ATTITA Manual

ATITA ELECTRICAL/INSTRUMENT/RADIO/RADAR STUDY PLAN-7
MODUL AV-20-02 REVISION: 00
BOOKLET: 01
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 2
Introduction 2
Construction of the Series Code 3
Activity 1. 4
Activity 2. 7
Activity 3. 11
Wire Lists 12
Activity 4. 14
Positional Coding 15
Self Assessment 17
Self Assessment Review 18
Summary 18
Recommended Further Reading 18
Page 1 of 245
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet I expect you to be able to

fulfill the following objectives:-
 Recognize series coding (ATA 100).
 Identify by name and state the function of:-
- Wire prefix number.

- Wire number.
- Segment letter.
- Wire gauge.
- Ground, phase or thermocouple letters.
 Explain how to locate equipment connected to an individual

wire.
 Describe the basic construction of ‘positional’ wire coding.
This booklet should take you about one hour to study.
INTRODUCTION
A modern aircraft contains miles and miles of wire and cable. It is

therefore important that we can identify individual wires easily.
Nowadays most aircraft manufacturers have adopted a method of

coding wires and cables which conform to the ATA 100 specification.
This method is often referred to as ‘series coding'.
The code number appears on the wiring diagrams, Wire lists and
other electrical or electronic drawings. The code number is imprinted
at regular intervals on the wire or cable itself. Alternatively an
identification sleeve may be used.
Page 2 of 245
CONSTRUCTION OF THE SERIES CODE
Fig. 1 shows how a code is put together. Take a little time to study
the diagram, then we'll discuss each part of the code in turn.
Fig. 1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CODE
Wire Number Prefix
The first part of the identification code is known as the wire number
prefix. This has the special job of determining in which system on the
aircraft the wire or cable is located. Let's use the first activity to
determine how this wire number prefix is derived.
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ACTIVITY 1 1 Minute
What number, already used in the ATA 100 format could we use to
identify a system and sub system?
Page 4 of 245
COMMENTS ON ACTIVITY 1
You've probably come up with ATA chapter and section. These relate
to system and sub system. In our example the four digit number
3135 relates to Chapter 31 (Instruments) Section 35.
The ATA number (wire number prefix) is not shown on the wiring
diagram if a note similar to the following appears.
"NOTE: All wire codes are prefixed 3135."
Some manufacturers might use a letter designator to identify a

system instead of the ATA number.
Let's continue now with the next part of the code, the wire number.
Wire Number
A dash separates the ATA number prefix from the wire number. A
wire number consisting of a maximum of 5 digits is used to
differentiate between wires, cables or co-axial cables in a particular
sub system.
A different wire number is used for each conductor not sharing a

common connection. Notice that both wires shown below in Fig. 2
have the same wire number. This is because there· is a permanent
connection between the two wires. If there was a switch or relay
contact between the two wires then the wire number would change
because in this case there would not be a permanent connection
between them.
Fig. 2 WIRE NUMBERS
Page 5 of 245
Parallel or identical systems are identified with a 5 digit wire number,

as shown in Fig. 3. The first digit indicates the specific parallel or
identical system unit identification number such as Number 1 AC
generation System.
Fig. 3 PARALLEL OR IDENTICAL SYSTEMS
Page 6 of 245
ACTIVITY 2 2 Minutes
Name a case where it would be best not to discriminate between

identical or parallel systems.
Page 7 of 245
The case would be that of engines. In order to allow

interchangeability, identical wiring appearing in the power plant has
identical wire numbers.
Let's now continue with the next part of the code.
Wire Segment Letter
In the case where two wires were permanently connected, such as in

a terminal block, or a splice, the wire number didn't change. We still
need to discriminate between these two wires. We use a letter for
this purpose.
A different letter is used for each segment sharing a common

terminal or connection and having the same 4 digit ATA number. See
Fig. 2. Where practicable segments are lettered in alphabetical
sequence and the letter A identifies the first segment starting at the
signal and/or power source.
The letters I and 0 are not used. Double letters AA, AB, AC, ……, BA,
BB, BC, ... etc., are used when more than 24 segments are required.
Segments joined by a permanent splice have different segment
letters assigned to them.
Wire Gauge
The wire or cable size number is used to identify the American wire
gauge (AWG) size of the wire or cable. The wire size number is not
normally included for co-axial cables. For thermocouple wires a dash
is used instead of the wire size number.
The wire gauge is not shown on a wiring diagram if a note similar to

the following appears.
"NOTE: All wires are 20 gauges unless otherwise specified."
Ground, Phase or Thermocouple Letter
The letter N (ground or earth) is used as a suffix to the wire

identification code to identify a segment of a wire or cable that is a
part of the ground network.
The phase letters 'A', 'B' and 'c' are used as suffixes to the wire or
cable identification code on all wire segments carrying three phase
a.c. power from the source of power up to and including the aircraft
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item using the three phase a.c. power.
The phase letter 'V' is used as a suffix to the identification code to

identify all segments of the high voltage side of a single phase power
circuit. Examples of all the above are shown in Fig. 4 on the next
page.
Page 9 of 245
Fig. 4 PHASE LETTER SUFFIXES
When a suffix letter such as N, indicating a ground wire is a part of

the wire identification code, and the wire gauge is indicated in the
wiring diagram note, a dash is inserted before the suffix letter.
Example: J135-27B-N.
The following suffixes are used for thermocouple identification.
CHROM - CHROMEL
IRON - IRON
ALML - ALUMEL
COP - COPPER
CONST - CONTANTAN
That completes the description of the series code. Try the next
Activity to see how much you've remembered.
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What name does each part of the code have? Give your answer by
filling in the blanks in Fig. 5.
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You shouldn't have had much trouble with this one! Refer to Fig. 1
and check your responses.
Let's now go on to see how we can determine to which equipment or

terminal block a particular wire or cable is connected, once we know
it's code. This will involve referring to wire lists.
WIRE LISTS
The manufacturer will normally provide a wire list or some similar

chart. The wire list will be a part of the Wiring Diagram Manual and
will normally occupy the earlier volumes. The wire list helps you to
associate the wire with the equipment to which it's connected, and
also to wiring diagram drawing numbers. Equipment normally has a
coding number associated with it just like the wires do. In this
example these numbers are known as reference designators (REF
DES). Shown in Fig. 6 is an extract from a typical wire list.
Fig. 6 TYPICAL WIRE LIST
Page 12 of 245
The first column shows the wire identity, the second column shows
the EMI (electro magnetic interference) category. The third column
shows letters which identify the wire or cable type. The fourth
column shows the length of the wire in inches. The fifth column
shows the reference designators of the two pieces of equipment. The
terminal numbers are shown in the sixth column. The last column
identifies any wiring diagrams in which this wire is shown.
Although the series code is an internationally accepted standard for

identifying wires and cables it does suffer from a distinct
disadvantage. The disadvantage is that you can't determine to which
pieces of equipment a particular wire is connected without referring
to the Wiring Diagram Manual. Some earlier aircraft types employed
a method of wire identification which would help you find where a
particular wire terminated.
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ACTIVITY 4 2 MINUTES
Suggest a method of wire identification which would help you find the
termination.
Page 14 of 245
You've probably suggested that the code itself actually referred to

the terminals, equipment and equipment location.
This form of identification is known as 'positional coding' and may be

found on many aircraft still in service.
POSITIONAL CODING
The aircraft is divided into electrical zones. Each zone is given an

alphabetical reference or code. Electrical control panels, connector
groups, etc. bear a two letter reference. The first letter is the zone
letter the second letter identifying the panel within the zone.
Sub panels of main panel assemblies are each allotted a reference as

is each item of equipment contained on the panel or sub panel.
Every cable has its size and type printed in red, and a 'home' and
'away' identification printed in black.
Cables used in 3 Φ a.c. circuits have colored tracers for phase

identification:-
RED TRACER - A Phase
YELLOW TRACER - B Phase
BLUE TRACER - C Phase
The a.c. neutral does not have a colored tracer.
The code also includes the routing chart number of the circuit with
which the cable is associated.
The construction of positional coding is illustrated in Fig. 7 on the

