Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Renewable energy sources for electricity generation in Mexico: A review MARK

a b,⁎ c
Eduardo Pérez-Denicia , Fabián Fernández-Luqueño , Darnes Vilariño-Ayala , Luis Manuel
Montaño-Zetinad, Luis Alfonso Maldonado-Lópeze
a
Ph.D. Program in Science, Technology, and Society, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN (Cinvestav), 07360 Mexico, Mexico
b
Sustainability of Natural Resources and Energy Program, Cinvestav-Saltillo, Coahuila C.P. 25900, Mexico
c
Faculty of Computer Science, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla (BUAP), 14 Sur y Av. San Claudio, C.U. 72560 Puebla, Mexico
d
Physics Department, CINVESTAV, 07360 Mexico, Mexico
e
Applied Physics Department, CINVESTAV, 97310 Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

JEL classification codes: Renewable energy projects have been launched throughout Mexico in order to deliver clean and affordable
Q20 energy worldwide. The aims of this research are: (i) to know the current status of electricity generation through
Q42 solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, and hydropower in Mexico, (ii) to determine the renewable energy potential
Keywords: in Mexico and its generation schemes, and (iii) to analyze the social and environmental challenges that these
Renewable energy technologies are going to face in Mexico. This paper highlights for the first time a comprehensive review of the
Solar photovoltaic current status of renewable energy projects for electricity generation in Mexico and the potential impact of these
Onshore wind farm technologies in the social and environmental areas. The results presented are based on a critical review of the
Bioenergy
energy policy and regulation, as well as statistical data on electricity generation in Mexico. It was found that in
Social welfare
Mexico 62 GW h/year were generated by solar photovoltaic technology of which 49 GW h/year were produced
Sustainable development
Social and environmental challenges by 6 private projects and 13 GW h/year by 2 generating plants of the Federal Electricity Commission (CFE).
There is a proven potential to generate 16,351 GW h/year through solar energy. Although the proven potential
for wind power generation in Mexico is 19,805 GW h/year, wind power is exploited by onshore technology, with
a generation of 7675 GW h/year of which the CFE produced 220 GW h/year through 3 generating plants, while
27 private producers generated 7455 GW h/year. In Mexico, the main renewable technologies used to generate
electricity are hydropower, onshore wind farms, and geothermal. Mexico has a great potential to generate
electricity from renewable sources, however the government must encourage its use through the appropriate
mechanisms in order to achieve its proposed goals of generating 35% of total electricity from clean sources by
2025, improve the social welfare, and shape a sustainable future.

1. Introduction natural gas, 12.9% is generated by hydroelectric, and 11.1% is generated

The use of energy plays a key role in economic development and
welfare of a nation [1,2], nevertheless overuse of natural resources,
both renewable and non-renewable, not only threatens this develop-
ment but also affects issues such as environment, human health and
economic progress. For instance, the world energy consumption has
increased 18% between 2005 and 2014 and is expected to increase 35%
by 2035 [3,4].
The world consumption of primary energy in 2014 was 12,928.4
Million tonnes oil equivalent (Mtoe), based mainly on fossil fuels. Oil,
natural gas and coal are the major fuels for primary energy production. In
the case of Mexico, main fuels for primary energy in 2014 were, oil 45%,
followed by natural gas 40% and coal 8% [3]. Regarding to electricity
generation in Mexico, Fig. 1 shows that 57% of energy is generated by
by coal. Renewable energies generate only 3% of electricity. Consequently,
the use of electricity from renewable sources in Mexico is very low and
there is an increase in power demand of 3.4% annually [5]. The Mexican
government wants to reverse the situation achieving the goal of generating
35% of electricity from renewable sources by 2025 [6–8]. It has to invest
in research and development, as well as in the search for mechanisms to
encourage the deployment of renewable energy, since the deployment of
the technology is based on the cumulative investment in research and
development [9]. In this regard Garcia-Heller et al. [10] carried out a
forecast study to estimate the investment costs by using some type of solar
and wind technologies, and thus achieve the objective mentioned above
i.e. to generate 35% of electricity from renewable sources by 2025. Actions
should also be aimed at a more moderate use of energy in order to achieve
sustainability [11].

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cinves.cp.cha.luqueno@gmail.com (F. Fernández-Luqueño).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.009
Received 6 July 2016; Received in revised form 23 January 2017; Accepted 2 May 2017
Available online 06 May 2017
1364-0321/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
Fig. 1. Sources for electricity generation in Mexico 2014.
Adapted from [5].
In Mexico, the Secretariat of Energy (SENER) is responsible for the
national energy policy, particularly the planning of the Mexican
electricity system [5]. The agency responsible for generating electricity
and provide electric service throughout the country is the Federal
Electricity Commission (CFE). CFE is a productive state enterprise
under a competitive regime and can participate in the various market
activities through subsidiaries and affiliates. Although the Article 27 of
the Mexican Constitution stipulates that the planning and control of
the national electricity system, as well as the transmission and
distribution of electricity, corresponds exclusively to the nation, it is
allowed for the state to enter into contracts with private parties to carry
out the financing, maintenance, management, operation and expansion
of infrastructure needed to provide the public service of transmission
and distribution of electricity [12]. The Regulatory Energy Commission
(CRE) is a decentralized body of the SENER with technical and
operational autonomy and is responsible for regulating natural gas
industries and electricity in Mexico. This organization grants permits
for the generation, sale and distribution of electricity from private
producers, and it also assesses and implements the fares regulation.
Despite the subsidy that the Mexican government use to minimize the
cost of energy, it represents 0.75% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
[13], average electricity rates are 25% higher than in the U.S. even with
the subsidy included [12], this due to high prices of fuel oil, which is
widely used in Mexico to generate electricity. Additionally, the elec-
tricity subsidy in Mexico has increased more than three times in the
period from 1995 to 2000, it almost doubled from 2000 to 2005, and
from 2005 until 2014 the electricity subsidy has risen very few [14],
representing 1.4 billion dollars [15]. The amount used to subsidize
conventional electricity could be used to support the development of
renewable energy, since its potential in Mexico for electricity genera-
tion is high. It is estimated that the proven potential for power
generation through solar, wind and biomass is 16,351, 19,805 and
2396 GW h/year, respectively [16].
This paper highlights for the first time a comprehensive review of
the current status of renewable energy projects for electricity genera-
tion in Mexico and the potential impact of these technologies in the
social and environmental areas. Most of the reviewed scientific
literature focuses on the technical aspects of renewable energy but, in
the case of our research, we presented some implications that renew-
able energy sources (RES) cause in the social and environmental areas.
In order to generate a true social benefit, it is necessary the growth and
development of the national industry of renewable energy technologies.
Additionally, the government and the national companies have to take
into account the development of appropriate mechanisms to protect
people from unfair lease contracts and promote better working
598
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
conditions. It is also necessary to establish the public policies that
help preserve the environment, customs, and traditions of the com-
munities i.e. a deployment of renewable energy projects in order to
preserve the balance of human communities should be launched, while
the environmental health and social welfare have to be also considered.
The aims of this research are as follows: i) to know the current status of
electricity generation through solar, wind, geothermal, hydropower and
biomass in Mexico, ii) to determine the renewable energy potential in
Mexico and its generation schemes, and iii) to analyze the social and
environmental challenges that these technologies are going to face in
Mexico.
2. Methodology
2.1. Literature review
2.1.1. Similar studies
It this review, we cover all the studies in regards to our topic since
2000–2016 so that we performed a literature review with studies in
Mexico. The search was conducted in "Web of Science" while we refined
results in ‘Document Types’ to include only ‘REVIEW’ articles. The
search yielded 16 articles and a critical analysis of the literature found
was performed, the findings are discussed in the following sections.
2.1.2. Research and development
A literature review was made on the scientific literature focused on
renewable energy research and development in Mexico. The search was
conducted in the database “Web of Science” while the results were
refined by restricting the search field ‘Countries/Territories’ to Mexico.
This research yielded 102 papers. After that we did a manual analysis
to set the relevant papers that met the established search topic which
are discussed in the following sections.
2.2. Status and potential
To identify the current status of electricity generation using RES in
Mexico, we performed a search on inventories and databases of
government and private agencies with jurisdiction in the area of
renewable energies. To estimate the potential for power generation
through solar, wind, biomass, geothermal and hydropower in Mexico,
we made an analysis of information in the INERE and CRE, we also
critically analyzed the information from the recently scientific literature
about the potential generation from renewable sources in Mexico.
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
Fig. 2. Scientific production carried out by Mexican institutions in the field of renewable energy. (a) Scientific papers published over the time. (b) Renewable energy sources addressed.
3. Renewable energy in Mexico
Mexican institutions have conducted research on power generation
through RES. The scientific production regarding RES has been
intermittent as shown in Fig. 2. The main topic of these publications
is solar energy accounting 41%, followed by biomass 26% and 15%
wind, other sources have less than 10%.
As shown in Table 1, some researches have been developed during
the last years in order to determine the participation of national or
international institutions in the renewable energy sector. A brief
discussion about that is shown below.
3.1. Main sources
3.1.1. Solar
Solar energy refers to the conversion of sunlight into other forms of
energy that humans can use to satisfy their needs. As shown in Fig. 3,
sunlight can be harnessed by three types of technologies: photovoltaic
(PV), concentrating solar thermal (CST) and solar heating and cooling
(SHC) [17]. PV technology directly uses sunlight to generate electricity
by the use of a PV cell, made of a semiconductor, that converts solar
energy into direct current electricity through the photoelectric effect
[18–20]. CST technology generates electricity indirectly by capturing
the heat from sunlight by collectors to heat a fluid to boiling [21], the
steam produced is used to drive a turbine that generates electricity.
SHC technology uses thermal energy from the sun to supply hot water,
space heating, or pool heating [22]. Additionally, these technologies
can also reach air-conditioning needs using two techniques called
thermally driven chillers and desiccant cooling systems [23].
The geographical distribution of solar radiation is graded into 4
categories or sun belts according to their intensity worldwide. The most
favorable belt lies between latitudes 15°N and 35°N, and between 15°S
and 35°S [24]. As shown in Fig. 4, Mexico is completely within
599
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
latitudes 15°N to 35°N, with solar radiation levels of approximately
5.35 kW h/m2 [25]. In Mexico, 62 GW h/year were generated using PV
technology from July 1st, 2014 to June 30th, 2015, but only 49 GW h/
year were produced by private producers and 13 GW h/year by the
CFE. Current status of electricity generation using solar energy is
shown in Table 2. In the state of Baja California Sur is concentrated
61% of solar installed capacity with a generation potential equivalent to
52% of total production in Mexico. Fig. 5 shows the six Mexican states
producers of solar energy and the solar insolation levels in Mexico.
Each of the 6 major producers exceed 6 kW h/m2/day, especially in the
peninsula of Baja California (B and C) and Sonora (F). As a whole the
six states contribute with an installed capacity of 65.2 MW and
generate 62 GW h/year.
There are nine types of permits that the CRE grants to individuals
so they can generate electricity. The permits granted to generate solar
power have been through two modalities, self-supply and small
production. The first modality was designed to self-supply the needs
of electricity for the partners of the permit holder. Small production is
the power generation exclusively for sale to the CFE [26].
The CRE has delivered a total of 6 permits to private individuals in
order to generate electricity from the sun, while the CFE has 2 power
projects giving a total of 8 power plants generating PV energy, which
are located in 6 states and 8 Mexican municipalities, as shown in
Table 2.
Proven potential for power generation through renewables refers to
the identified capacity by means of technical and economic studies to
test the feasibility of their use [27,28]. In Mexico there is a proven
potential to generate 16,351 GW h/year through solar energy, while
the states of Chihuahua and Sonora account for 45% of the generation,
as witnessed in Fig. 6. Diniz et al. [29], Jacobson [30], and Schweizer-
Ries [31] reported the successful implementation of decentralized PV
modules to meet the electricity needs of areas without network cover-
age. According to Yaqoot et al. [32] renewable energy systems are
E. Pérez-Denicia et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

