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I REPORTS
periment 1were not due to differentialsensitivity to
The Psychological Consequences theexperimenter'shigher status.The second change
was to themanipulation of themoney prime.We
of Money hypothesized thatmoney primes are unlikely to
activate the idea of meager finances - rather,
Kathleen D. Vohs,* Nicole L.Mead,2 Miranda R. Goode3 monetarywealth is probablywhat is activated.This
reasoningsuggests thatdiwctly remindingpeople of
Money has been said to change people's motivation (mainly for the better) and their behavior meager financeswill not lead to the same effects as
toward others (mainly for the worse). The results of nine experiments suggest that money brings remindersof financial affluence,which we tested
about a self-sufficient orientation inwhich people prefer to be free of dependency and dependents. systematically inExperiment2.
Reminders of money, relative to nonmoney reminders, led to reduced requests for help and Participantswere randomly assigned between
reduced helpfulness toward others. Relative to participants primed with neutral concepts, twomanipulations;one condition activated the idea
participants primed with money preferred to play alone, work alone, and put more physical of an abundanceof money (highmoney) and the
distance between themselves and a new acquaintance other activated the idea of restricted amount of
money (lowmoney). Participantsfirstreadaloud an
People long have debated the effects of changes in behavior that suggest a feeling of self essay in frontof a video camera.Participantsin the
money on human behavior. Some scholars sufficiency.When reminded of money, people high-money condition read about growing up
have pointed to its role as an incentive, would want to be free fromdependency andwould having abundantfinancial resources,whereas low
insofar as people want money inorder to trade it also prefer thatothers not depend on them. money participantsread about growing up having
for prized goods or services (1, 2). Others, how In Experiment 1, participantswere randomly meager resources.Afterward, all participantswere
ever, have deplored money for undermining in assigned to threeconditions. In two conditions (play given theopportunity to ask for help.
terpersonal harmony (3). We propose that both money and money prime), participantswere re The indicatorof self-sufficiencywas persistence
outcomes emerge from the same underlying pro minded of money; control participantswere not on an impossible taskbefore asking for help. The
cess: Money makes people feel self-sufficient remindedof money (6).All participantsfirstcom participant'sjob was to outline all segments of a
and behave accordingly. pleted a descramblingtask (7),which activatedneu geometric figureonce and only once without lifting
In this Report, "money" refers to a distinct tul concepts (controland play money) or money thepencil or retracingany segments.Unbeknownst
entity, a particular economic concept. Consistent (money prime).The descramblingtaskconsistedof to participants,the figurewas unsolvable. After 2
with other scholarlyuses of the term (1),we use the 30 sets of five jumbledwords. Participantscreated min of working alone, the experimenter and a
termmoney to represent the idea of money, not sensiblephrses using fourof the fivewords. In the confederate (who was blind to the participant's
propertyor possessions. Our researchactivates the control and play-money conditions, the phrases condition) entered the room.The experimentersaid
concept of money throughtheuse of mental prim primed neutrl concepts (e.g., "cold it desk outside
ing techniques,which heighten the accessibility of is"became "it is cold outside"). In themoney-prime
the ideaof money but at a level below participants' condition, 15 of the phrasesprimed the concept of A
100
conscious awareness. Thus, priming acts as a money (e.g., "higha salarydesk paying"became "a
nonconscious reminderof the concept of money. high-payingsalary"), whereas the remaining15were
We testedwhether activating the concept of neutrl phrases (6). Participantsin the play-money 00 E Z 75/
money leads people to behave self-sufficiently, conditionwere primedwith money by a stack of
which we define as an insulated state wherein Monopoly money in theirvisual peripherywhile a) c
4)50
people put forth effort to attainpersonal goals and completing the neutral descrambling task.
prefer to be separate from others. The term aswe Next, participantswere given a difficult but
define it does not imply a value judgment and solvable problem that involved arranging 12 cr 25- -0--Control
a)
encompasses a mixture of desirable and un disks into a squarewith five disks per side. As / Play-money
U Moneypnme
desirable qualities, which may help explain the the experimenter exited the room, he offered that C
positive and negative consequences of money (4). he was available to help if theparticipantwanted > 1 2 4 6 8 10
The self-sufficiency hypothesis encapsulates assistance. Persistence on the problem before Time (m)
findings from extant researchon money. Ifmoney asking for help was the dependent measure (8).
