K.N.

SATHYAPALAN MEMORIAL SREE NARAYANA

CENTRAL SCHOOL

KADAIKODU, EZHUKONE
(SENIOR SECONDARY Affiliated by C.B.S.E, New
DELHI.CODE:930876)
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT WORK ON CHEMISTRY

TOPIC:
To study the TFM values of various samples of soap

SUBMITTED TO:
CENTRAL BOARD OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

Certified and bonafide Project Work done by:

Name :VARSHA.S.AJITH
Class :XII A
Year Of Submission :2019-20
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that VARSHA.S.AJITH a student of class

XII has successfully completed the research on the
project TFM VALUES OF DIFFERENT SAMPLES OF SOAP
under the guidance of Mrs. Soumya Sasidharan during
the year 2019-2020 in partial fulfillment of Chemistry
practical examination conducted by AISSCE.

Signature of Internal Examiner :

Signature of External Examiner :

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my deep gratitude and sincere thanks to our

principle, Mrs.P.Jayarani for her encouragement and for all
facilities that she provided for this project. I sincerely
appreciate this magnanimity by taking me into her fold for
which I shall remain indebted to her .
I extend my hearty thanks to our Chemistry teacher,
Mrs.Soumya Sasidharan those who guided for the successful
completion of this project. I take this opportunity to express
my deep gratitude for his valuable guidance, constant
encouragement ,constructive comments, sympathetic
attitude and immense motivation, which has sustained
my efforts at all stages of this project work.
I express my sincere thanks to my classmates who
helped me to carry out this project successfully and for
their valuable advice and support , which I received from
them time to time .
Above all I thank god almighty whose blessings
helped me to complete this project in time .
STUDY OF TFM VALUES IN DIFFERENT
SAMPLES OF SOAP
1.INTRODUCTION
2.WHAT IS SOAP
3.TOILET SOAP AND BATHING SOAP
4.HOW TO SELECT A GOOD SOAP
5.TOTAL FATTY MATTER (TFM)
6.CLASSIFICATION OF SOAP:
ACCORDING TO ITS TFM RANGE
7.MANUFACTURING OF SOAP
8.CONCLUSION
9.BIBLIOGRAPHY.
 INTRODUCTION
This project is of Investigatory Type. In this project,
various samples of soaps are
collected and to study its TMF(Total Fatty Matter).

The earliest recorded evidence of the production of

soap like materials dates back
to around 2800BC in ancient Babylon. A formula for
soap consisting of water, alkali, and
cassia oil was written on a Babylonian clay tablet
around 2200BC.

The Ebers papyrus (Egypt. 1550 BC) indicates the

ancient Egyptians bathed
regularly and combined animal and vegetable oils with
alkaline salts to create a soaplike
substance. Egyptian documents mention a soap-like
substance was used in the
preparation of wool for weaving.
In the region of Nabonidus (556-539 BC), a recipe for
soap consisted of uhulu
(ashes),cypress(oil) and sesame (seed oil) “for washing
the stones for the servant girls.”

In modern times, the use of soap has become universal

in industrialized nations due to a
better understanding of the role of hygiene in reducing
the population size of pathogenic
microorganisms. Industrially manufactured bar soaps
first became available in the late
United States promoted popular awareness of the
relationship between cleanliness and health
WHAT IS SOAP?
It is a product formed by the process of
‘saponification’, which includes a reaction
between alkali and oil (fatty substance). When
this reaction takes place, glycerine is formed as
a by-product and is present in the soap itself and
gives the soap its moisturizing property. So, the
ultimate product called ‘soap’ is actually a salt.

TOILET SOAP AND BATHING BAR

According to the BIS, there are two types of

soaps in the market: toilet soaps and bathing bars.
Primary quality of soap depends on total fatty
matter (TFM), which lends soaps their soapy
feel.
It is the TFM and insoluble matter in the soap
that largely distinguishes toilet soaps from bathing
bars. Toilet soap often contains a higher quantity
of fatty material, varying from 60 per cent to 80
per cent (depending upon the grade of toilet soap,
being highest in Grade 1), whereas bathing bars
have lesser fatty substance (generally around 40
per cent).
The bathing bar contains acceptable surfaceactive
agents that can be used for bathing
purposes. In addition to surfactants and perfume,
the bathing bar may also contain other ingredients
such as processing aids, colouring matter,
permitted antioxidants, preservatives, permissible
germicides, super fatting agents, humectants and
such additional substances that are declared on
the label.
Godrej
Fair Glow
Park
Avenue
How to Select a Good Soap?

