Engineering Optimization

ISSN: 0305-215X (Print) 1029-0273 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/geno20

Optimal cost design of water distribution

networks using a decomposition approach

Ho Min Lee, Do Guen Yoo, Ali Sadollah & Joong Hoon Kim

To cite this article: Ho Min Lee, Do Guen Yoo, Ali Sadollah & Joong Hoon Kim (2016): Optimal
cost design of water distribution networks using a decomposition approach, Engineering
Optimization, DOI: 10.1080/0305215X.2016.1157689

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305215X.2016.1157689

Published online: 06 Apr 2016.

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 Engineering Optimization, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0305215X.2016.1157689

Optimal cost design of water distribution networks using a

decomposition approach
Ho Min Leea , Do Guen Yoob , Ali Sadollahc and Joong Hoon Kima∗
Downloaded by [University of California, San Diego] at 21:08 12 April 2016

a School
of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Seoul, Republic of
Korea; b Research Centre for Disaster Prevention Science and Technology, Korea University, Seoul,
Republic of Korea; c Strategic Centre for Energy and Sustainable Development, Semnan Branch, Islamic
Azad University, Semnan, Iran

(Received 17 September 2015; accepted 16 February 2016)

Water distribution network decomposition, which is an engineering approach, is adopted to increase the
efficiency of obtaining the optimal cost design of a water distribution network using an optimization
algorithm. This study applied the source tracing tool in EPANET, which is a hydraulic and water quality
analysis model, to the decomposition of a network to improve the efficiency of the optimal design pro-
cess. The proposed approach was tested by carrying out the optimal cost design of two water distribution
networks, and the results were compared with other optimal cost designs derived from previously pro-
posed optimization algorithms. The proposed decomposition approach using the source tracing technique
enables the efficient decomposition of an actual large-scale network, and the results can be combined with
the optimal cost design process using an optimization algorithm. This proves that the final design in this
study is better than those obtained with other previously proposed optimization algorithms.

Keywords: water distribution network; optimal cost design; decomposition approach; source tracing;
harmony search algorithm

1. Introduction

Water distribution networks are among the basic infrastructure facilities that are essential for
human activity. They are also necessary to ensure a safe, reliable water supply. The main pur-
pose of water distribution networks is to supply the desired amount of water while ensuring
appropriate water quality and pressure from the water source to the end user. When commer-
cial pipes are used in water distribution networks, the relationship between the pipe diameter
and cost is nonlinear. Further nonlinearity is present in the energy equation used to calculate the
water flow in the pipe and the head loss, which are the elements used in hydraulic analysis mod-
elling. In practice, numerous possible design plans can be used for water distribution networks.
In addition, because the flow direction along the pipe is not fixed in the looped-type networks,
optimal cost design is more difficult.
In this regard, the conventional trial-and-error approach based on the intuition of the engineer
does not allow the derivation of the optimal or near-optimal cost design of a water distribution
network. Alperovits and Shamir (1977) proposed a linear programming (LP) gradient method to