brings about a stateof self-sufficiency, then a lack As predicted,participantswho were reminded B
of money should make people feel ineffectual. of money (playmoney andmoney prime)worked 60
Previous researchindicatesthatphysical andmental longer than control participantsbefore requesting
illness after financial strain due to job loss is help [F(2,49) = 3.73, P < 0.04; mean (M)money (D
a)
45
mediated by reducedfeelingsof person
statistically prime = 314.06 s, SD = 172.79;M playmoney = co
al control (5).A recent theoryby Lea andWebley 305.22 s, SD = 162.47;Mcontrol = 186.12 s, SD = E
0
(1),which charctrize money as both a tool and a 118.09].The twomoney conditions did not differ 30
0.
drug, emphasizes thatpeople value money for its from each other [t(49) < 1], but each was I
instrumentality: Money enables people to achieve significantly different from the control group
a 15
goals without aid from others. Therefore, we [money prime versus control: t(49) = 2.44, P <
- |Low Moneyl
-O
predicted that remindersof money would lead to 0.02; Cohen's d = 0.86; play money versus Dr
(1) O- | - *- HighMoney
control: t(49) = 2.30, P < 0.03; Cohen's d =
5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5
'Department of Marketing, Carlson School of Management, 0.84]. Percentages of participantswho requested
University of Minnesota, 3-150 321 19th Avenue South, Time (m)
help are shown in Fig. IA.
Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA. 'Department of Psychology,
Florida State University, Tallahasse, FL 32306-4301,
InExperiment 2, we made two key changes Fig. 1. Percentage of participants who asked
USA.
3Marketing Division, Sauder School of Business, University of to increase the generalizability of the findings of for help as a function of money prime and
British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z2, Canada. Experiment 1. First,we equated statusdifferences length of time that had elapsed while working
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: between thewould-be helper and theparticipantto on (A) a difficult task (from Experiment 1) or
kvohs@csom.umn.edu ensure thatdifferences in requests for help inEx (B) an unsolvable task (from Experiment 2).

1154 17NOVEMBER
2006 VOL
314 SCIENCE
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that the confederatewas another parficipantwho would have asked for immediateaid); thus,money
had just completed this expenment and therefore condition participantsmay have failed to realize
could be asked for help, if needed. that help was truly needed. Accordingly, itwas
Results indicated that participants in the important to move beyond promises of help to
high-money conditionworked significantly longer measuring realhelping behavior.
than participants in the low-money condition In Experiment 4, two between-subject con
before asking for help [t(35) = 2.03, P= 0.05; ditions were used to prime money or neutral
Cohen's d = 0.65;M high money = 1058.48 s, concepts. Each participant completed the de
SD = 210.12; Mlow money = 876.63 s, SD = scramble tasks (from Experiment 1). Next, the
334.42]. Percentages of participants asking for participantwas left alone to complete irrelevant
help are shown in Fig. lB. Thus, the effects of questionnaires.Meanwhile, the experimenter re
money did not depend on relative status differ enteredwith a confederate (who was blind to the
ences between the participant and the helper. participant'spriming condition) and introducedher
InExperiment 3, we predicted thatpeople who as anotherparticipant.The experimenterexplained
value self-sufficiency would be less helpful than that therewas no space in the laboratoryand
others because they expect that each person will thereforetheconfederatemust sharea roomwith the
take care of him- or herself. Hence, we expected participantAfter pretendingtowork foroneminute,
that participants primed with money would the confederateasked theparticipantto explain the
volunteer less time relative to control participants. directionsfor the taskshewas given because she did
Participantswere randomlyassigned to one of two not understandwhat to do. Time spenthelping the
conditions, one thatprimedmoney and one with confederatewas themeasure of helping.
neutral concepts. The primingmanipulations were Participants who were primed with money
the money and neutal (control condition) de were less helpful than participants not primed
scramble tasks fromExperiment 1. with money [t(42) = 2.13, P < 0.04; Cohen's d=
After the priming task, the experimenter 0.63]. The data showed thatparticipants primed
explained that she was an undergraduate who with money spent half asmuch time helping the
was looking for help coding data and asked confused confederate as did participants in the
whether the participant would be able to help control condition (Table 1). Apparently, partic
(9). She explained that each data sheet takes ap ipantswho were primed with money believed
proximately 5min to code. Participantswere left that the confederate should figure out on her own
alone to indicate how many data sheets, if any, how to perform the task, as a self-sufficient
theywould be willing to code and also to pro person would do.
