Beam (structure)

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A statically determinate beam, bending (sagging) under a uniformly distributed load

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to
the beam's axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied
to the beam result in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total
effect of all the forces acting on the beam is to produce shear forces and bending
moments within the beam, that in turn induce internal stresses, strains and
deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of support,
profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material.

Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural

elements, but any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft
components, machine frames, and other mechanical or structural systems contain beam
structures that are designed to carry lateral loads are analyzed in a similar
fashion.

Contents
1 Overview
2 Classification based on supports
3 Area moment of inertia
4 Stress
5 General shapes
6 Thin walled
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
Overview
Historically beams were squared timbers but are also metal, stone, or combinations
of wood and metal[1] such as a flitch beam. Beams can carry vertical gravitational
forces but are primarily used to carry horizontal loads (e.g., loads due to an
earthquake or wind or in tension to resist rafter thrust as a tie beam or (usually)
compression as a collar beam). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to
columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural
compression members and eventually to ground. In light frame construction, joists
may rest on beams.

In carpentry, a beam is called a plate as in a sill plate or wall plate, beam as in

a summer beam or dragon beam.

Classification based on supports

In engineering, beams are of several types:[2]

Simply supported � a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have
no moment resistance.
Fixed � a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
Over hanging � a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
Double overhanging � a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports on
both ends.
Continuous � a beam extending over more than two supports.
Cantilever � a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
Trussed � a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss.[3]
Area moment of inertia
Main article: Second moment of area
In the beam equation I is used to represent the second moment of area. It is
commonly known as the moment of inertia, and is the sum, about the neutral axis, of
dA*r^2, where r is the distance from the neutral axis, and dA is a small patch of
area. Therefore, it encompasses not just how much area the beam section has
overall, but how far each bit of area is from the axis, squared. The greater I is,
the stiffer the beam in bending, for a given material.

Diagram of stiffness of a simple square beam (A) and universal beam (B). The
universal beam flange sections are three times further apart than the solid beam's
upper and lower halves. The second moment of inertia of the universal beam is nine
times that of the square beam of equal cross section (universal beam web ignored
for simplification)
Stress
Internally, beams subjected to loads that do not induce torsion or axial loading
experience compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads applied
to them. Typically, under gravity loads, the original length of the beam is
slightly reduced to enclose a smaller radius arc at the top of the beam, resulting
in compression, while the same original beam length at the bottom of the beam is
slightly stretched to enclose a larger radius arc, and so is under tension. Modes
of deformation where the top face of the beam is in compression, as under a
vertical load, are known as sagging modes and where the top is in tension, for
example over a support, is known as hogging. The same original length of the middle
of the beam, generally halfway between the top and bottom, is the same as the
radial arc of bending, and so it is under neither compression nor tension, and
defines the neutral axis (dotted line in the beam figure). Above the supports, the
beam is exposed to shear stress. There are some reinforced concrete beams in which
the concrete is entirely in compression with tensile forces taken by steel tendons.
These beams are known as prestressed concrete beams, and are fabricated to produce
a compression more than the expected tension under loading conditions. High
strength steel tendons are stretched while the beam is cast over them. Then, when
the concrete has cured, the tendons are slowly released and the beam is immediately
under eccentric axial loads. This eccentric loading creates an internal moment,
and, in turn, increases the moment carrying capacity of the beam. They are commonly
used on highway bridges.

A beam of PSL lumber installed to replace a load-bearing wall

The primary tool for structural analysis of beams is the Euler�Bernoulli beam
equation. This equation accurately describes the elastic behaviour of slender beams
where the cross sectional dimensions are small compared to the length of the beam.
For beams that are not slender a different theory needs to be adopted to account
for the deformation due to shear forces and, in dynamic cases, the rotary inertia.
The beam formulation adopted here is that of Timoshenko and comparative examples
can be found in NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7.[4] Other mathematical methods
for determining the deflection of beams include "method of virtual work" and the
"slope deflection method". Engineers are interested in determining deflections
because the beam may be in direct contact with a brittle material such as glass.
Beam deflections are also minimized for aesthetic reasons. A visibly sagging beam,
even if structurally safe, is unsightly and to be avoided. A stiffer beam (high
modulus of elasticity and/or one of higher second moment of area) creates less
deflection.