*Corresponding author. Email: jaykim@korea.ac.kr

© 2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

 2 H.M. Lee et al.

solve the previous nonlinearity problem by modifying it as linearized subproblems. That method
has been revised by many researchers (Quindry, Brill, and Liebman 1981; Goulter, Lussier, and
Morgan 1986; Kessler and Shamir 1989; Fujiwara and Kang 1990). Furthermore, Schaake and
Lai (1969) adopted a dynamic programming (DP) approach for the optimal cost design of water
distribution networks. Lansey and Mays (1989) attempted to derive an optimal cost design by
combining the integrated gradient-based technique with the hydraulic analysis model KYPIPE
(Wood 1980).
However, such mathematical approaches were not sufficient for the optimal cost design of
water distribution networks (Savic and Walters 1997; Cunha and Sousa 2001). Most mathemat-
ical approaches are limited in that they do not guarantee a global optimum. Because the design
work of water distribution networks is based on discrete variables, such mathematical approaches
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will yield degraded optimal cost design results. Simulation-based metaheuristic algorithms have
been recently applied to the optimal cost design of water distribution networks to compensate for
the weaknesses of the conventional trial-and-error and mathematical approaches.
Simpson, Dandy, and Murphy (1994) and Dandy, Simpson, and Murphy (1996) used genetic
algorithms (GAs) for the optimal cost design of water distribution networks. Maier et al. (2003)
and Eusuff and Lansey (2003) adopted ant colony optimization (ACO) and shuffled frog-leaping
algorithms (SFLAs), respectively. A particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm was employed
by Suribabu and Neelakantan (2006) and Montalvo et al. (2008), and a harmony search algorithm
(HSA) was applied by Geem (2006) for the optimal cost design of water distribution networks.
Bolognesi et al. (2010) applied genetic heritage evolution by stochastic transmission (GHEST),
whereas Vasan and Simonovic (2010) applied a differential evolution (DE) approach. Such
metaheuristic algorithms have been used in various ways for the optimal cost design of water
distribution networks and have allowed more efficient designs to be constructed than previous
approaches.
Recently, rapidly increasing populations and the resulting urbanization have caused social
organizations to become more complex. This trend demands large-scale water distribution net-
works and requires a higher standard of water supply. A greater number of loops and a wider
variety of types of hydraulic pumps and valves are contained in such a water distribution net-
work. This poses the difficulty of the inability of the previous metaheuristic algorithms to stably
guarantee the derivation of an efficient water distribution network design.
A decomposition approach can be applied to water distribution networks to increase the effi-
ciency and applicability of the optimal cost design process. Such an approach has been studied
for the decomposition of water networks by calculating both the shortest flow path between the
demand node and the water source, and the imaginary gradient of each flow path.
Previous applications of the decomposition approach to water distribution networks have
focused on the analysis of the connectivity, reliability or operation of networks, and graph the-
ory has been adopted for this purpose. Gupta and Prasad (2000) analysed a water distribution
network using linear graph theory, whereas Deuerlein (2008) applied graph theory to network
decomposition. Such approaches allow complicated water distribution networks to be simplified
and the correlation between various factors in the system to be easily understood.
From the perspective of the optimal cost design of water distribution networks, Kessler, Orms-
bee, and Shamir (1990) suggested an optimization approach based on graph theory. Sonak and
Bhave (1993) studied the integration of graph theory decomposition using LP for the optimal cost
design of a water distribution network. Savic and Walters (1995) applied graph theory to the min-
imization of the hydraulic head using valve operation in the water distribution network. Kadu,
Gupta, and Bhave (2008) integrated graph theory with the GAs as a metaheuristic technique for
the optimal cost design of a water distribution network.
Zheng, Simpson, and Zecchin (2011) decomposed the system using graph theory and
determined the optimal cost design using the nonlinear programming–differential evolution
 Engineering Optimization 3

(NLP-DE) technique. They derived the optimal cost design by applying the NLP technique to the
decomposed water distribution network, and this design was used as the initial solution for the
time of the optimal cost design through DE for the comprehensive water distribution network.
Zheng, Simpson, and Zecchin (2013) further studied the case of multisource water distribution
networks by applying the decomposition and multistage optimization techniques for the optimal
cost design of the water distribution network. In addition, Zheng and Zecchin (2014) proposed a
friction slope concept for the optimal cost design of a multisource water distribution network.
However, the slope-based (graph-based) approaches have some disadvantages during the opti-
mal cost design process of water distribution networks using the decomposition technique. When
the size of the water network increases and/or various water demands scenarios are considered,
this approach is not time-efficient when probing the path within the water distribution network
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and inputting the values of virtual slopes. In addition, the approach does not efficiently use infor-
mation about flow factors in the water distribution network during water distribution network
decomposition.
This study is the first to efficiently decompose a water distribution network based on the source
tracing results obtained from the EPANET 2 (i.e. hydraulic analysis program of a water distri-
bution network) (Rossman 2000), and to apply this decomposition to an optimal cost design
approach using a metaheuristic algorithm to improve the efficiency and applicability of previous
optimization techniques.