vide their contact information. InExperiment 5, we wanted to give money
Participants in the money condition volun primed participants a helping opportunity that
teered to help code fewer data sheets than did requiredno skill or expertise, given that the help
participants in the control condition [t(37)= 2.06, thatwas needed in the two previous experiments
P < 0.05; Cohen's d = 0.66] (Table 1).Tanslated may have been perceived as requiring knowl
into time,control conditionparticipantsvolunteered edge or special skill to enact. The opportunity to
an average of 42.5 min of their time, whereas help in the current experiment was quite easy
participants in the money condition volunteered and obvious, in that it involved helping a person
only slightlymore thanhalf thatmuch (-25 min). who spilled a box of pencils.
Experiment 3 showed thatparficipantsprimed Participantswere randomly assigned to one of
with money offered less help to the experimenter threeconditions thatwere manipulated in two steps.
thandid participantsprimedwith neutralconcepts. Each participant first played the board game
Yet, itmay be thatby asking forhelp for sometime Monopoly with a confederate (who was blind to
in the future, the experimenter suggested that she the participant's condition) posing as another
was not in dire straits (inwhich case, she likely participant.After 7 min, the game was cleared
Table 1. Helpfulness as a function of experimental condition in Experiments (Exp.)3 to 6. The data
are means ? SD; higher numbers indicate greater helpfulness. Within each experiment, means from
the money and no-money conditions are different from each other at P < 0.05.
Exp. no. Money No-money condition Dependent variable
condition
3 5.10 ? 3.99 8.47 ? 5.99 Number of data sheets
participantsvolunteered
to code
4 67.35 ? 84.65 147.81 ? 158.15 Time spent helping a peer
(seconds)
5 18.00 ? 1.96 20.30 ? 1.77 Number of pencils gathered
(control)
19.72 ? 2.28
(lowmoney)
6 0.77 ? 0.74 1.34 ? 1.02 Monetary donations (in $)
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314 17NOVEMBER
2006
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REPORTSI
except for differing amounts of play money.
Participants in the high-money condition were
left with $4000, which is a large amount of
Monopoly money. Participants in the low-money
condition were leftwith $200. Control condition
participantswere leftwith no money. For high
and low-money participants, the play money
remained in view for the second part of thema
nipulation. At this step, participantswere asked
to imagine a futurewith abundant finances (high
money), with strained finances (low money), or
theirplans for tomorrow (control).
Next, a staged accident provided the oppor
tunity to help. A new confederate (whowas blind
to the participant's priming condition) walked
across the laboratoryholding a folder of papers
and a box of pencils, and spilled the pencils in
front of the participant. The number of pencils
picked up (out of 27 total)was themeasure of
helpfulness.
As predicted, the money prime influenced
helpfulness [F(2, 32) = 4.34, P < 0.03]. Participants
in thehigh-money conditiongathered fewerpencils
thandid participants in the low-money condition
[t(32) = 2.75, P < 0.02; Cohen's d = 0.81] or
those in the control condition [t(32) = 2.13, P <
0.05; Cohen's d = 1.23] (Table 1).Helpfulness
did not differ between the low-money group and
the control group [t < 1, not significant). Even
though gathering pencils was an action that all
participantscould perform, participants reminded
of financialwealth were unhelpful.
Experiment6 testedfor thepsychological effects
of money by operationalizing helpfulness as
monetary donations.Upon arival to the laboratory,
parficipantswere given $2 in quarters in exchange
for theirparticipation.
The quarterswere said tohave
been used inan experiment thatwas now complete;
in actuality,giving participants quarters ensured
that they had money to donate (9).
Participants were randomly assigned to one
of two conditions, inwhich they descrambled
phrases (as inExperiment 1) thatprimedmoney
or neutral concepts. Then participants completed
some filler questionnaires, afterwhich the exper
imenter told them that the experiment was
finished and gave them a false debriefing. This
step was done so that participants would not
connect the donation opportunity to the experi
ment. As the experimenter exited the room, she
mentioned that the labwas taking donations for
theUniversity Student Fund and that therewas a
box by the door if the participant wished to
donate.Amount of money donated was themea
sure of helping. We found that Participants
primed with money donated significantly less
money to the student fund than participants not
primed with money [t(38) = 2.13, P < 0.05;
Cohen's d = 0.64] (Table 1).