Table 1
Main findings on the status and prospects of renewable energy sources in Mexico.

Year Key findings Author (s)

2015 An assessment was made on the solar resources in 5 states along the Gulf of Mexico (Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Hernández-Escobedo et al. [34]
Yucatan), and the following was found; the highest amount of solar energy recorded was greater than 6.22 kW h/m2/day in the month
of July and corresponded to the state of Tamaulipas. The southern region of the state of Veracruz recorded the highest annual average
(4.85 kW h/m2/day).
2015 In this work 11 bioenergy options were analyzed of which the following results are given; by the year 2035 16% of the final energy García et al. [53]
could be replaced. The current energy consumption supplied by fossil fuels and the mitigation of 17% of the greenhouse gases,
compared to the baseline, through the energy options considered in that work. According to the authors´ findings, wood pellets for
industrial efficient, cook stoves and efficient charcoal kilns show negative mitigation costs and low investment requirements therefore
they can be an option to consider for implementation in the short to mid-term. In regards to liquid biofuels, these ones show high
mitigation costs and low to high potential mitigation, however its potential benefit depends on the feedstock. Mexico has a technical
potential for the production of sustainable biomass for 1713 PJ or 18.5% of the total primary energy used in 2010. The 54.3%
corresponds to direct wood fuels from sustainable forest management, 41.9% to energy crops, and 3.7% to sawmill waste.
2015 Users of domestic high consumption fares in Mexico can benefit by installing grid-connected photovoltaic systems (SFVI), this idea Grande et al. [66]
would stop using power supplied from the grid, and on the other hand by reducing their electricity consumption so they could reach a
consumption scheme which may benefit from government subsidy. In Mexico there is a potential niche SFVI market for the installation
of slightly above 400 MW in the household sector. This would result in the elimination of 17 MtCO2eq in a 20-year period, equivalent to
an annual reduction of 841 thousand of CO2. There are two cases in which the benefit would not be achieved; in the first case the SFVI
installed capacity is not enough to move from a high consumption scheme to a lower one (which could benefit from government
subsidy), in the second case, the installed SFVI capacity is higher than needed, so the user could achieve energy self-sufficiency even
supply surplus power to the grid, therefore there would be no government subsidy which would make investment unprofitable.
2014 Among the northern states of Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas), Tamaulipas has the highest levels of wind Hernández-Escobedo et al. [42]
power density (1000 W/m2) and this occurs during the months of September and October. In large areas of Nuevo Leon there is a
density of 230 W/m2. Of the total relative amount of wind power that can be generated in the northern states of Mexico, Nuevo Leon
contributes by 40%, Chihuahua 34.3%, Sonora 11.4%, Coahuila 8.6%, and Tamaulipas 5.7%. In most cases the wind speed determined
presents a similar pattern, the increase in wind speed starts 4 pm until 6 am the next day. In almost all the territory of the states of
Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas, there is a wind speed of over 4.51 m/s.
2014 In Mexico around 16% of power was generated by renewable sources. 14,357 MW were generated by renewable energy (by the first 2 Alemán-Nava et al. [67]
months of 2012). 75% of this capacity was concentrated in the states of Oaxaca, Baja California, Veracruz and Nuevo Leon.
Hydropower was the renewable energy source with the biggest installed capacity (11,603 MW). Research carried out in the energy by
Mexican institutions in the field of energy, have mainly focused on biomass and less in hydropower.
2014 Financing from the Mexican Fund for Energy Transition is mainly used for electrification with photovoltaic technology in isolated Mundo-Hernández et al. [68]
areas of Mexico. There is a financing program for municipal lighting with photovoltaic as well as funds for research and technology
development projects. The funds available in Mexico to promote renewable energy projects are mainly focused on large public or
private projects.
2014 A comparison between two border cities (Yuma, United States and Mexicali, Mexico) on their solar potential is made. The city of Santillán Soto et al. [69]
Mexicali exceeds the solar potential of 1000 MW m2 during the warm season, while in the city of Yuma that amount is never reached.
However the potential for solar energy is higher in Yuma during the cold seasons, and more homogeneous behavior is observed.
2011 In Mexico, the wind has a significant periodic component. The fundamental component of the wind speed represents a frequency of 1/ Hernández-Escobedo et al. [70]
24 h−1, very accurately over the time studied (2000–2008). Therefore, to exploit the wind potential in Mexico, it should be considered
that there is a minimum wind speed between 8:00 and 16:00 h and a maximum close to 24:00 h.
2011 In Mexico there is a wind potential of 40,000 MW, distributed in the peninsula of Baja California, the central region, the Gulf Coast, the Cancino-Solórzano et al. [40]
Yucatan Peninsula and the Tehuantepec isthmus. The areas with the best wind resources in the state of Oaxaca are located in the
southern part of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (winds ranging from 7.3 to 7.7 m/s), while in the mountains of the isthmus (including La
Venta, La Ventosa and La Mata), wind speeds are more than 8.5 m/s.
2010 The authors estimate that in Mexico 75.73 million tons of dry matter were generated from 20 different crops. Of that amount, 60.13 Valdez-Vazquez et al. [71]
million tons correspond to primary crop residues (residues after harvest in the fields), mainly from corn straw, sorghum straw, tops/
leaves of sugarcane and wheat straw. 15.6 million tons were contributed by secondary crop residues (generated by processing the
harvested portions of the crop) mainly from the by-products of sugarcane bagasse, corncobs, maguey bagasse and coffee pulp. In
addition, several municipalities in Mexico could have an installed capacity of 78 MW, by direct combustion, or produce 0.3 million m3
of bioethanol per year due to its high by-products potential.
2010 Mexico has a potential of more than 1700 h of useful wind per year in practically the whole country, with a potential to generate Hernández-Escobedo et al. [41]
2000 kW per wind turbine installed annually (except in the state of Chiapas). In the central states of Mexico (Puebla, Hidalgo,
Zacatecas, Tlaxcala and Estado de Mexico), there are areas that could generate up to 10,000 kW per wind turbine installed per year.
Additionally, the Yucatan peninsula could generate up to 15,000 kW per wind turbine installed per year.
2010 Renewables contribute with 14.6% of the electricity generated in the country (2% hydroelectric, geothermal 2.5% and 0.1% wind). Cancino-Solórzano et al. [72]
Some of the biggest obstacles to a more active use of renewable energy sources are the investment and production costs of some
technologies, as well as the lack of incentives and financing mechanisms by the government. The authors also highlight the lack of
industrial capacity and skilled workers as a reason why current facilities do not exploit their full potential.
2004 In this paper the design of crystalline silicon solar cells with various technological processes for manufacturing in an industrial Morales-Acevedo [73]
environment was shown. It was also shown the development of a new process of aluminum alloy which causes an increase of over 20%
in the conversion efficiency.

classified into two categories: (i) centralized renewable energy systems,
and (ii) decentralized renewable energy systems (DRES). DRESs such
as solar home systems, family-type biogas plants, etc. have been
disseminated worldwide for improving access to energy to the rural
household. It has to be remembered that access to electricity is limited
in rural areas of Mexico, where the majority of the population is of
limited economic resources. Yaqoot et al. [32] established the main
barriers that DRESs face in its implementation worldwide. They
highlighted some barriers such as the technological, economical,
institutional, socio-cultural, and environmental. Additionally, they
stated some sub-barriers such as: (i) the resources availability, (ii)
the design, installation, and performance of technology, (iii) skill
requirement for design and development, manufacturing, installation,
operation, and maintenance, (iv) cost, market structure, energy pricing,
incentives, awareness and risk perception, (v) policy and regulatory,
infrastructure, (vi) societal structure, norms and value system, beha-
vioral or lifestyle issues, and (vii) resources (land, water, and air),
pollution, and esthetics.
Possible potential is the theoretical value of the installable capacity
and linked generation, obtained from indirect studies that does not

