phases is counter clock wise. In three phase transformers polarity alone is insufficient to represent the
relation between he and Live windings. Besides the terminal markings on he and Live side voltage, pharos diagrams
are required to show the angular displacement between he and Live winding. The angular difference between phases
representing the voltages induced between he and Live terminals having the same marking Letters and the
corresponding neutral point (real or fictitious) expressed with respect to the side is termed as the displacement.
Under normal conditions, the Line to Line voltages on the side are displaced from corresponding voltages on Live
side and the same is true for Line to neutral voltages also. This An internationally adopted convention for indicating
phase displacement is to use a number which represents the time indicated by a clock, where the minute hand
represents the Line to neutral voltage pharos for the he winding and is set at 12 0' clock and the hour hand represents
the Line to neutral voltage pharos for the Live winding. It therefore follows that the clock hour number is obtained
by dividing the phase displacement angle in degrees by 30. The following standard pharos diagrams are frequently
encountered in practice. Three phase transformers, phase displacement Three phase transformers, phase
displacement
1.7Polarity and phase sequence
The induced relative voltage directions in he and live winding of a transformer is termed as polarity. In primary and
secondary winding of a transformer when the induced voltages have the same direction i.e. when the polarity of the
two windings is same, this is called as subtractive. When, on the other hand, the induced terminal voltages are in the
opposite direction, the windings are of opposite polarity, which is referred to as additive .
1.7.1 Phase sequence:
Phase sequence is the angular direction in which the voltage and current phases of a polyphone system reach their
respective maximum values during a sequence of time. This angular direction may be clock wise or counter
clockwise. It should be remembered that the phase sequence is really a question of the sequence of line terminal
voltages, and not necessarily of the voltages across individual windings. When two transformers are to be operated
in parallel, phase sequence should be same, which is one of the conditions for parallel operation of transformers. The
phase sequence indicator is used to know the sequence. The phase sequence of the supply is decided or fixed by the
generating plant
1.8 Tanks and testing of tanks
The transformer tank shall be of adequate strength to withstand positive and negative pressures built up inside the
tank while the transformer is in operation. The transformer tank covers shall be welded with tank rim so as to make
a leak-proof joint. The exterior of the transformer tank and other ferrous fittings shall be thoroughly cleaned, scraped
and given a primary coat and two finishing coats of durable oil and a weather resisting paint or enamel. All steel
screws, nuts and f£.?tenors exposed to atmosphere shall either be galvanized or cadmium plated. The space above
the oil level in the tank shall be filled with dry air or nitrogen confirming to commercial grade of IS 1747 : 1992.
Dry air / nitrogen plus oil volume inside the tank shall be such that even under the extreme operating conditions the
pressure generated inside the tan k does not exceed 40KPa positive or negative. The transformer cover and frame
shall be such that it is possible to remove the weld and rowel twice. The tank sizes reach the transportable limits and
call for a lot of ingenuity in the design, to meet stringent conditions as minimum electrical clearances from high
voltage points of windings and leads proper shaping to reduce oil quantity, transportable profile suitable for loading
on rail wagons, transportable weight, etc. From these design considerations, in general, and for large power ratings,
transformer tanks are structurally quite complicated. For medium size, plain tanks are also used quite often for the
sake of ease and economy of cost of fabrication. The structural design of transformer tanks comprises the
computation of the combined behavior of plate and shells with stiffeners, which involves a realistic estimate of
boundary conditions. For calculating the stresses and displacements at a few selected points the classical method is

convenient, however for the stresses and displacements in global sense, one has to make use of rigorous methods
such as finite element method.
Transformer tanks may be classified as :

 Plain tanks: Plain tanks are rectangular box type in shape and are commonly used for small and medium
rating transformers.
 Shaped tanks: Here the profile of the tank body is suitably shaped to make it more economical. The shaping
is decided by the electrical layout, considerations of transformer windings and terminal gear/tap changers
mounting arrangements.
 Bell shaped tanks: Tanks which are made into two separable parts are known as bell type tanks. When the
top portion is removed, the height of the lower portion is such that there is accessibility to the core and
winding for inspection and maintenance. Corrugated tanks: An alternative for providing vertical ribs
 welded to the plates is to form corrugation on the plates by suitably folding the plates. The merits are
additional cooling area on the tank walls and reduction in tank weight.
 Stub-end wagon type tanks: These tanks are of special construction and designed to withstand dynamic
loading during transit besides the static load. Such large size transformers are not supported on girders
thereby reducing the height during transport. The design is such that these tanks are supported from either
end stub-end wagons and the transformer hangs in the vertical position, with minimum clearance between
the bottom of the tank and railway track.
1.8.1 Oil pressure test:
The oil is filled up to tank cover and the required pressure is applied using pump. The pressure is maintained for few
hours and all the wildings are checked for leakages. In case of leakage, rectification is done by draining out the oil.
The tank deflection readings are measured before the starting of oil pressure, at full oil pressure and after releasing
the oil pressure.
1.8.2 Vacuum test:
The oil is completely drained. After ensuring all the fitting, the vacuum pump is started and the required vacuum is
measured by a vacuum gauge. During vacuum testing the air leakage points are detected by air leakage detecting
instrument. If the leakages are found in casketed rims, the bolts are tightened. The deflection reading at the starting
and after maintaining full vacuum for one hour and releasing the vacuum are taken to find out the permanent
deflection. This shall be within specified allowable limits of deflection, depending on the size of the tanks.
1.8.3 Measurement of stresses:
At various locations stresses are required to be measured. The strain gauges are fixed to the tank structure with
proper adhesive. A gauge consists of a fine wire suitably fixed to the body of the structure. Under load, strains are
developed on the body. This results in displacements of the points to which the ends of the gauges are fixed. This
changes the resistance of the gauge wire, which is measured electrically using a suitable electric / electronic bridge.
One typical strain gauge is Rosette delta with six wires connected to the ends of wire gauges and brought to the
bridge for measurement. The bridge is set to null balance prior to the commencement of the measurements. The
readings are simultaneously recorded. The tank is subjected to full vacuum and readings are taken. The strain gauges
are fixed inside and outside the tank wall to compare the top and bottom principal stresses on the surface. The strain
gauge gives values of strains in the direction of Rosettes from which the two principal stresses and their directions
are calculated.
1.9Transformer oil
Insulating oil forms important part of transformer insulation system and acts as electrical insulation as well as
coolant to dissipate heat. The basic raw material to get transformer oil is a low viscosity tube called as Transformer
Oil Base Stock (Tabs). This is obtained by fractional distillation and series of treatment of crude petroleum. Tabs
characteristics are kept within permissible limits in order to produce good insulating oils. Tabs is further refined by
acid treatment to get transformer oil.

1.9.1 Characteristics of TOBS

Transformer oil consists of four major generic class of organic compounds viz. paraffin’s, naphthenic, aromatics and
olefins. All these are hydrocarbons and hence insulating oil is called a pure hydrocarbon mineral oil. Based on the
requirement and predominance, oil is usually called paraffinic base or naphthenic base.
1.9.2 Characteristics of oil and their importance:
The ,characteristics of transformer oil as per IS: 335 are, given in table
Characteristics Requirement
Viscosity at 40°C 9-14 cost
Pour point, max -9°C
Flash point (Pesky-Marten min 145°C

closed cup method)
Physical properties:
 Density: The maximum density of insulating oil at 29.50C must be 0.89 g/m2
 Interfacial tension (1FT): This is the measure of the molecular attractive force between oil and water
molecules at their interface. A test is carried out for detecting the soluble polar contamination and products
of deterioration that reduces molecular attractive force between oil and water.
 Moisture content: The moisture content is the amount of free and dissolved water present in the oil and is
expressed in pap (parts per million by weight i.e. mg/kg). Presence~ of moisture is harmful as it has
adverse effect on the elect cal characteristics of oil.
 Flash point: It is the temperature at which the oil gives vapour, that this vapour, when mixed with
air,.for.ms ignitable moisture and gives a momentary flash on application of test flame under specified
conditions. A minimum flash point is specified to prevent the risk of fire that may result by accidental
ignition.
 Viscosity: This is a measure of oil resistance to flow continuously without external forces. The oil must be
mobile. as heat transfer in transformers takes place by convection currents. The viscosity increases with
decrease in temperature, it is necessary that viscosity be as low as possible at low temperature.
 Pour point: The temperature at which oil will just flow under specified conditions is known as pour point.
If the .Olli becomes too viscous or solidifies, it will hinder the formation of convection currents and thus
cooling of the equipment will be severely affected.
 Electrical properties:While selecting the oil to be used in transformer as insulating material, more
emphasis is to be given to the electrical properties.
 Electric strength (Breakdown voltage): BDV is the voltage at which breakdown occurs between two
electrodes when oil is subjected to an electric field under prescribed conditions. Electric strength is the
prime parameter for insulation design of a transformer. It helps to know the presence of contaminating
agents like moisture, fibrous materials, carbon particles, perceptible sludge and sediment.Specific
resistance (Resistivity): This is the most sensitive property of oil requiring utmost care for its
determination. Resistivity in Acme is numerically equivalent to the resistance between opposite faces of a
centimeter cube of the liquid. Insulation resistance of windings of a transformer is also dependent upon the
resistivity of oil. A low value indicates the presence of moisture and conductive contaminants.
 Dielectric dissipation factor (DDF): DDF is numerically equal to sine of the loss angle (approximately
equal to tangent of loss angle for dielectrics) and is a good tool to indicate the quality of insulation. A high

value of DDF means the presence of contaminants or deterioration products such as water, oxidation
products, metal soaps, soluble varnishes and resins.
Chemical properties:
 Neutralization value (total acidity): It is a measure of free organic and inorganic acids present in the oil and
is expressed in terms of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the total free acids in one gram of oil.
 Oxidation stability: This gives the presence of natural inhibitors which impart anti-oxidation characteristics
to oil. This test is a measure of neutralization value and sludge after oil is aged by simulating the actual
service conditions of a transformer. Sediment and perceptible sludge: These are oil deterioration products
or contaminants which are insoluble after dilution of the oil with n-heptanes under prescribed conditions.
The oil is not suitable for use, if sediment or perceptible sludge is detected.
 Corrosive Sculpture: Crude petroleum usually contains sculpture compounds, most of which are eliminated
by refining. The traces of free corrosive sculpture may be present in oil. This will result in pitting and black
deposit on the surface of the bare conductor used in transformer which adversely affects the dissipation of
heat.\
 Qualities of good insulating oil The fresh dielectric oil has pale yellow color. Dark or cloud color indicates
deterioration. The oil should never contain suspended particles, water soluble acids and bases, and active
sculpture of colloidal carbon. These impurities accelerate deterioration rate. It should be free from dust
particles, carbon particles and sludge. It should have high dielectric strength. It should have low viscosity.
It should have high flash point. It should. Posses good electrical characteristics.
 Effect of moisture, water and impurities: The impurities accelerate deterioration of the dielectric oil. The
dust particles, carbon particles and sludge in suspended form gather along the conductor and insulating
surfaces in the presence of electric field. This forms a thin conducting layer gradually along the internal
surface of internal insulation during service. The flash over can occur along the surface of the insulation or
tank due to tracking. The transformer oil and winding have tendency to readily absorb moisture from the
air. This decreases the dielectric strength of the oil. All possible preventive measures are taken to avoid
moisture penetration. Oxygen reacts on the insulation and decomposed products cause sludge, which blocks
the free circulation of the oil. The dielectric strength gets diminished significantly in the presence of solid
impurities.
Procedure of filling oil in the transformer tank:

Before filling with oil, transformer should be fitted with all accessories including valve gauges, thermometers and
plugs and made oil tight. Oil sample is tested before filling. It should be ensured that no air packets are left in the
tank and no dust or moisture is present. All air vents should be opened. Oil should be filled from the filtering plant.
To prevent aeration of oil, the transformer tank should be filled through the bottom drain valve. Enough time should
be allowed (16 to 24 hours) for the oil to settle in the transformer and also the bubbles to escape. Vacuum filling
may be used for large transformers. A vacuum pump may be connected to the top valve of the transformer and oil
hose to the top filter press valve. The tank shall be tightly sealed .
 Oil filtering:
The oil filtering equipment (oil purifying equipment shown in fig 1.8) is a portable device used for filtering
transformer oil and switchgear oil. The oil is circulated through the filtering equipment for several hours till the
desired dielectric strength of oil is achieved. The purifying equipment removes the dissolved moisture, free water
and solid particles. The oil purifier comprises of the following components.
1) Vacuum tank and pump
2) Centrifugal filter unit
3) Oil pump
4) Heater
5) Valves
6) Temperature gauges

7) Vacuum gauge
8) Pressure gauge
 Maintenance of Transformer Oil:

Oil maintenance is carried out in accordance with standards titled "Code, practices of maintenance of insulating oil".
The code refers to the contamination of oil and determination of suitability of oil for further service. It also gives the
procedure of treatment of oil at site. The transformer oil is tested for the desired qualities giving more emphasis to
moisture and dielectric strength during periodic maintenance. A sample of insulating oil is taken from the bottom of
the transformer tank. The fresh dielectric oil has pale clear yellow color and dark brown and cloudy appearance
indicate deterioration. Contamination of oil due to moisture or solids are dealt by centrifugal separators to
effectively remove free water and fine solid impurities. Filters are used to remove solid impurities. The dust
particles, carbon particles and sludge are responsible for formation of thin layer on the insulation part thereby
causing internal flashover due to tracking can be removed by means of filters in the oil filtering unit. Moisture level
is to be less than the specified value which otherwise cause internal flashover. Viscosity indicates fluidity. Oil with
low viscosity has more fluidity and gives better cooling. Hence, viscosity should be measured at various
temperatures. observation is to be made on flash point. Higher flash point (1450C) is preferred and flash point
indicates the tendency to evaporate. For satisfactory use of insulating oil for the desired and specified qualities,
periodic checking of the oil is to be carried out.
1.10 Testing of transformer oil:
1.10.1Sampling:
The condition of the oil should be checked before commissioning, during maintenance and re commissioning after
overhaul. Sample of oil from the transformer should be taken from the bottom of the tank. The sample should be
collected only after the oil is allowed to settle for 24 hours.
1.10.2 Containers of sample:
Containers for samples should be bottles of clear glass, clean and dry with one liter capacity. The samples should not
be filled up to the top.
1.10.3 Samples from transformer tank:

When taking sample remove dirt from the sampling valve plug. Sample should not be taken immediately after
opening the valve. Allow some oil to flow first, then collect sample in the bottle. Oil sample from the transformer in
service may be taken preferably under switched off or no-load condition.
Oil sample from drums:
Before taking oil for testing allow it to settle for 24 hours without any disturbance so that the heavy contents will
settle down. Then oil will be collected from the bottom of the drum.
1.10.4 Testing of dielectric strength:

BDV test: The test sample from the bottom of the drum or transformer tank is collected in the standard test cup
(80mm x 60mm x 100cm) size. Electrodes are polished brass spheres of 12.5 to 13 mm diameter mounted
horizontally. The gap is 2.5 mm to 4 mm ± 0.2 mm depending upon the magnitude of voltage available for
breakdown test. Allow the sample in the cup for 20 minutes for air bubbles to vanish, apply ac voltage gradually and
steadily till the breakdown occurs between electrodes. Six breakdown tests are conducted at an interval of one or
five minutes. After each breakdown test, the oil is gently stirred with clean, dry glass rod. Average of five
subsequent tests is considered as the BDV (breakdown value) of oil sample.
1.10.5 Crackle test:

This test is performed to determine free water. A sample is heated rapidly over silent flame. The presence of
moisture above 50-60 pap of water will give typical crackling sound. The Karl Fisher Solution test is used for
determining the moisture more accurately (up to 2 pap). During periodic maintenance crackle test, dielectric test,
acidity test and moisture measurement is carried out .
1.11 Drying of transformers: IS 10028 (part II) 1981

The transformer oil and insulation are hygroscopic (absorbs moisture). When the transformer isdispatched without
oil or is left idle for a long period, the oil and insulation absorb moisture and drying out is required before

commissioning. When the power transformer is idle for more than a month, drying out is necessary prior to re
commissioning. The main purpose of the drying out is to expel the moisture from the oil, the winding insulation and
other internal parts. If the transformer is not dried out properly, it cannot withstand specified voltage for long
duration leading to premature failure of insulation. In drying out process the transformer oil/winding is heated by
one of the approved methods for a prolonged period (ten hours to four weeks).
Periodic readings of
Oil and winding temperature
Power input
Insulation resistance are taken. The temperature of oil is maintained at 800e and that of the windings at
90°C. Figure 1.9 shows variation of insulation resistance with time of drying.
1.11 Different methods of drying out:

I) Drying of core and coils with oil by oven
ii) Drying of core and coils with oil by short circuit method
iii) Drying with oil removed by using external heat
iv) Drying with oil removed by using both external and internal heat.
1.11.1 Drying with oil:
Drying of core and coils with oil by using oven. The core and coils can be effectively dried in a suitable oven, by
raising the temperature to a value not exceeding 8o°e. A large volume of air should pass through -the oven to
remove moisture and vapors. Insulation resistance check will indicate when the coils are dry.
Drying by short circuit method: The transformer can also be dried by heating the coils by short circuiting the low
voltage winding and supplying a reduced voltage at the terminals. Current should not exceed 70% of the rated
current and oil temperature should not exceed 75°e. The winding temperature under no condition should exceed
90°e. This method is more effective in drying the insulation at site.
1.11.2 Drying without oil:

By external heat: The transformer may be placed in its own tank without oil. Externally heated air is blown into the
tank at the bottom through the main oil valve. A small blower or fan should be used to get the proper circulation. It
is desired to-force as much of the heated air as possible through the ducts in the transformer windings. To
accomplish this, baffles should be placed between the core and the case, closing off as much of the space as
possible. The convenient way to get the heated air is by passing air through grid resistors. The resistors are in fire
proof box. The temperature of the air should not exceed 115°C. The heat may also be obtained by direct combustion
but care is to be taken to avoid the products of combustion entering into the transformer tank. By both external and
internal heat: This is a combination of the hot air circulation and short circuit method. The current circulated in the
windings should, of course, be less than that when drying out is done by the method of short circuit alone.
Duration of drying out:
Transformer voltage rating Duration
11 kV 1 to 6 days
220 kV 10 days to 30 days
400 kV 15 days to 40 days
Precautions to be taken while drying:
 Only spirit type thermometers are to be used for temperature measurement. Mercury thermometers shall not
be used except in the pockets provided for this purpose.
 The temperature of transformer oil in the top should not be more than 85°C. The maximum sustained
temperature to which anything in contact with the oil should be raised, is 90°C.
 Under no condition the transformer is left unattended during any part of the dry out period. The transformer
should be under constant observation throughout the dry out process and all Observations shall be carefully
recorded.
 It is recommended to keep firefighting equipment ready during dry-out period. Naked lights and flames
should be kept away while the drying operation is in progress.
Preparations of drying out:

 The tank is covered with external shields Like fire resistance mat such as asbestos cloth, glass sheet to
prevent drought of cold air.
 Connecting thermo couples, fixing thermometers calibration and arranging measuring instruments
 Bring out well insulated Leads from the windings, from the terminal bushings for the measurement of
insulation resistance
 Bring out thermo couple Leads through one of the opening in the tank
 To prepare Log-book to record the data regarding the dry out process. This Log sheet will have the
following details
 Details of the transformer
 Details about method of drying
 Date of start
 Date of completion
 Time of start
 Temperature of top oil
 Temperature of bottom oil
 Average temperature
 Insulation resistance in mega ohms
 Power inputs
 Initial heat nag up
 Steady temperature
 Cool down etc.
Procedure / steps involved in drying out of power transformer:

 Preliminary preparation of the machine, source of heat, measurements etc.
 Arrangement of the set up
 Gradually applying heat by one of the suitable methods
 Take periodic readings of
Clock time
Temperature of different parts
Insulation resistance values with 15 second mugger reading and 60 second mugger reading
Winding resistance (in the beginning and at the end)
Maintenance of steady temperature
Gradually reduce the heat applied and stop.
1.12 Testing of Transformers
The establishment and maintenance of high standard of materials and workmanship can only be achieved by
continuous inspection during the manufacturing stages and by subsequent testing of the components and finished
product. In broad sense, the tests can be classified as preliminary and final tests. Preliminary tests are carried out on
the transformer components before it is placed in the tank. Final tests are carried on the completely assembled
transformers.
Following tests are carried out when the work is at different stages, prior to the insertion of core and coil assembly
in the tank. These tests help in locating any fault at an early stage.
Core insulation
Core Loss test
Check of ratio, polarity, vector relationship and winding resistance of transformer assembly.
Preliminary Load Loss and impedance voltage measurements
The completely assembled transformer is subjected to the following final tests in accordance with international
standards. These tests are
Routine tests: These tests are conducted on every transformer before it leaves the factory, to ensure that it is
in accordance with the specifications.
Voltage ratio and polarity test [IS 2026 (part 1) : 1977];
Winding resistance test [IS 2026 (part 1): 1977];
Impedance voltage, short circuit impedance and Load Loss [IS 2026 (part 1) : 1977];
Dielectric tests
Separate source ac voltage [IS 2026 (part 3) : 1984];

Induced over voltage [IS 2026 (part 3) : 1984]

No Load Losses and current [IS 2026 (part 1) : 1977]; vi) On Load tap changers, where
appropriate.
 Type tests: These tests are performed on a single transformer which is representative of batch of
transformers, to demonstrate that they comply with specified requirements and are not covered by routine
tests.
I) Temperature rise test: [IS 2026 (part 2) 1977];
II) Lightning impulse test; [Is 2026 (part 3); 1977]
III) Air pressure test [IS 1180 (part 1) 1989];
IV) Permissible flux density and over fluxing [IS 1180 (part I) 1989];
V) Noise Level test.
 Pedal tests: The tests conducted other than routine or Type tests, based on the agreement between the
manufacturer and purchaser as asked for in the tenders/orders placed;
i) Dielectric tests
ii) Zero sequence impedance on three phase transformers
iii) Short circuit test
iv) Acoustic sound level
v) Harmonics on the no-load current
vi) Power taken by fan and oil-pump motors
vii) Partial discharge test
viii) Vibration test
ix) Tan delta test
Special tests and type tests are to be performed in the presence of the purchaser or his representative.
Commissioning tests are conducted at site before commissioning.
1.12.1 Polarity testing