2. Methodology

2.1. Source tracing-based decomposition approach

In this study, the source tracing method, which is one of the water quality analysis options in the
pipe network simulation program EPANET, is applied to network decomposition as an alternative
to the previous approaches.
Water quality analysis is directly linked to the hydraulic analysis of water distribution networks
and is applicable to many other fields. Applications of water quality simulations to the analysis
of water distribution networks began in the mid-1980s. The physical and chemical processing
in water quality simulations includes transport, mixing and decay, among other factors. Water
quality analysis also uses data from hydraulic analysis for calculations. For example, the water
flow in the pipe and the flow direction representing the water pathway in the pipeline can be used
to determine the degree of mixing and the water age (residence time).
Other hydraulic characteristics also influence the transport and decay of pollutants. In addition,
time-variant simulation data from hydraulic analysis can be used as a starting point for water
quality analysis. In addition to water quality simulations, water source tracing and water age
calculation are frequently used for water quality analysis based on the water quality analytical
factors in the pipe.
Source tracing is the process of calculating the mixing ratio of the waters from different
sources using the hydraulic analysis results, particularly if there are several water source loca-
tions. Source tracing calculations within a system supplied by several water sources can be
represented by the mixing ratio of a particular water source from each node or tank. Such calcu-
lations can be applied to the analysis of the point affected by a particular water source and can
be used to monitor the mixing of water from several sources, which allows changes in the water
sources to be monitored.
Using the source tracing approach, this study first calculates the water flow of each demand
node and pipe using a ratio from a particular junction (e.g. a reservoir) that is present in a
large-scale distribution network. Next, the distribution network is decomposed into smaller
 4 H.M. Lee et al.

subnetworks based on the above results, and a metaheuristic algorithm is applied to each
subnetwork to finally derive the optimal cost design.
The detailed water network decomposition process through source tracing is as follows: when
there are multiple reservoirs within the distribution network system, the water flow of each pipe
and its flow direction constitute the data that can be acquired from hydraulic analysis. A hypothet-
ical network, the sample network shown in Figure 1, is used as an example of a water distribution
network with multiple reservoirs.
One of the reservoirs present in the system (R1 or R2 in the sample network) is selected as a
starting point. The water flow path can be analysed by tracing the water flow through each pipe
from the reservoir to every node in the system. Some of the nodes can have 100% of their water
supplied by a selected reservoir, whereas other nodes may have no water supplied by a given
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reservoir (i.e. 0%).

When the nodes are supplied by several reservoirs, they can be quantitatively measured as
a percentage of 0–100%, and the percentage of the water flow from a certain reservoir can be
calculated using a weighted average against the water flow supplied by each pipe at the point to
which the reservoir water flows. The source tracing of a certain pipe is in accordance with the
source tracing results of the node flowing into the pipe.
Figure 2 shows the source tracing results in percentage terms for the pipes in the sample
network. The repeated source tracing of systems with the same number of reservoirs as the
considered system enables the quantification of which reservoir supplies the largest percentage
of water into a certain node and pipe; this is called the dominant reservoir. In the sample network,
water is supplied to Pipes 1, 2, 3 and 4 by reservoir R1 and to Pipes 5, 6 and 7 by reservoir R2.

Figure 1. Sample network layout.

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Source tracing results for pipes in the sample network: (a) target reservoir R1; (b) target reservoir R2.
 Engineering Optimization 5

(a) (b)
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Figure 3. Network decomposition results of the sample network: (a) subnetwork 1; (b) subnetwork 2.

Based on the comparison results, the total water distribution network can be divided into
smaller subnetworks. Figure 3 shows the network decomposition results for the sample network
using the source tracing approach.
This means that the hydraulic and topological factors were effectively employed in the given
water distribution network through the reasonable, quantitative approach of water distribution
network decomposition. This approach appears to be more adequate and applicable than previous
decomposition techniques.
The next steps are to construct the total system using the optimal cost design results of each
subnetwork, apply the constraints to the whole network, and in the case of violation, derive an
alternate optimal cost design during postprocessing. Finally, the optimal cost design of the total
water distribution network is proposed by applying a metaheuristic algorithm that contains the
design of the integrated distribution network as the initial solution.