next page. As you can see it's like a 'home and away address.
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Fig. 7 POSITIONAL CODING CONSTRUCTION
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SELF ASSESSMENT
Give yourself about ten minutes to answer the following questions in

the space provided. Be as brief and concise as you can.
1. In series coding, what does the wire number prefix relate to?
2. Under which circumstances will the wire number change?
3. What can you deduce from the fact that a wire number has five
digits?
4. Under which circumstances will the wire segment letter

change?
5. When would the wire gauge be omitted from the code on a

wiring diagram?
6. A wire has a code with the suffix ALML. What does this say
about the wire?
7. How could you find the equipment to which a particular wire or

cable was connected?
8. The extreme ends (left and right) of a positional code, refer to?
Page 17 of 245
SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW
Your answers should read something like these below. If they contain
the major points brought out in this review than you've understood
the major part of the information presented in this booklet.
1. The ATA chapter and section that relates to the system and sub
system in which the cable is included.
2. Whenever a wire does not form a common connection with

another.
3. That it is part of a parallel or identical system.
4. When it's necessary to differentiate between two wires that

would bear the same wire number.
5. Whenever a note giving the gauge of all wires in the diagram

appears.
6. That this wire is an ALUMEL thermocouple wire.
7. By reference to a wire list.
8. Terminals.
SUMMARY
The self assessment questions were constructed and laid out to

'echo' the objectives of this booklet. If you scored well, then you've
effectively summarized the booklet. If you had difficulty with any of
the questions refer to the appropriate part of the booklet to refresh
your memory. Also take another look through the objectives and
satisfy yourself that you've achieved them.
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
Any aircraft wiring diagram manual that you can get your hands on.
Page 18 of 245
BOOKLET: 02
CONTENTS
Objectives/Advice 20
Introduction 20
Symbols Fig. 1. 21
Activity 1. 22
Symbols Fig. 3. 24
Activity 2. 25
Symbols Fig. 5. 27
Activity 3. 28
Symbols Fig. 7. 30
Activity 4. 31
Self Assessment 33
Page 19 of 245
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
I have assumed that you have already come into contact with aircraft
wiring diagrams and schematics to a greater or lesser degree.
Most of this booklet comprises diagrams of the more common circuit

elements, electrical and electronic symbols. If you study each page
of symbols and then carry out the activities which follow, you should
soon become familiar with all of the· symbols presented.
The single, but demanding objective is that on completion of the

booklet you will be able to:-
 Identify all of the circuit elements and symbols presented in

the booklet.
This booklet will take you about one hour to study.
INTRODUCTION
Aircraft manufacturers are responsible for producing wiring diagrams

and maintenance manuals. All the symbols used in these publications
conform to a basic standard.
ATA 100 specifies that electrical and electronic symbols used for
wiring and schematic diagrams shall be to IEC (International Electro
technical Commission) publication No. 117 or equivalent national
specification. Some of the more common IEC publication 117
symbols and other relevant Symbols are shown on the following
pages.
Study the symbols shown on the next page (Fig. 1) in readiness for
the first Activity.
Page 20 of 245
SYMBOLS – Fig. 1
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You’ve already seen the symbols shown in Fig. 2. Write in the space
provided what each symbol represents. Add any notes that you think
are necessary.
Fig. 2
Page 22 of 245
Your description of what the symbols represent should be similar to

that which is shown below.
(a) An amplifier: The triangle denotes the direction of

transmission.
(b) An antenna or aerial: Its function will be written next to it.
(c) A multicell battery:
(d) A 3 phase push-pull Its rating will be written next to it.

Circuit breaker:
(e) A fixed capacitor: Curved part represents the outer or

ground (earth) electrode.
(f) A busbar with The broken portion indicates that the

Connection: wire is crossing.
(g) Conductors crossing Dot indicates the join.

And joined:
Take a look at the next group of symbols given in Fig. 3, in readiness

for a further Activity.
Page 23 of 245
SYMBOLS – Fig. 3
Page 24 of 245
Here are some more symbols for you to identify. Write in the
space provided what each symbol represents. Add any notes that
might be necessary.
Fig. 4
Page 25 of 245
Your description of what the symbols represent should be something

like that given below.
(a) Pressure seal feed through.
(b) Handset. (Used in schematics.)
(c) Induction coil with metal core.
(d) An amber warning light.
(e) An OR logic gate.
(f) Not a steering wheel but a three phase ungrounded Y (star)

connected motor or generator.
6. Microphone.
Continue now by studying the next page of symbols (Fig. 5). Another
Activity will follow to test you.
Page 26 of 245
SYMBOLS – Fig. 5
Page 27 of 245
You’ve already seen the symbols shown in Fig. 6. Write in the space
provided what each symbol represents. Add any notes that might be
necessary.
Fig. 6
Page 28 of 245
Your description of what the symbols represent should be similar to

that given below.
(a) A double pole double throw relay.
(b) A variable resistor.
(c) A single pole double throws relay Momentary make both sides.
(d) A normally open pressure operated switch.
(e) One deck of a wafer switch. Each deck will be identified by

letter.
6. A summing junction or point. The arrows identify inputs.
Now for the last page of symbols (Fig. 7) for you to study.
Page 29 of 245
SYMBOL – Fig. 7
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Now that you have studied the symbols on the last page (Fig. 7)
see if you can identify the ones in Fig. 8.
Fig. 8
Page 31 of 245
You’ve probably identified the symbols as follows.
(a) Synchro.
(b) Thermocouple.
(c) Continuous loop temperature sensor. E.g. Firewire.
(d) A step down transformer with no phase shift.
(e) A ener diode. Regulating voltage should be written next to it.
6. A silicon controlled rectifier. Current rating should be written

next to it.
Page 32 of 245
SELF ASSESSMENT
Fig. 9 is a typical aircraft schematic. Each component shown on the

schematic has a reference number, e.g. K 122. Write in the reference
number of a component which corresponds with the statements
shown below.
1. This contains amber and white indicator lights.

…………………
2. This contains amplifiers and transistors.

………………..
3. This contains a thermal switch.

………………..
4. This is a double pole double throw relay.

………………..
5. These contain push-pull circuit breakers.

………………..
6. This contains a 3 phase circuit breaker.

…...............
Page 33 of 245
Page 34 of 245
The reference numbers you’ve written are probably the same as l’ve
shown below. If you’ve had any difficulty, refer to the appropriate
page in the booklet to remind yourself.
1. S2 on MI0062
2. MI0212
3. M223
4. K10424
5. P6, P34, and P37
6. P37
If you got these rights you’ve done well and should be adequately
prepared for reading other circuit diagrams. Remember though,
we’ve only covered a few items here. The more practice you get at
reading schematics and wiring diagrams the better you’ll become. If
ever you don’t recognize a symbol in a wiring diagram or schematic,
look up the introduction to the wiring diagram manual. This will
normally be in the first volume. The introduction contains a key to all
the symbols used in the manual.
Page 35 of 245
BOOKLET: 03
CONTENTS
Introduction 37
Activity 1. 38
Requirements of Aircraft Electrical Cables 39
Activity 2. 40
Current Rating 41
Cable Construction 42
Activity 3. 43
Types of Aircraft Cable 45
Self Assessment 49
Suggested Further Reading 50
Page 36 of 245
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have completed your study of this booklet you will be able
to:-
 List the requirements of aircraft electrical cables,
 Define current rating and list the factors which influence it.
 Describe basic aircraft cable construction
 State the applications of various typical aircraft cables.
INTRODUCTION
At one time the electrical cables or wires used in aircraft were

manufactured to a similar standard to that used in the motor
industry. It soon became obvious that these cables didn't stand up to
the severe climatic and environmental conditions encountered during
aircraft operation. Aircraft electrical cables are now manufactured
specifically for aircraft use.
The electrical power supply of an aircraft is distributed to the

equipment by the various types of cable which have been developed
to fulfill, in the most efficient manner, the need of each particular
service and the position in the aircraft at which it will be located.
Page 37 of 245
An aircraft electrical cable has to stand up to a variety of severe