600
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
Fig. 3. Technologies to harness solar energy.
Adapted from [85,86].
necessarily involve field studies to verify their technical or economic
feasibility, henceforth we will refer for the possible potential as
potential. Regarding to the potential of solar energy, Mexico has a
capacity to install 5000 GW [16]. According with Villicaña-Ortiz et al.
[33] the northern region of the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico can
reach a potential of 6.7 kW h/m2. On the other hand, Hernández-
Escobedo et al. [34] estimate that from the Mexican states along the
Gulf of Mexico (the same region as [33]), Tamaulipas has the greatest
potential (6.22 kW h/m2/day) and Veracruz recorded the highest
annual average (4.85 kW h/m2/day).
It is worth noting the great solar potential of the whole Mexican
territory, mainly in the northern states, as they have large areas of
desert that can be used for the installation of photovoltaic modules and
produce electricity that may be used to supply nearby populations. It
has also been reported the viability of solar energy in non-mainland as
is the case of Mendoza-Vizcaino et al. [35] who conducted a study on
the economic and environmental feasibility of solar-wind use on
islands, specifically the island of Cozumel in the state of Quintana Roo.
A number of initiatives and programs should be undertaken by the
government and non-government institutions to improve electricity
access through solar energy throughout Mexico. In addition, further
research is required on the conditions, barriers and opportunities that
the government of Mexico and stakeholders must face in implementing
this type of decentralized projects, especially considering the high cost
of centralized supply of electrical energy to remote communities. We
should not forget that some, if not all, barriers or sub barriers of the
Fig. 4. Global distribution of solar insolation into belts.
601
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
renewable energy systems highlighted above, may be found throughout
Mexico.
3.1.2. Wind
Wind energy refers to the kinetic energy of wind used to generate
electricity through wind turbines. Wind turbines produce electricity
through an aerodynamic rotor which is connected to an electric
generator. Usually a gearbox is used to change the slow moving turbine
rotor into faster rotating gears although some modern turbines are
gearless [36]. Current standard turbines have three blades rotating on a
horizontal axis, however, there are also available two blade ones [37].
Wind energy can be generated either with land based wind
(onshore) or offshore wind, both with low impact on the environment
compared with other sources to generate electricity [38]. Onshore
energy refers to the power generated by turbines installed in the
mainland, whereas offshore energy refers to the power generated by
wind turbines installed in the sea.
In Mexico a total of 7676 GW h/year is generated by onshore wind
energy. The CFE produces 220 GW h/year and private producers
generate 7455 GW h/year, as indicated in Table 3. There is an installed
capacity of 2621.45 MW, of which CFE owns 3.3% and private
producers 96.7%. Oaxaca State concentrates 80% of the installed
capacity and produce 92% of the country´s wind power.
Wind speeds in Mexico are favorable in most of the territory, with
speeds ranging between 3 to 10 m/s at 120 m high, as shown in Fig. 7.
Despite the excellent wind resources of the country, Mexico has an
E. Pérez-Denicia et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

Table 2
Location, installed capacity, and generation for solar power plants in Mexico. Electricity generation from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2015. Installed capacity reported at June 30, 2015.
Source:Adapted from [16].

State Municipality Name Type of Type of Installed Generation Installed Generation by

producer permission Capacity (GW h/year) Capacity by state (GW h/
(MW) state (MW) year)

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes Autoabastecimiento Private Self supply 1 1.66 1 1.66

Renovable, S.A. de C.V.

Baja California Mexicali Cerro Prieto CFE CFE 5 10.83 6.1 12.6
Tijuana Plamex, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 1.11 1.76

Baja California Sur Mulegé Santa Rosalia CFE CFE 1 2.07 39.8 32.5
La Paz Servicios Comerciales de Private Small 38.75 30.43
Energía, S.A. de C.V. production
Durango Durango Tai Durango Uno, S.A.P. Private Small 16.8 14.58 16.8 14.6
I. de C.V. production
Guanajuato Apaseo el Grande Generadora Solar Private Self supply 1 0 1 0
Apaseo, S.A.P.I. de C.V.
Sonora Miguel Alemán Coppel, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 1 0.66 1 0.66
Total 65.6 62

installed power capacity considerably lower than other countries with

similar wind resources and less territory, for instance Mexico has only
5.8% of the installed capacity of Germany (44,900 MW) and 11.4% of
the power capacity of Spain (23,000 GW). It is necessary that the
competent Mexican authorities take the necessary actions to support
wind power in the country in order to generate electricity in a more
sustainable way.
The CRE has granted generation permits to 27 private projects. In
addition to the 2 types of permits issued by the CRE for the generation
of solar energy, two more modalities are added for wind energy private
producers; exportation and independent production. Exportation mod-
ality is the generation of electricity for export through an independent
production project, the exercise of the authorized activity includes
driving, processing and delivering the electricity generated.
Independent production is for the generation of electric power in
plants with capacity greater than 30 MW. Electric power must be Fig. 6. Proven potential for power generation using solar energy in Mexico.
destined for sale to the supplier or export [39]. There are 30 plants or
wind farms for electricity generation in Mexico, of which only 3 are potential for wind power generation in Mexico is 19,805 GW h/year.
owned by the CFE and 27 are private projects. These farms are located This potential is distributed in 18 of the 32 states of the Mexican
in 9 states and 16 municipalities of the Mexican Republic. Proven Republic. As indicated in Fig. 8, Coahuila concentrates 20% of the

Fig. 5. Solar insolation levels (kWh/m2/day) and location of the electricity generator states using PV technology in Mexico.
Modified from [16].

602
 Table 3
Location, installed capacity, and generation for onshore wind energy in Mexico. Electricity generation from July 1, 2014 to June 30, 2015. Installed capacity reported at June 30, 2015.
Source:Adapted from [16].
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.

State Municipality Name Type of Type of Installed Capacity Generation (GW h/ Installed Capacity by Generation by state
producer permission (MW) year) state (MW) (GW h/year)

Baja California Mexicali Municipio de Mexicali Private Self supply 10 25.05 166.6 92.7
Mulegé Guerrero Negro (Puerto Viejo) CFE CFE 0.6 0.03
Tecate Energía Sierra Juárez Private Exportation 156 67.62
Chiapas Arriaga Eólica de Arriaga, S.A.P.I. de C.V. Private Self supply 28.8 89.72 28.8 89.72
Jalisco Ojuelos de Jalisco Eólica Los Altos, S.A.P.I. de C.V. Private Self supply 50.4 166.7 50.4 166.7
Nuevo León Santa Catarina Eólica Santa Catarina, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 22 35.34 22 35.34

Oaxaca El espinal Bii Nee Stipa I, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 31 26.35 2096.35 7072.479
El espinal Eólica Zopiloapan (Bii Nee Stipa Private Self supply 70 278.58
III)
El espinal Stipa Nayaa (Bii Nee Stipa II), S.A. Private Self supply 74 299.61
de C.V.
Ixtaltepec Eléctrica del Valle de México, S. de Private Self supply 67.5 178.87
R.L.
Ixtaltepec Fuerza Eólica del Istmo, S.A. de C. Private Self supply 80 196.23
V.
Juchitán de Z. La Venta CFE CFE 84.65 218.04
Juchitán de Z. Instituto de Investigaciones Private Small P. 0.3 0.15
Eléctricas

603
Juchitán de Z. Eólicos Mexicanos de Oaxaca I, S. Private Self supply 90 340.49
A.
Juchitán de Z. Parques Ecológicos de México, S.A. Private Self supply 79.9 90.29
Juchitán de Z. Ce Oaxaca Cuatro, S. de R.L. de C. Private Independent 102 468.68
V.
Juchitán de Z. Eoliatec del Istmo, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 164 606.97
Juchitán de Z. Eurus, S.A. de C.V. Private Self supply 250.52 1023.7
Juchitán de Z. Eólica El Retiro, S.A.P.I. de C.V. Private Self supply 74 99.78
Juchitán de Z. Fuerza y Energía BII HIOXO, S.A. Private Self supply 226.8 645.619
de C.V.
Santo Domingo Energías Ambientales de Oaxaca, Private Independent 102 355.31
S.A.
Santo Domingo Ce Oaxaca Dos, S. de R.L. de C.V. Private Independent 102 354.33
Santo Domingo Ce Oaxaca Tres, S. de R.L. de C.V. Private Independent 102 373.27
Santo Domingo Energías Renovables Venta III, S. Private Independent 102.85 274.45
A. de C.V.
Santo Domingo Eoliatec del Pacífico Private Independent 160 706.92
Unión Hidalgo Parque eólico Piedra Larga Fase 2 Private Self supply 137.5 471.63
Quintana Roo Benito Juarez Yuumil Ik CFE CFE 1.5 2.11 1.5 2.11
San Luis Potosi Charcas Dominica Energía Limpia, S.A. de Private Self supply 200 39.97 200 39.97
C.V.
Sonora Puerto Peñasco Energía Sonora PPE, S.C. Private Small P. 1.8 0.5 1.8 0.5
Tamaulipas Reynosa Compañía Eólica de Tamaulipas Private Self supply 54 176.16 54 176.16
Total 2621.45 7675.679
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
Fig. 7. Wind speeds at 120 m high in Mexico.
Modified from [16].
Fig. 8. Proven potential for power generation using wind energy in Mexico.
proven potential equivalent to 4010 GW h/year. It is noteworthy that
Oaxaca generates 2096 GW h/year, which added to the proven poten-
tial results in 4239 GW h/year.
According to INERE [16] Mexico has a wind potential of 50 GW.
However Cancino-Solórzano et al. [40] argues that in Mexico there is a
wind potential of 40 GW, distributed in the peninsula of Baja
California, the central region, the Gulf Coast, the Yucatan Peninsula
and the Tehuantepec isthmus. According to Hernández-Escobedo et al.
[41] in the central part of Mexico there are areas with the potential to
generate up to 10,000 kW per wind turbine installed per year, while in
the Yucatan peninsula can be generated up to 15,000 kW per wind
turbine installed per year, in the rest of the country it can be generated
up to 2000 kW as the national average of useful wind is up to 1700 h
per year. Additionally Hernández-Escobedo et al. [42] argue that in
Fig. 9. Ways to harness biomass.
Adapted from [87,88].
604
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
almost all the territory of the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo
Leon and Tamaulipas, there is a wind speed of over 4.51 m/s, while
Figueroa-Espinoza et al. [43] carried out measurements on the wind
potential in a community in the state of Yucatan, finding that
measurements above 50 m high are more accurate than those carried
out under those heights.
The potential for power generation in Oaxaca and other states is
huge but there are other problems of socio-cultural nature in the
deployment of wind technology. The conditions of adaptability to new
technologies by the population is different from those of other nations,
especially European ones because it is about different contexts, there-
fore the federal government and stakeholders must implement mea-
sures to address the needs of the affected population by the installation
of wind turbines and come to an agreement so as not to affect the rights
of the population, mostly indigenous. In any case, a deeper analysis is
needed taking into account socio-cultural aspects, adaptability and
acceptance by communities, as well as harnessing natural resources for
sustainable development.
3.1.3. Biomass
The term biomass refers to organic material, non-fossilized and
biodegradable, derived from living organisms or that have recently
been alive such as plants, animals and others [44,45]. Biomass can be
used in three different ways: heat and power, biofuels, and biogas, as
shown in Fig. 9. Heat and power refers to the traditional ways of using
biomass for bioenergy, such as burning wood or pastures for heat. The
term biofuel refers to liquid fuels produced by thermochemical and
biochemical processes out of materials from plants, animals and other
organisms. The main biofuels considered globally are biodiesel and
bioethanol [46]. Biogas is a mixture of certain compounds and
 Table 4
Location, installed capacity, and generation for biomass power plants in Mexico. Electricity generation from July 1, 2014 to June 30, 2015. Installed capacity reported at June 30, 2015.
Source:Adapted from [16].

