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Bibliography:
Zemanski and Sears: University Physics
Halliday and Resnik: Fundamentals Of Physics
Teachers’s notes: web site
http://www.c4s.utcluj.ro/webphysics/AdvancedPhysics.html
(I) Electromagnetism:
Electric charge, electric forces, electric field, electric potential. Electrostatics
Dielectrics and capacitance.
(8c) Current, resistance, electromotive force. Electrokinetics
Magnetic field and magnetic forces. Electromagnetic induction.
Magnetism
Magnetic materials and superconductors.
Electromagnetic waves.
Set of 4 eq. (Maxwell): basis of electromagnetism
1. Electric Charge
The ancient Greeks discovered as early as 600 B.C. that after they rubbed amber with
wool, the amber could attract other objects. Today we say that the amber has acquired a
net electric charge, or has become charged.
The word “electric” is derived from the Greek word elektron, meaning “amber”.
Experiments have shown that there are exactly two kinds of electric charge.
Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) called them positive (+) and negative (-).
Question: What happens phenomenologically when you charge a rod by rubbing it (fur, silk) ?
To answer this question, we must look more closely at the structure of atoms,
the building blocks of ordinary matter.
• The negatively charged electrons are held within the atom by the attractive electric forces
exerted on them by the positively charged nucleus.
• The protons and neutrons are held within stable atomic nuclei by an attractive interaction,
called the strong nuclear force, that overcomes the electric repulsion of the protons. The
strong nuclear force has a short range, and its effects do not extend far beyond the nucleus.
• The proton and neutron: combinations of other entities called quarks, which have factionary
charges (±1/3 and ±2/3 times the electron charge).
• Isolated quarks have not been observed, and there are theoretical reasons to believe
that it is impossible to observe isolated quarks.
The negative charge of the electron has exactly the same magnitude as the positive charge of the
proton.
In a neutral atom the number of electrons equals the number of protons in the nucleus (Z= atomic
number of the element) , and the net electric charge= the algebraic sum of all the charges =0
If one or more electrons are removed from an atom, what remains is called a positive ion.
A negative ion is an atom that has gained one or more electrons.
This gain or loss of electrons is called ionization.
Charging electrostatically an object creating ions (+) or (-)
The algebraic sum of all the electric charges in any closed (isolated) system is constant.
Hence the total electric charge on the two bodies together does not change.
In any charging process, charge is not created or destroyed; it is merely transferred
from one body to another.
If we rub together a plastic rod and a piece of fur, both initially uncharged, the rod
acquires a negative charge (since it takes electrons from the fur) and the fur acquires a
positive charge of the same magnitude (since it has lost as many electrons as the rod
has gained).
triboelectric series
Some materials permit electric charge to move easily from one region of the material to
another, while others do not => conductors and insulators.
The relaxation time determined by the way the atoms are bounded in the object.
In metals, electrons are shared by very many atoms (metal bonds), which allow
the electrons to move quite easily.
In other substances, in which there are ionic or covalent bonds, the
displacement of the electrons is much more difficult.
Charging by contact
the plastic rod can give another body a charge of opposite sign without losing any of its own charge.
The charges within the molecules of an insulating material can shift slightly.
As a result, a comb with either sign of charge attracts a neutral insulator.
By Newton’s third law the neutral insulator exerts an equal-magnitude attractive force on the
comb.
4. Coulomb’s law
Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806) studied the interaction forces of charged particles
(1784).
He used a torsion balance similar to the one used 13 years later by Cavendish to study the much
weaker gravitational interaction.
Permitivity of vacuum
Electric force versus gravitational force
Coulomb’s law as we have stated it describes only the interaction of two point charges.
When two charges exert forces simultaneously on a third charge, the total force acting on that
charge is the vector sum of the forces that the two charges would exert individually.
When two electrically charged particles in empty space interact, how does each one know the
other is there?
=> Necessity to introduce the concept of electric field.
Any charge Q modifies the properties of the space around it => electric field
A charged body creates an electric field in the space around it.
Unit: [N/C]
The charge q0 can be either positive or negative.