Mathematical methods for determining the beam forces (internal forces of the beam
and the forces that are imposed on the beam support) include the "moment
distribution method", the force or flexibility method and the direct stiffness
method.

General shapes
Most beams in reinforced concrete buildings have rectangular cross sections, but a
more efficient cross section for a beam is an I or H section which is typically
seen in steel construction. Because of the parallel axis theorem and the fact that
most of the material is away from the neutral axis, the second moment of area of
the beam increases, which in turn increases the stiffness.

An I shaped beam of metal under a bridge

An I-beam is only the most efficient shape in one direction of bending: up and down
looking at the profile as an I. If the beam is bent side to side, it functions as
an H where it is less efficient. The most efficient shape for both directions in 2D
is a box (a square shell) however the most efficient shape for bending in any
direction is a cylindrical shell or tube. But, for unidirectional bending, the I or
wide flange beam is superior.[citation needed]

Efficiency means that for the same cross sectional area (volume of beam per length)
subjected to the same loading conditions, the beam deflects less.

Other shapes, like L (angles), C (channels) or tubes, are also used in construction
when there are special requirements.

Thin walled
Main article: Thin walled beams
A thin walled beam is a very useful type of beam (structure). The cross section of
thin walled beams is made up from thin panels connected among themselves to create
closed or open cross sections of a beam (structure). Typical closed sections
include round, square, and rectangular tubes. Open sections include I-beams, T-
beams, L-beams, and so on. Thin walled beams exist because their bending stiffness
per unit cross sectional area is much higher than that for solid cross sections
such a rod or bar. In this way, stiff beams can be achieved with minimum weight.
Thin walled beams are particularly useful when the material is a composite
laminate. Pioneer work on composite laminate thin walled beams was done by
Librescu.

The torsional stiffness of a beam is greatly influenced by its cross sectional

shape. For open sections, such as I sections, warping deflections occur which, if
restrained, greatly increase the torsional stiffness.[5]

See also
Airy points
Beam engine
Building code
Cantilever
Classical mechanics
Deflection (engineering)
Elasticity (physics) and Plasticity (physics)
Euler�Bernoulli beam theory
Finite element method in structural mechanics
Flexural modulus
Free body diagram
Influence line
Materials science and Strength of materials
Moment (physics)
Poisson's ratio
Post and lintel
Shear strength
Statics and Statically indeterminate
Stress (mechanics) and Strain (materials science)
Thin-shell structure
Timber framing
Truss
Ultimate tensile strength and Hooke's law
Yield (engineering)
References
"Beam" def. 1. Whitney, William Dwight, and Benjamin E. Smith. The Century
dictionary and cyclopedia. vol, 1. New York: Century Co., 1901. 487. Print.
Ching, Frank. A visual dictionary of architecture. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold, 1995. 8�9. Print.
The American Architect and Building News, Vol XXIII. Boston: James R. Osgood & Co.
1888. p. 159.
Ramsay, Angus. "NAFEMS Benchmark Challenge Number 7" (PDF). ramsay-maunder.co.uk.
Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Ramsay, Angus. "The Influence and Modelling of Warping Restraint on Beams".
ramsay-maunder.co.uk. Retrieved 7 May 2017.
Further reading
Popov, Egor P. (1968). Introduction to mechanics of solids. Prentice-Hall. ISBN
978-0-13-726159-8.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Beams.
[1] Common Beam Support Types
Beam Calculator calculates reactions, shear & moment diagrams, free body diagram &
deflection plots
American Wood Council: Free Download Library Wood Construction Data
online Span Calculator
Introduction to Structural Design, U. Virginia Dept. Architecture
Beam Analysis Calculator
Online Beam Calculator (Free Version)
Glossary
Course Sampler Lectures, Projects, Tests
Beams and Bending review points (follow using next buttons)
Structural Behavior and Design Approaches lectures (follow using next buttons)
BeamAnalysis
U. Wisconsin�Stout, Strength of Materials online lectures, problems,
tests/solutions, links, software
Beams I � Shear Forces and Bending Moments
Beam calculations in MS Excel from ExcelCalcs.com
Beam Calculation Software for Windows from beams.com
M.A.D. Propz Free downloadable desktop application for calculating section
properties and stress/strain analysis of beam cross-sections
Medeek Beam Calculator Online Beam Calculator and EngineeriWooWood)
Simple beam analysis calculator for shear force and bending moment