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CHAPTER 3
3--(}1 GENERAL
Geometric highway design pertains to the design of the visible features of the highway. It
may be considered as the tailoring of the highway to the requirements of tbe users, to the
limitations imposed by the terrain and to other controls of land usage and existing development.
General design criteria covering highway types, highway systems, design vehicles, highway
capacity and general design standards are included in Chapter 1. The major cross section ele-
ments for the various classes of highways are discussed in Chapter 2.
This chapter covers detailed information and guidance on other hasic geometric design
elements that have to be considered in the location and design of the various classes of high-
ways. It includes criteria on sight distances, horizontal and vertical alignment, and other features
common to the several types of highways.
In applying these criteria it is important to follow the basic principle that consistency in
design standards is of major importance on any section of road. The highway should offer no
surprises to the driver in terms of geometrics or traffic controls. The violation of driver
expectancy is a large factor in accident causation. Problem locations are generally at the point
where minimum design standards are introduced on a highway section where otherwise higher
standards have been applied. The ideal highway design is one with uniformly high standards
applied consistently over a section, particularly on major highways designed to serve large
volumes of traffic at high operating speeds.
g-l
TABLE 3-1
20 40 40 -
25 50 50 -
30 60 60 335
35 75 75 i 400
40 85 95 I 460
50 110 140 I 550
60 145 195 640
70 185 260 760
* Not applicable to multilane highwaYs.
3-03.01 CURVATURE
The simple circular curve, illustrated in Figure 3--A, is most frequ\:J1tly used in horizontal
alignment for changes in direction; although compound and spiral trlllisition curves are also
used. Curve data will generally be processed by electronic computer but may also be computed
manually using the GAUNIN tables.
Table 3-2 gives the absolute minimum radius of curve, based on a maximum super-
elevation rates "e" of 0.06 and 0.08, which may be used for each design speed. Table 3-2 also
shows for each speed the minimum radius at which the normal crown section without super-
elevation may be retained. .
The minimum radii given in Table 3-2 are based solely on design speeds and do not reflect
the requirements for horizontal sight distance set forth in Table 3-1. The latter may require in
some instances a larger curve radius because of topography or other obstructions as discu-
ssed in Section 3--{)3.05.
3-2
Curves shall be sufficiently long to avoid the appearance of a kink. On all arterial and
collectors, curves should have a minimum length of 150 meters for a deflection angle ( '/J. ) of 5
degrees and this minimum length should be increased by 30 meters for each I-degree decrease
in the deflection angle.
3-03.02 SUPERELEVATION
When a vehicle travels on a circular curve it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force.
This effect becomes more pronounced as the radius of the curve is shortened. This is counter-
balanced by providing roadway superelevation and by the side friction between the vehicle tires
and the surfacing. Safe travel at different speeds depends upon the radius of curvature, the side
friction and l,he ratR of superelevation. The basic formula for vehicle operation on a curve is:
Safe side friction factors for use in open highway curve design vary directly with design
speed from 0.15 at 4"0 mpn to 0.12 at 70 mph. For design speeds up to 30 mph a value of 0.20
may be used.
The maximum rates of superelevation "e" used by the Department are 0.08 for all
expressways and other major rural highways and 0.06 for local rural roads and other \U'ban
highways as shown in Tables 1-11 through 1-15 of Chapter 1. Tables 3-3 and 3-4 give the
design values for each rate of superelevation to be used for various design speeds and radius of
curve. The letters NC (normal crmyn) designate curves where the normal crown section can be
used and the letters RC (remove crom) indicate the curves where it is adequate to eliminate the
adverse crown and superelevate the entire traveled way at the nor,mal cross slope.
TABLE 3-2
20 30 (2) 500
25 50 (2) 800
30 70 70 1200
35 100 95 1700
40 150 140 2200
50 250 230 3300
60 385 350 4500
70 580 500 580()
(1) open hll!1way conditions.
(2) Not u_d for th_ deai&n Ipeeda.
y2
e + f = 49 R
Where e - rate of superelevation in decimals
f = side friction factor
Y= Nehicle speed in mph
R= radius of curve in meters
3-3
LEGEND
p.c.r T
P.1. P.C.
P. I.
= POINT
= POINT
OF
OF
CURVATURE
INTERSECTION
P. T. = POINT OF TANGENCY
0 - DEFLECTION ANGLE
A = 180--0
R = RADIUS OF CURVE (M.)
T - TANGENT LENGTH (M.)
E - EXTERNAL (M.)
(R
EQUATIONS
;.