To convincingly demonstrate that money
makes people self-sufficient, we tested the
hypothesis innew contexts. The final experiments
tested the effects of money on social intimacy,
desire to engage in leisure activities alone, and
preference to work alone. In Experiment 7,
1155
I REPORTS
participantswere randomly assigned to one of
threepriming conditions. Participants sat in front
of a computer while completing questionnaires.
After 6 min, one of three screensavers appeared.
Participants in themoney condition saw a screen
saverdepicting various denominations of currency
floating underwater (fig. S1). Participants in the
fish condition saw a screensaver with fish
swimming underwater (fig. S2). Participants in
the no-screensaver condition saw a blank screen.
Afterwards, participantswere told theywould
be having a get-acquainted conversation with
another participant. Participants were asked to
move two chairs togetherwhile the experimenter
left to retrieve theother participant.The dependent
measure was distance between the two chairs (10).
Participants primed with money placed the
two chairs farther apart than did participants in
the fish condition [t(33) = 2.37, P < 0.05;
Cohen's d = 1.07] and the no-screensaver
condition [t(33) = 2.30, P < 0.05; Cohen's d =
0.85] (Table 2). Chair distance did not differ
between fish and blank screensaver conditions
[t(33) < 1, not significant]. Hence, participants
primed with money put more physical distance
between themselves and a new acquaintance
than participants not primed with money.
InExperiment 8, we testedwhether money
primed participantswould place a premium on
being alone even when choosing leisure activ
ities that could be enjoyed with friends and
family. Participants were randomly assigned to
one of three priming conditions. Participants
first sat at a desk, which faced one of threepost
ers, to complete filler questionnaires. In the
money condition, the desk faced a poster show
ing a photograph of various denominations of
currency (fig. S3). In two control conditions, the
desk faced a poster showing either a seascape or
a flower garden (figs. S4 and S5).
Subsequently, participantswere presentedwith
a nine-item questionnaire that asked them to
choose between two activities.Within each item,
one optionwas an experience thatonly one person
could enjoy and the other option was for two
people or more (e.g., an in-home catered dinner
for fourversus fourpersonal cooking lessons).
Table 2. Social distance preferences as a functionof experimentalcondition inExperiments(Exp.)7 to 9.
The data aremeans ? SD;higher numbers indicatepreferences forgreater social distance. InExperiments
7 and 9, the neutral 1 condition representsthe fish screensavercondition,whereas the neutral2 condition
represents the no-screensaver condition. InExperiment8, the neutral 1 condition represents the flower
poster,whereas the neutral2 condition representsthe seascape poster.Within each experiment,means for
themoney condition differ frommeans in both neutral conditions at P < 0.05.
Exp. no. Money Neutral 1
condition condition
7 118.44 ? 41.63 79.48 ? 30.43
8 4.00 ? 1.20 2.82 ? 1.00
9 0.83 ? 0.39 0.31 ? 0.48
1156 17 NOVEMBER
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Participants primed with money chose more
individually focused leisure experiences than
participants primedwith either of the two neutral
primes [F(2, 58) = 4.04, P < 0.05; money versus
seascape: t(58) = 2.75, P < 0.05; Cohen's d =
0.59; money versus flowers: t(58) = 2.10, P <
0.05; Cohen's d = 1.06] (Table 2). The choice of
activities did not differ between neutral con
ditions [t(58) < 1, not significant]. Thus, money
primes lead people to be less social relative to
those in nonmoney prime conditions.
In Experiment 9, a more rigorous test of the
self-sufficiency hypothesis was tested:We asked
whether people remindedof money would choose
towork alone.Working on a taskwith a co-wolker
presumablymeans lesswork for each person, but
the co-workermay prefer to relyon theparticipant;
which would be an afifnt to self-sufficiency.
Participantswere given the option of working on
a projectwith a peer or alone. Participantswere
randomlyassigned to threepriming conditions.As
in Experiment 7, screensavers showing money,
fish, or no screensaver primed money or non
money concepts. Participantswere then told that
their next task was an advertisement develop
ment task on which they could work alone or
with a peer. Participantswere left alone to in
dicate their choice.
Participants' desire to work with a peer
was significantly affected by priming condition
[X2(2, n = 37) = 10.10, P < 0.01] (Table 2).