conditions. Commercial factors also have to be considered. List six of
the special requirements of an aircraft electrical cable.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page 38 of 245
You probably came up with a list similar to that given below.
1. Maximum reliability.
2. Minimum weight and dimensions.
3. Non flammability.
4. Resistance to fluids.
5. Wide range of operating temperatures.
6. Resistance to fungus.
7. Special electrical requirements.
Never mind if you missed one or two of the above list as we shall
now consider the requirements in greater detail.
REQUIREMENTS OF AIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL CABLES
Let's now take a look at each of the above in turn and examine each
requirement in more detail.
Maximum Reliability
Reliability is possibly the prime consideration for aircraft cables since

the performance and safety of an aircraft, its crew and passengers
may depend on the correct functioning of an electrical circuit under
all flight conditions.
Great care is taken in the manufacture of these cables and stringent

tests are applied to ensure that all cables are of maximum reliability.
Minimum Weight and Dimensions
Large modern aircraft require many miles of electrical wiring. Even

small reductions in the size and weight of a cable can result in
considerable savings. This of course allows an increased payload to
be carried.
Non Flammability
Wiring installations have to be located in close proximity to power

plants, APU bays, and other high fire risk areas. These installations
should not cause a fire to spread, and for this reason the protective
covering and insulation should be able to withstand high
temperatures and should be of self extinguishing material.
Page 39 of 245
Resistance to Fluids
An aircraft electrical cable can encounter a wide variety of aircraft

fluids. It should be able to withstand the effects of lubricating oils,
hydraulic fluids, fuel, and other fluids.
Wide Range of Operating Temperatures
Due to both environmental and climatic conditions an aircraft cable

could experience a large range of temperatures. It is important that
while withstanding these extremes of temperature, the wiring
remains flexible.
Resistance to Fungus
Aircraft often operate on tropical routes where both high ambient

temperatures and high humidifies are encountered. Wire covering
should not allow the growth of fungus or mould. This of course could
affect the insulation properties.
Resistance to Abrasion
An aircraft cable must possess a number of physical qualities. One of

these is that it should offer high resistance to the abrasion that might
be caused by aircraft vibration. Cables should also be physically
strong and easily workable.
The last item on our list was special electrical requirements.

What might these be?
Page 40 of 245
An aircraft electrical cable should have a low resistance conductor

and an insulator with a sufficiently high insulation resistance.
Let's now move on to consider the cable in terms of its task.
CURRENT RATING
This is the amount of current a cable will carry without the

temperature rising enough to cause the insulation resistance to
deteriorate to an unacceptable level or without exceeding a particular
volts drop. A cable's current carrying capacity is affected by a
number of things other than electrical load current. Cable
manufacturers no longer specify a particular current rating for a
particular cable but use the American Wire Gauge (AWG) instead.
The electrical designer will have to take a number of factors into
account before choosing a particular size cable for a particular job.
These factors will be:-
 The electrical loading of the cable.

 The amount of heat generated by neighboring cables.
 The number of cables in a loom (or bundle).
 The maximum temperature of the surrounding air.
 Whether or not the cable is enclosed.
 The thermal conductivity of the cable.
Electrical designers will often refer to tables to determine which wire

gauge is necessary for a particular job. Table 1 on the next page
gives you an idea as to how the current ratings are affected by the
number of cables in a bundle.
Page 41 of 245
MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS RATING IN AMPERES
CABLE Single cable in 3 bunched cables 7 bunches 12 bunches

NUMBER UNI- free air in free air cables in free cables in
NYVIN air conduit in
free air
22 11 7 5 4
20 14 9 7 5
18 18 13 10 6
16 21 15 11 7
14 31 24 17 12
12 43 30 22 15
10 55 42 32 23
8 80 60 45 33
6 115 87 65 -
4 160 120 92 -
2 200 155 120 -
1 220 165 130 -
0 240 185 165 -
Table 1.
CABLE CONSTRUCTION
An aircraft electrical cable generally consists of a core made up of a

number of strands of copper or aluminum wire. The number of
strands used and the gauge of the wire will depend on the rating and
flexibility required. It is usual for the copper strands to be tinned or
in the case of cables operating in high temperature areas, nickel
plated.
The core is generally covered by a layer of insulation, the material

and thickness of which will depend mainly on the applied voltage.
Over the layer of insulation is a protective covering whose material
will depend on the conditions of installation, i.e. oils or fluids,
temperature, etc. (Fig. 1). The outer covering normally has the wire
gauge and the cable name or specification printed on it at regular
intervals.
Fig. 1 TYPICAL AIRCRAFT CABLE CONSTRUCTION
Page 42 of 245
Some of the more modern aircraft cables have a combined insulating

and protecting covering, as shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 MODERN AIRCRAFT CABLE CONSTRUCTION
What are the relative merits of using copper and aluminum as a

conductor for an aircraft cable?
Copper:
Aluminum:
Page 43 of 245
You have probably come up with some of the following points.
 Copper is a better electrical conductor with flexibility and

strength.
 Aluminum is comparatively lighter but is less flexible and

requires inhibiting compounds to prevent corrosion.
Let's continue by looking at the construction of coaxial cables.
Many aircraft systems are susceptible to interference. Cables used in

such systems are of the coaxial type. The outer conductor provides a
shield or screen against the interference. In some cases a double
shield is used, as shown in Fig. 3.
INNER SHIELD (OUTER
SHIELD (OUTER CONDUCTOR) CONDUCTOR)
DIELECTRIC OUTER SHIELD
SINGLE SHIELD DOUBLE SHIELD

OUTER JACKET DIELECTRIC
OUTER JACKET
Fig. 3 TYPICAL COAXIAL CABLES
There is often a requirement for multi-conductor cables. These are

constructed with a protective outer jacket surrounding multiple,
colour coded wires. Fig. 4 shows both the shielded and unshielded
varieties.
UNSHIELDED MULTI-CONDUCTOR CABLE SHIELDED MULTI-CONDUCTOR CABLE
Fig. 4 MULTI-CONDUCTOR CABLES
Page 44 of 245
TYPES OF AIRCRAFT CABLE
There is a wide range of cables available for use in aircraft wiring.

They include the following:
Nyvin
As with many aircraft cables, the name indicates the type of material
used in its construction. Nyvin is used for general aircraft wiring and
is resistant to ester based fluids. The name derives from the Nylon
used as an outer protection and polyVINy1 chloride. Its temperature
range is between -750C and 105 C.
Nyvin is also available in a miniature form known as Minyvin. Both

types are white in colour.
The make up of a Nyvin cable is shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 NYVIN CABLE
Tersil
Cables manufactured under the name Tersil are used in high

temperature, high fire risk areas. The cable is resistant to most
aircraft fluids and has a temperature range from -750C to 1900C. It is
fire resistant and can withstand 11000C for 5 minutes. The outer
covering is coloured orange. The construction of a Tersil cable is
shown in Fig. 6 on the next page.
Page 45 of 245
Fig. 6 TERSIL CABLE
Fepsil
A Fepsil cable has the same specification as Tersil but has improved
handling qualities. It is green in colour. The construction of a Fepsil
cable is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 FEPSIL CABLE
Efglas
Efglas type cables, Fig. 8 on the next page, have nickel plated copper
conductors insulated with a compound of glass braids and polytetra
fluorethylene (PTFE). They are designed for use at ambient temp-
eratures of -75oC to +200oC and remain flexible throughout their
Page 46 of 245
range. The maximum permissible conductor temperature is 2400 C.

In general Efglas cable is used only where its special properties are
required, such as the wider operating temperatures or increased
resistance to aircraft fluids.
Note: Care is necessary to ensure that the maximum temperature is

not exceeded, since the PTFE, if heated above 3000C, gives rise to
decomposition products that can produce unpleasant effects if
inhaled.
Fig. 8 EFGLAS CABLE
Unifire F
Unifire F type cables are available in one size only. The cable has a
nickel plated copper conductor and a composite insulation of glass
braids, PTFE and asbestos felt impregnated with silicone varnish.
The use of this cable is generally limited to those circuits that are
required to function during or after a fire and only then if the normal
ambient temperature exceeds that permitted for Tersil type cable.
Note: Care must be exercised in the installation of this cable since in

the event of fire the decomposition products of PTFE produce
unpleasant effects if inhaled.
Nowadays the number of types of cable used on an aircraft is high.