State Municipality Name Type of plant Installed Capacity Generation (GW h/ Intalled capacity by state Generation by state (GW h/
(MW) year) (MW) year)
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.

Aguascalientes Aguascalientes Energía Verde de Aguascalientes Biogas 3.2 12.33 3.2 12.33
Chiapas Huixtla Huixtla Energía Direct combustion 12 23.32 25.06 48.19
Venustiano Carranza Azucarera La Fé Direct combustion 13.06 24.87

Chihuahua Delicias Energía Lactea Biogas 0.8 0.11 7.2 25.62

Juárez Energía Eléctrica de Juárez Biogas 6.4 25.51

Colima Cuauhtémoc Ingenio Quesería Direct combustion 5.5 23.16 5.5 23.16
Durango Durango Ener-G Biogas 1.6 2.03 1.6 2.03
Estado de México Ecatepec de Morelos La Costeña y Jugomex Biogas 0.97 4.51 1.57 8.01
Atizapán Relleno Sanitario Puerto de Biogas 0.6 3.5
Chivos

Guanajuato León Ecosys III Biogas 1.75 1.36 1.75 1.36

Jalisco Tlajomulco De Zúñiga Atlatec, Planta El Ahogado Biogas 2.85 7.58 87.82 214.97
Ameca Ingenio San Francisco Ameca Direct combustion 4.5 14.79
Autlán de Navarro Ingenio Melchor Ocampo Direct combustion 6.1 27.2
Tamazula de Gordiano Tamazula Direct combustion 10.47 44.66
Tala Ingenio Tala Direct combustion 12 1.67
Tuxpan Bio Pappel, Atenquique Direct combustion 15.5 23.51
Tala Tala Electric Direct combustion 25 95.56
Zapopan Renova Atlatec Biogas 11.4 0

605
Michoacán Taretan Ingenio Lázaro Cárdenas Direct combustion 5.5 9.5 14.6 22.93
Tocumbo Ingenio Santa Clara Direct combustion 9.1 13.43

Morelos Cuautla Ingenio Casasano Direct combustion 3.4 4.92 12 29.23

Zacatepec Ingenio Emiliano Zapata Direct combustion 8.6 24.31

Nayarit Tepic Ingenio El Molino Direct combustion 10 14.11 10 14.11

Nuevo León San Nicolás de Los Garza Planta Norte (Gob. de Nuevo Biogas 1.6 0 27.76 102.17
León)
Pesquería Planta Dulces Nombres Biogas 9.2 0.59
Salinas Victoria Bioenergía de Nuevo León Biogas 16.96 101.58

Oaxaca Acatlán de Pérez Ingenio La Margarita Direct combustion 7.3 25.25 20.8 54.39
Tuxtepec Ingenio Adolfo López Mateos Direct combustion 13.5 29.14

Puebla Nopalucan Empacadora San Marcos Biogas 0.974 0 15.974 28.64

Atencingo Ingenio de Atencingo Direct combustion 15 28.64

Querétaro Santiago de Querétaro Atlatec Biogas 1.05 2.42 2.42 2.42

Querétaro TMQ Generación Energía Biogas 1.373 0
Renovable

Quintana Roo Othón P. Blanco Ingenio San Rafael de Pucté Direct combustion 9 23.81 9 23.81
San Luis Potosí Tamasopo Ingenio Alianza Popular Direct combustion 6.4 31.66 40.7 148.31
Ciudad Valles Ingenio Plan De San Luis Direct combustion 9 23.4
Valles Ingenio Plan De Ayala Direct combustion 16 24.26
El Naranjo Ingenio San Miguel del Naranjo Direct combustion 9.3 68.99

Sinaloa Culiacán El Dorado Direct combustion 9.6 7.62 23.6 24.91

(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
 Table 4 (continued)

State Municipality Name Type of plant Installed Capacity Generation (GW h/ Intalled capacity by state Generation by state (GW h/
(MW) year) (MW) year)

Los Mochis Azucarera Los Mochis Direct combustion 14 17.29

E. Pérez-Denicia et al.

Tabasco Tenosique Azsuremex Direct combustion 2.5 2.92 41.7 57.96

H. Cárdenas Ingenio Benito Juárez Direct combustion 14 38.12
Cárdenas Santa Rosalía Direct combustion 25.2 16.92

Tamaulipas Ciudad Mante Ingenio El Mante Direct combustion 5.75 8.97 13.25 31.63
Xicoténcatl Azucarera del Río Guayalejo Direct combustion 7.5 22.66

Veracruz Mahuixtlán Ingenio Mahuixtlán Direct combustion 3.26 5.14 281.66 537.96
Motzorongo Ingenio El Refugio Direct combustion 4 0.63
Jiotepec Azucarera La Concepción Direct combustion 4.2 0.53
Córdoba Ingenio San Miguelito Direct combustion 5.2 7.17
Lerdo de Tejada Compañía Industrial Azucarera Direct combustion 5.5 12.81
Lerdo de Tejada Ingenio Nuevo San Francisco Direct combustion 6.5 13.32
Córdoba Ingenio El Carmen Direct combustion 6.75 6.4
Cuichapa Ingenio La Providencia Direct combustion 7 10.33
Atoyac Destilería del Golfo Direct combustion 8 8.96
Pánuco Fomento Azucarero del Golfo Direct combustion 8 26.56
Cuitláhuac Ingenio San José de Abajo Direct combustion 8 11.6
La Antigua Ingenio El Modelo Direct combustion 9 12.22
Martínez de La Torre Azucarera Independencia Direct combustion 9.6 0.96
Atoyac Ingenio El Potrero Direct combustion 10 23.99
Lerdo de Tejada Ingenio San Pedro Direct combustion 10 33.42
Ixtaczoquitlán Kimberly-Clark de México Direct combustion 10 3.46

606
Tres Valles Ingenio Tres Valles Direct combustion 12 0
Tezonapa BSM Energía de Veracruz Direct combustion 12.75 25.14
Cuichapa Ingenio San Nicolás Direct combustion 14.4 44.73
Tezonapa Central Motzorongo Direct combustion 20 11.56
Úrsulo Galván Ingenio La Gloria Direct combustion 21.5 14.91
El Higo Ingenio El Higo Direct combustion 21.8 38.84
Carlos A. Carrillo Cuenca del Papaloapan Direct combustion 24.2 86.6
Tres Valles Piasa Coogeneración Direct combustion 40 138.68

Total 647.167 1414.14

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
E. Pérez-Denicia et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

Fig. 11. Proven potential for power generation using geothermal energy in Mexico.

Fig. 10. Proven potential for power generation using biomass in Mexico.
hydrocarbons, including methane, carbon dioxide, smaller amounts of
hydrogen sulfide and ammonia [47], produced by the anaerobic
digestion of biological material. Biogas is mainly used to generate
electricity and heat [48]. A detailed list of the different categories of
biomass and examples of each one is given by Long et al. [49]. Biomass
sources including biogas, wood and sugar cane bagasse contributed
4.14% of total primary energy production in Mexico in 2014, this
represents 365.4 petajoules (PJ) [50].
As indicated in Table 4, in Mexico there are 68 projects of biomass
power generation with an installed capacity of 647.16 MW and a
generation of 1414 GW h/year. The whole generation is by private
production, CFE does not produce electricity from biomass. The power
generation is through two processes, heat and power, and biogas. The
heat and power procedure is by burning sugar cane bagasse. The
second procedure is biogas. There are plants to generate electricity
from biomass in 21 of the 32 states of the Mexican Republic, of which
Veracruz State is the leader with installed capacity equivalent to 44%
and a generating capacity of 38% of the country.
Proven potential for biomass power generation in Mexico is
2396 GW h/year, with an installed capacity of 370 MW and is dis-
tributed in 17 states of the Mexican Republic. As shown in Fig. 10, the
state that might be a leader is the State of Mexico with 1121 GW h/
year, equivalent to 47% of the country. Rios and Kaltschmitt [51]
reported a theoretical potential of approximately 167.9 TW h/year,
while Prochnow et al. [52] reported that using grassland to produce
biogas brings benefits such as carbon storage, habitat function,
preservation of ground and surface water quality i.e. the potential for
the production of biogas from organic wastes, for electricity generation
is good, actually it reduces the environmental concerns. However, the
technologies generated in order to produce electricity through biomass
have to be evaluated in order to determinate their environmental
impact which have to have a positive cost-benefit ratio in the long run.
It has been remembered that using biofuels made from jatropha, oil
palm, corn, soy, or sugar cane might have a greater environmental
impact than burning fossil fuels because although the fossil fuels
themselves emit fewer greenhouse gases, they all have environmental
and ecological higher costs in terms of biodiversity loss, degradation of
farmland, and environmental pollution. In addition, according to
INERE [16] the generation potential of biomass in Mexico is
3642 MW but, García et al. [53] argues that Mexico has a technical
potential for the production of sustainable biomass for 1713 PJ.
In the Mexican territory there are excellent conditions for generat-
ing electricity from biomass, either by direct combustion or biogas. It
might be taken into consideration as an advantage for producing
energy from wastes from a variety of sources, such as crops, agricultur-
al waste, livestock and municipal waste. In the case of Mexico most of
biomass for electricity comes from cane bagasse or wood, but there is a
variety of raw materials that might be used for this purpose. In order to
sustainably harnessing the biomass as a natural resource from Mexico,
some action plans are needed to provide another kind of waste and give
it a proper treatment so that it can be used in a cleaner and safer way to
generate electricity, and consequently increase their participation in
the national energy basket.
3.1.4. Geothermal
Geothermal energy is the remaining heat from the formation of the
earth which is contained within the planet. Despite being a very
abundant type of energy it is not evenly distributed and is at great
depths which makes it difficult to be exploited industrially [54].
Geothermal energy has an advantage over other sources of renewable
energy and this is because it is immune to the effects of weather and
seasons. For this reason it can reach a capacity factor to 95% [55]. The

Table 5
Location, installed capacity, and generation for geothermal power plants in Mexico. Electricity generation from July 1, 2014 to June 30, 2015. Installed capacity reported at June 30,
2015.
Source:Adapted from [16].

