THE UNIVERSE
COSMOLOGY – THE STUDY OF THE UNIVERSE
INCLUDING ITS PROPERTIES, STRUCTURE AND
EVOLUTION
COSMOLOGISTS – SCIENTISTS WHO STUDY THE
UNIVERSE
UNIVERSE – ALL OF TIME AND SPACE ITS
CONTENTS
VISIBLE LIGHT- SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS
“WHITE LIGHT”
RADIATION PRESSURE- SHORTER WAVELENGTHS
CORRESPOND TO MORE ENERGETIC PROTONS
SPECTROSCOPY- STUDY OF THOSE PROPERTIES OF
LIGHT THAT ARE WAVELENGTH DEPENDENT
CONTINUOUS SPECTRUM
DARK LINE ( ABSORPTION SPECTRUM)-
GENERATED WHENEVER VISIBLE LIGHT IS PASSED
THROUGH A COMPARATIVELY GAS AT A LOW
TEMPERATURE
BRIGHT LINE (EMISSION SPECTRUM)- PRODUCED
BY HOT , GASEOUS MATERIALS AT LOW
TEMPERATURE
REFRACTING TELESCOPES
MAJOR PROBLEM- CHROMATIC ABERRATION
REFLECTING TELESCOPES
RADIO TELESCOPE
HUBBLESPACE TELESCOPE
CHANDRA X-RAY TELESCOPE
COMPTON GAMMA RAY OBSERVATORY
STARS (FROM IN CLOUDS AND DUST)
 BRIGHT NEBULAE
 EMISSION NEBULA
 REFLECTION NEBULA
 PLANETARY NEBULA
STELLAR EVOLUTION
 HERTZSPRUNG-RUSELL DIAGRAM
STELLAR NEBULA
AVERAGE STAR – RED GIANT – PLANETARY NEBULA
– WHITE DRWARF
MASSIVE STAR – RED SUPERGIANT – SUPER NOVA –
NEUTRON STAR AND BLACK HOLE
GALAXIES – COLLECTION OF INTERSELLAR
MATTER, STARS, AND STELLAR
TYPES:
 SPIRAL GALAXY
 BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY
 ELLIPTICAL GALAXY
 IRREGULAR GALAXY
GALACTIC CLUSTER (LOCAL GROUP) – GALAXIES
THAT ARE GROUPED INTO GRAVITATIONALLY
BOUND CLUSTERS
SUPER CLASTER – VIRGOCLASTER
THEORIES / ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE
o THE BIGBANG THEORY
COSMOLOGICAL RED SHIFT- SPECTRAL SHIFTS
TOWARD THE END OF THE SPECTRUM
HUBBLE’S LAW – GALAXIES RECEDS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE DISTANCES FROM THE
OBSERVER PREDICTIONS OF THE BIGBANG
WHAT IS THE FORCE OF THE UNIVERSE
 BIG CHILL
 BIG CRUNCH
THE OTHER TYPES OF MATTER THAT MAY EXIST :
DARK MATTER – CAUSES THE UNIVERSE IS MADE
UP OF 9&9\
 o THE PULSATING THEORY  MANTLES
o THE STEADY STATE THEORY MADE OF
SILICATE
o PLASMA UNIVERSE THEORY
o THE CREATIONIST THEORY  SMALL  VERY THICK
o THE STRING THEORY- THEORY OF SOLID CORE COMPOSED
EVERYTHING JOVIAN  CONSIST OF MAINLY OF
LIQUID HYDROGEN
o EKPYROTIC EVERYTHING = “BRANES
HYDROGEN AND
COLLIDE” HELLIUM

SOLAR SYSTEM
MERCURY- OUTERMOST PLANET
THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM:
 REVOLVES AROUND THE SUN WITHIN 88 DAYS
o THE FISSION THEORY –COLLISION  ROTATES SLOWLY ON ITS AXIS (176 EARTH
o THE CAPTURE THEORY – THE PLANETS ARE DAYS)
CAPTURED BY THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD  GREATEST TEMPERATURE EXTREME ( -173 C
OF THE SUN AT NIGHT ; 427 C DURING MORNING)
o THE PLANETARY COLLISION THEORY – 2
VENUS – VEILED PLANET
PLANETS COLLIDE WITH EACH OTHER THE
EJECTED PARTS JOINED TOGETHER TO  NAMED AFTER THE ROMAN GODDESS OF LOVE
CREATE DIFF. PLANETS AND BEAUTY
o THE NEBULAR THEORY – IT COLLAPSE AND  ORBITS THE SUN IN A NEARLY PERFECT CIRCLE
THE HEAVIER MATEIALS CONTAIN AT THE ONCE EVERY 225 DAYS
CENTER  HAS A RETROGRADE MOTION
SUN- AN AVERAGE STAR OR BALL OF HOT GAS  SLOWPACE: 1 VENUS DAY = 244 EARTH DAYS