GIVEN RAND 0
T = R (TANGENT ~)
E = R (EX. SEC. ~ )
L -
-
~
360
(21'1' R)
Where the normal pavement cross slope rate is 0.02 the tangent run out length for a curve
with the minimum superelevation rate of 0.02 will be equal to the length of runoff. For a curve
with a full superelevation rate of 0.08 the tangent runout length will equal one-fourth (1/4) of
the length of runoff.
3. LOCAL RURAL ROADS
The minimum length of superelevation runoff on local rural roads of design classes R-9,
R-10 and R-ll with design speeds of less than 30 MPH should be 30 meters but may be reduced
to 20 meters in mountainous terrain. On these roads it is sometimes not economically feasible in
mountainous terrain to obtain sufficient tangent distance between reverse curves to develop the
standard superelevation transition. In such instances the length of superelevation runoff
required for each curve may be distributed 50% on the tangent and 50% on the curve.
4. DIVIDED HIGHWAYS
On multilane divided highways, the superelevation is normally attained by holding the
median on a horizontal plane and rotating each traveled way separately around the median
edges as illustrated in detail "B" of Figure 3-B. In special cases of narrow medians, 3 meters or
less in width, and moderate superelevation rates, the two traveled ways and the median may be
rotated as a plane section about the centerline. In the case of wide medians, 12 meters or more
3-5
TABLE 3-3
DESIGN VALUES FOR RATE OF SUPERELEVATION
MAXIMUM e-O.06
-------
----------
FULL WIDENING
en
...=
_..... -0
0:
- 0
en
-------------~
PROFILE
HIGH
GRADE
SIDE
~
EDGE
AXIS
OF T. W.
OF ROTATION
;;;1'---
~ ~...............
11:\ .........
~
en
s:::-----~
.... ""'= ___ L..£.W_S.!.E~ ~~_O.!. ..!.:!!.: __ --"-_ ..... - I
I
A 8 C o E
PAVED TRAVELED WAY PAVED
SHOULDER SHOULDER
E
A - SUPER ELEVATION AND WIDENING TRANSITION - 2- LANE HIGHWAY
NORMAL T. R. L.R I FULL
SLOPE t-_ _.;;;2,;..1.;;;3-=L:..;,.,;..R..;.'_~,",1/;...3;;,....;L:";"..;.R"""I' SUP ERE L EV.
LEGEND:
~ _-~EOG~F--
en _- 0 HIGI1 SIDE T. W. T. R. - TANGENT RUNOUT
~ __
- _-- u
II:
- PROFILE GRADE
L.R. - LENGTH OF RUNOFF
M. - MEDIAN
----
AXIS OF ROTATION
_ - - - --
-.:::::s_ - r-- - _--=-
J ---. ~W. - TRAVELED WAY
I.S. - INSIDE SHOULDER
~EbGEOF-- O.S. - OUTSIDE SHOULDER
I LOW SIDE T. W.
A 8 c D E NOTES:
1- WHEN SPIRALS ARE USED
T.W. M. T.W. O.S. THE RUNOFF IS TO BE
EFFECTED FROM T.S. TO S.C.
AND C.S. TO S.T.
I.S. 2- FOR PAVED SHOULDER SLOPE
E
TRANSITION SEE SECT. 2-04.02
D AND FIG. 2-N.
3-8
in width, andlor independent alignment, each traveled way may be treated separately and
rotated about its own centerline.
For 4-lane divided highways with medians up to 12 meters in width, the minimum length
of superelevation runoff shall be as shown under 4-lane in Tables 3-3 and 3-4. For divided
highways with three or more lanes in one direction the minimum length of runoff shall be
determined as indicated in note no. 2 of these tables.
The length of tangent runout will be determined as indicated previously for 2-lane
highways.
5. PAVEMENT EDGE PROFILES
The change in cross slope to attain the superelevation should be made in a manner that will
result in edge-of-pavement profiles which are rounded to smooth flowing lines for safety and
general appearance. The angular break that would appear at cross sections A, C and E of Figure
3--B if tangent profile control lines were followed shall be rounded in the finished design by
introducing short vertical curves. The length of these curves should be approximately equal to
one third (1/3) the length of runoff.
Divided highways warrant special refinement in design and attention to appearance because
they are normally designed to serve greater traffic volumes at higher speeds, and because the
cost of refinements are usually insignificant compared to the cost of construction. Accordingly,
efforts should be made to use longer values for the length of superelevation runoff than those
indicated as minimums. There should also be emphasis on the development of smooth flowing
pavement edge profiles such as obtained by spline line design methods.