2.2. Harmony search algorithm

This study employs the HSA along with water source tracing using EPANET for the optimal
cost design of the water distribution network. The HSA is a metaheuristic algorithm, as are GAs,
ACO and PSO. Geem, Kim, and Loganathan (2001) first suggested the HSA, and it has been
applied in many industrial fields, such as structural engineering (Lee and Geem 2004; Lee et al.
2005), underground water modelling (Ayvaz 2009), the operation of multipurpose dams (Geem
2007) and water resource engineering (Kim, Geem, and Kim 2001).
The HSA is an optimization technique that imitates the improvization of musicians. When
many different instruments generate notes that contribute to music, these notes generate one
harmony. Out of the possible harmonies, there is one aesthetically optimal harmony, and there
are dissonant harmonies. The dissonance generated during the initial performance is allowed to
change gradually in the search for a better harmony (local optimum) and finally reaches the best
possible harmony (global optimum).
In the same manner as described earlier in this section, the HSA yields solutions generated ran-
domly during the initial stage by iterating calculations while gradually changing various factors
and performing these processes until an adequate value is derived. During this iterative process,
the HSA uses the three operations of random search, memory considering and pitch adjustment,
and then adopts the two parameters of harmony memory considering rate (HMCR) and pitch
adjustment rate (PAR), which indicate the selection probability of one of the processes.
In addition, the harmony memory size (HMS), which represents the size of the memory space
[harmony memory (HM)], and the bandwidth (BW), which is the adjustment width during pitch
 6 H.M. Lee et al.

adjustment, are used as parameters. The HSA is a search technique that operates differently from
previous optimization techniques, such as simulated annealing (SA) and tabu search (TS). It is
similar to TS in that it enables a group search containing accumulated previous experiences; it is
also similar to SA in that the HSA data are added to the experience set if the achieved values are
within acceptable range, even if they are not optimal.

2.3. Harmony search algorithm with decomposition approach

The proposed approach consists of the following four steps: (1) network decomposition; (2)
subnetwork optimization; (3) network integration; and (4) total network optimization.
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In the first step, the entire network can be decomposed into small subnetworks using the source
tracing-based decomposition approach. Water source tracing enables the dominant reservoir to
be quantitatively determined for each pipe and the water distribution network to be decomposed
into subnetworks according to the dominant reservoir. The initial pipe diameters in benchmark
water distribution networks are usually set and have their own value, even though they are not
optimized. However, if the pipe diameters of the network are not set, the source tracing method
for decomposition cannot be applied directly. In this case, the pipe diameters can be set as specific
values, in the case of commercial pipes for a network, or determined by the strategic initial popu-
lation method as a preprocessing phase (Kang and Lansey 2012; Kim et al. 2013). In addition, an
initial optimization step by metaheuristic algorithms for the total network with a small number
of function evaluations (NFE) as a preprocessing phase for network decomposition can be used.
The optimal cost design of the decomposed subnetworks is determined in the second step.
The HSA is applied to the optimal cost design, and the initial solutions of the subnetworks
using HSA are generated at random. The randomly generated initial HM is independently com-
posed for each subnetwork, and the random search, memory considering and pitch adjustment
are used for generating new solutions in each iteration. In the third step, after the optimal cost
design for the subnetworks has been determined in the second step, the networks are integrated.
The pipe diameters of the entire network are determined based on the optimal cost design
diameter of each subnetwork. Next, satisfaction of the constraint requirements (i.e. pressure at the
node and flow velocity in the pipe in this study) is ensured by performing the hydraulic analysis
of the entire integrated network. If there are nodes and pipes that do not meet the constraints, the
flow path from the subnetwork reservoir to constraint violated node or pipe is investigated.
If an increase in diameter is found at each pipe in the investigated flow path, the additional
cost is estimated. Subsequently, it is determined which pipe diameter is recommended to simul-
taneously satisfy the constraints and yield the lowest additional cost. Such conditions are revised
in the design. In the fourth step, the revised design obtained in the third step is set as the initial
solution, and the optimal cost design of the entire network is executed using the HSA.

3. Applications and optimization results

3.1. Objective function and constraints

The objective function used for the optimal cost design is calculated from the pipe diameter and
length, as shown in the following equation:


N 
M 
N
Min. Cost = Cc (Di ) × Li + PPj + P Vi (1)
i=1 j=1 i=1
 Engineering Optimization 7

where Cc (Di ) is the construction cost according to pipe diameter per unit length (e/m); Li is the
pipe length (m); Di is the pipe diameter (mm); PPj is a penalty function for ensuring pressure
constraints are satisfied; PVj is a penalty function for ensuring velocity constraints are satisfied;
N is the number of nodes; and M is the number of pipes.
The flow continuity equation must be satisfied at every node, and the energy equation must
be satisfied at each loop. If the obtained design does not meet these requirements, the penalty
function given in Equation (2) is added into the object function to be excluded, as follows:

PPj = αP (hmin − hj ) + βP if hj < hmin

(2)
PVi = αV (vi − vmax ) + βV if vmax < vi
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where hj is the nodal pressure at node j (m); hmin is the minimum nodal pressure requirement (m);
vi is the velocity in pipe i (m/s); vmax is the maximum allowable velocity (m/s); and α P , β P , α V
and β V are constants in penalty functions. The constants in penalty functions are influenced by
problem characteristics, and these values should be large enough for handling subject constraints.
The value of 1010 is used for all constant parameters in penalty functions in this study.