In the he winding the induced elf at any instant is in the direction A1 to A2, the direction of the induced elf in the
live winding at the same instant will also be in the same sequence a 1 to a2.When the two windings are joined in
series by connecting A2 to a1 and a single phase elf applied to terminals A1 and a2, the elf measured between the he
terminals A1A2 will be less than the applied voltage. Then the transformer windings will have the same polarity i.e.
subtractive. On the other hand, the elf measured between the terminals A1A2 is more than the applied voltage then
the transformer windings have opposite polarity i.e. additive. For three-phase transformers the procedure of polarity
testy nag is same, except that the windings, of course, be excited from a three phase supply. The test connections
and results for a star/star connected transformer with subtractive polarity.
1.12.2 Measurement of winding resistance
To calculate the I2R Loss, it is necessary to know the dc resistance of winding. The measurement is done once the
dc current reaches steady state. In some cases it may take several minutes depending upon the winding inductance.
This test is conducted at stable temperature, for this reason it is carried out usually before Load Loss measurement.
The average oil temperature and is taken as the average winding temperature. DC resistance can be measured with
sensitive Wheatstone or Kelvin’s double bridge. Volt-ampere method can also be used to measure resistance by
using Low voltage high current source. Winding and oil temperature must be recorded when measurement is made .
1.12.3 Volt Ratio test
Ratio test is conducted to ensure the correctness of voltage ratio between different windings on each tapping. The
tolerance allowed for ratio is ± 0.5% of the declared ratio or ± 10% of the percentage impedance voltage, whichever
is Less. This test can be done using calibrated voltmeter. It is advisable to use special rcy:io testing apparatus called
ratio meter which is designed to give a measurement accuracy of 0.1% over a ratio range up to 1110 : 1. The ratio
meter is used in a bridge circuit where the voltages of the windings of the transformer under test are balanced
against the voltages developed across the fixed and variable resistors of the ratio meter. This method also confirms
the polarity of the windings. With this type of ratio meter the test can be performed at normal mains supply voltage
without Loss of accuracy. This test is to be conducted on every transformer for position of every tap.
1,12.4 Measurement of Insulation resistance and polarization index

The insulation resistance 'is measured between two parts separated by insulation. Insulation resistance of electrical
equipment refers to the resistance between conducting part and earth. It is expressed in mega ohms. Insulation
resistance is measured by mugger which consists of a hand driven generator. Muggers are available for dc voltages
of 500V, 1000V and 2500V. Mugger of 500V is used to measure the insulation resistance of transformers up to
60KVA, mugger of 2500V are employed for transformers operating at 11, 33, 110, 220 kV and above. One of the
terminals of mugger is connected to conducting part. Other terminal is connected to the earthed frame as shown in
fig 1.13. The generator is hand driven and the reading is directly obtained on the scale graduated from zero to
infinity in mega ohms.
1,12.5 Dielectric test
This test is to check the adequacy of main insulation to earth and between windings. The Line terminals of the
windings under test are connected together and the appropriate test voltage is applied while the other windings and
tank are connected together to the earth. The supply voltage must be nearly sinusoidal. The peak value of the voltage
is measured using digital voltmeter.
Recommended Questions:
1. Explain the Civil work associated with the power transformer foundation?
2. Explain the various types of cooling of power transformers.
3. State the various safety devices fitted on the power transformers.
4. State the important steps in maintenance of power transformers.
5. Explain the principle of BUCHHOLTZ relay?
6. What are the Qualities of good insulating oil?
7. Explain the Drying out of transformers?
8. What are the precautions to be taken while drying out transformers?
Generic Skills / Outcomes:

At the end of the course the student will be able to:
Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of transformers.
Able to know the performance specifications of transformer.
Demonstrate the routine tests for transformer.
Describecorrective and preventive maintenance of Transformers. .
Further Reading
http://electrical-engineering-portal.com/commissioning-of-electrical-equipments
http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/testing and commissioning of electrical equipments-Notes
http://www.knowledgeadda.com/2015/02/10ee756-testing-and-commissioning-of.html

TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF POWER SYSTEM APPRATUS 15EE752
MODULE-2 : SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
Structure :
2.1.Introduction
2.2.Specifications
2.3.Installation
2.4.Procedure to start Synchronous Generator
2.5.Excitation System
2.6.Cooling
2.7.Drying Out of Synchronous Machine
2.8.Testing of Synchronous Machine
2.9.Measurement of Audible Noise
Objectives:
 Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of Synchronous machine.
 The performance specifications of Synchronous machine.
 Demonstrate the routine tests for Synchronous machine .
 Identification of tools and equipment’s used for installation and maintenance of electrical Synchronous
machine..
2.1 Introduction :
Synchronous generator and motor are called synchronous machine .Synchronous generator is major component of
power system. Based on the source of generation ,the synchronous generators are classified as 1)Turbo generators
2)Hydro generators 3)Gas turbo generators 4)Engine driven turbo generators .
2.2 Specifications Following are the ratings of synchronous machines :
Rated Voltage : 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV, 11 KV

 Power Rating : 10 MW, 20 MW, 50 MW, 100 MW, 500 MW
 Excitation Voltage : 100 V – 1000V dc
 Excitation Current : 5-20A
 Speed : Speed in rpm is mentioned (say 3000 rpm)
 Cooling System : Forced air, Hydrogen cooled, Water cooled.
 Type of rotor : Salient pole or smooth cylindrical
 Short circuit ratio
 Class of Insulation
 Temperature limits
 Connections
 Frequency
2.3 Installation
The synchronous generator received at site must be stored in a safe place. Before keeping in store, the
machine should pass an acceptance procedure intended to check it for missing or damaged parts so as to take
necessary measures for excluding the violation of installation terms. For this, the machine is partially unpacked for
checking preferably in presence of representative of the supplier.Large capacity synchronous generators are
delivered in a disassembled condition.
2.3.1 Foundation
Large alternators require strong foundation depending on the type of mounting i.e. horizontal or vertical
mounting. Alternators in generating stations are usually vertically mounted covering two flours, the basement and
the ground floor. Foundations should be separated from columns and other supporting structures of the building so
as to prevent the transfer of vibrations of the machine to the building. Basic dimensions of the foundations are
specified by the manufacturer in the foundation drawing.
a
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2.3.2 Various steps in installation of an alternator

 Installation of bed plate and the leveling of bed plate
 Installation of the bearing pedestals and leveling of the bearing pedestals
 Checks on stator and rotor
 Assembly of the rotor onto the shaft
 Installation of the stator
 Installing the rotor in the stator
 Checking of the air gap between stator and rotor
 Preparation of shaft couplings
 Mounting of shaft couplings on shaft
 Preparation of shafts and alignment of shafts.
 Installation of cooling systems
 Drying out
 Testing
 Commissioning
Each of the above activities should be carried out by technically skilled staff. The instruction manual supplied by the
manufacturer should be referred in practice. Shaft alignment should be, perfect to get trouble free mechanical
performance of the generator with the driven equipment. The rating plate is of definite dimensions as per IS Code.
The ratings are etched or engraved and is fixed to the machine in a clearly visible position.
2.4 Procedure to start synchronous generator
The starting of synchronous generator is a slow and complex process as it involves starting of boilers, turbine
auxiliaries boiler auxiliaries etc. When starting synchronous generator from cold
the following steps to be followed.
 Starting of boiler auxiliaries
 Starting of turbine and auxiliaries
 Starting of boiler
 Roll turbine .
 Keep the unit as a spinning reserve.
The above said activities may take several hours.
2.5 Excitation system
The rotor of a synchronous machine needs dc current for excitation. The field current is supplied and
controlled by the excitation system. An excitation system includes all the equipment required for supply of field
current and voltage regulator system. Excitation response is the rate of change of exciter voltage and is expressed in
terms of volts per second. The maximum voltage that may be attained by an exciter under specified condition of
load is termed as excitation ceiling voltage. The function of the excitation system is to supply and regulate field
current.
2.5.1 Brushless (static) excitation system:
a- Permanent magnet alternator (Rotating field, stationary armature)
b - Magnetic amplifier
c - AC exciter (Rotating armature, stationary field) d - Silicon diode rectifier (Revolving with rotor)
e - Main generator field or rotor
f - Feed back of generator voltage for control and regulation
The silicon diode rectifier is mounted on the same shaft to excite the field of the main generator directly.
An ac exciter is used to feed power to the revolving rectifier. The field of the ac exciter is fed by a magnetic
amplifier that controls and regulates the output voltage of the main generator. The excitation power for the magnetic
amplifier is obtained from a small permanent magnet alternator which is also driven from the main shaft. The
voltage and frequency of ac exciter are selected so as to optimize the performance and design of the overall system.
2.6 Cooling
The heat due to losses in the machine is imparted first is primary coolant, by raising its temperature. The heated
primary coolant may be replaced by a new coolant at a lower temperature or may be cooled by a secondary coolant
in some form of heat exchanger. The 12R losses and other losses in electrical machine appear as heat raising the
temperature of each internal part above the ambient temperature of the surrounding air. The temperature rise is
related to the rate of heat production, the rate of cooling and the thermal capacity. The temperature rise is significant

as it affects the life of the winding insulation. Heat is removed by a combination of conduction, convection and by
radiation from Outer surfaces. Terms used in cooling system are as below
 Primary coolant: A medium, being at lower temperature than that part of machine and is in contact with it
which removes the heat.
 Secondary coolant: A medium, which being at Lower temperature than that of primary coolant which
removes the heat given up by primary coolant.
 Heat exchanger: A component of cooling system that transfers heat from one coolant to another by
keeping the two coolants separate.
 Inner cooled (direct cooled) winding: A winding which has either hollow conductors or tubes" which
form an integral part of the winding, through which the coolant flows. . Open circuit cooling: A method of
cooling in Which the coolant is drawn from the medium surrounding the machine, passes through the
machine and then returns to the surrounding medium.
 Closed circuit cooling: The primary coolant is circulated in a closed circuit through the machine and if
necessary, through heat exchanges. Heat is transferred to the secondary coolant.
 Further the cooling system may be Standby or emergency cooling system. Dependent circulating circuit
components v' Independent circulating circuit components v' Integral circulating circuit components
Machine mounted circulating circuit components v' Separately mounted circulating components
Hydrogen cooling of turbo - generators:

The thermal conductivity of hydrogen is about 7 times that of air. The density of hydrogen is 0.07 times that of air.
The specific heat of hydrogen is 14 times that of air. Hence hydrogen gas is preferred to air as a coolant in Large
turbo generators of capacity 60 MW and above. It reduces noise and improves heat transfer. The hydrogen cooling is
direct cooling i.e. the cooling medium is in direct contact with conductors. The hydrogen gas is passed through the
rectangular tubular cross section rotor conductors. The stator conductors are hollow and hydrogen gas from a
separate circuit is circulated through the stator conductors. The pressure of the gas is of the order of 1.5 Kgjm2 and
flow rate is about 15 m3 jess. Hydrogen blowers are required to circulate hydrogen gas through direct cooled
machine.
Water cooled machines:

In direct water cooling, water is the cooling medium and it is circulated through stator conductors and rotor
conductors. The speed of the water flow in the chillness is about 2.5 music. The water at higher speed efficiently
removes the heat.
2.6.1 Types of enclosures

The method of cooling is closely related to the construction and the type of enclosure of the machine.
 Open - pedestal: In this the stator and rotor ends are open to the outside ambient air, the rotor being
supported on pedestal bearings mounted on the bed plate. Open end bracket: In this the bearings forms part
of the end shields which are fixed to the stator housing. The air is in comparatively free contact with the
stator and rotor through the openings. This is common for small and medium size motors and generators.
 Protected or end-cover type with guarded openings: The protector may be screen or fine-mesh covers.
Drip, splash or hose proof: This is a protected machine with the openings in the end shield for cooling. The
end shields are designed to prevent entry of falling water or dirt or jets of liquid.
 Pipe or duct cooled: With end covers closed except for flanged openings for connection to coolingpipes.
Totally enclosed: In this type, the air will not be in contact with the ambient air. The machine is totally air
tight. Total enclosure may be associated with an internal rotor fan, an external fan, cooling or closed air circuit
cooling in which the air is circulated to a cooler and returned to the machine. Water proof or water tight Flame proof
or explosion proof: This motor is used in hazardous location such as mines, chemical industries etc. The ratings of
machines are dependent upon their respective cooling systems. For complex cooling Systems, the machines may
have to be dated.