 DENSEST ATMOSPHERE OF THE TERRESTRIAL
PARTS: PLANET: 97% CARBON
 SURFACE TEMPERATURE : 450 C DAY AND
o PHOTOSPHERE : BALL OF LIGHT
NIGHT
(GRANULATED)
 80 % OF THE VENUSIAN SURFACE CONSISTS OF
o CHROMOSPHERE : RED IN COLOR (
LOWLYING PLAINS COVERED BY LAVA FLOWS
SPICULES)
 BALTIS VALLIS – LARGEST KNOWN LAVA
o CORONA : HALO / CROWN OF THE SUN
CHANNEL IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM
o SUN SPOTS – DARK BLEMISHES ( BRIGHTER
 MAAT MONS- LARGEST VOLCANO IN VENUS
THAN THE FULL MOON)
o PROMINENCE : BIG FLAME MARS- THE RED PLANET
SOLAR FLARES ( SMALLER FRAMES)
 REVOLVES AROUND THE SUN 687 EARTH DAYS
MOON - CRATERS  SURFACE TEMPERATURE: LOWS OF -140 C AT
PLANETS INTERNAL ATMOSPHERE
THE POLES IN WINTER, HIGHS OF 20 C AT THE
STRUCTURE EQUATOR IN THE SUMMER
 CRUST ARE  RELATIVELY
THIN MEAGER
TERRESTRIAL COMPARED  CARBON
TO MANTLE DIOXIDE,
 DENSE NITROGEN
 LARGE OXYGEN
CORES OF
IRON AND JOVIAN PLANETS
NICKEL
JUPITER- LORD OF HEAVENS
 HAS A MASS 2.5 TIMES GREATER THAN THE
COMBINED MASS OF ALL OTHER PLANETS,
SATELLITES AND ASTEROIDS IN THE SOLAR
SYSTEM
 ORBITS THE SUN ONCE EVERY 12 YEARS; ONE
ROTATION ( LESS THAN 10 HRS)
LAYERS:
o LOWEST- WARMEST LAYER; COMPOSED OF
WATER AND ICE
o MIDDLE – TEMPERATURES ARE LOWER;
CONSISTS OF BROWN TO ORANGE BROWN
CLOUDS OF AMMONIUM HYDROSULFIDE
DROPLETS
o TOP: WHITE WISPY CLOUDS OF AMMONIA
ICE
 67 MOON ( LARGEST = GANYMEDE AND
CALLISTO)
 RINGS COMPOSED OF FINE DARK PARTICLES
SIMILAR TO SMOKE PARTICLES
SATURN- THE ELEGANT PLANET
 ONE REVOLUTION = 28 EARTH YEARS
 ATMOSPHERE, COMPOSITION AND INTERNAL
STRUCTURES ARE SIMILAR WITH JUPITER
 62 MOONS
 TITAN ( LARGEST MOON)
NEPTUNE- THE WINDY PLANET
 WINDSPEEDS EXCEEDING 2400 KM/HR
 EXHIBITS LARGE DARK SPOTS THOUGHT TO BE
ROTATING STORMS 9 SIMILAR TO JUPITER’S
GREAT RED SPOT)
 13 MOONS
 TRITON ( LARGEST MOON)
 1 REVOLUTION : 165 EARTH YEARS
SOLAR SYSTEM BODIES
ASTEROIDS- LEFT OVER PLANETISIMALS
 SMALL BODIES THAT REMAIN FROM THE
FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 MOST ASTEROIDS ORBIT
 MOST ASTEROIDS ORBIT AROUND THE SUN
BETWEEN MARS AND JUPITER (ASTEROID
BELT)
COMETS- DIRTY SNOWBALLS
 LEFT OVER MATERIAL FROM THE FORMATION
OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
 LOOSE COLLECTIONS OF ROCKY MATERIAL ,
DUST , WATER ICE , AND FROZEN GASES
 MOST OF THEM ORIGINATE IN KUPER BELT OR
OORT CLOUD
METEOROID ( VISITORS TO EARTH)
 MOST METEOROID ORIGINATE FROM:
1. INTERPLANETARY DEBRIS MISSED BY
THE GRAVITATION OF A SWEEP OF THE
PLANETS DURING FORMATION OF THE
SOLAR SYSTEM
2. MATERIAL THAT IS CONTINUALY BEING
EJECTED FROM THE ASTEROID BELT
3. ROCKY AND/ OR METALLIC REMAINS OF
COMENTS THAT ONCE PASSED
THROUGHT EARTH’S ORBIT
METEORITES- REMAINS OF ASTEROIDS WHEN
FOUND ON EARTH
CLASSIFICICATION BASE ON COMPOSITION
o IRONS- CONTAINS IRON AND NICKEL
o STONY (CHONDRITES) - CONTAINS
SILICATED MATERIALS
o STONY- IRONS – MIXTURE OF THE TWO
DWARF PLANETS
PLUTO
 ORBITS THE SUN
 HAS ENOUGH MASS TO ASSUME NEARLY A
ROUND SHAPE
 HAS CLEARED THE NEIGHBORHOOD AROUND
ITS ORBIT