3.2. Pescara network

This study uses the Pescara water distribution network, a reduced version of the water distribu-
tion network located in Italy, as the target application. Bragalli et al. (2012) used the Pescara
network as the benchmark network for the application of optimization algorithms. As shown in
Figure 4, this network consists of three reservoirs, 27 loops, 99 pipes and 68 demand nodes. The
pipe material is cast iron. A uniform Hazen–Williams roughness coefficient of 130 is applied to
all pipes. The minimum pressure requirement at each node, applied as a constraint, is 20 m. In
addition, the flow velocity in each pipe is enforced to be less than or equal to 2 m/s.
Table 1 shows the cost per unit length of 13 types of commercial pipe with diameters in the
range of 100.0–800.0 mm, which were used for the optimal cost design of the Pescara network.
There exists a total of 1399 possible solutions for the optimal cost design of the Pescara network,
which consists of 99 pipes.
The Pescara network has three reservoirs (nodes: 15, 43 and 65). Using the source tracing
decomposition approach, the whole network was decomposed into three subnetworks, which are
numbered to correspond to their respective reservoirs. As shown in Table 2, the parameters of
the HSA used for the subnetwork design were an HMS value of 30, an HMCR value of 0.95 and
a PAR value of 0.05. The maximum NFE varied from 5000 to 20,000 for Cases 1–4 to compare

Figure 4. Layout of the Pescara network.

 8 H.M. Lee et al.

Table 1. Pipe cost data for the Pescara network.

Diameter (mm) Cost (e/m)

100.0 27.7
125.0 38.0
150.0 40.5
200.0 55.4
250.0 75.0
300.0 92.4
350.0 123.1
400.0 141.9
450.0 169.3
500.0 191.5
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600.0 246.0
700.0 319.6
800.0 391.1

Table 2. Initial parameters for the harmony search algorithm (HSA) with decomposition approach
for the Pescara network.

Case Parameter Subnetworks 15, 43, 65 Entire network Total NFE

HMS 30 30
HMCR 0.95 0.98
PAR 0.05 0.02
1 NFE 5000 15,000 20,000
2 10,000 10,000 20,000
3 15,000 5000 20,000
4 20,000 0 20,000
HSA without decomposition approach NFE 20,000 20,000

Note: HMS = harmony memory size; HMCR = harmony memory considering rate; PAR = pitch adjustment rate;
NFE = number of function evaluations.

the optimization results with those obtained by the HSA without decomposition approach using
the same NFE.
In Case 4, the integration of subnetworks, ensuring constraints are satisfied and postprocessing
are performed after the optimal cost design of the subnetworks is obtained, but additional optimal
cost design of the entire network is not performed.
Figure 5 shows the network decomposition results based on source tracing. The subnetworks
have 13–46 pipes and thus have 1313 –1346 possible solutions. Table 3 shows the results of 50
individual runs for the decomposed subnetworks. As the NFE for the subnetworks increases, the
total optimal cost decreases.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. Network decomposition results of the Pescara network using the source tracing technique: (a) subnetwork
15 (40 pipes); (b) subnetwork 43 (46 pipes); (c) subnetwork 65 (13 pipes).
 Engineering Optimization 9

Table 3. Subnetwork optimization results for the Pescara network.

Cost (e)
Cases Measures Subnetwork 15 Subnetwork 43 Subnetwork 65 Total cost

Case 1 Best 727,868 886,668 313,281 1,927,816

Average 744,892 914,136 331,760
Worst 779,350 1,033,773 377,363
Case 2 Best 728,431 876,767 313,281 1,918,480
Average 742,775 892,861 329,912
Worst 789,098 943,199 377,363
Case 3 Best 726,879 875,136 313,281 1,915,295
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Average 738,999 891,526 329,070

Worst 761,732 935,703 362,677
Case 4 Best 726,879 872,650 313,281 1,912,810
Average 744,704 889,759 330,256
Worst 833,952 932,791 375,865