Many of these cables do not have names but do have specification
numbers or letters. You would of course not be expected to
remember them all. The golden rule when installing a cable in an
aircraft is to check that the correct specification is being used.
Chapter 20 of your Wiring Diagram Manual will give details of cable
specifications. Cable specifications are also available ·in wire lists. A
typical extract from Chapter 20 of a Wiring Diagram Manual is given
in Table 2 on the next page.
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Table 2
Page 48 of 245
SELF ASSESSMENT

the space provided, Be as brief and concise as you can.
1. List five requirements of an aircraft cable.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2. List five factors which govern the current rating assigned to an

aircraft cable.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
3. What happens to the current rating of a cable when the

number of cables in a bundle increases?
4. How can an aircraft electrical cable be identified visually?
5. Name an aircraft cable type that would be used for general

aircraft wiring.
6. What type of conductor would a Tersil cable have?
7. Where would you find details concerning an electrical cable's

specification?
Page 49 of 245
Your answers should be similar to those below. If they contain the

major points brought out in this review then you have understood
the major part of the information presented in this booklet.
1. (a) Maximum reliability.

(b) Minimum weight and dimensions.
(c) Non flammability.
(d) Resistance to fluids.
(e) Wide range of operating temperatures.
2. (a) The electrical loading of a cable.

(b) The amount of heat generated by neighboring cables.
(c) The number of cables in a bundle.
(d) The maximum temperature of the surrounding air.
(e) Whether or not the cable is enclosed.
(f) The thermal conductivity of the cable.
3. The current rating will reduce.
4. Its name or specification will be printed on the outer covering

at regular intervals.
5. Nyvin would be one. Remember though, modern aircraft have a

variety of different cables for all sorts of applications.
6. Nickel plated copper strands.
7. In the Wiring Diagram Manual.
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING
CAIPs Leaflet EEL/3-1
The wiring diagrams of any aircraft that you come into contact with.
Page 50 of 245
BOOKLET: 04
CONTENTS
Introduction 52
Crimping - Definition 53
Crimping Categories 53
Activity 1. 54
Crimping Tools 57
Activity 2. 59
Hydraulic Crimping 62
General Rules When Crimping 62
Preparation for Crimping 63
Activity 3. 65
In-Line Connectors 69
Activity 4. 74
Voltage Drop Test 71
Self Assessment 72
Summary 73
Page 51 of 245
OBJECTlVES/ADVICE
When you have completed this booklet you will be able to:-
 State what electrical quality a correctly crimped cable should

have.
 State the reason for a barrel extension.
 List the three colors used for crimping tool identification.
 State what fluid should be used when crimping aluminum.
 Give the minimum distance allowable between two crimps.
 Describe the electrical test to check the conductivity of a

crimped cable and state an acceptable value.
 Describe the wire stripping process when preparing a cable for

crimping.
 Explain the reasons for the indentation of the dot code.
This booklet will take about one hour of study time.
INTRODUCTION
There are several methods of joining electrical cables and securing

terminal fittings. Soldering is often used for the assembly of
electronic control units where the work is carried out in a workshop
equipped with soldering tools and power outlets.
Other methods of cable end fittings use the 'bound loop' where the
conductor is wrapped around a terminal post and secured with a
washer and nut. You may have come across this type of termination
on domestic appliances.
This booklet deals with the most common method of cable joining
and termination - crimping.
Page 52 of 245
CRIMPING - DEFINITION
Crimping is a method of solder less cable joining and termination. It

requires a ferrule or crimping barrel bored to receive the conductor,
and a tongue end for securing to the equipment concerned.
The Crimping Barrel
The crimping barrel is the element of the terminal that fits over the
conductor, and is deformed through the pressure applied by suitable
crimping or compression tools, so that conductor and barrel become
a homogeneous mass with good electrical conductivity and
mechanical strength. The particular design of barrel will depend upon
the material being used, e.g. copper, aluminum, or brass, and upon
the method of manufacture, e.g. bar, tube, cast, or raised from strip.
The design may also be dictated by space limitations of the
installation.
An eye end crimp is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 EYE END CRIMP
CRIMPING CATEGORIES
In general there are two main categories of crimping configuration:
 Indent crimping.
 Confined crimping.
Indent Crimping
This method of crimping is where one or more indentations are

produced by the crimping tool in the crimping barrel, and the metal
displaced by the application of pressure can escape laterally.
Page 53 of 245
How does the confined type of crimp secure the conductor?
Page 54 of 245
This method compresses the whole of the barrel instead of making

indentations. Here is the definition.
Confined Crimping
In the confined type of crimp the barrel is totally enclosed during the
crimping operation, which compresses the barrel and conductor
almost solid. Ideally the confined crimp should be round, but in
practice a hexagonal shape has been found to yield excellent results,
at the same time lending itself conveniently to the manufacture of
crimping dies. Moreover, it is a form of crimp uniformly applicable to
large and small cable sizes, and to aluminum as well as copper
conductors.
Inspection
To facilitate inspection of the crimped joint, the barrel is frequently
open at the tongue end or provided with an inspection hole through
which the sufficient insertion of the conductor into the crimping
barrel may be visually verified. (Fig. 2.)
RESTRICTOR
Fig. 2 CRIMP INSPECTION PROVISION
Barrel Extensions
In small wires the point of entry of the conductor into the crimping
barrel may be a point of mechanical weakness and cause failure as a
result of strain or vibration. This weakness can be overcome by
extending the barrel to encompass and support a length of the cable
insulation. In the case of terminals made from rod or tube an
Page 55 of 245
extended barrel with a suitably enlarged internal bore serves, and

that extension, which is integral with the terminal, may either just
support the insulation or may be crimped over it in order to grip it
firmly. (Fig. 3.)
4 INDENT CRIMP
(INSULATION
SHROUD) INSPECTION HOLE
Fig. 3 BARREL EXTENSION
Notice that with this type of connector, where the end may not be
left open for inspection, a hole is provided so that when the crimping
is finished the job can be checked by ensuring that the conductor can
be seen. Some quality organizations prefer that the conductor's
presence is assured by prodding a piece of wire into the inspection
hole and feeling the conductor.
Conductor and Insulation Crimping
Where terminals are made from strip it is common practice to fit a

sleeve over the crimping barrel which will at the same time prevent
the seams of the rolled up barrel from spreading during the crimping
operation. When crimping both conductor and insulation the
appropriate crimping tools are usually designed to affect both crimps
simultaneously in one operation.
Cable Terminations
The design of the tongue end depends upon where and how the
terminal is to be attached. The most common form is the ring
tongue, circular in outline, with a hole to fit around a stud. The use of
a flat tongue without a hole provides a connection in the smallest
possible space.
Other tongue shapes may be produced to meet special requirements,

such as location holes or slots, or two stud holes instead of one, to
emminate the risk of the terminal swiveling about its post. Slotted,
fork, spade hook tongues permit easy withdrawal from the
attachment post without requiring the complete removal of the
securing nut, but are not so resistant to vibration. Flag and various
angle types of tongue provide connections to screws not otherwise
readily accessible.
Page 56 of 245
In-Line Connectors
Sometimes known as splices, these connectors are provided to join

two cables. The butt type is essentially two crimping barrels in series,
one conductor entering and being crimped at each end. The parallel
type is a single crimping barrel long enough to accept and be
crimped on two conductors, which may enter from opposite ends or
at the same end. Three or four way connectors can also be designed.
Insulation of Crimped Joints
Crimped joints may be insulated by fitting a rubber or plastic

insulation sleeve which may at the same time serve as a marker.
Terminals have also been designed with a plastic insulation sleeve
bonded to the terminal, permitting conductor and dielectric to be
crimped, and the joint insulated, in one operation.
CRIMPING TOOLS
The making of a good connection by crimping depends upon the use

of suitable crimping equipment. For the smaller terminals plier type
tools are the most convenient. A typical hand tool is shown in Fig. 4
on the next page.
Page 57 of 245
WIRE SIZE RANGE STAMPED HERE
INSULATION CRIMPING ADJUSTMENT PIN