 ITS NOT A MOON
OTHER DWARF PLANET
o MAKE MAKE
o HAUMEA
o ERIS
EARTH SYSTEM
4 SPHERES:
o ATMOSPHERE – LIFE GIVING GASEOUS
ENVELOPE
o GEOSPHERE – SOLID EARTH; EXTENDS
FROM SURFACE THROUGH THE CENTER OF
THE PLANET
o BIOSPHERE – INCLUDES ALL LIFE ON EARTH
o HYDROSPERE- BODIES OF WATTER
SYSTEM – IS A GROUP OF INTERACTING, OR
INTERDEPENDED THAT FORM A COMPLEX WHOLE
 THE PARTS ARE LINKED TOGETHER
 TIME AND SPACE SCALES
 ENERGY FOR THE EARTH SCIENCE PEOPLE
AND THE EARTH SYSTEM
SHORELINE- WHERE ALL 4 SPHERES MEET
SOIL- PART OF ALL SPHERES
MINERALS
MINERALOGY- THE STUDY OF MINERALS
CHERT- USED FOR WEAPONS AND CUTTING TOOLS
MINERAL- ANY NATURALLY OCCURING INORGANIC
SOLID THAT POSSESSES AN ORDERLY CRYSTALLINE
STRUCTURE AND A DEFINITE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION THAT ALLOW FOR SOME VARIATION
1. NATURALLY OCCURRING – MINERALS FORM
THROUGH NATURAL AND GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
2. GENERALLY INORGANIC- INORGANIC
CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS THAT ARE FORMED
NATURALLY IN THE GROUND
3. SOLID SUBSTANCE
4. ORDERLY CRSYTALLINE STRUCTURE THEIR
ATOMS (IONS) ARE ARRANGED IN AN ORDERLY,
REPETITIVE MANNER (CRYSTALS)
5. DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION THAT
ALLOWS FOR SOME VARIATION- CAN BE
EXPRESSED IN FORMULA
ELECTRONS- MOVE ABOUT THE NUCLEUS IN
PRINCIPLE SHELLS ACH WITH AN ASSOCIATED
ENERGY LEVEL
- THE OUTERMOST SHELL GENERALLY
CONTAINS THE VALENCE ELECTRONS THAT
INTERACT WITH OTHER ATOMS TO FORM
CHEMICAL BONDS
OCTET RULE- ATOMS TEND TO GAIN, LOSE , OR
SHARE ELECTRONS UNTIL THEY ARE SURROUNDED
BY EIGHT VALENCE ELECTRONS
CHEMICAL BOND- TRANSFER OR SHARING OF
ELECTRONS THAT ALLOWS EACH ATOM TO ATTAIN
A FULL VALENCE SHELL OF ELECTRONS
•IONIC BOND (ELECTRONS TRANSFERRED)-
AN ATTRACTION OF OPPOSITELY CHARGED IONS
TO ONE ANOTHER, PRODUCING AN ELECTRICALLY
NEUTRAL IONIC COMPOUND
•COVALENT BOND ( ELECTRON SHARING)
 •METALLIC BOND
PROPERTIES OF MINERAL
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
1.LUSTER- THE APPEARANCE OR QUALITY OF
LIGHT REFLECTED FROM THE SURFACE OF A
MINERAL
A) METALLIC LUSTER- MINERALS THAT HAVE
APPEARANCE OF METAL
B) NONMETALLIC LUSTER- DESCRIBED USING
ADJECTIVES SUCH AS: VITREOUS OR GLASSY, DULL
OR EARTHY, PEARLY, SILKY AND GREASY
2. ABILITY TO TRANSMIT LIGHT
• OPAQUE- WHEN NO LIGHT IS TRANSMITTED
• TRANSPARENT- WHEN BOTH LIGHT AND
IMAGE ARE VISIBLE THROUGH THE SAMPLE
3. COLOR - GENERALLY THE MOST CONSPICUOUS
CHARACTERISTIC OF ANY MINERAL. CONSIDERED
AS A DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTY OF ONLY A FEW
MINERAL
4.STREAK- THE COLOR OF A MINERAL IN A
POWDERED FORM
5.CRYSTAL SHAPE OR HABIT
1.COMMON OR CHARACTERISTIC SHAPE OF
INDIVIDUAL
A) OCTAHEDRON
B) CUBE
C) COMPLEX
D) TWINNED
E) PRISM
6.MINERAL STRENGTH- HOW EASILY MINERALS
BREAK OR DEFORM UNDER STRESS
• HARDNESS- ONE OF THE MOST USEFUL
DIAGNOSTIC PROPERTIES
-A MEASURE OF THE RESISTANCE OF A
MINERAL TO ABRASION AND SCRATCHING
• CLEAVAGE- TENDENCY OF A MINERAL TO BREAK (
CLEAVE) ALONG PLANES OF WEAK BONDING ( NOT