3-9
For general use in the design of horizontal curves, the sight line is a chord of an arc equal
in length to the minimum stopping sight distance measured along the centerline of the inside
lane around the curve as illustrated in the sketch in Figure 3-C. For the stopping sight distance
criteria of height of driver's eyes at 1.14 meters and heightot object ot 0.15 meter, the
midpoint of the line of sight is about 0.60 meter above the center of the inside lane. The line of
sight is assumed to intercept the view obstruction at this midpoint.
The chart in the upper portion of Figure 3-C may be used to graphically check sight
distance restrictions on horizontal curves. For graphical solution, the radius (R) is taken at the
centerline of the inside traffic lane and the distance (M) to the obstruction is measured from the
same line. This permits use of the chart with'variable pavement widths. This graphical solution is
also aplicable to divided highways on curved alignment where the sight distance in the median
lane on the outside of curve may be restricted due to a structure pier or other obstruction in the
median.
Guard rail can become an obstruction to stopping sight distance where placed on the inside
of curves where minimum permissible radius are used. In such cases the radius of curvature may
have to be increased or the fill slopes flattened to eliminate the need for guard rail, or the
shoulder widened to increase the distance M.
In designing projects, care must be exercised that proposed signing, bridge abutments and
piers, guard rails, landscaping and other appurtenant facilities on curved alignment do not result
in stopping sight distance obstructions.
TABLE 3-5
301-350 1.0
351-400 0.8
401-800 0.6
• When ihe mmWDum pavemen~ widihiliveD m Table. 1-12 aDd 1-13 are UNd.
3-10
1. The horizontal alignment for the main travel lanes should be as qirect as possible but
should hE> consistRnt with topography" ExcessivE' curvatul"f> or poor cnmbinations of curvatul"f>
generate accidents, limit capacity, mcrease operating costs and detract from a pleasing appearance.
2. A flowing alignment that conform to the natural contours is preferable to long tangents
that. slash through the terrain, to avoid deep scars and preserve natural slopes and vegetation.
However, on two-lane highways consideration must be given to providing adequate passing sight
distance over as great a percentage of the highway as feasible.
3. Flat curves rather than sharp curves are desirable. The use of the minimum radius
acceptable for the given design speed should be restricted to the most critical conditions.
4. The alignment throughout a highway section should be consistent. Sharp curves at the
end of long tangents and sudden changes from easy to sharp curvature should be avoided.
5. The use of compound circular curves on the main travel lanes should be avoided when a
simple circular curve can be utilized at small extra cost. Where topography requires the use of
compound curves, the radius of the flatter curve should not be more than 50% greater than the
radius of the sharper curve.
6. Abrupt reversal in alignment should be avoided by the use of sufficient length of
tangent or spirals between reverse curves to provide adequate superelevation runoff. The length
of tangent should be as required to provide the minimum length of superelevation runoff for
each curve specified in Section 3-03.03.
7. Broken-back curves (short tangent between two curves in the same direction) should be
avoided. Use of a single longer circular curve, a compound curve or spiral transition is prefer-
able. In any case, the minimum length of tangent between succesive curves in the same direction
shall be at least equal to the sum of the required minimum length of superelevation runoff for
each curve specified in Section 3-03.03.
8. Whenever practical, high fills should have tangent or flat curvature alignment.
9. Whenever feasible, the locating of any portion of the superelevation transition on a
bridge deck should be avoided to simplify the design and construction of the structure. It is
preferable to have the bridge either on a tangent with normal cross section or, if on a curve,
with a uniform superelevation rate.
10. The horizontal alignment should be carefully coordinated with the profile design. This
is discussed in Section 3-05.
3-11
R : RADIUS IN METERS
i OF INSIDE LANE
SIGHT DISTANCE (S) MEASURED
ALONG THIS LINE
3-12
3-{)4.01 CONTROL GRADES
1. MAXIMUM GRADES
·Table 3-6 suminanzes· the maximum grades for varying terrain conditions and design
speeds for rural mall highways and local roads. Table 3-7 provides similar data for urban
highways.
The use of the allowable maximum design grades should be avoided whenever feasible. On
the other hand, for short 'grades of less than 200 meterS in length, the maximum gradient may
be about 1 % steeper than shown in Tables 3-6 and 3-7 for main rural and urban highways, and
2% steeper for local roads and streets.
2. MINIMUM GRADES
In general, 0.50% is the desirable minimum grade for the design of all rural highways and
0.35% for urban highways. On high type pavements without curbs in rural areas a minimum
grade of 0.35% may be used provided roadside ditches and channels can be designed with the
neeessary slope for adequate drainage.
Where minimum grades are used with curbed pavements, care must be exercised in the
design and spacing of storm water inlets to avoid excessive spread of water on the traveled way.
See Chapter 11.