LOCATOR TERMINAL BARREL
RESTS AGAINST
LOCATOR
CERI-CRIMP RATCHET
WINDOW INDENT
LOCATOR FACES LOCATOR
HANDLE
COLOUR CODE
COLOUR SIZE
YELLOW 26-22
RED 22-16
BLUE 16-14
COLOUR CODED
HANDLE
Fig. 4 TYPICAL HAND CRIMPING TOOL
These tools may have a fixed head with crimping jaws for one or
more cable sizes, or a head arranged to receive interchangeable
insert dies for different sizes of cable.
Page 58 of 245
ACTIVITY 2 2 MINUTES
As it’s important that the crimp is fully closed, how can full closure be
assured?
Page 59 of 245
The crimping tool is designed so that it can only be released from the
crimp when it has been closed sufficiently. The part of the crimping
tool that does this is called a full closure device.
Full Closure Device
Frequently these tool are fitted with a full closure device to ensure
that the operator completes the crimping operation; since once he
has commenced crimping the tool cannot be opened until the
operation is complete.
CAUTION
When using a crimping tool be very careful to keep your hands

clear of the closing handles. If any part of an operator's hand
becomes trapped in the closing handles, removal can be
difficult and painful.
It is important to realize that crimping tools are precision equipment,

made to a high standard of accuracy and finish. They enable
unskilled operators to make connections of great mechanical strength
and good electrical conductivity, as well as of uniform quality and
appearance. Though robustly constructed, the tools and equipment
deserve careful handling and periodic servicing.
Reliability
For the vast majority of wiring connections the two necessary

conditions are that the joint shall be mechanically strong to
withstand such disturbances as may occur during its service life, and
that its resistance shall be low and stable.
Maintenance Crimping Tool
This type of crimping tool is often found in use in hangar

maintenance. The principle is the same as the pliers shown in Fig. 4
but the access are at the front of the tool; see Fig. 5 on the next
page.
Page 60 of 245
WIRE SIZE RANGE INSULATION CRIMPING

STAMPED HERE ADJUSTEMENT PIN
LOCATOR
WINDOW INDENT FACES LOCATOR
LOCATOR
TERMINAL BARREL RESTS

AGAINST LOCATOR
CERTI-CRIMP RATCHET
COLOUR
CODED
HANDLE
Fig. 5 MAINTENANCE CRIMPING TOOL
Mechanical strength is measured by the amount of force necessary

to pull the crimped terminal from the conductor, and will vary with
the size of the terminal and conductor from about 10 lbs for the
smallest sizes to several tons for the larger ones.
Electrical efficiency can be determined by measuring the voltage drop

across the connection, which will approximate to that of an
equivalent length of cable.
Page 61 of 245
HYDRAULIC CRIMPING
For heavier cables, the use of hydraulic equipment permits the

application of considerable power within a restricted space. There are
various models of the bench or hand tool type. The latter are made
either with a crimping head and pump in one unit, or in the form of a
separate head operated by hand or foot pump, either by the same
operator or by his mate. A typical foot pump unit is shown in Fig. 6.
Note: The correct fluid must be used in hydraulically operated tools.

The relief valve settings must be accurately maintained.
Fig. 6 HAND/FOOT HYDRAULIC PUMP
Hydraulic crimping tools are entirely self contained, and eminently

suitable for use in the field where no external power is available. The
crimping heads accommodate interchangeable dies of various sizes,
suitable for different cables.
GENERAL RULES WHEN CRIMPING
The following general rules should be followed for all crimping

operations:
 The tool specified for a particular crimped joint must be used.
 When aluminum or aluminum alloy terminations are to be

crimped to aluminum conductors, a corrosion inhibiting agent
must be used.
Page 62 of 245
 The insulation adjustment pins must be adjusted to conform to

the depth of insulation for the particular cable to be used.
Special Conditions
Where more arduous conditions are present, terminals recommended

for operation in these circumstances will have passed successfully
specially designed tests subjecting them to periods in humidity and
hot air chambers, refrigeration, current overloading or cycling, salt
spray, or such combinations of these test conditions as will indicate
the product's suitability or limitations for particular requirements.
Aluminum Connectors
Special aluminum cable lugs are manufactured for use on aluminum

conductors, which are now becoming more widely used. Subject to
certain simple precautions dictated by a 'recognition of the physical
difference between aluminum and copper, i.e. the softness and lesser
density of aluminum as compared with copper, and the ready
formation of aluminum oxide, the method of jointing is identical and
the same tools and dies may in many instances be used. A special
inhibitor is available for coating the conductor to counteract
oxidation.
PREPARATION FOR CRIMPING
The correct stripping of the wire to be crimped is very important as

the operator must ensure that none of the conducting strands are
broken.
Metal Braided Cable – Stripping
Consider Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 CABLE STRIPPING TOOL
Page 63 of 245
Slit the outer braid for the requisite distance by using a stripping tool
(a blunt nosed hook with an inner cutting edge) working from the
end of the cable in the manner illustrated.
Lift the braid from the underlying cambric tape and trim the edge
with a pair of scissors; all loose strands must be cut away, if left they
may puncture the insulation.
Stripping with a Knife
Great care must be taken to avoid cutting or nicking any of the

conductor strands. Fig. 8 shows a step by step method of stripping a
cable with a knife.
STEP A STEP B
WHEN CUTTING AROUND THE SLIT THE INSOLATION
INSULATION DO CAREFULLY
NOT NICK OR CUT THE STRANDS
STEP C
PEEL THE INSULATION
IN THE CUT/SLIT AREA
FROM AROUND THE CONDUCTOR
Fig. 8 STRIPPING WIRE WITH THE HAND KNIFE
The blade of the stripping knife must be kept sharp and free from
nicks and dents.
Page 64 of 245
Although using a knife to strip cable is acceptable in the maintenance

and repair of cables there is a much more simple and reliable
method. What is it?
Page 65 of 245
The industry provides a specially designed tool just for stripping

cables.
Wire Stripping Tool
Fig. 9 shows the most common wire stripping tool in use today.
STRIPPER BLADES
Fig. 9 WIRE STRIPPING TOOL
The stripping tool is quick and easy to use but it is very important
that the operator selects the correct tooth for the wire to be stripped.
Stripping with the Stripping Tool
This task is quite straightforward provided the correct length of

insulation is removed. Remember, if you are working on a wire in an
electrical 100m there may not be enough spare to pull through for a
second attempt. Fig. 10 illustrates method of using a stripping tool.
Page 66 of 245
STEP C
STEP A STEP B
BLADES WILL
SELECT CORRECT D0 NOT NICK
CLOSE WHEN
HOLE TO MATCH OR CUT STRANDS
WIRE IS REMOVED
WIRE GAUGE WHEN STRIPPING
Fig. 10
Stripping Procedure - Summary
When stripping cables, the:-
 Correct length of insulation must be removed.

 Strands should not be severed or damaged.
 Lay of the strands should be re-imposed with a slight twist.
 End of the conductor must be left square.
 Bared conductor must be free from any insulating material.
See Fig. 11.
B = BARREL LENGTH C = INSULATION GRIP
STRIPPING LENGTH = BARREL LENGTH + 1/32"
Fig. 11 STRIPPING DIMENSIONS
Page 67 of 245
When stripping braided cables the insulation should be removed

separately to avoid damage to the conductor.
Correctly Formed Crimps
When a crimped connection has been made it is important to know,

beyond a casual check afforded by the protruding of the cable
strands through the lug barrel that the lug has been correctly
crimped to the cable, and standards of performance have been laid
down accordingly. Figs. 11 and 12 indicate the standards that have
to be reached.
THE CONDUCTOR IS
PROTRUDING AT LEAST 1/32"
POSITION OF CRIMP
MARKS ON INSULATION CORRECT
GRIP DISTANCE
THE CRIMPING AT THIS ASSEMBLY

POINT COMPRESSES THE COMPLETE
SLEEVE UNDERNEATH
INSULATION
GRIP
THE CABLE IS SUPPORTED

BY THE SLEEVE
THE DOT CODING IS IMPRESSED ON THE INSULATION

OF PIOG CONNECTORS DURING THE CRIMPING PROCESS.
THE NUMBER OF DOTS I S AN INDICATION THAT THE
CORRECT TOOL HAS BEEN USED TO EFFECT THE
CONNECTION
Fig. 12 VISUAL CHECKS
Page 68 of 245
IN-LINE CONNECTORS
The Maintenance Manual will need to be consulted to determine if an

in-line crimp may be used but there are basic limitations which apply
generally to cable installations.
It is generally permissible to repair single core cables with in-line

crimps provided they are:-
 Not above 10 awg.