ALL MINERALS HAVE CLEAVAGE)
• FRACTURE- MINERALS THAT HAVE CHEMICAL
BONDS THAT ARE EQUALLY OR NEARLY EQUALLY
STRONG IN ALL DIRECTIONS
A) IRREGULAR FRACTURE- UNEVEN
SURFACES
B) CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE- SMOOTH,
CURVED SURFACES
• TENACITY- DESCRIBES A MINERAL’S RESISTANCE
TO BREAKING, BENDING,
•CUTTING, OR OTHE FORMS OF DEFORMATION
A) BRITTLE ( HARD BUT LIABLE)
B) MALLEABLE ( CAN BE OHAMMERED)
C) SECTILE ( CAN BE CUT INTO THIN SHAVINGS)
D) ELASTIC ( WILL BEND AND SNAP BACK)
DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY
DENSITY- AN IMPORTANT PROPERTY OF MATTER
-CAN BE DEFINED AS MASS PER UNIT
VOLUME
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY- RELATED MEASURE TO
DESCRIBE THE DENSITY OF MINERALS
• IS A NUMBER REPRESENTING THE RATION OF A
MINERALS WEIGHT TO THE WEIGHT OF AN EQUAL
VOLUME
OTHER PROPERTIES:
• TASTE- EX. SALT
• DISTINCTIVE FEELS- TALC FEELS SOAPY;
GRAPHITE FEELS GREASY
• SMELL- SULFUR-BEABING MINERALS SMELLS LIKE
ROTTEN EGGS
• MAGNETISM- SOME CAN BE PICKED BY MAGNETS
DUE TO HIGH IRON CONTENT
• DOUBLE REFRACTION- IF MINERAL IS PLACED
OVER A TEXT, THE LETTERS APPEAR TWICE
ROCK FORMING MINERALS- MAKE UP MOST OF
EARTH’S CRUST
MINERALS ECONOMIC - USED EXTENSIVELY IN THE
MANUFACTURE OF PRODUCTS; LESS ABUNDANT
8 MOST ABUNDANT MINERALS:
• O, SI, AL, FE, CA, NA, K, MG
SILICATE MINERAL- MOST COMMON MINERAL
GROUP
- CONTAINS OXYGEN AND SILICON
ATOMS
- SILICON-OXYGEN TETRAHEDRON
• COMMON LIGHT SILICATE MINERAL-
GENERALLY LIGHT IN COLOR AND HAVING A
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF 2.7
EXAMPLES:
1. FELDSPARS- MOST ABUNDANT MINERAL GROUP
- FOUND IN MANY IGNEOUS , SEDIMENTARY,
AND METAMORPHIC
2. POTASSIUM FELDSPAR- CONTAINS POTASSIUM
IONS
3. PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR- CONTAINS CALCIUM
AND/ OR SODIUM IONS
QUARTZ
- MAJOR CONSTITUENT OF MANY IGNEOUS,
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
- FOUND IN WIDE VARIEY OF COLORS
- QUITE HARD
- EXHIBITS CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE WHEN
BROKEN
MUSCOVITE
- ABUNDANT MEMBER OF THE MICA FAMILY
- EXCELLENT CLEAVAGE IN ONE DIRECTION
- RELATIVELY SOFT
• CLAY MINERALS
- TYPICALLY FORM AS PRODUCTS OF CHEMICAL
WEATHERING OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
- MAKE UP MUCH OF THE SOIL
- MAKE UP OF HALF OG THE VOLUME OF
SEDIMENTARY ROCK
• DARK SILICATE MINERALS
- CONTAIN IRON AND MAGNESIUM
- IRON GIVES THEIR DARK COLOR AND
CONTRIBUTES TO THEIR HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY
(3.2 AND 3.6)
OLIVINE
- MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF DARK COLORED
IGNEOUS ROCKS
- ABUNDANT IN EARTH’S UPPER MANTLE
PYROXENES
- IMPORTANT COMPONENTS OF DARK IGNEOUS
ROCK
- MOST COMMON MEMBER:
• HORNBLENDE- USUALLY DARK GREEN, CLEAVAGE
ANGLES OF 60 AND 120 DEGREES
• BIOTITE - DARK IRON-RICH MEMBER OF THE
MICA FAMILY
- POSSES A SHEET STRUCTURE THAT GIVES
EXCELLENT CLEAVAGE IN ONE DIRECTION
- SHINY APPEARANCE
• GARNET- HAS A GLASSY LUSTER
- LACKS CLEAVAGE
- EXHIBITS CONCHOIDAL FRACTURE