E (r ) = E( x, y, z ) E = E x ( x , y , z ) i + E y ( x, y , z ) j + E z ( x , y , z ) k
Scalar field
(e.g. temperature field)
E1: in electrostatics the electric field at every E2: the electric field within the two plates of a
point within the material of conductor is zero plane capacitor is constant
To find Ex we integrate this expression over the entire ring—that is, for s
from 0 to 2 πa (the circumference of the ring).
E2. Calculating the electric field of a positive charge line segment
Then the field component dEx at point P due to this ring is:
An electric dipole is a pair of point charges with equal magnitude and opposite sign (a positive charge
+q and a negative charge -q) separated by a distance d.
Force and Torque on an Electric Dipole When placed in an electric field the net force on
this electric dipole is zero, but there is a torque
directed into the page that tends to rotate the
dipole clockwise.
Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole
When a dipole changes direction in an electric field, the electric-field torque does work on it,
with a corresponding change in potential energy.
then we look at the electric field at various points on this imaginary surface.
Gauss’s law is a relationship between the field at all the points on the surface and the total
charge enclosed within the surface.
1. Charge and Electric Flux
“Given a charge distribution, what is the electric field produced by that distribution at a point P ?”
Superposition/ integration: The total field at P is then the vector sum of the fields due to all the
point charges – hard task :)) => Looking for alternative formalism based on symmetry
Pb: How can you measure the charge inside a box without opening it?
Three cases in which there is zero net charge inside a box and no net electric flux
through the surface of the box.
Surface integral
Gauss’s law
Formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855), one of the greatest mathematicians.
Is an alternative to Coulomb’s law.
While completely equivalent to Coulomb’s law, Gauss’s law provides a different way to
express the relationship between electric charge and electric field.
Gaussian surfaces are imaginary. Remember that the closed surface in Gauss’s law is imaginary; there need not
be any material object at the position of the surface. We often refer to a closed surface used in Gauss’s law as a
Gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law is valid for any distribution of charges and for any closed surface.
Gauss’s law can be used in two ways.
If we know the charge distribution, and if it has enough symmetry to let us evaluate the
integral in Gauss’s law, we can find the field.
Or if we know the field, we can use Gauss’s law to find the charge distribution,
such as charges on conducting surfaces.
Q 4π r 3 r3
Qint = ρV = =Q 3
4π R 3 3 R
3
2 Qint Q r3
EA = E ⋅ 4π r = =
ε0 ε 0 R3
E3. Electric Field of Conducting Sphere
Work and Energy defined in the context of mechanics will be applied to electric
charge, electric forces, and electric fields.
When a charged particle moves in an electric field, the field exerts a force that can do work on
the particle. This work can always be expressed in terms of electric potential energy. Just as
gravitational potential energy depends on the height of a mass above the earth’s surface,
electric potential energy depends on the position of the charged particle in the electric field.
We’ll describe electric potential energy using a new concept called electric potential, or simply
potential.
In circuits, a difference in potential from one point to another is often called voltage.
The concepts of potential and voltage are crucial to understanding how electric circuits and
many other devices work.
1. Electric Potential Energy
First, when a force acts on a particle that moves from point a to point b, the work done by the
force Wa->b is given by a line integral:
b
a
If the force is conservative the work done by F can always be expressed in terms of a potential
energy U.
Work-energy theorem: Wa →b = ∆K = K b − K a
Wa →b = mgh
U = q0 Ey U = mgy
Whether the test charge is positive or negative, the following general Same for mass m falling
rules apply: U decreases if the test charge moves in the direction of to decrease U along the
the electric force . U increases if the charge moves in the direction of the
dirrection opposite to the force gravitational force
Gravitational vs Electric field analogy
U = mgy U = qEy
y
y
Mass m falling to U decreases if the test charge moves in the direction of the electric
decrease U along the force . U increases if the charge moves in the direction
direction of the
opposite to the force
gravitational force
Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges
The idea of electric potential energy isn’t restricted to the special case of a uniform electric field.