Choosing toperform the taskwith a co-workerwas
reducedamongmoney condition participantsrela
tive to participants inboth the fish [X2(1)= 7.00,
P < 0.05; odds ratio= 11.25] and no-screensaver
conditions [X2(1) = 8.22, P < 0.05; odds ratio=
15.00]. There was no difference in choice be
tween the fish and no-screensaver conditions
[t(34) < 1, P > 0.05, not significant].
Nine experiments provided support for the
hypothesis-thatmoney brings about a stateof self
sufficiency. Relative to people not reminded of
money, people remindedof money reliably per
fonned independentbut socially insensitiveactions.
The magnitude (11) of these effects is notable and
somewhat surprising,given that our participants
were highly familiarwith money (12) and thatour
Neutral 2 Dependent variable
condition
80.54 ? 47.06 Physical distance between
participantand partner
(centimeters)
3.10 ? 1.80 Number of solitary
activity selections
0.25 ? 0.45 Proportionof participants
who opted to work alone
2006 VOL 314 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
manipulaions were minor environmentalchanges
or small tasks forparticipantsto complete.
Research on the repercussions of studying
economics dovetails nicely with our results.
Frank, Gilovich, and Regan (13) reported that
university studentsmajoring in economics made
self-interested moves in social dilemma games
more often than students of other disciplines.
Economics students also were more convinced
than noneconomists that their competitors
would make self-interested moves, a result that
echoes the present thesis thatmoney evokes a
view that everyone fends for him- or herself
The self-sufficient pattem helps explain why
people view money as both the greatest good
and evil. As countries and cultures developed,
money may have allowed people to acquire
goods and services that enabled the pursuit of
cherished goals, which in tum diminished re
liance on friends and family. In thisway, money
enhanced individualism but diminished commu
nalmotivations, an effect that is still apparent in
people's responses tomoney today.
References and Notes
1. S. E. G. Lea, P.Webley, Behav. Brain Sci. 29, 161 (2006).
2. A. Furnham, M. Argyle, The Psychology of Money
(Routledge, London, 1998).
3. P. R.Amato, S. ]. Rogers, ]. Marriage Fam. 59, 612 (1997).
4. The term self-sufficiency has been used in the
psychological literature in twoways. One use (typically in
research on recovery after injury) connotes a positive
meaning of being free from needing others in order to
effectively perform a task. The second use (typically in
psychotherapy writings) takes on a discernibly negative
meaning. Self-sufficiency in this case is considered a
barrier to intimacy and is often seen in narcissistic
personality disorders. Our use of the term incorporates
both interpretations. We use self-sufficiency in part to
suggest the autonomous agent who competently works
toward personal goals, as well as the socially insensitive
narcissist. We use the term not to suggest a stable trait
(as in previous writings) but rather to signify a transitory
psychological state brought on by reminders of money.
5. R. H. Price, ]. N. Choi, A. D. Vinokur, J. Occup. Health
PsychoL 7, 302 (2002).
6. Materials and methods are available as supporting
material on Science Online.
7. T.K.Srull R. S.Wyer, Jr.,].Pers.Soc. Psychol.37, 1660 (1979).
8. R. S. Schwab, in Fatigue, W. F. Floyd, A. T.Welford, Eds.
(Lewis,London, 1953), pp. 143-48.
9. ].M. Twenge, R. F.Baumeister, C. N. DeWall, N. ].Ciarocco,
].M. Bartels, J. Pers. Soc. Psychol., in press.
10. C. N. Macrae, G. V. Bodenhausen, A. B.Milne, ]. jetten,
J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 67, 808 (1994).
11. ]. Cohen, Psychol. Bull. 112, 155 (1992).
12. The majority of the participants in our experiments
were raised in Canada, the United States, China, and
Hong Kong (in decreasing order of prevalence).
13. R. H. Frank, T. Gilovich, D. T. Regan, Ethol. SocioL 14,
247 (1993).
14. Thiswork benefited from financial support from the Social
Sciences and Humanities Research Council and the Canada
Research ChairCouncil both to K.V.We thank research
assistants A. Boyce, R.Chan, L.Chen, A. Connolly, S. Curtis,
V. Ding, S. Gonzalez, A. Kaikati, S. Sartain, ]. Suydam,
A. Talbot, and N. Van Den Berg.
SupportingOnlineMaterial
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/fullU314/5802/1154/DC1
Materials and Methods
Figs. S1 to S5
References
14 July 2006; accepted 18 September 2006
10.1126/science.1132491