- MOST OFTEN COLOR IS BROWN TO DEEP
RED
- TRANSPARENT
- USED AS A GEMSTONE
IMPORTANT NON SILICATE MINERAL
- MAKE UP ONLY 8% OF EARTH’S CRUST
-SOME ARE CONSTITUENTS OF SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS WHILE MANY ARE IMPORTANT
ECONOMICALLY
CARBONATES
CALCITE, CA CO3 ( CALCIUM CARBONATE)- WHEN
CALCITE IS THE DOMINANT MINERAL, THE ROCK IS
CALLED LIMESTONE
DOLOMITE, CAMG(CO3)2 ( CALCIUM MAGNESIUM
CARBONATE)- PREDOMINANCE OF DOLOMITE, THE
ROCK IS CALLED DOLOSTONE
HALIDES (HALLITE)- COMMON NAME FOR TABLE
SALT
SULFATES- GYPSUM- PLASTER AND OTHER SIMILAR
BUILDING MATERIALS ARE COMPOSED
MINERAL RESOURCES- THOSE OCCURRENCE OF
USEFUL MINERALS THAT ARE FORM SUCH
QUANTITIES THAT EVENTUAL EXTRACTION IS
REASONABLY CERTAIN
ORE DEPOSIT- NATURALLY OCCURRING
CONCENTRATION OF ONE OR MORE METALLIC
MINERALS THAT CAN BE EXTRACTED
ECONOMICALLY
MINERAL RESOURCES IN THE PHILIPPINES:
• BAGUIO- COPPER AND GOLD
• SURIGAO AND DAVAO- GOLD
• PALAWAN AND SURIGAO- NICKEL
• ZAMBALES- CHROMIUM, PLATINUM, NICKEL,
COPPER, COBALT AND GOLD
• BICOL- GOLD, IRON , COPPER
ROCKS
ROCK CYCLE
MAGMA- MOLTEN ROCK THAT MOST OFTEN
GENERATED BY MELTING OF ROCKS IN EARTH’S
MANTLE
LAVA- WHEN MAGMA REACHES THE SURFACE
EXTRUSIVE OR VOLCANIC- WHEN MOLTEN ROCK
SOLIDIFIES AT THE SURFACE ( EX. HAWAIIAN
ISLANDS)
INTRUSIVE OR PLUTONIC- WHEN MAGMA
CRYSTALLIZES DEEP BELOW THE SURFACE
FROM MAGMA TO CRYSTALLIZATION
MAGMA( CONTAINS SILICON AND OXYGEN; WATER
VAPOR) – AS MAGMA COOLS, IONS BEGINS TO
ARRANGE THEMSELVES ORDERLY-
CRYSTALLIZATION
THE RATE OF COOLING STRONGLY INFLUENCES
THE CRYSTAL SIZE :
• SLOW COOLING- RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF
FEWER, LARGER CRYSTALS
• RAPID COOLING- RESULTS IN THE FORMATION OF
A SOLID MASS OF SMALLEST INTERGROWN
CRYSTALS
COMPOSITIONAL GROUPS
• GRANITIC COMPOSITION
- ROCKS COMPOSED MAINLY OF LIGHT-COLORED
SILICATES (QUARTZ; FELDSPARS)
- AKA FELSIC ( DERIVED FROM FELDSPAR AND
SILICA (QUARTZ)
- MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF THE CONTINENTAL
CRUST
• BASALTIC COMPOSITION
- ROCKS THAT CONTAIN AT LEAST 45% DARK
SILICATE MINERALS AND CALCIUM- RICH
PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR (W/O QUARTZ)
-AKA MAFIC (MAGNESIUM AND FERUM)
- TYPICALLY DARKER AND DENSER THAN GRANITE
- MAKE UP THE OCEAN FLOOR
• ANDESTIC/ INTERMEDIATE COMPOSTIION-
ROCKS WITH A COMPOSITION BETWEEN GRANITIC
AND COASALTIC ROCKS
-CONTAIN AT LEAST 25% DARK SILICATE
MINERALS WITH MORE PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR
- ASSOCIATED WITH VOLCANIC ACTIVITIES
- ROCKS COMPOSED OF MAINLY OF DARK SILICATE
MATERIALS
- RARE AT EARTTH’S SURFACE
SILICA CONTENT AS AN INDICATOR OF
COMPOSTION
• PERCENTAGE OF SILICA IN IGNEOUS ROCKS
PARALLELS TO THE ABUNDANCE OF OTHER
ELEMENTS
INCREASE IN SILICA= DECREASE IN OTHER
ELEMENTS
DECREASE IN SILICA= INCREASE IN OTHER
ELEMENTS
AMOUNT OF SILICA PRESENT IN MAGMA STRONGLY
INFLUENCE THE MAGMA’S BEHAVIOR
GRANITIC MAGMA ( HIGH SILICA CONTENT) =
QUITE VISCOUS AND MAY ERUPT AT TEMPERATURE
AS LOW AS 650 C
