Fluid Mechanics

3rd Year Mechanical Engineering

Prof Brian Launder

Lecture 4
Boundary layers

1
 Objectives for this lecture
• To explain some characteristic features of
boundary layers.
• To provide a feel for the practical situations
where boundary layers arise.
• To introduce the parameters used to describe
boundary layers.

2
 Introduction
• Navier-Stokes equations for 2D, steady,
incompressible flows with constant viscosity (1845)
∂U ∂V
+ =0
∂x ∂y
Continuity: ∂U ∂U ∂P  ∂ 2U ∂ 2U 
ρU + ρV =− +µ + 
∂x ∂y ∂x  ∂x 2
∂y 2 
x-momentum:
∂V ∂V ∂P  ∂ 2V ∂ 2V 
ρU + ρV =− +µ + 
∂x ∂y ∂y  ∂x 2 2
∂y 
y-momentum:
• Numerical solvers for these equations available –
but still costly and time-consuming to resolve,
especially for 3D flow (e.g. the flow over an aircraft
wing).
• What scope for simplification? 3
 An important limiting form
• When the Reynolds number characteristic of the
flow is high (>>1)
AND
• … the flow has a predominant direction, x ,
• …some of the terms appearing in the Navier-
Stokes equations become so small relative to
others that they may be neglected.
• This greatly simplifies the task of numerical
solution (and even permitting analytical solution
for special cases).
• Such flows are know as “boundary layers” or (for
cases where no rigid boundary is present) “thin
shear flows”.
4
 Boundary layer
Effects of viscosity negligible in regions
not in close proximity to the body; use
inviscid or potential flow theory
Regions where viscous stresses
important; Use “boundary layer” theory

•For an external flow, to calculate the flow velocity and pressure

distribution around the surface, use inviscid flow/potential theory; then use
the boundary layer theory to estimate the boundary layer development and
predict the drag or surface heat-transfer rate.
• Altenatively, for internal flows (in a fairly straight duct), compute the
streamwise pressure gradient from continuity in conjunction with boundary
layer theory. 5
 Boundary layer
• Main characteristics

U∞
dU
τ =µ
dy
U=0

– Large velocity gradient normal to the wall.

– Viscous stresses are important – but only one or two of
the components -- if the coordinates are well chosen
(parallel and orthogonal to the body).
– Very thin compared to body length.
6
 Boundary layer thickness
• Boundary layer “thickness” is usually defined as
the distance from wall where the local velocity
U=0.99U∞.
layer
U∞ Edge of boundary

U=0.99U∞

U δ

• Boundary layer thickness depends on U∞, the

scale of the object, the viscosity of the fluid and it
varies greatly with the particular application.
7
 Velocity profile

Ue=0.99U∞ y =1

 dU 
  ≈0
δ = y where U=0.99U∞
 dy  y =δ

NB: All U’s

All U’s be
should should be
upper
caseupper case
U
=U
Ue

Usually velocity increases To allow comparison between

continuously with y. different boundary layers
dimensionless velocity profile is
used. y U
>1 = 1,
δ U e 8
 Other thin shear flows
• The wake behind a moving object
is also treatable in the same way
(provided one is far enough
downstream for no recirculation to
be present).
• Likewise jets can be so treated,
whether or not they are “free”,
adjacent to a wall (“wall jet”), or
close to a free surface.
• The thin-shear-flow simplifications
are used for both laminar and
turbulent flows but they apply
more precisely to the laminar
case.
9
 Growth of boundary layer

δ = y where u=0.99u∞

• The boundary layer along a flat plate grows in

thickness. For a laminar flow, δ ∝ x
• The boundary layer will become turbulent at
some distance downstream.

10
 Effect of pressure gradient
Consider a parallel steady flow

U∞
dU
τ =µ
δ = y where u=0.99u
dy ∞
U=0

Force balance on flow element

dτ
τ+ dy
dτ dP dy
Σ Fx = δ y − δ x
dy dx P+
dP
dx
P dx
δy
y
δx
Note: In a thin boundary layer,
the effect of normal viscous τ
stress is small compared to x
that of other terms hence it is
ignored. 11
 Effect of pressure gradient
dτ dP
Σ Fx = δ y− δx
dy dx

• When dP/dx < 0 (“favourable”

pressure gradient), the pressure
gradient helps to overcome the
effect of viscous shear stress. The
velocity profile is fuller.
y
• When dP/dx > 0 (“adverse” press-
ure gradient), the pressure
gradient reinforces the effect
viscous shear stress. The velocity
profile is less full and contains an
U
inflexion point.
12
 Flow separation
y
The boundary layer thickens
as the flow is slowed by the
adverse pressure gradient

dU
= 0 Separating streamline dividing
dy y =0
region of flow going downstream
and the region of circulatory flow

It is of great practical interest to predict whether and, if so, where

the flow will separate. The boundary layer model is not applicable at 13
or downstream from separation.
 The displacement thickness
• The ‘missing mass flow rate’
due to the presence of a y=y1
boundary layer ρ∞, U∞ layer
Edge of boundary
y1 y1