State Municipality Name Type of Type of Installed Generation Installed Generation by

producer permission Capacity (GW h/year) Capacity by state (GW h/year)
(MW) state (MW)

Baja Mexicali Cerro Prieto I CFE CFE 30 302.2 570 3943.24

California Mexicali Cerro Prieto II CFE CFE 220 1420
Mexicali Cerro Prieto III CFE CFE 220 1420
Mexicali Cerro Prieto IV CFE CFE 100 801.04
Baja Mulegé Las tres Vírgenes CFE CFE 10 50.02 0 50.02
California
Sur
Michoacán Cd. Hidalgo Los Azufres CFE CFE 191.6 1565.68 191.6 1565.68
Puebla Chignautla Los Humeros CFE CFE 51.8 462.1 51.8 462.1
Nayarit San Pedro Geotérmica para Private Self supply 35 5.88 35 5.88
Lagunilla el Desarrollo
Total 858.4 6026.92

607
 Table 6.
Location, installed capacity and generation for hydropower plants in Mexico. Electricity generation from July 1, 2014 to June 30, 2015. Installed capacity reported at June 30, 2015.
Source:Adapted from [16].

State Municipality Name Type of Installed Capacity Generation (GW h/year) Installed capacity by state Generation by state (GW h/
plant (MW) (MW) year)
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.

Chiapas Ostuacán Angel Albino Corzo (Peñitas) Large Hydro 420 1990.2 4828.48 15,592.45
Venustiano Carranza Belisario Domínguez (Angostura) Large Hydro 900 2870.83
Soyaló Bombana Small Hydro 5.24 24.51
Chicoasén Ing. Manuel Moreno Torres Large Hydro 2400 6260.47
(Chicoasén)
Tapachula José Cecilio del Valle Small Hydro 21 100.95
Tecpatán Malpaso Large Hydro 1080 4336.64
Venustiano Carranza Schpoiná Small Hydro 2.24 8.85

Chihuahua San Francisco Conchos Boquilla Small Hydro 25 76.74 28 85.06

San Francisco de Conchos Colina Small Hydro 3 8.32
Coahuila Acuña La amistad Large Hydro 66 48.08 66 48.08
Durango San Dimas Primero Empresa Minera Small Hydro 19.73 28.14 19.73 28.14
Estado de México Malinalco Alameda Small Hydro 6.99 7.82 6.99 7.82
Guanajuato Salvatierra Compañía Eléctrica Carolina Small Hydro 2.49 6.14 2.49 6.14

Guerrero La Venta Ambrosio Figueroa (La Venta) Small Hydro 30 0 1828 5342.61
Apaxtla Carlos Ramírez Ulloa (El Caracol) Large Hydro 600 1495.72
Quechultenango Colotlipa Small Hydro 8 28.49
La Unión Infiernillo Large Hydro 1160 3669.97
Cutzamala de Pinzón Mexicana de Hidroelectricidad Small Hydro 30 148.43
Mexhidro
Hidalgo Zimapán Ing. Fernando Hiriart Balderrama Large Hydro 292 2027.68 292 2027.68

608
(Zimapán)

Jalisco Tonalá Colimilla Large Hydro 51.2 63.65 409.71 700.06

Tamazula de Gordiano Ingenio Tamazula, Planta Santa Cruz Small Hydro 0.64 1.21
Tomatlán Hidroeléctrica Cajón de Peña Small Hydro 1.2 6.86
Pihuamo Hidroelectricidad del Pacífico Small Hydro 9.15 38.2
Jilotlán de Dolores Proveedora de Electricidad de Small Hydro 19 51.31
Occidente
Tonalá Luis M. Rojas (Intermedia) Small Hydro 5.32 9.31
Santa Rosa Manuel M. Diéguez (Santa Rosa) Large Hydro 70 248.42
Tonalá Puente Grande Small Hydro 9 32.87
Zapopan Valentín Gómez Farías (Agua Prieta) Large Hydro 240 230.94
Mascota Hidroeléctrica Arco Iris Large Hydro 4.2 17.29

Michoacán Tacámbaro de Codallos Bartolinas Small Hydro 0.75 2.09 582.08 2803.57
Panindicuaro Botello Small Hydro 18 89.23
Uruapan Cupatitzio Large Hydro 80 452.02
Gabriel Zamora El Cóbano Large Hydro 60 280.26
Peribán de Ramos Itzícuaro Small Hydro 0.62 1.8
Uruapan Gobierno del Estado de Michoacán Small Hydro 4.05 16.1
Lázaro Cárdenas La Villita Large Hydro 320 1559.59
Jacona de Plancarte Platanal Small Hydro 12.6 47.6
Villa Madero San Pedro Porúas Small Hydro 2.56 5.94
Contepec Tepuxtepec (Lerma) Large Hydro 74 293.49
Morelia Tirio Small Hydro 1.1 3.77
Uruapan Zumpimito Small Hydro 8.4 51.68

Nayarit Tepic Aguamilpa (Solidaridad) Large Hydro 960 1817.07 2462.18 4024.48
Tepic Jumatán Small Hydro 2.18 12.54
(continued on next page)
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
 Table 6. (continued)

State Municipality Name Type of Installed Capacity Generation (GW h/year) Installed capacity by state Generation by state (GW h/
plant (MW) (MW) year)

La Yesca La Yesca Large Hydro 750 957.34

Santa María del Oro Leonardo Rodríguez Alcaine (El Cajón) Large Hydro 750 1237.53
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.

Oaxaca Tamzulapan del Espíritu Tamazulapan Small Hydro 2.48 9.74 356.48 1292.77
Santo
San Miguel Soyaltepec Temascal II Large Hydro 354 1283.03

Puebla Chiautzingo Energía EP Small Hydro 0.41 2.48 450.47 1675.71

Hueyapan Compañía de Energía Mexicana Small Hydro 36 260.97
Tatlahuquitepec Mazatepec Large Hydro 220 581.42
San Juan Galindo Necaxa Large Hydro 109 438.64
Xicontepec de Juaréz Patla Large Hydro 37 181.36
Atlixco Portezuelos I y II Small Hydro 3.06 20.35
Tenango de las flores Tepexic Large Hydro 45 190.49

San Luis Potosi Naranjo Camilo Arriaga (El Salto) Small Hydro 18 100.33 20.13 112.57
Ciudad Valles Electroquímica Small Hydro 1.44 10.58
Ciudad Valles Micos Small Hydro 0.69 1.66

Sinaloa Sinaloa de Leyva Bacurato Large Hydro 92 237.86 777.4 2006.85

El Fuerte El Fuerte Large Hydro 59.4 304.66
Badiraguato Humaya Large Hydro 90 203.13
Choix Luis Donaldo Colosio (Huites) Large Hydro 422 981.86
Cosala Raúl J. Marsal C. (Comedero) Large Hydro 100 226.64
Culiacán Salvador Alvarado (Sanalona) Small Hydro 14 52.7

609
Sonora Álamos Mocuzari Small Hydro 9.6 52.22 163.8 713.88
Cajeme Oviachic Small Hydro 19.2 92.38
Soyopa Plutarco Elias Calles (El Novillo) Large Hydro 135 569.28
Tamaulipas Nueva Ciudad Guerrero Falcón Large Hydro 31.5 10.98 31.5 10.98