2.6.2 Duty of rotating machines

The limits of temperature rise has a reference to the standard duty specified for the machine. According to IEC, 15
and B5 standard specifications, the standard duty cycles are designated as 51,52 ... 58. The standard operating
conditions are designated by letters N,R,D,F,V. The temperature rise depends on the duty and local conditions.
Standard duty cycles for synchronous motors:
 Continuous operation at rated load
 Short time operation
 Intermittent periodic operation
 Intermittent periodic operation with starting
 Intermittent periodic operation with electric braking
 Continuous cyclic operation
 Continuous cyclic operation with electric braking
 Continuous cyclic operation but with related load/torque characteristics
2.7 Procedure for drying out synchronous machines:
The circuit for drying out of synchronous machines. This is the most convenient method of drying. The machine
stator windings are supplied with low voltage. The input voltage, current, power & temperature of winding,
temperature of body, temperature of air are periodically measured. The end shields of the machine are removed. The
machine body is covered with tarpaulin. No cool air blow shall come over the hot winding.
2.8 Testing of Synchronous machines
2.8.1 Testing of synchronous generators
The tests performed include factory tests and field tests. The tests are conducted to demonstrate that the machine
gives the required performance. These tests are
Open circuit test (no load test)
Short circuit test
Zero power factor characteristics tests and loss measurement
Temperature rise test by Full load over excited run
By equivalent heat run
over speed test
High voltage tests
Insulation resistance tests
Waveform interference, gap length, balance, vibration, bearing currents, magnetic symmetry
Measurement of dc resistance of armature and field windings
Dielectric test
3.8.2. Tests on synchronous motors:
Measurement of dc resistance of armature & field windings
Dielectric tests on armature and field windings
Mechanical balancing test
Temperature rise test
Over speed test
Harmonic analysis
Telephone interference ./ Short circuit test
Reactance and time constants ./ Speed torque characteristics ./ Efficiency calculations
Bearing insulation test
Direction of rotation
Current balance on no Load
Commissioning tests
2.8.3. Measurement of insulation resistance
The insulation resistance of stator winding to earthed frame, rotor winding to earthed frame, phase to phase winding
pedestal and bearing insulation resistance is measured using mugger. The mugger readings for 15 seconds and 60
seconds are taken to find the polarization index.
2.8.4. Measurement of dc resistance of windings
The dc resistance of armature windings, field windings and field discharge resistance are measure during the
following methods.

Voltmeter ammeter method: In which voltage applied across the winding and current through the winding are
noted at the specified temperature. Then the resistance is calculated. This is suitable for field resistance
measurement. Built in bridges via Wheatstone bridge and Kelvin's double bridge are used to measure field resistance
& armature resistance respectively. As resistance is sensitive to temperature, temperature is also recorded and three
to five readings are taken.
2.8.5. Open circuit test (No load saturation test)
The open circuit characteristics of a synchronous machine is the curve showing the relationship between
armature terminal voltage and field excitation. The prime mover is run at rated speed. The excitation is varied in
steps and corresponding no load voltage is recorded. The characteristic curve may be plotted in per unit where unit
voltage and unit excitation corresponding to rated voltage and excitation current on the air gap Line. The open
circuit characteristics represent the relation between the space fundamental component of the air gap flux and the
miff on the magnetic circuit when the field winding constitutes the only miff source. During no Load test the no
Load Losses of the machine can be obtained.
2.8.6..Sudden 3-phase short circuit test on generator
When an alternator is subjected to sudden short circuit, the current in all the three phases increases
suddenly to a high value (10 to 8 time’s full Load current) during the first quarter cycle. The flux crossing the air
gap is Large during first couple of cycles. The reactance during this period is least and the short circuit current is
high. This reactance offered during sub transient period is called as sub transient reactance x/. The first few cycles
are covered under sub transient state. After few cycles the decrement in rms value of short circuit current is Less
rapid than that during the first few cycles. This state is called as Transient state and the reactance offered during this
period is called as transient reactance Ad" The circuit breaker contacts open during this period. Finally the transient
dies out and the current reaches a steady sinusoidal state called the steady state and the reactance offered during this
state is called as steady state reactance Ad' Since the short circuit current lag the voltage by 90°, the reactance
involved is direct axis reactance.
3.8.7. Negative phase sequence test
The test is conducted when reduced symmetrical voltage (0.02-0.2) up is applied to the machine driven at rated
speed, connected to an external source of supply with negative phase sequence i.e. operating as an electromagnetic
brake with the slip equal to 2. The excitation winding is short circuited. If the residual voltage of the machine under
test exceeds 0.30 times of the supply voltage, the rotor should be demagnetized before testing the machine. The
voltage and current in all the three phases and power are noted. Negative sequence reactance and resistance are
determined from the negative phase sequence test by the formulae.
Where P = input power

I = average current measured V = average voltage measured
2.8.8. Measurement of sub transient reactance

The voltage is applied across any two terminals except neutral, with the rotor at rest and short circuited on itself
through an ammeter as shown in figure 3.7. The rotor is rotated by hand and it will be observed that for a fixed
voltage applied, current in the field varies with the position of the rotor. When the rotor is in the position of
maximum induced field current direct axis sub transient reactance is obtained. When the rotor is in a position of
minimum induced field current quadrature axis sub transient reactance is obtained.
2.8.9. Slip test and calculation of ax & Ad
During the slip test, subnormal symmetrical three phase voltage of magnitude 10 to 200!0 of the rated voltage is
applied to the armature terminals of the machine. The field of the alternator is either open circuited or short
circuited. The prime mover is run at slightly less than synchronous speed to get a slip of 0.01. Armature current and
voltages are measured using indicating instruments or recorded by using oscilloscope. The ammeter & volt meter
readings will indicate two values which are to be taken as minimum and maximum quantities respectively.
3.8.10. Power frequency voltage withstand test
This test is conducted on 3 phase ac windings of an ac generator with the specified values of power frequency test
voltage. The test voltage of (2V+l) KV is applied for specified time (1 minute) between windings and earthed frame.
The machine parts should not exhibit flash over, to consider it to have passed the test.
2.8.11. Over speed tests on motors
In certain applications over speed can occur occasionally. This test is an essential Type test and even may be a
routine test. Egg: for traction motors, over speed test is conducted at speed of 120 to 150% of the rated speed for two
DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page18

minutes. This test is carried out on hot motor. After the test, profile of rotor, end coils, air gaps and bearings can be
observed visually. Minor repairs can be attended. If the serious damage occurs, the design/manufacture should be
reviewed.
2.8.12. Vibration test

The vibration test is carried out on the complete machine after assembly and balancing of the machine. A set of three
orthogonal accelerometers are fixed on each bearing. The vibrations are measured in two directions normal to the
shaft. For vibration test the machine is run at no load without coupling to any machine.
2.9 Measurement Of Audible Noise:
In applications where driven machine makes more noise, motor noise is ignored. In applications where audible noise
levels are to be held within permissible limits, the audible noise test on motor may be an acceptance test in work or
at site. Motor design features including enclosure, degree of protection, power rating and speed influences audible
noise directly. For example, 6 pole motor gives 76 dB(A) and 2 pole motor gives 84 dB(A) 1.1 KW motor gives 76
dB(A) and 1.1 MW motor gives 105 dB(A).
2.9.1 Sound measurement: This requires sound meter fitted with filters to accept noise at set frequencies. The table
3.1 gives lee A weightings of standardized curves of frequency (Hz) to relative sound pressure level (dB).
2.9.2 Noise Reduction:
Noise is due to
Magneto striation ./ Aerodynamics
Bearing noise of rotating shaft
Speed and power affect aerodynamics and bearing noise of the rotating shaft.
Totally enclosed machine gives least sound, open ventilated machines give maximum sound.
Ventilation noise predominates in 2 pole machine
When bearing noise becomes audible, the other two are less significant.
2.9.3 Methods to reduce noise:
' By reducing magnetic loading
By increasing number of armature slots
By skewing slots
By continuously grading main pole gap ../ By increasing air gap length
By providing brace commutating poles against main poles
By using 12 pulse thruster for speed control instead of 6 pulse converter
Semi enclosed slots or totally closed slots for compensating windings
1. How synchronous motors are started, explain two different methods.
2. State the routine tests required for a synchronous generator?
3. Describe the negative phase sequence test on synchronous machines. Negative-phase sequence test
4. Explain the procedure to install a synchronous machine.
5. State the requirements of Type tests and Routine tests on synchronous machines.

Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning synchronous machines.
Able to know the performance specifications of synchronous machines.
Demonstrate the routine tests for synchronous machines.
Describe corrective and preventive maintenance of synchronous machines. .
Further Reading

http://www.scribd.com/doc/36550374/testing and commissioning of electrical equipments-
Noteshttp://www.knowledgeadda.com/2015/02/10ee756-testing-and-commissioning-of.html

MODULE-3
INDUCTION MOTORS
Structure :
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Specification
3.3. Procurement of Induction Motors
3.4. Rating Plate of Induction Motor
3.5. Duty
3.6. Types of Protection
3.7. Installation of Induction Motors
3.8. Drying of Windings
3.9. Testing of Induction Motors
3.10 Commissioning Test
3.11.Effect of Variation of Supply Frequency
3.12.Methods of Starting Induction Motors
3.13.Maintenanace of Motor
Objectives:
 Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of electrical equipment’s.
 Differentiate the performance specifications of induction motor.
 Demonstrate the routine tests for induction motor.
 Identification of tools and equipment’s used for installation and maintenance of electrical equipment.
.
3.1.Introduction
The induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because of simplicity, reliability and low cost. Induction
motors works with better efficiency, appreciable over-load capacity and maintenance required is minimum. With the
application of thruster control, induction motor can be used for variable speed drive. Three - phase induction motors
are available with various ratings from fractional hp to several thousands of hp (say 10,000hp). Small motors below
1 hp (FHP motors) are usually single phase induction motors. Induction motors are available with different voltage.
ratings i.e. 440V, 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV, 11 KV. Induction motors are not economical above 11 KV because it is difficult
to design slot insulation. The rated voltage generally depends on KW rating. The following table gives ratings of
3phase induction motors.
3.2.Specifications of 3-phase induction motors

The important step in selection of an induction motor for ~pacific application is deciding the ratings considering all
affecting. parameters. Design of the motor is based on the following assigned numerical values of capabilities as per
IS 325 - 1978.
Output rating: The preferred output rating for induction motors up to and including 110 KW are
0.06, 0.09, 0.12, 0.18, 0.25, 0.37, 0.55, 0.75, 1.1, 1.5 2.2, 3.7, 5.5, 7.5, 11, 15, 18.5, 22, 30, 37, 45, 55, 75'
90,100 KW.
Type of mounting: The mounting is to be specified like foot mounting, bed mounting, etc.
Rated voltage and rated frequency with variations:
Motors shall be able to deliver rated output with;
Aterminal voltage differing from its rated value by not more than ± 6 percent or,
The frequency differing from its r::tied value by not more than ± 3 percent or Combination of a and b. The
preferred voltages shall be in accordance with IS 5851962. The voltages preferred for 3 phase, 50Hz
machines are 415V, 3.3KV, 6.6KV and l1KV.