BASALTIC MAGMA (LOW SILICA CONTENT)- MORE
FLUID AND ERUPTS AT HIGHER TEMPERATURE
TEXTURE- OVER ALL APPEARANCE OF A ROCK
BASED ON SIZE SHAPE AND ARRANGEMENT OF ITS
MINERAL GRAINS
• FINE GRAINED TEXTURE
- THE CRYSTALS ARE SO SMALL THAT INDIVIDUAL
MINERALS CAN BE DISTINGUISHED ONLY WITH
THE AID OF SOPHISTICATED TECHNIQUE
- FORMED AT EARTH’S SURFACE OR SMALL
• COARSE GRAINED TEXTURE
-CONSIST OF A MASS OF INTERGROWN CRYSTALS
THAT ARE ROUGHLY EQUAL IN SIZE AND LARGE
ENOUGH SO THAT THE INDIVIDUAL MINERALS CAN
BE INDENTIFIED WITHOUT AN AID OF MICROSCOPE
• PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE- HAS LARGE CRYSTALS
EMBEDDED IN A MATRIX OF SMALLER CRYSTALS
THE LARGE CRYSTALS = PHENOCRYSTS
MATRIX OF SMALL CRYSTALS = GROUNDMASS
• VESICULAR TEXTURE
- CONTAINS VESICLES
VESICLES- SPHERICAL OPENINGS LET BY GAS
BUBBLES AT THAT ESCAPE AS LAVA SOLIDIFIES
• GLASSY TEXTURE
- RAPID COOLING OF MOLTEN ROCK
• PYROCLASTIC TEXTURE
- CONSOLIDATION OF INDIVIDUAL ROCK
FRAGMENTS DURING EXPLOSIVE VOLCANIC
ERUPTIONS
-THE EJECTED PARTICLES MIGHT BE VERY FINE,
ASH, MOLTEN, LARGE ANGULAR BLOCKS TORN
FROM THE WALL OF THE VENT DURING ERUPTION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS- CAME FROM THE LATIN
WORD “ SEDIMENTUM” MEANING “TO SETTLE”
IMPORTANCE
1. IT IS FROM SEDIMENTARY ROCKS THAT
GEOLOGISTS RECONSTRUCT MANY DETAILS OF
EARTH’S HISTORY
2. CONTAINS VITAL EVIDENCE IN THE STUDY OF
GEOLOGIC PAST
3. ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT
CLASSIFICATION
• DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
-MADE UP OF DETRITUS ( SOLID PARTICLES
FROM WEATHERED ROCKS)
- DOMINATED BY CLAY MINERALS AND
QUARTZ
- USES PARTICLE SIZE TO DISTINGUISH DIFF.
DETRITAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• CONGLOMERATE - ROUNDED GRAVEL SIZE
PARTICLES
• BRECCIA- ANGULAR GRAVEL SIZE PARTICLES
• SANDSTONE- WHEN SAND- SIZE GRAINS PREVAIL
• SHALE
-MOST COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCK
-MADE OF VERY FINE-GRAINED SEDIMENTS
-COMPOSED MAINLY OF CLAY MINERAL
• SILTSTONE
-FINE GRAINED ROCK
-CLAY- SIZED SEDIMENT INTERMIXED WITH
SLIGHTLY LARGE SILT-SIZED GRAINS
CHEMICAL AND BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS
 CHEMICAL- DERIVED FROM MATERIALS
(IONS) THAT IS CARRIED IN SOLUTION TO
LAKES AND SEAS
 BIOCHEMICAL- UNDER CERTAIN
CONDITIONS, IT PRECIPITATES TO FORM
CHEMICAL SEDIMENTS AS A RESULT OF
PHYSICAL PROCESS
- PRECIPITATION MAY ALSO OCCUR
INDIRECTLY THROUGH LIFE PROCESSES OF WATER
DWELLING ORGANISMS
o LIMESTONE- AN ABUNDANT SEDIMENTARY
ROCK, COMPOSED CHIEFLY OF THE MINERAL
CALCITE
COQUINA- COURSE ROCK COMPOSED OF LOOSELY
CEMENTED SHELLS AND SHELL FRAGMENTS
CHALK- A SOFT , POROUS ROCK MADE UP ALMOST
ENTIRELY OF THE HARD PARTS OF MICROSCOPIC
ORGANISMS THAT ARE NO LARGER THAN THE
HEAD OF A PIN
o INORGANIC LIMESTONE- FORMS WHEN
CHEMICAL CHANGES OR HIGH WATER
TEMPERATURES INCREASES THE
CONCENTRATION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE TO
THE POINT THAT IT PRECIPITATES
TRAVERTINE ( CAVES) – AS WATER DROPS REACH
THE AIR IN CAVERN, SOME OF THE CARBON