Veracruz Catemaco Chilapan Small Hydro 26 106.73 148.8 512.57

Tlapacoyan Encanto Small Hydro 10 0
Orizaba Papelera Veracruzana Small Hydro 1.26 5.99
Rafael Delgado Hidrorizaba Small Hydro 1.6 9.58
Ixtaczoquitlán Ixtaczoquitlán Small Hydro 1.6 11.88
Rafael Delgado Hidrorizaba II Small Hydro 4.44 15.45
Orizaba Cervecería Cuauhtémoc-Moctezuma Small Hydro 10 24.55
Ixtaczoquitlán Procesamiento Energético Mexicano Small Hydro 11.3 51.15
Las Minas Minas Small Hydro 15 89.84
Teocelo Texolo Small Hydro 1.6 12.77
Ixtaczoquitlán Tuxpango Large Hydro 36 112.81
Zongolica Río Apatlahuaya (Electricidad del Large Hydro 30 71.82
Golfo)
Total 12,474.24 36,991.42
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
E. Pérez-Denicia et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

water from a higher level and its descend to a lower one so it can drive a
turbine connected to an electricity generator. The amount of electricity
generated depends on the volume of water flow or the height of the fall.
Some hydropower plants produce electricity directly by using the flow
of a river, in most cases dams are built to capture water in order to
increase and control its flow, to enhance the height of its fall and to
store it to be available in the future, additionally some have a pumping
system for water replenishment.
Hydropower can be harnessed using three different technologies: (i)
run-of-river, (ii) reservoir, and (iii) pumped storage plants. Run of river
hydropower plants use the flow of rivers and may include short-term
storage for more flexibility and adaptation to demand, however this
technology is mainly based on the natural flow conditions of rivers.
Reservoir hydropower plants are based on water storage reservoirs
Fig. 12. Proven potential for hydropower generation in Mexico.
mostly created by damming which can store huge amounts of water.
Pumped storage plants pump water found in low reservoirs to higher
ones when generation exceeds demand so that the supply is guaranteed
technologies used for the exploitation of geothermal energy vary,
when required [61].
according to the three types of geothermal resources: (i) high-
Hydropower is the renewable energy source that most contributes
temperature hydrothermal or volcanic resources, (ii) low and med-
for power generation in Mexico, since in 2014 accounted for 12.9% of
ium-temperature hydrothermal, and (iii) hot rock “dry”. However, only
the national electricity market [5]. As shown in Table 6, in Mexico there
the following technologies are used to generate electricity: (i) flash
are 79 hydroelectric projects, which CFE owns 78% and the rest is
steam plants, which are used in places where the water temperature
operated by private individuals. Mexico has an installed capacity of
exceeds 180 °C, then the steam is separated and piped to a turbine, (ii)
12,474.24 MW and generates 36,991.42 GW h/y. Hydropower projects
dry steam plants, which are used in places where only steam is
in Mexico are classified in small or large hydro according to their size,
produced, then it is piped and led to a turbine, (iii) binary plants,
those projects ≤30 MW are considered small hydro and those >
which are used in places of low to medium temperatures, where heat
30 MW are called large hydro. Most hydropower generation is con-
from the geothermal fluid is recovered with heat exchangers for
centrated in Chiapas, since this state produces 42% of hydropower in
vaporizing an organic fluid with lower boiling point than water, then
the country. With regard to hydropower potential, the state of Chiapas
the steam drive a turbine, and (iv) engineered geothermal systems,
is the leader since it will add 40% of the overall production, the state of
which use the hot rock by creating heat exchange zones in large rocks
Veracruz is second with 13% and in third place Oaxaca with 10%, as
[55]. In addition, geothermal energy also can be used to meet heating
shown in Fig. 12. Regarding to the hydropower potential, little
and cooling needs.
information is available, however according to INERE [16] in Mexico
Mexico is one of the leading producers of electricity from geother-
there is a potential to install 6300 MW, while the findings of Cancino-
mal energy worldwide. In 2015 ranked fourth behind the United States,
Solórzano et al. [62] indicate that between the states of Puebla and
the Philippines and Indonesia, providing an installed capacity of
Veracruz together have a potential to install 400 MW and generate
858.4 MW and producing 6026.92 GW h/year, as shown in Table 5.
3500 GW h. Hydropower energy is a renewable energy source for
There are eight geothermal reservoirs totaling 41 turbines in operation,
Mexico which has positive results to date and may have a promising
powered entirely by steam (dry steam technology), which CFE manages
future if some topics regarding with public perceptions, policy public,
38 of them and private producers only three turbines with a permit
and domestic or international law-energy are improved.
issued by the self-supply mode. The turbines are located in five states of
the Mexican Republic and an equal number of municipalities. The two
3.2. Social and environmental impacts
leading states in geothermal power are Baja California and Michoacan
with 65% and 26% of the total production, respectively. The proven
It looks like there are clear advantages of RES compared to other
potential for electricity generation using geothermal energy is 2355
energy sources, such as fossil fuels. However, in Mexico few studies
GWh/y, which are distributed in 21 states, as shown in Fig. 11. The
have been focused to address the impact of RES on the social and
leading states in this category are Baja California with 64% and Nayarit
environmental areas. In most cases it is assumed that RES can solve all
and Puebla, both with 4% of overall potential. In Mexico there is a
problems regarding social and environmental concerns, but also
potential to install 7422 MW of geothermal energy [16]. According to
negative effects of these energy sources have to be taken into account.
Arango-Galván et al. [56] certain geothermal areas of the peninsula of
A very important factor to consider is the cultural aspect of the
Baja California (Ensenada, San Felipe, Puertecitos, San Siquismunde,
communities where renewable projects are installed, as in the case of
El Centavito and Agua Caliente) have the potential to install more than
Oaxaca (leading wind power state) where there are a lot of indigenous
400 MW of geothermal power, moreover the heat discharged by the
population with entrenched traditions and customs. With regard to
submarine systems was estimated, adding more than 6000 MWt.
these aspects, Table 7 shows the main findings on the social and
Furthermore, Lenhardt and Götz [57] argue the Valley of Mexico has
environmental impacts of the implementation of renewable projects in
the potential to produce 4000 TW h from tertiary volcanic rocks. In
Mexico. Huesca-Perez et al. [63], Juarez-Hernández and León [64],
addition to being available year round and have no intermissions, such
and Pasqualetti [65] address the main social problems caused by wind
as solar or wind energy, geothermal energy does not need large areas of
projects, especially on the state of Oaxaca. Some problems such as
land to be exploited, it also has a better performance in terms of
noise, landscape disturbance, loss of traditional economic activities,
emissions of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, water quality, and
and conflicts between community members, among others, were
environment [58]. Additionally, some studies have been developed
mentioned by them. They also found positive impacts such as
during the last years, in order to increase the energy production
temporary job opportunities. One of the reasons regard the lack of a
capacity in Mexican geothermal fields [59,60].
sustained economic development within these communities is that
most turbine components are imported, consequently local economic
3.1.5. Hydropower development is minimal.
Hydropower refers to the energy associated with the movement of In the production of biofuels, some problems such as land

610
E. Pérez-Denicia et al. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613

Table 7.
Social and environmental impact of the implementation of renewable energy projects in Mexico.

Year Key findings Author (s)

Social impacts

2016 The authors make an analysis of the following aspects: i) socio-environmental, ii) socio-economic, iii) socio-cultural, and iv) Huesca-Pérez et al. [63]
stakeholder's involvement, of the implementation of wind projects in a population of Oaxaca state, Mexico. On the above aspects
they found:
a) Visual effects by high concentration of wind energy projects and noise affects cattle.
b) Job creation during the construction phase (only one job for every 3 turbines, loss of traditional economic activities, do not
decrease or increase the rate of marginality, and corruption and low payments for land lease.
c) Lack of information and consultation about building projects.
d) Social conflicts due to erroneous schemes of information, consultation and participation.
2015 This article performs an analysis of social sustainability in the biofuel sector in three Latin American countries (including Selfa et al. [74]
Mexico). In the case of Mexico, an analysis of the biofuel project of a company called “Global Clean Energy Holdings Inc”was
made. This company was established in the Sucopo community in the state of Yucatan, Mexico. According to the authors findings
´ (obtained through interviews), wages employees received by the company of biofuel were higher than those of other employers
in the area, employers were also given social security, however after 5 years the company was restructured and fired most of its
employees.
2015 This paper presents an analysis on the effects of the transformation of the national policy on biofuels (from sugar cane), and its Agüero-Rodríguez et al. [75]
impact on social-environmental aspects in the state of Veracruz Mexico. The authors found that without proper regulations social
conflicts such as control of natural resources, land dispossession, control and water pollution, rising food prices and increased
migration, may be intensified by the mass production of biofuels in the area.
2014 In this article various aspects of the implementation of wind energy projects in the isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca Mexico are Juárez-Hernández and León [64]
analyzed. On the findings of the social impact of this technology, the authors mention the lack of information on wind projects to
the entire community, irregularities in the process of leasing land, low lease payments for land compared to other countries, one
job for every 3 turbines only during the construction phase, damage to the main economic practices as a result of wind projects,
the degree of marginalization of the population remained the same, in some cases increased, as well as economic inequality,
tension and division within communities.
2011 This article discusses the challenges and barriers facing the development of renewable projects (solar, wind, geothermal) in Pasqualetti [65]
Scotland, Mexico and the USA. Regarding the social impact of wind energy, specifically in the state of Oaxaca in Mexico, the
author mentions that wind projects alter the sense of permanence of the landscape, besides the villagers receive very low
compensation for the lease of land.
2010 This article presents an analysis of the Mexican renewable energy law approved by the House of Representatives and the Senate Ruiz-Mendoza and Sheinbaum-Pardo
in October 2008. Regarding the social impact of the implementation of renewable energy projects, according to the authors’ [76]
findings, companies have a social responsibility for the communities concerned to have a consultation process, the lease payment
for the occupied lands, and the promotion of social development. However, these considerations apply only if the projects are
smaller than 2.5 MW.
2010 This article makes an assessment of the economic benefits of the use of a type of stoves that use biomass in a Purepecha García-Frapolli et al. [77]
population in Michoacan, Mexico. Among the findings on the social impact of this technology are the increased productivity due
to time saved, savings in fuel costs, improvements in the health of children and adults, and reduction in public spending on
health.
Environmental impacts

2016 This article performs an analysis to know if the emissions generated by the geothermal field "Cerro Prieto" in Baja California Pastrana-Corral et al. [78]
Mexico, have increased concentrations of mercury in the soils surrounding the area. According to the authors´ findings, the
activities associated with the aforementioned geothermal complex, have increased mercury concentrations in soils surrounding
the area.
2016 This paper makes an assessment of the environmental performance of concentrated solar power plants, based on "HYSOL" Corona et al. [79]
technology. The plants are located in different countries (Spain, Chile, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Mexico, and South Africa).
According to the authors´ findings, the main environmental impact of these technologies is due to the construction of heliostats,
mainly by the use of steel. Between 9% and 22% of the environmental impact of manufacturing heliostats is due to the
construction of mirrors. Variations between environmental impact in each country are given by the local availability of solar and
water resources, as well as the national electricity mix.
2016 This paper presents an analysis of energy savings, in rural and urban households in Mexico by implementing solar water heaters, Rosas-Flores et al. [80]
using a geographic information system. The environmental impacts reported by the authors emphasize savings of 47.73 PJ for
urban areas, while the rural sector could save 5.93 PJ, this represents 51% annual savings in LPG gas consumption intended for
heating water. 3.74 Tg CO2 on average can be saved every year.
2013 This article provides a measurement of the levels of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and other air pollutants, in the “Cerro Prieto” Peralta et al. [81]
geothermal field located in the state of Baja California, Mexico. According to the authors, the levels of these pollutants never
exceed the Mexican environmental standards, so the environmental impact of the geothermal field is not negative.