After obtaining the optimal cost design for the subnetworks, network integration is performed.
First, each pipe diameter in the entire network is set based on the optimal cost design of each sub-
network, and hydraulic analysis is performed to determine whether the constraint requirements
are satisfied. For Cases 1–4, the integrated networks satisfy the pressure and velocity constraints
at each node and pipe, and therefore pipe diameter adjustments for making solutions which sat-
isfy constraints are not used in this step. After the network integration step, the solutions are used
as an initial condition for the optimal cost design for the entire network step.
The results of 50 individual runs for each case and the optimization results of 50 runs using
the HSA without decomposition approach are tabulated in Table 4. The initial cost in Table 4
represents the cost of the entire network design obtained from Steps 1–3 described in this study.
The final cost represents the design cost for the additional entire network optimization. Case 2
has the lowest cost of e1,809,241. Unlike Case 4, Cases 1–3 show improved results compared
with the HSA without decomposition method.

Table 4. Entire network optimization results for the Pescara network.

Cases Initial cost (e) Final cost (e)

Case 1 1,927,816 Best 1,814,079

Average 1,822,360
Worst 1,854,788
Case 2 1,918,480 Best 1,809,241
Average 1,821,930
Worst 1,860,921
Case 3 1,915,295 Best 1,816,381
Average 1,824,710
Worst 1,863,826
Case 4 1,912,810 1,912,810
HSA without decomposition approach Best 1,837,065
Average 1,947,064
Worst 2,120,386

Note: HSA = harmony search algorithm,.

 10 H.M. Lee et al.

3.3. Balerma network

This study uses the Balerma irrigation network, an agricultural water distribution network located
in Spain, as the second target application to evaluate the applicability of the proposed approach.
As shown in Figure 6, this network consists of four reservoirs, eight loops, 454 pipes and 443
demand nodes. The same absolute roughness height k of 0.0025 mm is applied to all pipes. The
minimum pressure requirement at each node, applied as a constraint, is 20 m and the velocity
constraints are not considered.
Since the Balerma network was first selected as an optimal cost design target for water net-
works by Reca and Martínez (2006), many researchers have proposed optimal cost designs of the
Balerma network using various optimization approaches. Table 5 shows the cost per unit length
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of 10 types of commercial pipe with diameters in the range of 113.0–581.8 mm. There exists a
total of 10454 possible solutions for the optimal cost design of the Balerma network.
Because the Balerma network used as a target in this study has four reservoirs (nodes: 38,
43, 44 and 88), the whole network was decomposed into four subnetworks using the source
tracing decomposition approach. As shown in Table 6, the parameters of the HSA used for the
subnetwork design were an HMS value of 50, an HMCR value of 0.98 and a PAR value of 0.015.
The NFE varied from 10,000 to 45,400 for Cases 1–5 to compare the optimization results with
those obtained in previous studies using the same NFE.
Figure 7 shows the network decomposition results based on source tracing. The subnetworks
have 39–197 pipes and thus have 1039 –10197 possible solutions. If optimal cost design is executed
once for the entire network, the number of possible solutions is 10454 . In comparison, it was
found that the search space could be significantly decreased by network decomposition. This is

Figure 6. Layout of the Balerma network.

 Engineering Optimization 11

Table 5. Pipe cost data for the Balerma network.

Diameter (mm) Cost (e/m)

113.0 7.22
126.6 9.10
144.6 11.92
162.8 14.84
180.8 18.38
226.2 28.60
285.0 45.39
361.8 76.32
452.2 124.64
581.8 215.85
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Table 6. Initial parameters for the harmony search algorithm (HSA) with decomposition
approach for the Balerma network.

Case Parameter Subnetworks 38, 43, 44, 88 Entire network Total NFE

HMS 50 50
HMCR 0.98 0.99
PAR 0.015 0.005
1 NFE 10,000 35,400 45,400
2 20,000 25,400 45,400
3 30,000 15,400 45,400
4 40,000 5400 45,400
5 45,400 0 45,400

Note: HMS = harmony memory size; HMCR = harmony memory considering rate; PAR = pitch adjustment
rate; NFE = number of function evaluations.