DIOXIDE DISSOLVED IN THE WATER ESCAPES,
CAUSING CALCIUM CARBONATE TO PRECIPITATE
DISSOLVED SILICA( SiO2) PRECIPITATES TO FORM
VARIETIES OF MICROCRYSTALLINE QUARTZ
 CHERT (LIGHT COLOR)
 JASPER (RED)
 FLINT (DARK)
 AGATE ( BANDED)
EVAPORATION CASUES MINERALS TO PRECIPITATE
 HALITE
 GYPSUM
COAL (ORGANIC SEDIMENT)- CONSIST MOSTLY OF
ORGANIC MATTER OFTEN REVEALS PLANTS
STRUCTURES THAT HAVE BEEN CHEMICALLY
ALTERED BUT REMAIN IDENTIFIABLE
LITHIFICATION- REFERS TO THE PROCESSES BY
WHICH SEDIMENTS ARE TRANSFORMED INTO
SOLID SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
 COMPACTION ( EX. CLAY- SIZED PARTICLES)
 CEMENTATION ( COMMON CEMENTS :
CALCITE, SILICA , IRON OXIDE)
FEATURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
STRATA/ BED
 o LAYERS OF SEDIMENTS
o SINGLE MOST CHARACTERISTIC FEATURE
OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
o THICKNESS RANGES FROM MICROSCOPIC TO
METERS THICK
BEDDING PLANES
o SEPARATING THE STRATA
o FLAT SURFACES ALONG WHICH ROCKS
TEND TO SEPARATE OR BREAK
FOSSILS- TRACES OR REMAINS OF THE PRE-
HISTORIC LIFE
METAMORPHIC ROCKS : NEW ROCK FROM OLD
- ARE PRODUCED FROM PRE-EXISTING
IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY OR EVEN OTHER
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
METAMORPHISM (“TO CHANGE FORM”)- PROCESS
THAT LEADS TO CHANGES IN THE MINERALOGY
AND SOMETIMES CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF
ROCKS
LOW GRADE METAMORPHISM- SLIGHT CHANGES
HIGH GRADE METAMORPHISM – SUBSTANTIAL
MOST COMMON SETTINGS OF METAMORPHISM
o CONTACT METAMORPHISM/ THERMAL
METAMORPHISM –WHEN ROCK IS
INTRUDED BY MAGMA
o REGIONAL METAMORPHISM- DURING
MOUNTAIN BUILDING, GREAT QUANTITIES
OF ROCK ARE SUBJECTED IN PRESSURES
AND HIGH TEMPERATURE ASSOCIATED
WITH LARGE SCARE DEFORMATION
METAMORPHIC TEXTURES
FOLIATED- HAS BRANDED OR LAYERED
APPEARANCE AND IT HAS STRIPES
NON- FOLIATED – DOES NOT HAVE STRIPES
ENERGY RESOURCES
DEPENDABLE CAPACITY- IS THE MAXIMUM
OUTPUT THAT CAN BE RELIABLY PRODUCED WHEN
REQUIRED
RENEWABLE NON RENEWABLE
BIOMASS FOSSIL FUELS:
SOLAR ENERGY COAL
WIND ENERGY OIL
HYDROPOWER NATURAL GAS
GEOTHERMAL
MARINE ENERGY
FOSSIL FUELS
- THE WORLD’S ENERGY RESOURCE
- NON RENEWABLE
-ARE ANCIENT REMAINS OF ORGANISMS BURIED
WITHIN SEDIMENTS PRIOR TO COMPLETE
DECOMPOSITION
COAL- IS AN END PRODUCT OF THE BURIAL OF
PLANT MATERIAL
o PEAT- LARGE AMOUNTS OF PARTIALLY
DECOMPOSED PLANT REMAINS
ACCUMULATE TO FORM A THICK LAYER OF
SPONGY MATERIAL
o LIGNITE- AKA BROWN COAL
o SUB-BITUMINOUS
o BITUMINOUS- AKA SOFT COAL
- MOST ABUNDANT TYPE OF COAL
o ANTHRACITE- BLACK IN COLOR , HAVING AN
ALMOST METALLIC CONTENT
- HIGHEST CARBON CONTENT
OIL AND NATURAL GAS
- COMMONLY ASSOCIATED WITH
BIOCHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS
WHEN LARGE QUANTITIES OF BIOMASS ARE
BURIED WITH SEDIMENTS
- BOTH CONTAINS HYDRO CARBONS
HYDROCARBONS
- CLASS OF ORGANIC CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS
CONSISTING ONLY OF THE ELEMENTS HYDROGEN
AND CARBON PRESENT IN PLANTS
PETROLEUM- HYDRO CARBONS IN LIQUID AND