2011 In this article the social and environmental impacts of using jatropha biofuel production in the states of Chiapas, Yucatan, and Skutsch et al. [82]
Michoacan, Mexico are analyzed. Regarding the social impact, the findings indicate the following:
a) Land dispossession of small farmers by large companies.
b) Unfavorable contracts and purchases for small producers are held.
c) Economic disparities in members of the community.
d) Increased workload for women because of the additional work in the field and processing activities.
e) Reduction in food supply or raise in their prices when the land is replaced from agriculture to biofuel production.
2007 This paper presents an analysis of hydrogen as a major energy source for Mexico. Among the authors findings, which support the Fernández-Valverde [83]
use of hydrogen in Mexico for its energy value and low environmental impact, are: the combustion of hydrogen produces water
and a small amount of nitrogen oxides, propane and automotive gasoline produce 41.3% and 38.6% respectively in terms of
energy (MJ/kg) compared to the same amount of hydrogen.
2000 This article analyzes the environmental impact of geothermal fluids spill at the geothermal field "Los Azufres" in Michoacan, Birkle and Merkel [84]
Mexico. The results show the increase in the concentration of certain elements in the surface of waters within the geothermal
fields and up to a distance of 10 km away. Water use, either for drinking or for irrigation of nearby geothermal fields, can cause
accumulation of toxic elements in the human food chain and harm human health.