very helpful in increasing the efficiency of the optimization process and effectively obtaining the
initial solutions during the optimal cost design of the entire network.
Table 7 shows the results of 50 individual runs for the decomposed subnetworks. As the NFE
for the subnetworks increases, the total optimal cost decreases. If the NFE is over 30,000, the
optimal cost design is not found to significantly improve with increasing NFE. The lowest cost
of e2,065,714 is found in Case 5, and the highest cost is e2,155,010 for Case 1, which has the
smallest NFE.
After obtaining the optimal cost design for the subnetworks, network integration is performed.
First, each pipe diameter in the entire network is set based on the optimal cost design of each sub-
network, and hydraulic analysis is performed to determine whether the constraint requirements
are satisfied . Some nodes that do not satisfy the minimum pressure condition of 20 m were found
in each case.
To satisfy this requirement, the additional costs required to increase the pipe diameter within
the flow path from each pressure-deficient node to the dominant reservoir are estimated. Based on
the obtained results, the alternative design that satisfies the requirement with the lowest additional
cost is selected, and the revised cost design is attained. Table 8 tabulates the revised cost obtained
through the network integration process, which is used as an initial condition for the optimal cost
design for the entire network.
The results of 50 individual runs for each case are shown in Table 9. Case 2 has the lowest
cost of e2,042,610. Even Case 1, which yields the worst results (i.e. the highest cost), obtained
a relatively acceptable level of design with a cost of e2,075,719.
When comparing the results obtained after network integration (Step 3) with those obtained
after the optimal cost design of the entire network (Step 4), the diameters of 70, 53, 12 and 12
pipes were changed in Cases 1–4, respectively. This means that increasing the NFE during the
 12 H.M. Lee et al.

(a) (b)
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(c) (d)

Figure 7. Network decomposition results of the Balerma network using the source tracing technique: (a) subnetwork
38 (197 pipes); (b) subnetwork 43 (134 pipes); (c) subnetwork 44 (84 pipes); (d) subnetwork 88 (39 pipes).

optimal cost design process for the subnetworks leads to improved optimal cost design results
for the subnetworks. This implies that when the NFE of the subnetwork design and that of the
entire network design after integration are appropriately balanced, the efficiency of the optimal
cost design process can be maximized.
The Balerma network, which is used as a sample water distribution network in this study,
shows that almost no nodes are supplied with similar amounts of water by multiple reservoirs;
that is, most nodes are supplied with water predominantly by a certain reservoir. This means
that network decomposition using the source tracing technique can be effectively applied to the
Balerma network. For water distribution networks characterized by nodes with similar water
supplies from several reservoirs, more weight should be given to the optimal cost design for the
entire integrated network. The results of the optimal cost design of the Balerma network from
previous studies are summarized in Table 10.
As previously mentioned in this section, this study performed 45,400 function evaluations for
comparison with the previous studies given in Table 10. The source tracing-based decomposition
approach using HSA proposed in this study showed the best optimization results compared with
other previous approaches using metaheuristic algorithms. This study is meaningful in that an
 Engineering Optimization 13

Table 7. Subnetwork optimization results for the Balerma network.

Cost (e)
Cases Measures Subnetwork 38 Subnetwork 43 Subnetwork 44 Subnetwork 88 Total cost

Case 1 Best 846,155 724,537 408,659 175,658 2,155,010

Average 901,813 746,384 419,457 175,822
Worst 937,679 801,170 451,228 180,997
Case 2 Best 798,797 722,325 403,750 175,658 2,100,530
Average 851,107 738,278 416,453 175,829
Worst 883,503 776,930 440,296 180,951
Case 3 Best 765,393 722,445 404,184 175,658 2,067,680
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Average 826,770 739,287 417,638 175,832

Worst 862,072 792,684 439,122 181,115
Case 4 Best 773,173 721,943 404,637 175,658 2,075,411
Average 826,159 739,633 421,628 176,362
Worst 857,622 779,039 447,562 180,477
Case 5 Best 763,883 722,109 404,065 175,658 2,065,714
Average 822,426 740,359 416,425 176,254
Worst 845,452 789,460 446,562 181,032

Table 8. Network integration optimization results for the Balerma network.

Cases Cost (e) Adjusted cost (e) No. of pressure deficient nodes No. of adjusted pipes

Case 1 2,155,010 2,155,248 1 1

Case 2 2,100,530 2,102,797 2 1
Case 3 2,067,680 2,073,674 5 6
Case 4 2,075,411 2,079,746 9 5
Case 5 2,065,714 2,068,313 5 8

Table 9. Entire network optimization results for the Balerma network.