It’s natural for every human on earth to bathe at least

once a day. Bathing serves the dual purpose of cooling
our body by removing excess heat and cleansing our
body of the dirt it has acquired. Generally, soaps are
used by people to serve the purpose of cleaning the
body. We take a lot of time to select a soap based on
its brand name, fragrance, shape, size, quantity and so
on. But what if I tell you are missing out to look at one
of the most important features which have more
importance than all the other features mentioned
above. You must be wondering which feature I am
referring to. I am referring to Total Fatty Matter (TFM)
which is one of the most important features which will
define how smooth your skin will be after cleansing
yourself with soap.

Total Fatty Matter (TFM) is one of the most important

characteristics describing the quality of soaps. When
one says healthcare and wellness, we immediately
think of food, nutrition, and exercise. But what about
external body care? How your soap affects your well-
being? Higher TFM ensures that soaps are least
harmful to the skin and do not cause dryness; in
“bathing” bars less TFM means very harmful soap, that
soap will grasp all the moisture present in the skin
making it dry. As skin becomes dry, it may become
more sensitive and prone to rashes, infections and skin
breakdown. This condition is sometimes referred to as
xerosis.
Total Fatty Matter (% by
Mass)
Total fatty matter (TFM) is one of the most important
characteristics describing the quality of soap and it is
always specified in commercial transactions. It is
defined as the total amount of fatty matter, mostly
fatty acids, that can be separated from a sample after
splitting with mineral acid, usually hydrochloric acid.
The fatty acids most commonly present in soap are
oleic, stearic and palmitic acids and pure, dry, sodium
oleate has TFM 92.8%, while top quality soap noodles
now increasingly used for making soap tablets in small
and medium size factories, are typically traded with a
specification TFM 78% min., moisture 14% max. But
besides moisture, finished commercial soap, especially
laundry soap, and also contains fillers used to lower its
cost or confer special properties, plus
emollients, preservatives, etc. and then the TFM can
be as low as 50%. Fillers, which are usually dry
powders, also make the soap harder, harsher on the
skin and with greater tendency to become 'mushy' in
water and so low TFM is usually associated with lower
quality and hardness. In older days in Europe and in
some countries now, soap with TFM 75% minimum
was referred to as Grade 1 and 65% minimum as Grade
2 and less 60% as Grade 3.
Classification of Soap
According to its TFM Range
Grade 1
This a high grade, thoroughly saponified, milled
soap or homogenized soap or both, white or
coloured, perfumed and compressed in the form of
firm smooth cakes, and shall possess good
cleaning
and lathering properties.
Mandatory TFM requirement:76 per cent minimum

Grade 2
This is a thoroughly saponified, plodded soap
of firm and smooth texture. It shall be white
orcoloured, perfumed, and shall possess good
cleaning and lathering properties.
Mandatory TFM requirement: 70 per cent Minimum

Grade 3
This is a saponified soap of firm and smooth
texture.
It shall be white or coloured, usually red if cresylic
acid is added and shall possess good cleaning
and
lathering properties.
Mandatory TFM requirement: 60 per cent minimum
Grade 2 Grade 3

Manufacturing of Soap
Total Fatty

Raw Materials
Soap requires two major raw materials: fat and
alkali. The alkali most commonly used today is
sodium hydroxide. Potassium hydroxide can also
be used. Potassium-based soap creates a
more water-soluble product than sodium-based
soap, and so it is called "soft soap." Soft soap,
alone or in combination with sodium-based soap,
is commonly used in shaving products.
Animal fat in the past was obtained directly from a
slaughterhouse. Modern soapmakers use fat that
has been processed into fatty acids. This
eliminates many impurities, and it produces as a
byproduct water instead of glycerin. Many
vegetable fats, including olive oil, palm kernel oil,
and coconut oil, are also used in soap making.
Additives are used to enhance the color, texture,
and scent of soap. Fragrances and perfumes are
added to the soap mixture to

The above illustrations show the kettle process of

making soap.
cover the odor of dirt and to leave behind a fresh-
smelling scent. Abrasives to enhance the texture
of soap include talc, silica, and marble pumice
(volcanic ash). Soap made without dye is a dull
grey or brown color, but modern manufacturers
color soap to make it more enticing to the
consumer.
The Manufacturing Process
The kettle method of making soap is still used
today by small soap manufacturing companies.
This process takes from four to eleven days to
complete, and the quality of each batch is
inconsistent due to the variety of oils used. Around
1940, engineers and scientists developed a more
efficient manufacturing process, called the
continuous process. This procedure is employed
by large soap manufacturing companies all around
the world today. Exactly as the name states, in the
continuous process soap is produced
continuously, rather than one batch at a time.
Technicians have more control of the production in
the continuous process, and the steps are much
quicker than in the kettle method—it takes only
about six hours to complete a batch of soap.