TESTING AND COMMISSIONINGOF POWER SYSTEM APPARATUS 15EE752
3.3.Procurement of induction motor

Information to be given 'with enquiry and order: IS 3251978.When enquiring for and placing an order for induction
motor the following particulars should be supplied.
 1Site and operating conditions
 Reference to this standard i.e. IS code number
 Type of enclosure
 Type of duty
 Method of cooling
 Type of construction
 Frequency in Hz
 No. of phases
 Mechanical output in KW
 Rated voltage and permitted variation
 Class of insulation
 Speed in revolutions per minute, approximate, at the rated output
 Direction of rotation, looking from the driving end.
 Unit or bidirectional of rotation required.
 The maximum temperature of air and water used for cooling.
 Maximum permissible temperature rise
 The height at which the motor is intended to work
 Variation of voltage, current, frequency and speed
 Particulars of tests required and where the tests are to be carried out
3.4 Rating plate of induction motor

Rating plate giving the following details should be supplied with each motor
Reference to the standard i.e. Ref. IS: 325
Induction motor
Name of the manufacturer
Manufacturer's number and frame reference
Type of duty
Class of insulation
Frequency in Hz
Number of phases
Speed in rpm
Rated output in KW
Rated voltage and winding connections
Current in amperes at rated output
Rotor (secondary) voltage and winding connections
Rotor (secondary) current in amperes at rated output and
Ambient temperature when above 40°C.
Types of enclosures:
The different types of enclosures are as follows
I) Open ventilated motor
ii) Ventilated motor
iii) Drip proof motor
iv) Water protected motor
v) Totally enclosed motor
vi) Totally enclosed fan cooled motor
vii) Environment proof motor
viii) Weather proof motor
ix) Hose proof motor

3.5 Duty
The duty requirement shall be given by the purchaser as accurate as possible. Based on the loading pattern the duty
shall be declared by the purchaser by numerical value or with the aid of time sequence graphs of variable quantities.
The assigned rating by the manufacturer gives the capabilities. The ratings are to confirm IS 4722 - 1968 and IS
1885 ( art 35) 1973. The electrical motors have time rate of temperature ~e. Duty indicates the duration for which
the motor may be run at the assigned values.
3.6 Three phase induction motors with type of protection 'n'

It is essentially standard industrial equipment with additional attention paid to certain features which is suitable for
operating in any gas mixed with air having an ignition temperature higher than that of the temperature class marked
on it. Flame proof enclosure, intrinsic safety or type of protection 'e' motors are also operated in hazardous locations.
However a substantial saving in cost may be achieved by using equipment with type of protection 'n'. IS 9628-1980
is referred to provide a common basis for the construction and testing of motors with type of protection 'n'. A flame
proof equipment installed in hazardous Locations Like mining industry ensures that ignition occurring within the
enclosure of the motor will not transmit the flame to the atmosphere surrounding the motor. However flame proof
motors are expensive and difficult to manufacture for higher rating. The advent of technology and improvement in
installation Lead to the development of type of protection 'e'. However with type of protection 'e' the temperature
rise of the apparatus lode less than the normally permitted temperature rise for the class of
Hazardous locations and explosion or flame proof machine:
Special enclosures are used for machines operating in hazardous Locations i.e. in presence of highly inflammable
gas vapors, combustible dust, highly inflammable Liquids such as petrol, naphtha, benzene etc.. These will explode
in presence of electric spark. In case of explosion, it is confined within the ~aching and will not be spread to
atmosphere. For this reason enclosure should be strong to withstand high pressure built
3.7 Installation of Induction Motors
The various stages in the installation of induction motor\ are as follows:
Acceptance and proper storage at site ./ Foundation and civil work
Drawing of supply and control cables ./ Preparing motor for installation
Preparing driven machine and shaft alignment ready
Checking the insulation, starter, supply and control cable\ ./ Dryingout
Checks and tests on the machine and related accessories\ ./ Trial run on load under observation
Settings of protective relays
Final commissioning and handing over to operating staff The electrical motors are classified as low power
motif (up to 100 KW), medium power motors (100 KW - 500KW) an~ high power motors (above 1000
KW) based on the output power,
3.7.1Foundation
The civil construction and foundation of the machine roar should be spacious. The machine room is to be equipped
with~ overhead traveling cranes or jibs for handling assemble machines and any other heavy parts. Depending upon
the size o' the motor, appropriate foundation is to be designed. However this can be referred to civil engineer for
suggestions. Tiff function of the foundation is to transmit the static and dynamic load of the running motor to the
ground are used for securing the bed plate. Rolled I-sections are placed in concrete on which the bed plate is
place
3.8 Drying of windings
The insulation of rotating machines is hygroscopic in nature .absorbs moisture. The moisture reduces the insulation
resistance. It is essential to remove the moisture prior to the commissioning of the motor by drying out. There are
different methods available to apply the heat for drying of induction motor. During drying it is necessary to record
the temperature at various stages of drying out, insulation resistance and time. There are three phases in drying out
of induction motor. In the first phase the insulation resistance starts decr2asing due to the distributionoft moisture in
the entire insulation. The second phase is a steady temperature phase over certain time and the insulation resistance
remains almost constant. In the third and last phase the insulation resistance drastically increases thereby indicating
that the moisture is expelled. The high resistance of insulation gives the degree of dryness of the insulation.
Polarization index:

It is the ratio of 10 minutes resistance to one minute resistance. PI gives the quantitative information regarding the
presence of moisture, dust and dirt. For class A insulation PI is 1.5 or more, for class B insulation 2.0 or more. PI
value less than 1 indicates the immediate need of reconditioning. Log sheet of drying out of an induction motor:
 Technical particulars of machine Rated voltage, rated frequency Rated KW, full load current
Connection diagram, number of windings
 Technical particulars about connections for drying out
 Check prior to starting the drying
 Ambient temperature
 Initial values of insulation resistance
 Time of start, date, hours
3.8.1Drying out of induction motor by drying chamber and resistor heater
Dry the induction motor using drying chamber. The machine to be dried is housed in a drying chamber. The volume
of drying chamber should be nearly four times the volume of the induction motor. The heated air by using resistor
heaters ~s circulated by means of fans and air circulation system. The air temperature is measured using
thermometers. The moisture 15 expelled from the machine is let out of the drying chamber through air outlet. For
large machines heater blowers of 25 KW are suitable. The chamber should be thermally insulated to avoid heat loss.
The machine body is covered with canvas to prevent heat loss. Temperature of the air shall be controlled by turning
off the heater from time to time. The temperature is gradually raised i.e. not faster than lode per hour. Higher rate of
heating may result in damage due to differential expansion of metals and insulation. It is required to preferably
maintain steady temperature throughout the heating.
3.8.2 Drying out by radiating lamps

This is the convenient and simple method used for medium and small motors. The infrared lamps are located in the
chamber facing the motor windings with rotor removed. This method is applicable to dismantled motor for drying
the stator winding and rotor Winding separately.
3.8.3Drying out by circulating short circuit current

This is convenient method for drying out slip-ring induction motors. The machine is connected to low voltage
source. The input voltage, current, power, the temperature of winding, temperature of body, temperature of hot air
are periodically recorded. The end covers of the machine are removed. The machine body is covered with tarpaulin.
The increase and decrease of the temperature should be gradual. The rotor is blocked. The current through the stator
winding not to exceed 50% of the rated current.
3.8.4Drying by windage losses

This method is applicable to high frequency motors having high speed. The inlet and outlet air ports are blocked.
The windings gets dried by wind age losses dissipated in the form of heat.
3.9 Testing of induction motors (mechanical tests)

The various tests conducted on the induction motor are
1)Type tests: These tests are conducted on the first machine manufactured to confirm the design.
2)Routine tests: These tests are conducted on each motor to confirm proper manufacture and to ensure smooth
performance, at manufacturer's premises (factory) or/ and at site.
3)Commissioning tests: These' tests are conducted at site, after installation, before final commissioning to ensure
desired performance under practical conditions.
4)Special tests: These tests are conducted for special investigation as per the contract made between
the manufacturer and purchaser, preferably in presence of representative of purchaser at the floor before dispatch.
5)Development test: These tests are conducted to analyze for design parameters and stresses. These are helpful in
development/improvement of the earlier machine or new machine.
6)Reliability tests: These tests are conducted to ascertain reliability of the motor under operating conditions.
7)Periodic maintenance checks and tests: These tests are included in the preventive maintenance schedule which
depends on the service conditions.

3.10 Commissioning tests:

Prior to the commissioning of induction motors, the following are to be carried out to get trouble
free performance.
1. Measurement of resistance of windings
2. Measurement of insulation resistance of winding insulation
3. Power frequency high voltage test
4. Trial start
5. No load tests
6. Load tests
7. Tests on cooling system
8. Tests on lubricating system
9. Performance tests viz. no-load, full load, short circuit speed control, speed-torque
characteristics, starting; stopping/reversing/braking etc.
10. Special tests viz. vibration tests, oscillographic tests to record starting currents, switching
voltages etc.
3.10.1 Mechanical alignment and air gap symmetry

When the rotor is supplied without shaft assembled, is to be fitted on to the shaft before installation. While fitting
the rotor .on to the shaft the difference between the rotor and shaft temperature are to be taken into account. The
rotor hub bore and shaft diameters are to be matched properly. Installing rotor in the stator is a difficult process.
Sling the rotor with a rope and suspend it horizontally. Then drive it to the stator bore by means of a crane. Place the
rotor in position such that the air gap between the rotor and rotor stocks is approximately uniform. Once the stator
and rotor are mounted in position, check for clearances between shaft journal necks and the butt end of the bearing
shells. The air gap between the stator and the rotor are checked and adjusted after the shaft is fully aligned. Set the
air gap with the help of wedge type gauges on both sides of the rotor. Permissible values of difference between
maximum and minimum air gap for an induction motor is 10%.
3.10.2Load Test: 154029 -1967

1f with load are conducted for the determination of performance, such as efficiency, power factor, speed and
temperature rise. For all tests with load, the machine shall be properly aligned and securely fastened. Load
characteristics are obtained usually at 125, 100, 75, 50 and 25 percent of the full load
Methods of Loading:
Brake method
Dynamometer method
Calibrated machine
Non-calibrated machine
The motor may be loaded by ac or dc coupled generator either directly or by belt. The output of the generator is
measured and its efficiency at various loads must be known to calculate the output of the motor under test. The input
to the motor is measured by using wattcmeters. When belt drive is Jed, the power loss in the belt should be
considered. When pony brake is used, for large machine, then brake gets extremely hot, so the observations must be
taken very quickly. This method is suitable for small machines testing in the laboratory.
3.10.3 No load Test: 154029 - 1967
This test is conducted to determine the no-load current, core loss and friction and wind age losses. The motor is run
on no-load at rated voltage and frequency until the input power is constant. The readings of voltage, frequency,
current and power are noted. This test shall be preferably conducted immediately after the temperature rise test. The
input power is the sum of friction and wind age losses, core loss and no-load primary I2R loss. The friction and wind
age losses and core losses may be separated if required.
3.10.4 Locked rotor test
This test is a carried out by holding the rotor stationary b clamps. The stator is supplied with low voltage of normal
frequency. The applied voltage is gradually increased till the rated current is circulated in the stator windings. The
readings of voltage, current and power are noted. The leakage impedance reduces with higher current as a result of
saturation. Locked rotor test gives copper loss for particular stator current. Iron losses are ignored.
3.10.5Temperature rise test: 154029 - 1967