611
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
dispossession, very low lease land payments, disputes between com-
munity members, and shortages and rising food prices were also
highlighted. As in the case of wind energy companies, when the
biofuels projects were launched, the inhabitants of the community
were employed, but after some months they were dismissed. With
regard to the environmental impacts, it was found that geothermal
projects do not emit harmful gases in dangerous concentrations,
however their wastes are associated with increased levels of mercury
and other heavy metals that can contaminate water sources and food
nearby. The benefits of using biomass-burning stoves and other
alternative sources such as hydrogen were also explored as witnessed
in Table 7.
It is well known that renewable energies are environment friendly.
However, some studies have to be stablished in order to determinate
the global footprint of these technologies i.e. the cutting-edge knowl-
edge regarding the renewable energies has to move forward, but the
environmental quality and the social welfare should also be ensured.
4. Conclusions
This paper presents for the first time a comprehensive review of the
current status of renewable energy projects for electricity generation in
Mexico and the potential impacts of these technologies in the social and
environmental areas. Renewable sources such as solar, wind, biomass,
geothermal, and hydropower contribute only 17.6% in the Mexican
energy basket. According to the Law on the Use of Renewable Energy
(LAERFTE), the share of renewable sources for electricity generation
should reach 35% by 2024, 40% for 2035 and 50% by 2050, never-
theless with the data presented in this paper that goal seems still far to
reach.
Mexico has the potential to massively develop the RES found
throughout the national territory.
Most scientific literature focuses on the technical aspects of renew-
able energy; in the case of our research, we present some of the
implications that RES cause in the social and environmental areas
which lead us to argue that, in order to generate a true social benefit it
is necessary (i) innovating and create Mexican renewable energy
technologies, (ii) stimulating the creation of technological industries,
(iii) promoting the inclusion of communities and the hiring of its
inhabitants, (iv) developing mechanisms to protect people from unfair
lease contracts, and (v) promoting better working conditions. It is also
necessary to establish some public policies to promote the use and
generation of renewable energies in order to preserve the environment,
customs and traditions of the communities i.e. that renewable energy
projects do not break the balance of communities, rather than integrate
them.
It has been reported that by using fuels of biological origin it is
possible to cope with the gasoline crisis. However, these alternatives
and those already implemented in Mexico should be studied more
broadly in order to know not only the technical and economic aspects
but also the socio-cultural barriers. It should be considered the specific
conditions of Mexico and the characteristics of its population for
achieving a proper integration of the renewable technologies so that
these can be adopted satisfactorily. In addition, research on the
acceptance of sustainable technologies by communities in Mexico is
needed but most papers do not address this aspect despite being a vital
issue in the implementation of renewable technologies.
The observations derived from this study show the potential and
opportunities of renewable energy in Mexico. These results provide a
broader overview of the current status of the projects for electricity
generation throughout Mexico. In addition, our findings are going to
help policymakers and stakeholders to rethink their energetic strategies
in order to make better decisions to achieve the growth prospects and
fulfill their commitments to achieve the renewable energy goals set,
with the intent to improve the environmental, social and economic
conditions of the Mexican population.
612
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
References
[1] Jorgenson AK, Alekseyko A, Giedraitis V. Energy consumption, human well-being
and economic development in central and eastern European nations: a cautionary
tale of sustainability. Energy Policy 2014;66:419–27.
[2] Dias RA, Mattos CR, Balestieri JAP. The limits of human development and the use
of energy and natural resources. Energy Policy 2006;34:1026–31.
[3] BP. Primary energy section from BP Statistical Review of World Energy -bp-
statistical-review-of-world-energy-2015-primary-energy-section.pdf n.d. 〈http://
www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/pdf/energy-economics/statistical-review-2015/bp-
statistical-review-of-world-energy-2015-primary-energy-section.pdf〉 [accessed 24
February 2016]; 2015.
[4] BP. Outlook to 2035 - energy use to rise by a third | BP Energy Outlook | Energy
economics | BP Global n.d. 〈http://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-
economics/energy-outlook-2035/energy-outlook-to-2035.html〉 [accessed 24
February 2016].
[5] SENER. Prospectiva del Sector Eléctrico 2015–2029. 2015.
[6] de Diputados Cámara. Ley para el Aprovechamiento de Energías Renovables y el
Financiamiento de la Transición Energética - LAERFTE; 2013.
[7] SENER. Estrategia Nacional de Energía 2013–2027; 2013.
[8] Vidal-Amaro JJ, Ostergaard PA, Sheinbaum-Pardo C. Optimal energy mix for
transitioning from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources - the case of the Mexican
electricity system. Appl Energy 2015;150:80–96.
[9] Kim T, Lee DJ, Koo S. Determining the scale of R & D investment for renewable
energy in Korea using a comparative analogy approach. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2014;37:307–17.
[10] Garcia-Heller V, Espinasa R, Paredes S. Forecast study of the supply curve of solar
and wind technologies in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and Mexico. Renew Energy
2016;93:168–79.
[11] Moriarty P, Honnery D. What is the global potential for renewable energy?. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:244–52.
[12] SEGOB. Reforma Energética; 2013.
[13] SENER. Estrategia Nacional de Energía 2014–2028; 2014.
[14] Gobierno de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos. 3 er Informe de Gobierno Anéxo
Estadístico; 2015.
[15] IEA. IEA - Energy Subsidies n.d. 〈http://www.worldenergyoutlook.org/resources/
energysubsidies/〉 [accessed 24 February 2016].
[16] INERE. Inventario Nacional de Energías Renovables n.d. 〈http://inere.energia.gob.
mx/version4.5/〉 [accessed 26 September 2016].
[17] Bruns E, Ohlhorst D, Wenzel B, Köppel J. Renewable Energies in Germany’s
Electricity Market. vol. 1; 2015.
[18] IEA. Solar n.d. 〈http://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/subtopics/solar/〉 [accessed
1 March 2016].
[19] Alp D. Quantum photovoltaic effect : Two photon process in solar cell. 4th Int Conf
Renew Energy Res Appl; 2015. 5. p. 1084–8.
[20] Kafafi ZH, Martín-Palma RJ, Nogueira AF, O’Carroll DM, Pietron JJ, Samuel IDW,
et al. The role of photonics in energy. J Photonics Energy 2015;5:050997.
[21] Benoit H, Spreafico L, Gauthier D, Flamant G. Review of heat transfer fluids in
tube-receivers used in concentrating solar thermal systems: properties and heat
transfer coefficients. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;55:298–315.
[22] IEA SHC || Solar Heating & Cooling Overview n.d. 〈http://www.iea-shc.org/solar-
overview〉 [accessed 4 March 2016].
[23] Henning HM. Solar assisted air conditioning of buildings - an overview. Appl
Therm Eng 2007;27:1734–49.
[24] Acra A, Raffoul Z, Karahagopian Y Solar Disinfection of Drinking Water and Oral
Rehydratoin Solutions. n.d.
[25] Romero-Hernandez S, Rodriguez-Granada B, Romero-Hernandez O, Wood D.
Solar Energy Potential in Mexico’s Northern Border States July 2012; 2012.
[26] Comisión Reguladora CRE de Energía n.d. 〈http://www.cre.gob.mx/permisose.
aspx〉 [accessed 24 March 2016].
[27] DOF - Diario Oficial de la Federación. Programa Especial para el Aprovechamiento
de Energías Renovables; 2014.
[28] Resch G, Held A, Faber T, Panzer C, Toro F, Haas R. Potentials and prospects for
renewable energies at global scale. Energy Policy 2008;36:4048–56.
[29] Diniz ASAC, Neto LVBM, Camara CF, Morais P, Cabral CVT, Filho DO, et al.
Review of the photovoltaic energy program in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2011;15:2696–706.
[30] Jacobson A. Connective power: solar electrification and social change in Kenya.
World Dev 2007;35:144–62.
[31] Schweizer-Ries P. Decentralized energy use in mountain regions: solar-electric
stand-alone systems. Mt Res Dev 2001;21:25–9.
[32] Yaqoot M, Diwan P, Kandpal TC. Review of barriers to the dissemination of
decentralized renewable energy systems. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2016;58:477–90.
[33] Villicaña-Ortiz E, Gutiérrez-Trashorras AJ, Paredes-Sánchez JP, Xiberta-Bernat J.
Solar energy potential in the coastal zone of the gulf of Mexico. Renew Energy
2015;81:534–42.
[34] Hernández-Escobedo Q, Rodríguez-García E, Saldaña-Flores R, Fernández-García
A, Manzano-Agugliaro F. Solar energy resource assessment in Mexican states along
the Gulf of Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;43:216–38.
[35] Mendoza-Vizcaino J, Sumper A, Sudria-Andreu A, Ramirez JM. Renewable
technologies for generation systems in islands and their application to Cozumel
Island, Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;64:348–61.
[36] Jacobson MZ, Delucchi MA. Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar
power, Part I: technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastruc-
E. Pérez-Denicia et al.
ture, and materials. Energy Policy 2011;39:1154–69.
[37] IEA. Wind n.d. 〈http://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/subtopics/wind/〉
[accessed 29 March 2016].
[38] Kaldellis JK, Apostolou D, Kapsali M, Kondili E. Environmental and social footprint
of offshore wind energy. Comparison with onshore counterpart. Renew Energy
2016;92:543–56.
[39] CRE. Guía para solicitar permisos de generación, exportación e importación de
energía eléctrica. n.d.
[40] Cancino-Solórzano Y, Gutiérrez-Trashorras AJ, Xiberta-Bernat J. Current state of
wind energy in Mexico, achievements and perspectives. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2011;15:3552–7.
[41] Hernández-Escobedo Q, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Zapata-Sierra A. The wind power of
Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:2830–40.
[42] Hernández-Escobedo Q, Saldaña-Flores R, Rodríguez-García ER, Manzano-
Agugliaro F. Wind energy resource in Northern Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2014;32:890–914.
[43] Figueroa-Espinoza B, Salles P, Zavala-hidalgo J. On the wind power potential in the
northwest of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. Atmósfera 2014;27:77–89.
[44] European Commission . Commission decision 2004/156/EC of 29 January 2004
establishing guidelines for the monitoring and reporting of greenhouse gas
emissions pursuant to Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of
the Council. J Eur Union 2004;59:1–74.
[45] Mao G, Zou H, Chen G, Du H, Zuo J. Past, current and future of biomass energy
research: a bibliometric analysis. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;52:1823–33.
[46] Agarwal AK. Biofuels ( alcohols and biodiesel) applications as fuels for internal
combustion engines. Prog Energy Combust Sci 2007;33:233–71.
[47] Weiland P. Biogas production: current state and perspectives. Appl Microbiol
Biotechnol 2010;85:849–60.
[48] Kitani O, Davis SC, Hay, Pierce W & , J. et al. Biomass in the energy industry: An
introduction. vol. V; 2013.
[49] Long H, Li X, Wang H, Jia J. Biomass resources and their bioenergy potential
estimation: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;26:344–52.
[50] SENER. Balance nacional de energía 2014; 2015:184.
[51] Rios M, Kaltschmitt M. Electricity generation potential from biogas produced from
organic waste in Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;54:384–95.
[52] Prochnow A, Heiermann M, Plöchl M, Amon T, Hobbs PJ. Bioenergy from
permanent grassland - a review: 2. Combust Bioresour Technol 2009;100:4945–54.
[53] García CA, Riegelhaupt E, Ghilardi A, Skutsch M, Islas J, Manzini F, et al.
Sustainable bioenergy options for Mexico: GHG mitigation and costs. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2015;43:545–52.
[54] Barbier E. Geothermal energy technology and current status: an overview. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2002;6:3–65.
[55] International Energy Agency I. Geothermal n.d. 〈http://www.iea.org/topics/
renewables/subtopics/geothermal/〉.
[56] Arango-Galván C, Prol-Ledesma RM, Torres-Vera MA. Geothermal prospects in the
Baja California Peninsula. Geothermics 2015;55:39–57.
[57] Lenhardt N, Götz AE. Geothermal reservoir potential of volcaniclastic settings: the
Valley of Mexico, Central Mexico. Renew Energy 2015;77:423–9.
[58] Brophy P. Environmental advantages to the utilization of geothermal energy.
Renew Energy 1997;10:367–77.
[59] Guerrero-Martínez FJ, Verma SP. Three dimensional temperature simulation from
cooling of two magma chambers in the Las Tres Vírgenes geothermal field, Baja
California Sur, Mexico. Energy 2013;52:110–8.
[60] Verma SP, Gómez-Arias E. Optimal discretization time and mesh size in three-
dimensional temperature field simulation in two Mexican geothermal fields.
Geothermics 2014;51:91–102.
[61] IEA. Hydropower n.d. 〈http://www.iea.org/topics/renewables/subtopics/
hydropower/〉.
[62] Cancino-Solórzano Y, Paredes-Sánchez JP, Gutiérrez-Trashorras AJ, Xiberta-
Bernat J. The development of renewable energy resources in the State of Veracruz,
Mexico. Util Policy 2016;39:1–4.
[63] Huesca-Pérez ME, Sheinbaum-Pardo C, Köppel J. Social implications of siting wind
energy in a disadvantaged region - The case of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Mexico.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;58:952–65.
[64] Juárez-Hernández S, León G. Energía eólica en el istmo de Tehuantepec:
desarrollo, actores y oposición social. Probl Desarro 2014;45:139–62.
[65] Pasqualetti MJ. Social barriers to renewable energy landscapes. Geogr Rev
2011;101:201–23.
613
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 78 (2017) 597–613
[66] Grande G, Islas J, Rios M. Technical and economic analysis of Domestic High
Consumption Tariff niche market for photovoltaic systems in the Mexican house-
hold sector. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015;48:738–48.
[67] Alemán-Nava GS, Casiano-Flores VH, Cárdenas-Chávez DL, Díaz-Chavez R, Scarlat
N, Mahlknecht J, et al. Renewable energy research progress in Mexico: a review.
Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2014;32:140–53.
[68] Mundo-Hernández J, De Celis Alonso B, Hernández-Álvarez J, De Celis-Carrillo B.
An overview of solar photovoltaic energy in Mexico and Germany. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2014;31:639–49.
[69] Santillán Soto N, García Cueto OR, Ojeda Benítez S, Lambert Arista AA.
Photovoltaic low power systems and their environmental impact: Yuma, Arizona,
USA. case study and projections for Mexicali, Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy Rev
2014;32:172–7.
[70] Hernandez-Escobedo Q, Manzano-Agugliaro F, Gazquez-Parra JA, Zapata-Sierra A.
Is the wind a periodical phenomenon? The case of Mexico. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev 2011;15:721–8.
[71] Valdez-Vazquez I, Acevedo-Benítez JA, Hernández-Santiago C. Distribution and
potential of bioenergy resources from agricultural activities in Mexico. Renew
Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:2147–53.
[72] Cancino-Solórzano Y, Villicaña-Ortiz E, Gutiérrez-Trashorras AJ, Xiberta-Bernat J.
Electricity sector in Mexico: current status. Contribution of renewable energy
sources. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:454–61.
[73] Morales-Acevedo A. Optimal design and manufacture of silicon solar cells for
industrial production. state of the art of research in Mexico. Rev Mex Fis
2004;50:431–42.
[74] Selfa T, Bain C, Moreno R, Eastmond A, Sweitz S, Bailey C, et al. Interrogating
social sustainability in the biofuels sector in Latin America: tensions between global
standards and local experiences in Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia. Environ Manag
2015;56:1315–29.
[75] Agüero-Rodríguez JC, Tepetla-Montes J, Torres-Beristaín B. Producción de bio-
combustibles a partir de la caña en Veracruz, México: perspectivas y riesgos socio-
ambientales. CienciaUAT; 2015. 9. p.74–84.
[76] Ruiz-Mendoza BJ, Sheinbaum-Pardo C. Mexican renewable electricity law. Renew
Energy 2010;35:674–8.
[77] García-Frapolli E, Schilmann A, Berrueta VM, Riojas-Rodríguez H, Edwards RD,
Johnson M, et al. Beyond fuelwood savings: valuing the economic benefits of
introducing improved biomass cookstoves in the Purepecha region of Mexico. Ecol
Econ 2010;69:2598–605.
[78] Pastrana-Corral MA, Wakida FT, García-Flores E, Rodriguez-Mendivil DD,
Quiñonez-Plaza A, Piñon-Colin TDJ. Soil mercury levels in the area surrounding
the Cerro Prieto geothermal complex, MEXICO. Environ Monit Assess 2016:188.
[79] Corona B, Ruiz D, San Miguel G. Life cycle assessment of a HYSOL concentrated
solar power plant: analyzing the effect of geographic location. Energies
2016;9:1–14.
[80] Rosas-Flores JA, Rosas-Flores D, Fernández Zayas JL. Potential energy saving in
urban and rural households of Mexico by use of solar water heaters, using
geographical information system. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2016;53:243–52.
[81] Peralta O, Castro T, Durón M, Salcido A, Celada-Murillo AT, Navarro-González R,
et al. H2S emissions from Cerro Prieto geothermal power plant, Mexico, and air
pollutants measurements in the area. Geothermics 2013;46:55–65.
[82] Skutsch M, de los Rios E, Solis S, Riegelhaupt E, Hinojosa D, Gerfert S, et al.
Jatropha in Mexico: environmental and social impacts of an incipient biofuel
program. Ecol Soc 2011:16, Article number 11.
[83] Fernández-Valverde SM. Hydrogen: The Ecological Fuel for Mexican Future. Towar
a Clean Planet; 2007. p. 389–404.
[84] Birkle P, Merkel B. Environmental impact by spill of geothermal fluids at the
geothermal field of Los Azufres, Michoacan, Mexico. Water Air Soil Pollut
2000;124:371.
[85] Timilsina GR, Kurdgelashvili L, Narbel P a. Solar energy: markets, economics and
policies. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2012;16:449–65.
[86] Tyagi VV, Rahim NAA, Rahim NA, Selvaraj JAL. Progress in solar PV technology:
research and achievement. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2013;20:443–61.
[87] Brennan L, Owende P. Biofuels from microalgae-a review of technologies for
production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products. Renew Sustain
Energy Rev 2010;14:557–77.
[88] Eisentraut A, Adam B. International energy agency I. Heating without global
warming. Featur Insight 2014:92.