3-13
TABLE 3-6
RELATION OF MAXIMUM GRADES TO DESIGN SPEED
RURAL HIGHWAY
LOCAL ROADS
Level 7 7 7 7 7
RoIling 12 10 9 8 8
Mountainous 15 12 10 10 10
TABLE 3-7
RELATION OF MAXIMUM GRADES TO DESIGN SPEED
URBAN WGHWAYS
LOCAL STREETS
Level 7 7 7
Rolling 10 9 8
Hilly 12 10 10
3·14
Climbing lanes on multilane highways are seldom warranted; however. they should be
considered on both rural and urban 4-lane expressways if critical length of grade for a 15-mph
reduction is exceeded and the directional DHV will exceed 130% of the directional capacity of
the grade section.
The beginning warrant for a climbing lane shall be that point where it is estimated that the
truck speed has been reduced by 15 mph or to 30 mph. as selected, and is decelerating.
However. a transition length of 160 meters should be provided ahead of the climbing with a
60-meter taper and 100 meters of full climbing lane width.
It is desirable to end the climbing lane at a point beyond the crest where a typical truck
would have attained again a speed of 30 mph and be accelerating. An additional transition
length of 160 meters shall be provided beyond the point of need to include 100 meters of full
lane width and a 60-meter taper.
Critical lengths of grade and the location of climbing lanes can be determined graphically
trom the speed-distance curves included in Figure 3-E. The use of these curves is illustrated by
the example problem included in Figure 3-E.
Climbing lanes shall be 3.65 m'eters wide but where used the usable shoulder width can be
reduced to 1.20 meters as shown in Figure 2-M. Pavement markings and adequate warning
signs, in advance and near the end, all in accordance with the Manual of Uniform Traffic
Control Devices, shall be provided.
3-15
.
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o 150 300 459 750
LENGTH OF GRADE - METERS
FIGURE 3-D
NOTE:
1°1. - 300 M.
DASHED LINES ON GRAPH
INDICATE STEPS FOLLOWED
S.,._4~
~OM. ~
IN FINDING LOCATION FOR
CLIMBING LANE SHOWN 160M.
ON SKETCH. :V"""
- l TRANSITION CLIMBING LANE TRANSITION
1~~6~07M~.-~T~A~P~E~R~~------------~--~5-0-0~M~.~~----------~~10-0~M~.~-~FU~l~L~l~A-N~E
100M.-FULL LANE 60M.-TAPER
300M.
40 40
....~ Z
"'-l Q.. 30 30
~
I
0
W
1LI
Q.. 20 20
CJ)
10
OL-______ ~ ________ ~ _________ L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _~ OL-______ ~L_ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ __L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _~------~
o 3 6 9 12 15 18 0 3 6 9 12 15 18
DISTANCE - HUNDREDS OF METERS
3-18
E
L
------..j-----2----~
....---------L-----------1
L : LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE IN METERS
E LEV. 0 F V. P. I = E LEV. 0 F P. C. +
(GI - Gz)X L G1
S = L
X =
ELEV. OF pi = ELEV. OF P. C. -
2(G 2 - G I
3-1<)
design speed in miles per hour. For example, the minimum length of vertical curves on a
highway of design class RE-2 in rolling terrain with a design speed of 60 mph shall be 60
meters.
Table 3-8 gives the K values for crest vertical curves for use in the relation L=KA to
determine the length of vertical curve in meters required to provide stopping sight distances for
the various design speeds. Values of K are given for both minimum and desirable stopping sight
distances. The desirable value should be used whenever feasible. Figure 3-H provides for the
graphic solution of the relation L=KA for crest vertical curves.
Drainage problems may arise on long type I vertical curves with K values of 44 or higher in
conjuction with curbed pavements because of the flat slopes near the crest which may impede
the runoff of surface water along the gutter. Special attention should be given to such cases to-
insure adequate disposal of the storm water runoff.
The required lengths of crest vertical curves to provide adequate passing sight distance are
considerably longer than those for stopping sight distances. The K values for computing the
length of vertical curves required to provide the minimum safe passing distances specified in
Table 3-1 are as follows:
Design Speed, mph 30 40 50 60 70
Rounded K value 110 210 300 410 580
It should be noted that the above K values range from 7 to 12 times the K values for
stopping sight distance. Thus, it is usually impracticable to provide passing sight distances on
crest vertical curves because of the difficulty and cost of fitting to the terrain the very long
curves required. Providing such lengths is feasible only in the rare cases where very small
algebraic differences in grade occur on low design speed roads.