 Not at HT voltage.
 Not in a high temperature zone.
 Not enclosed within ducting which prohibits inspection.
 Not for specialist use, e.g. screened, coaxial, thermocouple,
etc.
HARD PLASTIC
CORE MOISTURE INGRESS
SEALING SLEEVE
CONNECTOR
IN-LINE CRIMP BEFORE

CRIMPING OPERATION
IN-LINE CRIMP APTER

CRIMPING OPERATION
IN-LINE CRIMP
WITH SEALING
SLEEVE IN POSITION
Fig. 13 IN-LINE
Fig. 13 shows a correctly crimped in-line connector before and after

crimping and with a sealing sleeve fitted.
Page 69 of 245
Installation of In-Line Connectors
Again, general rules may be applied. Fig. 14 shows the correct

installation of two in-line crimps.
Fig. 14 IN-LINE CONNECTOR INSTALLATION
 In-line connectors must not be located under clips or ties.
 A multiplicity of in-line connectors should be avoided. In any

case no more than two splices shall be made in any ten feet of
cable.
 To facilitate inspection, in-line connectors should be located on

the outer surface of the loom.
 On anyone cable the distance between any two in-line

connectors must be at least 2 feet.
A sound crimped joint must satisfy two conditions. What are they?
Page 70 of 245
(a) Its mechanical strength must not be less than a specified

minimum.
(b) Any loss of electrical potential must be kept within specified

limits.
Let us now consider the electrical test.
VOLTAGE DROP TEST
This test is carried out with a milli-voltmeter, calibrated test probe

and lead. The check is made across the connection at A when current
is flowing, Fig. 15.
Fig. 15 TYPICAL ARRANGEMENT TERMINAL TAG TEST
The maximum allowable milli-volts drop is usually 5 milli-volts/10 A.
Page 71 of 245
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Write down the three materials from which crimping barrels are
made.
(a)
(b)
(c)
2. What are the two main categories of crimping configuration?
(a)
(b)
(c)
3. How are small gauge wires secured to provide extra strength?
4. What is another name for an in-line crimp?
5. What device ensures that the crimping pliers are sufficiently

closed?
6. What electrical check ensures the efficiency of the crimped

joint?
7. In what condition should the blade of a stripping knife be kept?
8. What does the dot code indicate?
Page 72 of 245
1. (a) Copper.
(b) Aluminum.
(c) Brass.
2. (a) Indent crimping.
(b) Confined crimping.
3. By crimping the insulation as well as the conductor.
4. Splice.
5. A full closure device.
6. A milli-volt drop test.
7. Sharp, and free from nicks and dents.
8. That the correct types of crimping pliers have been used.
SUMMARY
This booklet has considered the methods of crimping and shown how
to strip the insulation from the wire to be crimped.
You should now be able to select the correct crimping tool for the
wire to be crimped and verify that the conductor is properly crimped.
Page 73 of 245
BOOKLET: 05
CONTENTS
Introduction 75
Strength of Soldered Joints 75
Application and Precautions 76
Activity 1. 76
Specifications 77
Fluxes 78
Activity 2. 80
Surface Cleaning 81
General Application 82
General Soldering Procedure 83
Activity 3. 84
After Soldering Procedure 85
Soldered Joint Inspection 85
Soldering Equipment 86
Self Assessment 91
Summary 92
Page 74 of 245
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
 State the types of solder used in the aircraft industry.
 State the types of flux used for the removal of oxides before
soldering.
 Name two cleaning fluids.
 Explain how a soldered joint is verified.
 Name two types of flux.
 Describe the two forms in which solder is provided.
 Describe how to avoid producing dry joints.
 State the function of a wetting agent.
 Explain the work conditions in which a solder gun should be

used.
The study time for this booklet is about one hour.
INTRODUCTION
This booklet gives guidance on the use of soft solders. Soft soldering
is a method of joining metals without intentional fusion of the basis
metal, the solders having a lower melting point than the metals
being joined. The term soft soldering is used to distinguish the
process from brazing, which is performed at higher temperatures.
The importance of establishing and maintaining a high standard of

workmanship for soldering operations cannot be over-emphasized.
STRENGTH OF SOLDERED JOINTS
The strength of a soldered joint is dependent on the continuity and

adhesion of the solder film and the mechanical properties of the
solder, and can only be verified by the destruction of the joint. In
order to ensure satisfactory joints it is essential that adequate
inspection is carried out at various stages throughout the process.
Page 75 of 245
Testing
Where a large number of similar articles are being soldered, periodic

tests can be made by sectioning, or by pulling surfaces apart. In the
majority of applications the solders used are considerably weaker
than the materials they join; where the film of solder is too thin the
joint will be brittle; conversely if the film is too thick the shear
strength of the joint will be low.
APPLICATION AND PRECAUTIONS
Most metals with the exception of some aluminum alloys, magnesium

alloys and zinc-base die castings, can be soldered, but before
applying the process it should be verified that the relevant
specifications permit its use. For example, because of the danger of
intercrystalline penetration by the molten solder, the soldering of
some high tensile steel tubes is prohibited, both for jointing and for
the attachment of identification labels.
The soldering of aluminum with aluminum solder and a suitable flux

is possible and is sometimes used for radio and instrument
assemblies, but is not normally permitted for other aircraft purposes.
What determines if a solder is suitable for aircraft purposes?
Page 76 of 245
British Standards or DTD specifications may be consulted. Have a

look at the table below; it lists two fluxes as well as solder.
SPECIFICATIONS
Consider Table 1. You will see that one solder has a flux core. This is
very often used for repair of avionics components.
Specification Description
BS 219 Soft Solders.
BS 441 Rosin cored Solder Wire.
DTD 599 Non-corrosive Flux for soft Soldering (expect high-pressure

oxygen equipment).
DEF 34/1 Tinning and Soldering Solution.
Table 1.
There are two forms of solder in common use for aircraft work:
 Stick Solders:
BS 219 covers a range of antimonial and non

antimonial stick solders.
 Wire Solders:
BS 441 is concerned with non-corrosive, activated

and non activated flux cored solders.
Wire Solder
Solders of this type complying with the requirements of BS 441 are

of circular cross section, having one or more continuous cores of
activated or non-activated flux. Because wire solders release flux and
solder simultaneously when the appropriate temperature is applied,
they are generally considered to be more efficient than stick solders.
These solders are available in five grades as indicated in Table 2 on
the next page.
Page 77 of 245
Alloy (%)
Melting Typical Uses
Tin Lead Range (0C)
65 max remainder 183 to 185 Electrical, radio and instrument assemblies

60 max remainder 183 to 188 liable to damage by heat or requiring free
running solder.
50 max remainder 183 to 212 Electrica1, radio and instrument work where
slightly higher temperature and some slight
loss of penetrating power are permissible.
General hand soldering and medium
coppersmiths' work.
Tagging components less liable to damage by

40 max remainder 183 to 234 heat. Tinsmiths' and coppersmiths' light
gauge handwork.
Blobbing electric lamp contacts.