The aim of this test is to find out the temperature rise on different parts of the motor while running at rated
conditions. During temperature rise test, the motor should be shielded from currents of air entering from adjacent
pulleys and other machines. A small current of air may cause great discrepancy in results obtained. The duration of
temperature rise test depends on the type of rating of the motor. For motors of continuous rating, the test should be
continued till the thermal equilibrium is reached. For motors of short time rating the duration of test corresponds to
the declared short time rating, the test should be continued till the thermal equilibrium is reached.
Methods of measuring temperature rise of parts of motor: The following methods are approved for determining the
temperature of windings and other parts of motor.
1) Embedded temperature detector method:Embedded temperature detectors are resistance thermometers or
thermocouples built in the machine at points which are inaccessible when the machine is assembled. This method is
generally employed for the slot portion of stator windings. At least six detectors to be built in a machine suitably
distributed around the circumference.
2) Resistance Method: This method is generally used for stator whirling’s. Here temperature is determined by the
increase in the resistance of the windings.
3) Thermometer method: In this method, the temperature is determined by thermometers placed at the accessible
surface of the rotor.
3.10.5Methods of cooling adopted:

The squirrel cage induction machines are cooled Ii1y circulation of air. The enclosure should be such, that the
windings are protected from unfavorable environments. When surface area is not available, heat exchangers are
used. In self cooled motor a fan is attached to the rotor. This fan forces air circulation over the windings to give
cooling. The starting test is conducted usually on squirrel cage motors to confirm that induction motors are capable
of starting against specified load torque v.<without crawling or developing vibrations. When the motor fails to start
against load and accelerate up to full speed but runs at 1/7th normal full load is called as crawling. The voltage is
gradually applied to stator winding. The motor should start at nearby 70% rated voltage. The time taken by the
motor to reach rated speed and the current are noted.
3.10.6Running up test
Cage motors are liable to harmonic torques, productive of crawling. A running up test is conducted on cage motors
to ensure that they are capable of starting against a reasonable load torque without failing to attend normal running
speed. The test also reveals noisy running and the presence of loose bars. The load torque applied depends upon the
rating and size of the motor and its method of starting. Thus a continuously rated motor for star delta starting might
be expected to start with 25 33 % of full load torque at 175% of full load current in the line.
3.10.7Noise in Motors:
The noise of a rotating machine is generated by the cooling fans. Noise may be minimized by using unidirectional
trailing bladed fans by the normal radial blades. Further reduction is achieved by inlet and outlet silencers or the
adoption of closed ventilation circuit of cooling air. The noise around a machine is affected by the shape and
dimensions of the outer surfaces of the case and reflection from hard surfaces of wall. The noise is also caused by
magnetic effects and depends on the stator and rotor slots. The value of the stator presence variation may be the
cause, but the amplitude also depends on higher order rotor miff space harmonics. The frequency of the noise is
twice the product of the supply frequency with that integer nearest to the number of slot per pole i.e.
fn = fix n
wherefn - frequency of noise due to slot miff harmonic, Hz
f - supply frequency
n - Number of slots per pole.
3.11 Effect of variation of supply frequency

The change in frequency results in change in synchronous speed. The change in frequency affects the synchronous
speed, percentage slip, full load speed, full load current, temperature rise on full load and starting current.
5.11.1 Effect of unbalanced voltages:

Unbalanced supply voltage causes negative component in the rotating magnetic field. This will induce high rotor
current and rotor gets heated and due to overheat rotor may fail. The permissible unbalance in supply voltage is

related with duration. A prolonged unbalanced voltage of 3% results in excessive heating and damages the rotor and
stator insulation.
3.11.2 Dating:
Dating is operation of the machine at underrated value. This is done when the supply quantities are not as per the
specifications. Instead of putting off the machine, it is Continued to run by making it to develop output power less
than the specified.
3.12 Methods of starting induction motors
The starting current is higher than the full load current. The different techniques to start the induction motor to limit
the starting current are
1)Direct on line starting (for machines <5 hp)
2)Stator resistance starting
3)Autotransformer starting
4)Start delta starting
5)Rotor resistance starting
6)Thruster starting control
Methods of braking induction motors:
The table gives the different methods adopted for braking of an induction motor.
3.13 Maintenance of Motors

The objective of the maintenance is to reduce the number of failures. During normal working, some parts wear out
and calls for replacement and minor defects are to be rectified to avoid failure. The breakdown of motor results in
loss / damage /outage /inconvenience. The down time of the machine must be kept as minimum as possible. Hence
preventive maintenance is justified The preventive maintenance needs
Proper records
Skilled labor and staff
Facilities for repairs
Storage of spares
The repeated inspection leads to wastage of time and money. The neglected/hardly inspection leads to failure. The
frequency of inspection must depend on;
Importance of the machine
Duty cycle
Age
Overloads, service conditions
The maintenance schedule is always recommended by the manufacture. .Maintenance includes activities to be taken
up to keep the machine in working condition. It includes inspection, lubrication, cleaning etc., and does not involve
complete dismantling. Overhaul includes thorough checking, inspection, repairs, adjustment and restoring good
working condition. During Overhaul, the machine is dismantled, worn out parts are replaced and the machine is
completely restored to good working Condition.
3.14 Recommended Questions:

1. Explain the methods of drying out of induction motor?
2. State and explain the various tests on 3-phase induction motors?
3. What is the slip during normal running condition of an induction motor?
4. What are the causes for vibrations in IM’s. what are the methods of measuring?
5. State the procedure of receiving electrical machines at site?
6. Explain temperature rise test on 3 phase induction motor?
3.15 Generic Skills / Outcomes:
Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of induction motor.
Differentiate the performance specifications of induction motor.
Demonstrate the routine tests for induction motor,.
Describe corrective and preventive maintenance of electrical equipment’s.

5.16 Further Reading


MODULE- 4
LAYING OF UNDERGROUND CABLES
Structure:
5.1 Introduction
4.2 Direct Laying Of Underground Cables
4.3 Laying Procedure
4.4 Cable fault location
Objectives:
 Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of Synchronous machine.
 The performance specifications of Synchronous machine.
 Demonstrate the routine tests for Synchronous machine .
 Identification of tools and equipment’s used for installation and maintenance of electrical Synchronous
machine.
4.1Introduction
Underground cables are, of course, meant to be installed or laid under the ground. The reliability of
underground cable network highly depends upon proper laying of cables, quality of cable joints and branch
connections etc. There are three main methods of laying underground cables, which are - (i) direct laying, (ii)
draw-in system and (iii) solid system. These three methods are explained below with their advantages and
drawbacks.
4.2 Direct Laying Of Underground Cables

This method is the most popular as it is simple and cheap. The cables to be laid using this method must have the
serving of bituminized paper and hessian tape so as to provide protection against corrosion and electrolysis.
The direct laying procedure is as follows.
4.3 Laying Procedure :

 A trench of about 1.5 meters deep and 45 cm wide is dug.

 Then the trench is covered with a 10 cm thick layer of fine sand.
 The cable is laid over the sand bed. The sand bed protects the cable from the moisture from the ground.
 Then the laid cable is again covered with a layer of sand of about 10 cm thick.
 When multiple cables are to be laid in the same trench, a horizontal or verticle spacing of about 30 cm is
provided to reduce the effect of mutual heating. Spacing between the cables also ensures a fault occurring on
one cable does not damage the adjacent cable.
 The trench is then covered with bricks and soil to protect the cable from mechanical injury.
Advantages
 Simpler and cheaper than the other two methods

 Heat generated in cables is easily dissipated in the ground.
Disadvantages
 To install new cables for fulfilling an increased load demand, completely new excavation has to be done
which costs as much as the new installation.
 Alterations in the cable network are not easy.
 Maintenance cost is higher.
 Identifying the location of a fault is difficult.
 This method can not be used in congested areas such as metro cities where excavation is too expensive.
Draw-In System
 In this method, cast iron or concrete pipes or ducts are laid underground with manholes at suitable positions
along the cable route. The cables are then pulled into the pipes from the manholes. Usually, an additional
pipe/duct is also provided along with the three cable ducts for carrying relay protection connections and pilot
wires. Distance between the manholes should be such that pulling in the cables is easier. At corners or while
changing the direction of route, radius of the corners must be longer. The cables that are to be laid in this way
need not be armoured but must be provided with the serving of hessian and jute in order to protect them when
beingpulled.

Advantages
 Repairs, additions or alterations to the cable network can be easily made from manholes without re-
excavation.
 In this method, as the cables need not be armoured, the cable jointing procedure becomes simpler.
 Maintenance cost is quite lower.
 Fewer chances of fault occurrence due to the strong mechanical protection provided by the system.
Disadvantages
 The initial cost is very high.

 Due to unfavourable conditions for dissipation of heat, current carrying capacity of the cables is reduced .
Solid System
In this method, the cable is laid into troughing of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated wood. When the cable is
laid into the position, the troughing is filled with a bituminous of asphaltic compound and then covered over. Cables
to be laid in this manner could be just lead covered as the troughing provides a good mechanical protection.
This method is very rarely used nowadays as it is more expensive and requires skilled labour and favourable weather
conditions.
4.4 Cable fault location
Cable fault location is required anywhere where the fault cannot be seen. This is a multi-step process that
must be performed as safely and as quickly as possible to prevent customers going without power.
Step 1 - Cable isolation and safety procedures: A cable fault is nearly always a permanent fault. This
means that the cable in question will be in a condition where the protection devices at one or both ends of
the cable will have tripped, leaving the cable isolated but NOT earthed (grounded).
The first task is for the authorised person on the site to make the cable safe by isolating and then earthing
(grounding) one or both ends. Only after the appropriate procedures have been carried out can any testing
personnel be allowed to approach the cable and prepare for testing.
Step 2 - Cable identification: Where multiple cables exist, cable identification testing will identify the
correct cable to work on. Clear identification before a cable is cut is intrinsic to safe maintenance
work. Any mistakes here can be fatal and may cause much longer outages for the connected customers.
Step 3 - Cable tracing: When an underground cable is first laid, it rarely runs in a straight line, but rather
meanders in depth and direction. Cable tracing is done to determine that the route of the cable is
following the expected path.
Step 4 - Fault identification: The first major procedure is to determine the phase on which the fault has
occurred and if it is of low or high resistance. This test determines the correct technique, and
therefore equipment, needed to diagnose the fault. Typically, if the fault is found to be below 100 Ohms, a
low voltage pulse (eg: 40 V) from a TDR (time domain reflectometer) can be used. If the fault is a higher

resistance (> 100 Ohm), a low voltage pulse will likely not see it. For these types of faults, an impulse
generator (shock discharge) or bridge, will be necessary.
Step 5 – Fault prelocation: A reliable and precise pre-location method is necessary to locate a cable fault
quickly and efficiently. Good pre-location can determine the fault position to within a few percent of the
cable length and will reduce pinpointing time to a few minutes.
Remember:
a) If it is a low resistance fault, pre-location is likely to be the only means necessary for location.
b) For high resistance faults, ARM (arc reflection) or ICE (impulse current) techniques on an SWG (surge
wave generator) should be used. Alternatively, the decay method with an HV DC tester (bridge) can be
used for pre-location.
Step 6 - Pinpointing: The aforementioned test methods will get the operator within 5% distance of the
fault. Acoustic pinpointing techniques must be employed at this stage in order to narrow the margin of
error to 0.1%. In most cases, shock discharge generators are used for pinpointing in conjunction with
acoustic methods. The discharge creates a loud noise, which is pinpointed precisely using an acoustic
pinpointing device. This device evaluates the time difference between the acoustic signal (speed of sound)
and the electromagnetic (nearly the speed of light) impulse of the shock discharge. When the shortest time
difference is indicated, the exact fault location is revealed.
Step 7 - Re-energisation of the cable: Once all testing and repairs are completed, the Safety/Testing
documentation is cancelled and the cable is handed back to the appropriate operators so they can reinstate
it and re-energise the loads on the newly repaired cable.
1.What are the different methods of laying underground cables?
2.What is fault detection ? explain fault detection location?
3.How megger is used to detect faults in underground cables?

Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning synchronous machines.
Able to know the performance specifications of synchronous machines.
Demonstrate the routine tests for synchronous machines.
Describe corrective and preventive maintenance of synchronous machines
Further Reading

MODULE- 5
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTIVE DEVICES

Structure:
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Circuit Breaker
5.3 Types of Circuit Breaker
5.4 Specifications
5.5 Tests on Circuit Breaker
5.6 Installation
5.7 Mechanical Operation
5.8 Maintenance of Circuit Breaker
5.9 Precautions
Objectives:
 Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of electrical equipment’s.
 Demonstrate the routine tests for switchgears.
 Identification of tools and equipment’s used for installation and maintenance of electrical equipment.
 Explain the operation of an electrical equipment’s such as isolators, circuit breakers, insulators and
switchgears.
5.1Introduction
The term switchgear includes wide range of equipment used for switching, interruption, measurement, control,
indication etc. The necessary units are arranged in a sequence. The components are enclosed in sheet metal
enclosure or cast iron enclosures. Hence the name metal clad switchgear or metal enclosed switchgear. The
components of indoor switchgear include
(1) Switching and interruption components viz. switches, switch fuse combinations, circuit breakers,HRC fuses,
isolators and earthling switches
(2) Measuring components viz. CT, PT, meters etc. Faults occur on power system due to several reasons and no part
of the power system is left unprotected. The unhealthy part is isolated immediately upon the occurrence of the fault
by protective devices like relays and circuit breakers. The functions of different devices used in protection are
mentioned below.
1. Relay: It is used to sense the change in the operating quantity when it exceeds certain preset value.
2. Fuse: It is a simple protective device which breaks the circuit when the current exceeds the rated value.
After the clearance of the abnormality, the fuse element is to be replaced to resume normal operation.
3. Circuit breaker: It is used to break or make the circuit upon receiving the signal from the associated relay
under abnormal and normal conditions respectively. Based on the location the making may be manual,
semi-auto enclosure or auto closure.
4. Isolators: Isolators are used to isolate during off-load to ensure that the circuit breaker is de-energized for
scheduled or unscheduled maintenance activity and is provided with interlocking provision.
5. Load break switch: This is used to disconnect the load and overload currents and not short circuit current.
5.2 Circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is capable of breaking & making the circuits under abnormal and normal conditions respectively.
The parts of circuit breaker include
1. Poles with interrupter, porcelain, arc quenching medium
2. Operating mechanism
3. Support structure and
4. Control cabinet
Upon the occurrence of the fault, the current in the secondary side of CT is more than the current under normal
condition and relay connected to the CT actuates and thereby closes its contacts. Battery supplies the" current to

energize the trip coil of the circuit breaker to open the contacts. After resuming the normal condition, the battery
circuit is open & circuit breaker contacts are closed.
5.3 Types of circuit breaker

According to the method of control of the closing operation, circuit breakers are classified as (IS 1011 (Part-II)-
1982).
 Dependent manual closing
 Independent manual closing
 Dependent power closing and
 Stored energy closing
According to the interrupting medium, circuit breakers are divided into
 Oil circuit breakers
 Bulk oil circuit breaker - up to 33 KV (now obsolete) ./ Minimum oil circuit breaker - up to 36 KV,
1500 MVA, 132 KV, 3500 MVA
 Air circuit breaker - LV circuit breaker up to 1000 V
 Air blast circuit breaker - 132 KV, 220 KV, 400 KV, 760 KV
 Sulpur hexafluoride circuit breaker - 132 KV, 220 KV, 400 KV, 760 KV
 Vacuum circuit breaker - 11 KV, 33 KV
The type of equipment is also further characterized by
 Number of poles
 Kind of current
 Method of closing
 Method of opening and
Types of opening mechanism used in high voltage circuit breakers
For circuit breakers above 200 MVA, stored energy type independent automatic operating mechanisms are used.
These can be classified as Spring open, spring closed mechanism: The closing spring is of higher energy level and is
charged by driven gear.
 Pneumatic operating mechanism: Air blast circuit breakers are invariably provided with pneumatic
operating mechanism. Here the force required for closing and opening operation is derived from
compressed air at certain pressure (18 to 30 kg/cm2).
 Hydraulic mechanism: High pressure hydraulic oil (300 to 3350 bar) is admitted from the bottom of
hydraulic cylinder by opening of hydraulic valve for opening and closing of the contacts.
 Solenoid mechanism: In this mechanism, the closing operation is obtained by energizing a solenoid by
direct current. Solenoid mechanism is suitable for auto reclosing.
5.4 Specifications of high voltage circuit breaker

 Rated voltages: A circuit breaker is defined by the following rated voltages
 Rated operational voltage
 Rated insulation voltage
 Rated current: The circuit breaker is defined by the following currents rated thermal current rated
uninterrupted current
 Rated frequency: The rated frequency of the equipment is so chosen as to suit the service frequency
 Rated short circuit breaking and making capacities: The rated short circuit breaking current is the highest
value of short circuit current which the circuit breaker is capable of breaking under specified conditions of
recovery voltage and power frequency recovery voltage. The rated making current must be at least 2.5
times the rams value of ac component of rated breaking current.
 Rated short time withstand current: It is the rams value of the current that the circuit breaker can carry in a
fully closed position during specified time.
 Short circuit performance category: The rated short circuit performance category of the equipment states
the rated operating sequence and the condition of the circuit breaker after performing this sequence at the
rated short circuit making and breaking capacities. For the same circuit breaker the value of the rated short
circuit breaking and corresponding making capacities may be different for different short circuit
performance categories.
The following characteristics should also be considered while selecting the circuit breakers .

 For control circuits: Rated control supply voltage and type (ac or dc) of current.
 For air supply system: Rated pressure and its limits and volumes of air at atmospheric pressure
required for each closing and opening operation.
 For shunt release and under voltage release: Rated voltage & kind of current .
 For over current release: Rated thermal current, kind of current and range of settings.
 For auxiliary switches: Rated voltage & current The circuit breakers intended for circuit operating below
1000 volts ac or 1200 volts dc are coveredunder the group low voltage circuit breaker.
5.5Tests on circuit breakers

 Type tests: These tests are conducted on the first circuit breaker manufactured to prove the capabilities and
to confirm the specified characteristics of the circuit breaker of that design in a specially built testing
laboratory.
 Routine test: Routine tests are performed on each and every circuit breaker as per the recommendation of
the standards to verify the performance.
 Commissioning tests: These tests are conducted on the circuit breaker after installation at site to verify the
readiness and proper functioning.
 Development tests: These tests are carried on components, sub-assemblies and complete circuit breakers
during and after the development of the circuit breaker. The designers and research scientists verify the
effect of various parameters.
 Types of test:
 No Load mechanical operation test: This test is to verify speed of travel, operating time and
closing time and is carried out at 85% and 110% rated voltage of shunt trip release.
 Mechanical performance tests (endurance): It is to check the mechanical ability of opening and
closing of the contacts by carrying out 1000 close and open operations or more.
 Temperature rise test: Steady temperature of conducting part and insulating parts measured for
rated continuous alternating current.
 Dielectric tests:
 1.2/50 IPSec Lightning impulse withstand
 One minute power frequency voltage withstand
 250/2500 Ills switching impulse withstand
 Short time current test: Rated short circuit current is passed through closed breaker for less or 3sacs .
 Short circuit breaking and making tests: This test is conducted at 10%, 30%, 60% and 100% rated short
circuit braking current with specified operating sequence and specified TRV (transient recovery voltage).
 Line charging current breaking test: This test is conducted for circuit breakers 72.5 KV and above.
 Cable charging current breaking test: This test is applicable to circuit breakers intended for long cable
network.
 Single capacitor bank breaking test: This test is applicable for circuit breakers used for capacitor switching.
 Small inductive current breaking test: This test is to be conducted on circuit breakers with
reactors, transformers, motors etc.
 Commissioning tests:
After the installation, the circuit breakers and protective gear are subjected to certain tests at site to
ensure proper assembly and readiness of the circuit breaker. The commissioning tests include:
 Mechanical operation tests
Measurement of travel, simultaneous closure of contacts Measurement of insulation resistance between terminals of
pole
Pre commissioning checks
Checking close and open operation by energizing the manual operating signal

Checking close and open operation by energizing relays etc
The insulation resistance is measured using megger. It consists of a built in hand driven dc generator. The two
terminals of megger are connected across the insulation i.e. one to the conductor and other to the earthed body. Then
the dc generator is driven & corresponding resistance indicated by the mugger is recorded. For the switchgear
1000V or 2500V mugger is preferred. Insulation resistance of the control circuit, trip circuit, relay circuit etc. is
measured using 500V mugger.
5.6 High voltage test at site

High voltage test as per the relevant IS code is conducted after the erection of the circuit breaker. By conducting this
test the defect in the insulation can be checked. The test voltage is generally applied for duration of one minute. The
circuit breaker is isolated suitably during the test. The test voltage is applied between the to be 'tested part' and
earthed parts as follows.
 With breaker closed:
 Tested part: R - phase
earthed part: Y - phase, B - phase, frame of the circuit breaker
 Similarly for the phase Y and B
 With breaker open: This test is conducted on breaker contacts by shorting R,Y,B phases on busbar
side~ Voltage is applied from other side consecutively to each phase.
The purpose of high voltage test on circuit breaker is as follows:

 To define the insulation characteristics
 To standardize the insulation levels
 To specify the markings on the rating plates indicating insulation levels
 To confirm that, there are no cracks in porcelain, no dust
and moisture is present in the circuit breaker
High voltage tests on circuit breaker include the following.