3. SAG VERTICAL CURVES
Criteria for establishing the length of sag vertical curves include headlight sight distance,
rider comfort, drainage control and general appearance. However, headlight sight distance has
been generally accepted for design control hut taking into consideration the comfort criteria
when the algebraic difference in grades is small.
TABLE 3-8
3-20
t-
I 14
...o
IJ)
<
a: 12
C)
~
... I 0 ~-+++--1'+--":'~
(,)
z
...
~ 8~-4~~~~-~~~-+__~~--r---
Ii-
Ii-
o
(,)
<
a:
m 4 ~~~~~~~-r-~~~-~--~~~~~~--r----+~-
...
C)
..J
< 2 ~~~~~~~~~~~---~~~~--~~----~~---r----+---r---1
-- -MINIMUM
- - - DESIRABLE
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
L = MINIMUM LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE - HUNDRED METERS
t-
1 14
Ifl
1---+-
1&.1
o
<
~ 12 ~--+
z
1&.1 10 I--~+-~~~~I-~~~~~----
(,)
z
1&.1
~ B ~--+~~~r-~~-~--~~--+--~T'~-r~-+---
Ii-
Ii-
o 6 I-~~~~~~~r-~~~-~~~r----+--~~~~---+--~---r----;
(,) ~
C
~ 4 ~~~~~~~~r-~~---~~~+--~---r--+-----r---+---;
1&.1
C)
..J
< 2 I-~~~~~~~r----+-----r----+--~---r--+-----~--+--,
< --MINIMUM
o~WWUU~~-- __ ~ __ ~ __-..J____ ~ __ ~ ____ ~ __ -__
~
- - DESIRABLE
~ ____~ __ ~
o 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
L • MINIMUM LENGTH OF VERTICAL CURVE - HUNDRED METERS
3-22
TABLE 3-9
Transitions from two lanes to four lanes are used when sections of a two-lane highway are
being upgraded by stages and when 4-lane sections are constructed on 2-lane roads to
accomodate larger traffic volumes or to provide safe passing zones. The 4-lane sections may be
undivided but are usually divided, particularly in rural areas, as it is the policy of the Depart-
mentto use medians on multilane highways except on some urban principal and local streets.
3-23
The transition from two lanes to four and the reduction from four to two can be
dangerous unless properly designed, marked and signed. The transitions should be located where
the change in width and the introduction or elimination of a median is in full view of the driver.
The minimum length of the transition reducing two one-way lanes to one shall be determined
by the formula:
L=4V
where V is the design speed in mph and L in the length of the transition in meters. However, for
rural highways and for all expressways the minimum transition length should be no less than
180 meters.
In urban areas it is sometimes not possible to provide the desired length of transition
between four and two lanes. In such cases, the designer should strive to design a safe and
adequate connection within the existing restrictive conditions.
3-06.02 DRIVEWAYS
The efficiency and safety of a highway without control of access depend to a great extent
on the amount and character of roadside interference most of which originates in vehicle
movements to and from adjacent businesses, farms, residences and other development along the
highway. Access to Commonwealth highways is subject to control by the Secretary of Transpor-
tation and Public Works and any property owner desiring to construct a new access to an
existing highwAy must request a permit from the Secretary. Regulations and standards governing
the design and location of accesses have been published.
In the design of improvements or new construction of highways without control of access
where access to abutting properties must be provided, the following policies shall be followed:
1. Only such accesses as the Department is legally required to construct will be included in
the project.
2. The full width of right-of-way shall be maintained for public highway purposes.
3. The location and design of each access or driveway shall be in accordance with the
regulation and standards published by the Secretary of Transportation and Public Works.
4. Adequate width and turning radii for the types of vehicles expected to use the driveway
should be provided but large paved areas adjacent to the roadway will be avoided.
5. The portion of the driveway within the right-of-way should normally be paved to
protect the roadway section.
6. Driveways should be avoided at locations where sight distance is restricted such as the
top of crest vertical curves and on sharp horizontal e\lf'il'eS.
7. On main highways in highly developed areas with concentrated btlsiness frontage,
consideration should be given to reducing the ntlmber of individual direct connections to the
through traffic lanes by providin~ a parallel frontage road to which the driveways connect. This
will allow the concentration of all access traffic at each end of the fronta«e road section.
3-24
discharge passengers at almost any point where they are flagged by travetlers. Such operations
impede the smooth flow of traffic and where wide paved shoulders are not available the stops
are made on the traveled way, a hazardous operation. In the planning of improvements to main
rural highways without control of access, consideration should be given to providing bus and
"publico" turnouts for passenger loading at locations where such service is expected. These
turnouts should provide paved space outside the normal shoulder width with adequately
designed exit from and entrance to the through lanes.
3·25