The Kettle Process

Boiling
 1 Fats and alkali are melted in a kettle, which
is a steel tank that can stand three stories high
and hold several thousand pounds of material.
Steam coils within the kettle heat the batch
and bring it to a boil. After boiling, the mass
 thickens as the fat reacts with the alkali,
producing soap and glycerin.
Salting
 2 The soap and glycerin must now be
separated. The mixture is treated with salt,
causing the soap to rise to the top and the
glycerin to settle to the bottom. The glycerin is
extracted from the bottom of the kettle.
Strong change
 3 To remove the small amounts of fat that
have not saponified, a strong caustic solution
is added to the kettle. This step in the process
is called "strong change." The mass is brought
to a boil again, and the last of the fat turns to
soap. The batch may be given another salt
treatment at this time, or the manufacturer
may proceed to the next step.

Pitching
4 The next step is called "pitching." The soap
in the kettle is boiled again with added water.
The mass eventually separates into two
layers. The top layer is called "neat soap,"
which is about 70% soap and 30% water. The
lower layer, called "nigre," contains most of the
impurities in the soap such as dirt and salt, as
well as most of the water. The neat soap is
taken off the top. The soap is then cooled. The
finishing process is the same as for soap
made by the continuous process.

Developed around 1940 and used by today's major soap-making companies, the above
illustrations show the continuous process of making soap.
The Continuous Process
Splitting
 1 The first step of the continuous process
splits natural fat into fatty acids and glycerin.
The equipment used is a vertical stainless
steel column with the diameter of a barrel
called a hydrolizer. It may be as tall as 80 feet
(24 m). Pumps and meters attached to the
column allow precise measurements and
control of the process. Molten fat is pumped
into one end of the column, while at the other
end water at high temperature (266°F [130°C])
and pressure is introduced. This splits the fat
into its two components. The fatty acid and
glycerin are pumped out continuously as more
fat and water enter. The fatty acids are
then distilled for purification.
Mixing
 2 The purified fatty acids are next mixed with a
precise amount of alkali to form soap. Other
ingredients such as abrasives and fragrance
are also mixed in. The hot liquid soap may be
then whipped to incorporate air.
Cooling and finishing
 3 The soap may be poured into molds and
allowed to harden into a large slab. It may also
be cooled in a special freezer. The slab is cut
into smaller pieces of bar size, which are then
stamped and wrapped. The entire continuous
process, from splitting to finishing, can be
accomplished in several hours.
Milling
 4 Most toiletry soap undergoes additional
processing called milling. The milled bar
lathers up better and has a finer consistency
than non-milled soap. The cooled soap is fed
through several sets of heavy rollers (mills),
which crush and knead it. Perfumes can best
be incorporated at this time because
their volatile oils do not evaporate in the cold
mixture. After the soap emerges from the mills,
it is pressed into a smooth cylinder
and extruded then made into bars.

Byproducts
Glycerin is a very useful byproduct of soap
manufacture. It is used to make hand lotion, drugs,
and nitroglycerin, the main component of
explosives such as dynamite.
CONCLUSION

Soap contains alkali matter, which affects our skin

and even skin may crack. To
maintain the oily and moisture balance on our skin,
fatty material required in soap. In
general the fatty matter in soap is approximately
70% to 80% fatty matter below 70%
made our skin dry, rough and skin may crack
where as highest percentage [%] of fatty
matter above 80% made the soap sticky and oily
and washing become very difficult.
From the table it is clear that the Lux international
is the best soap for bathing purpose
because it contain large amount of TFM or
maximum percentage[%] of TFM.
BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.wikipedia.com
www.yahooanswers.com
www.quora.com
THE COMPLETE REFERENCE CHEMISTRY BY :
S. CHAND