 Impulse voltage dry withstand test
 One minute power frequency voltage dry withstand test
 One minute power frequency voltage wet withstand test Power frequency voltage withstand tests are
conducted by applying specified high voltage alternating quantity for one minute. High voltage testing
transformer is an important component of the high voltage testing of circuit breakers. Sphere gaps are used
for the measurement of high voltage. The sphere gap gives the peak voltage from the known spacing and
standard table, the peak Voltage at the instant of disruptive discharge can be obtained.
5.7 Temperature rise test
This test is to be conducted on a circuit breaker that is the representative of a batch of circuit breakers manufactured
Alternating current of rated value at rated frequency is passed through the circuit breaker by keeping the contacts in
the closed position, continuously till the steady temperature is reached. Readings of various conducting, insulating
and structural parts are taken at an interval of one or half an hour. When steady temperature is reached, the
maximum temperature rise of each part should be less than the permitted values.
5.8 Mechanical test (Endurance test)

The breaker should consistently open and close its contacts. In mechanical endurance test the circuit breaker is
opened and closed many times (nearly 1000 times). Few opening & closing operations (nearly 50 times) is done by
energizing the relay and the remaining are by closing the trip circuit by other means. Mechanical tests on high
voltage ac circuit breakers are conducted without charging the main circuit. During mechanical tests adjustment or
replacement of any part of the circuit breaker is not allowed. However lubrication is to be applied as per the
instructions of the manufacturer. After repeated closing and opening operation, the contacts and other parts of circuit
breaker must be in good position and there should not be any permanent deformation of any parts. The dimensions
should be within original limits. During repeated operations, the breaker parts in the assembly may fail. The circuit
breaker is then considered to have failed in the mechanical test. The tests are to be conducted after the improvement
in the design and manufacture. Successful performance in mechanical endurance test proves the adequacy of design

and also good quality of material used in manufacture. Though 1000 close and open operation are specified in the
standard, the manufacturer may conduct nearly 10000 times or more operations to ascertain the reliability and
for getting design data.
Test for contact resistance of circuit breaker pole

The resistance of the pole should be less than about m x 20j..all where m is the number of joints, contacts in series
per pole. This is measured by one of the following two methods.
 Micro ohmmeter: A micro ohmmeter is connected across terminals of the pole to measure the resistance
directly.
 Mill volt drop method: The voltage drop across the circuit breaker pole is measured for different values of
dc current. The voltage drop gives a measure of current carrying part and contacts. The dc current should
be sufficiently high but must be less than the rated current. The resistance measurement of circuit breaker
pole should be done at ambient temperature. The resistance must be of the order of few tens of micro ohms.
This test is a routine test to be carried out to ascertain the performance when the circuit breaker is put actual
operation.
Impulse voltage test
This test is carried· out on indoor and outdoor circuit breakers. Standard impulse wave of specified amplitude is
applied five times in succession. During the test impulse wave with reversed polarity is also applied. The impulse
wave is obtained from an impulse voltage generator. One terminal of the impulse generator is connected to the
terminal of the circuit breaker pole and the other terminal is connected to the earth and frame of the circuit breaker.
The peak value of the impulse wave and its shape is recorded using RO with calibrated voltage divider. The
different impulse voltages will have different front Wave and tail wave. During the test if there is failure of the
insulation or puncture, will be considered as the circuit breaker has failed
Time versus travel characteristics
There are two methods to obtain the time versus travel characteristics of a high voltage circuit breaker.
 Use of potentiometer: In this method, the two fixed terminals of potentiometer is supplied with 3 The stem
connected to the variable terminal of the potentiometer is connected to the lever of the circuit breaker. As
the lever moves during opening and closing operation, the current through the variable terminal changes
proportional to the travel.
 The curve-roller: This method is suitable for obtaining the travel. A drum with a paper fixed on it is driven
by a motor. The curve roller is fixed vertically on the top hood of the interrupter of the circuit breaker. A
pencil attached leaves mark on the paper as the drum rotates at the time of closing and opening.
Short circuit testing station and short circuit test
Short circuit test is conducted to prove the ratings and to obtain the behavior of the circuit breaker for research and
development. The short circuit testing plants are built specially to provide facility for short circuit testing. Provisions
are made to test the complete capability of circuit breaker by direct and indirect tests. The short circuit power is
supplied by specially built short circuit generators. There are normally two or more generators. These generators are
driven by three phase induction motors and special type of excitation called impulse series resistors and reactors are
provided for adjusting the magnitude of short circuit current and power factor. The master circuit breaker has higher
capacity than that of the circuit breaker under test and protect the breaker under test. In addition the equipments in
short circuit stations are measuring, recording and control instruments, sequence switch to obtain sequential
operation of auxiliaries tee. The preliminary preparations of circuit breaker testing include connecting the
equipments, adjusting the magnitude of the reactors, contacts on sequence switch to get desired timing etc. are done,
while testing, short circuit is created and the switch is closed. The breaking current is obtained by using
oscillograph. The circuit breaker should be capable of performing the opening and closing operations as per rated
operating sequence for all values of short circuit currents up to its rated short circuit breaking current at specified
test voltage and relevant conditions of transient recovery voltage for terminal short circuits.
Steps in installation and commissioning of outdoor circuit breakers:

In installation and commissioning, the guidelines given by manufacturers are to be followed.
 Prepare foundation, support structure of the circuit breaker in position as per the plan
 Check for the horizontal level
 Assemble operating mechanism
 Extend supply to auxiliary system egg: for motor, for trip· circuit and closing circuit
 Measure insulation resistance
 Check open and closing contacts

 Make terminal connections

 Operate breaker from local control panel
 Operate the breaker from control room as per the instructions and also by operating the respective
 Put it in actual service Circuit breakers are used at various voltage levels. The following factors are to be
given consideration while selecting the circuit breakers.
 Ratings
 Break time
 Ambient conditions
 Type; indoor or outdoor
 Control desired
 Type of operating mechanism
 Type of breaker based on arc extinction medium
 To be operated alone or in group
 Frequency of operation
 Other protective equipment’s with which to be co-ordinate
Installation procedure for circuit breakers:
In the process of installation of circuit breakers, the preliminary preparations such as study of drawings, acceptance,
report checking certificates, test reports of the equipment, completion of civil engineering work, arranging the
tools,organizing the labor, preparation of schedule of installation, preparation of sequence cards for erection etc. are
to be done.
The different steps of installation include:
 1Sequence card for erection of switchgear equipment
 Location of switchgear
 Unpacking
 Foundation
 Erection
 Bus bar earthling connections
 Connection of main cables
 Earthling
Low voltage circuit breakers
Low voltage ac circuit breakers are used in control gear for controlling power by the consuming devices. LV circuit
breakers are for indoor applications. LV circuit breaker operates more frequently than he circuit breakers. LV circuit
breakers are different from the circuit breakers from the point of view of both ratings and constructional features.
LV circuit breakers are more compact as the phase to phase and phase to ground clearances for low voltage are less.
LV circuit breakers are used for repeated switching of low currents and overload currents and have capability to
break short circuit currents. The circuit breakers operating below 1000 volts ac or 1200 volts dc are covered under
low voltage switchgear.
Ratings of LV circuit breakers

The important ratings of low voltage circuit breakers are as follows
 Rated voltage and frequency
 Rated currents
 Rated duty
 Rated short circuit making and breaking capacity
 Rated short time withstand categories
 Rated voltages: Rated operational voltage, rated Insulation voltage
 Rated currents: Rated thermal current, rated uninterrupted current
 Rated duty: short time, uninterrupted duty
 Rated short circuit making capacity
 Rated short circuit breaking capacity
 Rated short circuit withstand capacity
5.9 Tests on low voltage ac circuit breakers
The different tests to be carried out on live circuit breakers are as follows.
Type tests: To be conducted to confirm the design, on the first piece manufactured.

Temperature rise limits test

Dielectric tests
Short circuit making and breaking tests
Short time withstand current test
Mechanical endurance test
Overload performance
Routine tests: To be conducted to predict the performance behavior on each circuit breaker.
Mechanical operation tests
Calibration of releases
Dielectric tests
Insulation resistance test
For low voltage load control, the switchgear used may be one of the following
Low voltage air break circuit breaker
Low voltage contactor
Switch fuse combination
Miniature circuit breaker
Molded case breaker
Maintenance of circuit breakers
The circuit breaker is intended for repeated operations as the occurrence of the faults in the system is unpredictable.
Hence to ensure the protection of system components, more emphasis is to be given to the maintenance of circuit
breakers. The maintenance procedure differs from breaker to breaker based upon the quenching medium used. The
maintenance to be carried out includes the following.
1)Period of maintenance Under normal condition On clearing faults
2)Checking of contacts
3)Checking of arc control devices
4)Checking of insulators
5)Checking of relays
Precautions to be taken during maintenance:

The maintenance work should be carried out with authentic permission by the concerned authority.
The following steps are to be followed.
1)Isolate the live part
2)Danger notices should be displayed
3)The neighboring switch should be locked to avoid accidental switch nag
4)The equipment and conductors should be earthed
5)Power tools and safety devices to be provided to the electricians
6)Well trained people must be allowed for the work
7)First aid should be available
8)There should not be any chance of negligence
1. What are the steps involved in installation of circuit breaker?
2. State the various type of test performed as high voltage AC circuit breaker?
3. State and explain the various rating of high voltage circuit breakers?
4. Explain the high voltage test carried on circuit breaker at site
5. Write explanatory note on maintenance of circuit breaker

Describe the process to plan, control and implement commissioning of electrical equipment’s likes circuit
breakers.
Demonstrate the routine tests for switchgears.
Describe corrective and preventive maintenance of electrical equipment’s.

Explain the operation of an electrical equipment’s such as isolators, circuit breakers, induction motor
and synchronous machines.
Further Reading

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TESTING AND COMMISSIONING OF POWER SYSTEM APPARATUS 15EE752

1.2. Standards and Specifications

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 1

1.3.1 Standard specifications of a Power Transformer

1.3.2 Specification of outdoor type 3-phase distribution transformer up to and including

 Rated Frequency: The rated frequency shall be 50Hz.

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 2

1.4 Procurement and Installation of Transformers Inquiry:

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 3

 Efficiency at up at 5/4, 1/1, 3/4, 112 and 1/4 full load.

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 4

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 5

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 6

Transformer tanks may be classified as :

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 7

1.9.1 Characteristics of TOBS

Viscosity at 40°C 9-14 cost

Pour point, max -9°C

Flash point (Pesky-Marten min 145°C

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 8

Procedure of filling oil in the transformer tank:

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 9

 Maintenance of Transformer Oil:

1.10.3 Samples from transformer tank:

1.10.4 Testing of dielectric strength:

1.10.5 Crackle test:

1.11 Drying of transformers: IS 10028 (part II) 1981

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 10

1.11 Different methods of drying out:

1.11.2 Drying without oil:

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 11

Procedure / steps involved in drying out of power transformer:

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Induced over voltage [IS 2026 (part 3) : 1984]

1.12.1 Polarity testing

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 13

Generic Skills / Outcomes:

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 14

MODULE-2 : SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

2.2 Specifications Following are the ratings of synchronous machines :

Rated Voltage : 3.3 KV, 6.6 KV, 11 KV

2.3.2 Various steps in installation of an alternator

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 16

Hydrogen cooling of turbo - generators:

Water cooled machines:

2.6.1 Types of enclosures

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 17

2.6.2 Duty of rotating machines

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Where P = input power

2.8.8. Measurement of sub transient reactance

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page18

2.8.12. Vibration test

Generic Skills / Outcomes:

At the end of the course the student will be able to:

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 19

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 20

3.2.Specifications of 3-phase induction motors

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 21

3.3.Procurement of induction motor

3.4 Rating plate of induction motor

DEPT OF EEE, ATMECE, MYSURU Page 22