We can apply this concept to a point charge in any electric field caused by a static charge
distribution
Simple analysis
(*) U = 0 if r=∞
∞ ∞
qq0 1 1
From: Wa →b = − = Ua − Ub U a = Wa →∞ = F (r )dr = q0 E (r )dr
4πε 0 ra rb a a
rb =∞
∞ ∞
U b =0 U (r ) = Wr →∞ = F (r )dr = q0 E (r )dr
r a
Therefore U in a point r represents the work that would be done on the test charge by the field
forces (field produced here by q) if moved from the initial distance r to infinity.
We emphasize that the potential energy U is a shared property of the two charges.
Equation (*) also holds if the charge q0 is outside a spherically symmetric charge distribution
with total charge q; the distance r is from the center of the distribution.
Electric Potential Energy with Several Point Charges
gives only the potential energy in point a associated with the presence of the
test charge q0 in the field E produced by q1, q2, q3,…
But there is also potential energy involved in assembling these charges (total potential energy U
of the system q1, q2, q3,… ):
The potential-energy difference Ua-Ub equals the work Wa->b that is done by the electric
force when the particle moves from a to b.
Wa->b = Ua-Ub
When Ua is greater than Ub the field does positive work on the particle as it “falls” from a point
of higher potential energy (a) to a point (b) of lower potential energy
The potential energy difference Ua-Ub is defined as the work that must be done by an
external force to move the particle slowly from b to a against the electric force.
2. Electric Potential
we want to describe the potential energy U on a “per unit charge” basis, just as electric field
describes the force per unit charge on a charged particle in the field.
the concept of electric potential, often called simply potential.
the work done per unit charge by the electric force when a charged
body moves from a to b is equal to the potential at a minus the potential at b.
The potential Vab of a with respect to b equals the work:
done by the electric field force when e a UNIT charge
moves from a to b.
…
that must be done by an external force to move slowly a
UNIT charge moves from b to a against the electric field
force.
The instrument that measures the difference of potential between two points = voltmeter.
3. Calculating Electric Potential
r is the distance from the point charge q to the point at which the
potential is evaluated. Obs: V(∞)=0.
q1 r1 V=V1+V2+Vi+…
r2 P
q2
ri the electric potential due to a collection of point charges is the
scalar sum of the potentials due to each charge.
qi
r P P
dq r
Finding Electric Potential from Electric Field
dividing by q0
∞
If b=∞ a=r; V(∞)=0 V (r ) = E (r ) ⋅ dr
r
Electron Volts
From: If q=e=1.6 10-19 C
1 electron volt
multiples meV, keV, MeV, GeV, and TeV
When a particle with charge e moves through a potential difference of 1
volt, the change in potential energy is 1 eV.
Calculating Electric Potential
Gauss
∞
V (r ) = E (r ) ⋅ dr
r
Inside the car: protected
because E=0
Because potential energy does not change as a test charge moves over an equipotential
surface, the electric field can do no work on such a charge.
but
Qint
Qint
Gauss theorem: E ⋅ dA =
Σ
ε0 Σ V
Surface Σ
including the volume V
Gauss-Ostrogradski theorem (math):
E ⋅ dA = ∇ ⋅ EdV
Σ V
Transforms a surface integral in volume integral
We may regard the divergence of a vector field at a given point as a measure of how much the
field diverges or emanates from that point
source sink
The Divergence describes the net flow going in vs going out for a vector field.
dQ
Qint Qint = ρ dV ρ=
Σ
E ⋅ dA = ∇ ⋅ EdV =
V
ε0 V
dV Volume charge density
1 1 ρ
∇ ⋅ EdV =
V
ε0 V ρ dV V ∇ ⋅ E − ε 0 ρ dV = 0 ∇⋅E =
ε0
Gauss law for the electric field in
the differential formulation
Knowing ρ(x,y,z), by solving (numerically, analytically) the Poisson eq. => the electric potential V(x,y,z)
∂ 2V ( x, y, z ) ∂ 2V ( x, y, z ) ∂ 2V ( x, y , z )
+ + =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
Finite Difference Methods Mathematica