20 max remainder 183 to 276
Table 2.
General
Care must be taken to ensure that the solder used is of the type
specified on the drawing and is the correct type for the work in hand.
Apart from the effect on the strength of the joint, the use of incorrect
solder may result in other damage, e.g. if solder with too high a
melting point is used, damage may result to the surrounding
structure from the heat required to melt the solder.
FLUXES
Since solder will only adhere to clean metal, all surfaces to be

soldered must be thoroughly cleaned. However, even after cleaning,
the oxidation occasioned by heating will prevent the satisfactory
adhesion of solder. The use of flux reduces the effect of oxidation,
removes oxides and other impurities, helps the molten solder to run
freely and results in the production of a stronger joint.
Fluxes complying with Specification DTD 599 are available in rosin,

liquid and paste forms, are non corrosive, and either activated or non
activated. Rosin to this specification is used for the flux in wire
solders. They are used for parts which cannot be washed after
soldering, e.g. radio, electrical, and instrument equipment.
Page 78 of 245
It is important to use the correct flux for the work to be soldered.

Here are some which are commonly used in aircraft maintenance.
Activated Fluxes
Activated fluxes consist of wood or gum rosin, and contain a small

proportion of an agent intended to facilitate the soldering process
such fluxes are usually selected when a more active cleaning agent is
required.
Non Activated Fluxes
These fluxes consist of wood or gum rosin only and are usually
selected for the soldering of surfaces where active cleaning is
unnecessary.
Should it become necessary to determine if a flux is activated or non

activated there is an approved test described in BS 441.
Flux Testing
The principle of the test is that a specimen of the solder is melted on

a prepared nickel plate. It is essential that the solder should be
melted within a period of from two to six seconds, and if the solder
on melting wets the nickel and spreads upon its surface, the flux is
judged to be activated.
Fluxes for Stainless Steel Soldering
All fluxes used for stainless steel soldering are corrosive arid are
provided for the industry in three groups.
 Liquid Flux:
Made by dissolving zinc chloride in a solution of equal volumes of

hydrochloric acid and water.
 Ortho-Phosphoric Acid:
Supplied in its commercial form it should be applied undiluted.
 Phosphate Base Fluxes:
Supplied in paste form and applied with a brush or wooden spatula.
Page 79 of 245
Flux Baths
Some soldering processes require the work piece to be dipped in flux.

Where a flux bath is used, the bath should be kept in a clean
condition and the contents checked at regular intervals. The acidity
of the fluxes should be carefully controlled.
A Common Problem
The preparation of the work piece to be soldered is very important as

the solder will not adhere to unprepared surfaces. The consequences
of a soldered joint which has not been properly prepared can result in
a 'dry joint'. This is a term used where fusion has not taken place
and a high resistance or open circuit results.
When would a dry joint be discovered?
Page 80 of 245
You may have said that a dry joint can be found during the soldering
work processes. Sometimes this is so, but often as the condition is
not obvious it goes unnoticed until the function check after final
assembly.
This late discovery can be expensive to correct at this stage and if it

is not found, and the part is certified for release to service, an
intermittent defect or an open circuit will eventually result.
SURFACE CLEANING
Some work pieces will require special cleaning procedure suit their
specific needs but there are some general points which can be
applied to most situations.
Prepared Texture
A high polish is not desirable, since a· slightly roughened surface

provides the best base for a good joint. Best results will be obtained
by mechanical cleaning of the surface with a suitable abrasive, such
as a file, sandpaper, or emery cloth; this, however, does not apply to
stainless steel.
Care should be taken to remove only the surface film and not reduce
the thickness of the material. After such preparation it is necessary
to degrease the surface.
Trichlorethane and trichloroethylene are good liquid cleaners and the

latter may also be used in a vapor degreasing bath. Neither petrol
nor paraffin should be used, since both will leave a film on the metal
surface.
Stainless Steel
Cleaning stainless steel is a specialized process. A typical process is:
 After degreasing, stainless steel may be cleaned by a pickling

process followed by washing; suitable processes are given in
the following paragraphs.
 Anodic treatment in an aqueous solution containing one third

(by volume) of concentrated sulphuric acid and 2.5 per cent
(by weight) of potassium dichromate. Current density should
be at least 1100 amps per square meter of surface area, and
the treatment should be continued until the surface has
Page 81 of 245
acquired a light grey color.
 Immersion for not more than five minutes in an aqueous

solution containing 50 per cent (by volume) of concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
 After pickling the parts should be washed in clean water.
In order to minimize the detrimental effects of the oxide film which

forms rapidly on the surfaces of the parts after cleaning, the interval
between the cleaning and soldering operations should be kept to a
minimum.
GENERAL APPLICATION
After the surfaces have been cleaned, an adequate but not excessive
amount of the appropriate flux should be applied; the surfaces
should then be tinned by hot tinning, dipping in molten solder, or by
electrolytic deposition. When a dipping process is used, surplus
solder should be removed from the surface by wiping or other
convenient means before assembly and final soldering.
Pre-Heating
A mass of material tends to dissipate the heat from the surfaces to

be joined, and to obviate this effect it is usually necessary to pre-
heat the metal. Care must be taken to prevent the overheating or
burning of the parts, since, apart from possible detrimental effects on
the material;, this will cause the solder to run out of the joint.
However, if insufficient heat is applied, the solder will not run evenly
into and fill the small space between the faces of the joint, and lack
of strength will result.
Solder Quantity
The use of an excessive amount of solder is undesirable; if the

process is correctly applied, a little solder, thoroughly melted, will
cover a considerable surface.
When the solder is solidifying, any movement will produce internal

fractures in the solder; such fractures are not readily discernible and
will considerably weaken the joint. To prevent any such movement,
the parts should be firmly clamped during the soldering process.
Page 82 of 245
Movement during soldering is one of the commonest causes of dry

joints.
GENERAL SOLDERING PROCEDURE
The following is a typical procedure to be followed when soldering

aircraft components:
 The surfaces of parts to be tinned or jointed with solder shall

be cleaned, freed of dirt, scale, discoloration, varnish, grease,
and oils.
 Any cleaning techniques and agents used must not degrade

insulation, elements or assemblies, or render identification
markings illegible. Clean the surface to remove any material
detrimental to the soldering process.
 When using liquid and paste fluxes, apply a thin coating of flux
to the surfaces being tinned or joined.
 When using cored solder wire, place the wire in such a manner
that the flux can flow over the joint surfaces as the solder
melts.
Note:
Do not use acid base and rosin base fluxes together, or any
combination of liquid, paste or solder core.
 Fluxes, for which subsequent removal is required, must not be

used on assemblies that become effectively closed during
soldering.
Page 83 of 245
When applying heat to the work piece why should you take
precautions to protect other parts of the job?
Page 84 of 245
You probably knew that the application of heat during soldering must
be carefully controlled to prevent damage to insulating materials and
adjacent soldered joints.
We now move on to consider what has to be done when the item has
been soldered.
AFTER SOLDERING PROCEDURE
Again, these procedures are general and can be applied to most

aircraft soldering work.
 Do not use liquids to cool soldered joints.
 Use metallic heat sinks or aircraft as applicable.
 Do not disturb the part until the solder has solidified.
 Do not stress the part until the solder has cooled.
 Make certain the solder joints are below 125oF prior to being
subjected to liquid or solvent cleaning.
 Remove fluxes by methods established for the specific

soldering application.
 Clean and tin soldering tips or coppers with flux and solder that
is used for the particular soldering operation.
 Do not clean soldering coppers with acid fluxes when rosin

fluxes are utilized in making the solder joint.
SOLDERED JOINT INSPECTION
On completion of a soldered joint, make certain that the following

applies:
 The soldered joint is sound and free from defects which might
cause malfunction or failure of parts in service.
 The solder extends only over the junction area.
 The solder is deposited evenly.
Page 85 of 245
 The solder is free from pin holes and surface breaks.
 The solder exhibits a smooth non crystalline appearance.
 The joints show a feather edge outlining the fillet.
 The solder quantity is no more than required to make a

satisfactory joint.
 The contours of wires and applicable joint surfaces are visible.
SOLDERING EQUIPMENT
For normal small soldering operations, such as fixing a tag to an

electric cable, a hand soldering iron is the most convenient method
of melting the solder.
There are processes used for soldering which require special tools
such as ultrasonic soldering equipment and resistance tools. This
booklet will, however, only deal with soldering irons and tips in
common use.
Selecting the Iron
The size of a soldering iron should be adequate for the job in hand,
and should provide sufficient heat to prevent the solder from
.solidifying before it has completely melted in a joint. If a large
soldering operation is contemplated using a common hand iron, two
irons should be available, and used alternately, so that materials
being soldered will not lose heat while one iron is being reheated.
Types of Iron
There are many types of iron to suit different jobs. Some of these are
illustrated on the next page with a note of their uses:
Page 86 of 245
Hatchet Type
Fig. 1 shows a typical hatchet type iron.
HATCHET TYPE 30 WATT