∫ ρ∞U ∞ dy − ∫ ρUdy = ρ∞U ∞δ ∗ ρ, U dy

0 0 V=U=0,

Mass flow Actual mass Missing

rate flow rate mass flow ρUdy : mass flow rate through dy
without b.l. through b.l. rate
y
δ* is the height of the hypothetical
y1
stream tube that carries the missing The shaded area
mass flow rate at U=U∞. represents the
δ* is a measure of the missing mass Equivalent to ρU missing mass
flow rate. flow rate.
missing mass
flow δ*
ρ ∞U∞ 14
 The displacement thickness
• The definition
y1 y1 y=y1
∗
∫ ∞ ∞ ∫
ρ U dy − ρUdy = ρ U
∞ ∞δ ρ∞, U∞ Edge of boundary
layer

0 0
y1 ρ, U dy
ρ∞U ∞δ ∗ = ∫ ( ρ∞U ∞ − ρU )dy y=0

∞ 0 : mass flow rate through dy

∗ ρU  ρUdy
δ = ∫ 1 − dy
 ρ∞U ∞ 
0
∞ 
∗U
Incompressible flow: δ = ∫  U
1 − dy

 ∞ 0 

15
 The displacement thickness
• Physical significance
– The distance by which the external flow is
displaced.
y1 y1 The streamline has to be
∗ displaced by δ* to
∫ ρ∞U ∞ dy = ∫ ρUdy + ρ U
∞ ∞δ accommodate the same
0 0 incoming mass flow rate.

ρ∞U ∞δ ∗
y1 ρ∞ y1

∫ ρ∞U ∞ dy U∞ ∫ ρUdy
0 0

Note: the edge of the boundary layer is NOT a streamline!

16
 The displacement thickness
• Physical significance
– The concept of “effective body”

The surface contour as

seen by the flow due to
δ* the presence of boundary
layer.

Streamline

17
 The momentum thickness
• The missing momentum flux:
y1 y1 y=y1
∫ ∫
2 2
ρUU ∞ dy − ρU dy = ρ ∞ ∞ θ
U ρ ∞, U∞ Edge of boundary
layer
0 0
Momentum Actual Missing ρ, U dy
flow carried by momentum momentum y=0
the same mass flow flow due to
b.l. : Momentum flux through dy
flow but at U∞. ρU 2 dy

θ is the height of the hypothetical stream tube that

carries the missing momentum flow at U=U∞.

For incompressible flow
∞
U  U 
θ=∫ 1 − dy
U ∞  U ∞ 

0 18
 The shape factor
• The definition: H ≡ δ * θ
• A change in shape factor indicates a
change in shape of the profile.
• Shape factor has distinctly different
values for boundary layers in
different states U∞
– For a flat-plate laminar boundary layer:
H ≈2.6 1

– A laminar boundary layer will separate 2

when H is around 3.
– For a typical flat plate turbulent
boundary layer: H=1.3 -1.5 and1.8 - 2.2
at separation 19
 The shape factor
• How will the shape factor vary when the velocity
profile changes from the shape at 1 to that at 2?
∞ ∞
∗ U  U  U 
δ = ∫ 1 − dy θ=∫  1 − dy
 U  U ∞  U ∞ 

0 ∞ 0
U∞
1 2
1
U  U  ∗
2 ↑ ⇒ 1 − ↓ ⇒ δ ↓
U∞  U 
 ∞

U  U  U  U 
δ∗ ↑ ⇒ 1− ↓ ⇒ 1− 
U∞   U∞  U∞ 

H=  U∞ 
θ
Hence θ does not
Consequently H decreases when the change as much as δ*
velocity profile changes from 1 to 2.
20
 Short problem
• Consider an air flow entering a channel with a square
cross-sectional area of 100mmx100mm from a large
container. The boundary thickness at the inlet of the
channel can be taken as zero. The inlet velocity to the
channel is 10m/s and at the end of the channel the
boundary-layer thickness, displacement thickness and
momentum thickness are 12mm, 4mm and 2.5mm
respectively. What will be the velocity of the flow at the exit?
• Is the boundary layer laminar or turbulent?

U1=10m/s U2=?
21
 Solution
• The flow can be treated as incompressible so by
conservation of volume, we have
U 1 A1 = U 2 A2 (A2 is the effective exit area)

• However
A1 = W ,
2
A2 = (W − 2δ )
* 2 w δ*
w-2δ

• Substituting
2 2
A1  W   100 
U2 = U1 =   U1 =   × 10 = 11.8m / s
A2  W − 2δ *   100 − 2 × 4 

U1=10m/s w U2=? 22
 A question for you
• When a laminar boundary layer develops
on a flat plate the shape of the velocity
profile is well described by:
U
= sin π y / 2δ
U∞

• What is the value of H for this boundary

layer?
x 1
∫ sin xdx = − cos x; ∫ sin xdx = + sin 2x
2
• Note:
2 4

23