GASEOUS FORM (OIL AND NATURAL GAS)
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY- VOLCANOES
HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY- IT IS A MANIFESTATION
OF MAJOR INTERUPTIONS IN THE FLOW OF THE
RIVER
NATURAL GAS- CONSIDERED AS A CLEAN BURNING
FOSSIL FUEL BUT IF INCOMPLETE
COMBUSTION- GREEN HOUSE GASES WHICH CAN
STAY OVER 100 YEARS
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY- MAY CAUSE
ENVIROMENTAL PROBLEMS: GAS EMISSIONS, ON
SITE NOISE AND SCARS ON THE LAND
WATER RESOURCES
WATER CYCLE- RESPONSIBLE FOR REPLENESHING
THE WATER RESOURCES ON THE PLANET AS
WATER TRANSFERS FROM ONE STORAGE BASIN TO
ANOTHER
o EVAPOTRANSPIRATION – COMBINATION OF
EVAPORATED WATER AND THOSE
TRANSPIRED LEAVES
o PRECIPITATION
o CONDENSATION
THE MOST ACCESSIBLE FRESHWATER SOURCE TO
MAN IS FOUND IN SURFACE WATER
o RUNNING WATER ( RIVERS)
o STANDING WATER ( LAKES )
DRAINAGE BASIN – LAND AREA THAT
CONTRIBUTES WATER TO A RIVER SYSTEM
RIVER SYSTEM
3 ZONES:
o SEDIMENT PRODUCTION
– LOCATED IN THE HEADWATER REGION OF
THE RIVER SYSTEM
-MOST SEDIMENT DERIVED
o SEDIMENT TRANSPORT- SEDIMENT
ACQUIRED BY A STREAM IS TRANSPORTED
THROUGH THE CHANNEL NETWORK ALONG
SECTIONS REFERRED AS TRUNK STREAMS
o SEDIMENT DEPOSITION- WHEN A RIVER
REACHES THE OCEAN OR ANOTHER LARGE
BODY OF WATER, IF SHOWS AND THE
ENRGY TO TRANSPORT SEDIMENT IS
GREATLY REDUCED
DRAINAGE PATTERNS
 DRAINAGE PATTERN SYSTEMS- ARE
NETWORKS OF STREAMS THAT TOGETHER
FORM A DISTANCE DISTINCTIVE PATTERN
 DENDRITIC PATTERN (MOST COMMON) –
PATTERN OF IRRECULARLY BRANCHING
TRIBUTARY STEAMS RESEMBLES THE
BRANCHING PATTERN OF A DECIDUOUS
PATTERN
 RADIAL PATTERN- WHEN STREAMS
DIVERGE FROM A CENTRAL AREA LIKES
SPOKES FROM THE HUB OF A WHEEL AND
USUALLY DEVELOPS ON ISOLATED
VOLCANIC CONES AND DOMAL UPLIFTS
 RECTANGULAR PATTERN- EXHIBITS MANY
RIGHT- ANGLE BENDS AND DEVELOPS
WHEN THE BEDROCK IS CRISCROSSED
 TRELLIC PATTERN- A RECTANGULAR
DRAINAGAE PATTERN IN WHICH
TRIBUTARY STREAMS ARE NEARLY
PARALLEL TO ONE ANOTHER AND HAVE
THE APPEARANCE OF A GARDEN TRELLIS
RIVERS IN THE PHILIPPINES
- CAGAYAN RIVER – LONGEST RIVER
- COTABATO RIVER
- AGUSAN DEL NORTE RIVER
- AGNO RIVER BASTIN
GROUND WATER
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE STORAGE AND
MOVEMENT OF GROUND WATER:
1. POROSITY- THE PERCENTAGE OF THE
TOTAL VOLUME OF ROCK OR SEDIMENT
THAT CONSISTS OF PORE PACES
2. PERMEABILITY- ABILITY TO TRANSMIT A
FLUID
3. AQUITARDS- IMPERMEABLE LAYERS (CLAY)
THAT WINDER OR PREVENT WATER
MOVEMENT

AQUIFERS- PERMEABLE COCK STRATA OR

SEDIMENTS THAT TRANSMIT GROUNDWATER
FREELY

DRAWDOWN- WHEN THE WATER TABLE

AROUND THE WELL

POLLUTION

SURFACEWATER
- HOUSEHOLD WASTES
- HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS FROM INDUSTRIES
- HEATED WATER FROM COOLING SYSTEMS
DUMPED IN WATER BODIES

OVER EXTRACTION OF WATER:

GROUND SUBSIDENCE- COMPACTION OF

LAYERS OF ACQUIFIERS LEADING TO LOWERED
ELEVATION OF THE SURFACE

WATER STRESS- IF THE ANNUAL WATER

SUPPLY DROPS BELOW 1700 M^3

ABSOLUTE SCARCITY- IF THE ANNUAL WATER

SUPPLY WATER DROPS BELOW 500M^3