Cases Initial cost (e) Final cost (e)

Case 1 2,155,248 Best 2,075,719

Average 2,091,997
Worst 2,107,384
Case 2 2,102,797 Best 2,042,610
Average 2,057,986
Worst 2,070,866
Case 3 2,073,674 Best 2,059,605
Average 2,068,772
Worst 2,070,875
Case 4 2,079,746 Best 2,069,389
Average 2,072,682
Worst 2,075,298
Case 5 2,068,313 2,068,313

engineering approach was used to increase the solution-finding efficiency without any parameter
setting methods or additional modifications to the HSA.
In addition, compared with the application results from the modified advanced metaheuris-
tic algorithms used in recent studies, the results of this study yielded the best optimal cost
design, implying the importance of such an engineering approach. The source tracing-based
 14 H.M. Lee et al.

Table 10. Comparison of optimization results using different approaches for the Balerma network.

Applied optimization methods Minimum cost (e million) NFE

Genetic algorithms (Reca et al. 2007) 3.738 45,400

Simulated annealing (Reca et al. 2007) 3.476 45,400
Mixed simulated annealing and tabu search (Reca et al. 2007) 3.298 45,400
Harmony search algorithm (Geem 2009) 2.601 45,400
Particle swarm harmony search algorithm (Geem 2009) 2.633 45,400
Genetic heritage evolution by stochastic transmission 2.178 45,400
(Bolognesi et al. 2010)
Mine blast algorithm (Sadollah, Yoo, and Kim 2014) 2.211 45,400
Improved mine blast algorithm (Sadollah, Yoo, and Kim 2014) 2.064 45,400
Harmony search algorithm with source tracing-based 2.043 45,400
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decomposition approach (present study, Case 2)

Note: NFE = number of function evaluations.

decomposition approach proposed in this study could be easily combined with various types of
metaheuristic algorithm besides the HSA, which would improve the solution finding efficiency
of each algorithm.

4. Conclusions

The optimal cost design process for water distribution networks comprises deriving an optimal
design that satisfies the design conditions with the lowest cost. As the size and complexity of real
water distribution networks are rapidly increasing, various improved optimization approaches
have been proposed and applied. However, previous improvements to optimization techniques
have focused on increasing the efficiency of the applied algorithm itself, and therefore, few
engineering approaches to solve the specified problems of the optimal cost design of water
distribution networks have been proposed.
This study focused on the application of an engineering approach to increase the efficiency
of the optimal cost design process for complex water distribution networks. An optimal cost
design process using a source tracing-based decomposition technique was proposed in this study.
For this purpose, the HSA was used as a metaheuristic optimization algorithm and was com-
bined with the hydraulic analysis model EPANET, which functions with water source tracing. A
four-step process was used to derive the optimal cost design, as follows: (1) network decompo-
sition using the source tracing tool in EPANET; (2) optimization of subnetworks using the HSA;
(3) network integration and ensuring hydraulic constraints are satisfied; and (4) optimization of
entire network using the HSA.
The proposed approach was applied to the Pescara and Balerma networks to obtain the optimal
cost design. The proposed approach was proven to yield better optimal designs for two water dis-
tribution networks than the approaches proposed in previous studies using various metaheuristic
algorithms. This implies that obtaining solutions to actual engineering problems using an opti-
mization algorithm requires a more efficient approach based on the characteristics of the problem,
which enables the solution to be derived without modifications to the algorithm. In addition, the
source tracing-based decomposition approach proposed in this study can be easily combined
with various types of metaheuristic algorithm, which would improve the searching ability of
every metaheuristic algorithm.
Meanwhile, the single-objective problem was considered for the optimal cost design in this
study for verification of the proposed approach. However, metaheuristic algorithms with source
tracing-based decomposition approach can also be applied to water distribution networks with
 Engineering Optimization 15

multi-objective features, which are more complex and for which it is more difficult to find
optimal solutions (i.e. non-dominated solutions) than the single-objective problems. The rela-
tive performance in computational effort between the graph theory method and the proposed
approach can be investigated as future research. These area of research are considered as fruitful
and challenging areas of study and should be investigated in further studies.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
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Funding
This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korean (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government
(MSIP) [NRF-2013R1A2A1A01013886].

ORCID
Ali Sadollah http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7782-4126
Joong Hoon Kim http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3729-7560

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