SOLDERING IRON
Fig. 1 HATCHET TYPE IRON
Use the 30 watt hatchet type iron on all miniature connectors, and
connections where heat input to the connection is closely controlled.
In addition to the hatchet type iron, the pencil iron is also used for
soldering miniature assemblies (Figs. 4 and 5).
100 Watt Iron
Use the 100 watt soldering iron on all general type electrical
soldering, such as connectors, leaf type (pierced) terminals, post
type terminals, solder pot type terminals from 16 gauges to 8 gauge,
etc. (Fig. 2).
100 WATT SOLDERING IRON
Fig. 2 100 WATT IRON
200 Watt Iron
Use the 200 watt soldering iron on all high heat applications such as
4 gauge pot type terminals and larger (Fig. 3).
200 WATT SOLDERING IRON

Fig. 3 200 WATT IRON
Page 87 of 245
Pencil Type Irons
There are also pencil type irons, two of which are shown in Figs. 4
and 5.
Fig. 4 PENCIL TYPE SOLDERING IRON
Fig. 5 PENCIL TYPE SOLDERING IRON
Solder Guns
This type of tool conducts heat very quickly to the work piece. A
typical solder gun is shown in Fig. 6.
HAND GUN
Fig. 6 SOLDER GUN
The solder gun is ideal for the alternate stop and start type of work.
Page 88 of 245
Care of the Band Soldering Iron
The service life of the hand soldering iron will be lengthened, and
good operating conditions will be provided for the user, if the
following procedures are followed:
 Always remove the soldering tip before storing the tool.

 Insert tip and rotate it several times to loosen accumulated
scale, before the soldering iron is put into use. Remove tip and
tap the iron lightly on a wooden surface several times to
remove the loosened scale.
 Put tips requiring tinning in a vice, and file to the desired
shape.
 Install the tip into the iron to the maximum depth if maximum
heat transfer J.5 required. Depth of tip insertion determines a
heat need.
 Remove power from an iron that will not be in use for a period
of more than fifteen minutes. Unnecessary heating causes
scale build up inside the soldering iron heating element.
 Do not attempt to remove a frozen tip by force. Severe
damage to the soldering iron will result.
Soldering Iron Tip Shapes
Most soldering hand tools have removable tips so that they may be
replaced when unserviceable and to provide for a variety of work.
Some tips are shown below (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 SOLDERING IRON TIP SHAPES
Page 89 of 245
 Always select the tip best suited for the size and shape of the
work being soldered.
 Soldering iron tips are available in sizes from 1/16" to 2" in

diameter. For general use a tip of 1/4" to 3/8" diameter is
recommended.
 For printed circuit soldering use a long shank tip of 1/16", 1/8",
3/32", or 3/16" diameter; screwdriver, chisel, and pyramid
shapes are recommended.
Note:
Electrical cables are usually attached to a terminal or plug by means

of a crimped end connector, but, on some aircraft, connections may
be made by soldering. Crimped end connectors are considered
essential in some circuits, e.g. fire detectors, and in locations where
high ambient temperatures may be expected; these connections
should not be replaced by soldered connections.
Page 90 of 245
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What two forms of solder are produced for the aircraft

industry?
(a)
(b)
2. What is used to remove oxidation from a work piece?
3. What process is used for cleaning stainless steel?
4. What should be done to the work piece after soldering?
5. May liquids be used to cool soldered joints?
6. Is a smooth or rough surface preferred for soldering?
7. Which is the best type of soldering tool to use for stop/start

work?
Page 91 of 245
These are the correct answers.
1. Stick solder and Wire solder.
2. The appropriate flux.
3. Pickling.
4. The flux should be washed clean.
5. NO.
6. Rough.
7. A solder gun.
SUMMARY
In this booklet we have looked at the forms, types and uses of solder
used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft components. The
booklet also states the types of flux used and their application.
In studying this booklet you should have learnt the soldering

technique used in the aircraft industry as well as the type of
soldering tool to be selected for a particular job.
Try to have a go at some soldering if you can and apply the

techniques stated in this booklet. If you cannot manage this, a visit
to a workshop where soldering is carried out would be very
beneficial.
Page 92 of 245
BOOKLET: 06
CONTENTS
Introduction 94
Activity 1. 95
Cable Functions 96
Screened Cable 96
Cable Protection 97
Cable Environment 98
Activity 2. 98
Cable Support 99
Cable Looming 100
Cable Installation Practices 108
Cable Disconnects and Terminations 112
Plugs and Sockets - Care and Precautions 112
Activity 3. 113
Activity 4. 119
Terminations 121
Self Assessment 123
Summary 124
Suggested Practical Activity 124
Page 93 of 245
OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
 State where the regulations for cable looming can be found.
 List four groups of cables.
 State the function of cable wrapping.
 State how water ingestion is prevented from contaminating

cable installations.
 State how plug and socket seizure is prevented.
 Give the maximum allowable slack in a cable loom installation.
 State why splices in looms are staggered.
 List three types of disconnect.
 State the maximum number of cable terminations allowed to

be fixed to one terminal.
INTRODUCTION
The installation of electrical cables in aircraft has to meet the

requirements of Section J of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements
for British designed aircraft and the FAA requirements for aircraft of
American design.
Aircraft Type Requirements
Special requirements for cable looming, terminations and disconnects

can be found in the aircraft's Maintenance Manual. The chapter that
deals with these requirements is:-
 Standard Practices - Electrical: Chapter 20
The implementation of these requirements is assured by issuing

instructions from this chapter. There are, however, general methods
and processes which may be applied to most cable installations.
Page 94 of 245
What considerations should be taken into account in the selection of

cables for aircraft use?
Page 95 of 245
There are quite a number of things you may have mentioned, such
as insulation, current carrying capacity or resistance to high and low
temperatures. Here is what the Civil Aviation Authority says in its
current leaflet on cable suitability:
To maintain general environmental suitability, only the types of cable

specified by the aircraft or equipment manufacturer, or approved
equivalents, should be used. This will ensure that the cables will be
suitable for the voltages which will be applied to them under the
conditions of operation and test, and that the current ratings will be
such that when the cables are installed and carrying the most
onerous loads in the most adverse ambient temperatures probable,
the temperatures attained by the conductor will not cause damage to
the cables.
CABLE FUNCTIONS
Aircraft cables provide for many different electrical functions, but can
be divided into four main groups. They are:-
 General services d.c.

 General services a.c.
 Radio.
 Intercommunication.
These cables must be installed so that they cannot cause electrical

interference to other cables and their services. They must also
prevent the risk of confusion and of electrical contact between any
two cables.
SCREENED CABLE
To reduce the risk of electrical interference, some cables are

screened. Two examples are shown in Fig. 1 on the next page.
Page 96 of 245
1. STRANDED ANNEALED TINNED COPPER
CONDUCTOR
2. STRANDED ALUMINIUM CONDUCTOR
3. PVC INSULATION
4. GLASS BRAID
5a. EXTRUDED NYLON SHEATH (SMALL

CABLES)
5b. NYLON BRAID AND LACQUER (LARGE

CABLES)
6. TINNED COPPER WIRE BRADING
1. STRANDED NICKEL PLATED ANNEALED

COPPER CONDUCTOR
2. SILICONE RUBBER INSULATION
3. OUTER PROTECTIVE COVERING OF GLASS

BRAID AND POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE (ORANGE)
4. TINNED COPPER WIRE BRAIDING
5. OUTER SHEATH OF POLYETHYLENE

TEREPHTHALATE
Fig. 1 SCREENED CABLES
Un screened Aerial Cable Protection
Most modern aircraft have screened aerial cable, but where this is
not the case, the spacing between any unscreened cable and any
unscreened radio aerial should be not less than 18 inches.
CABLE PROTECTION
The risk of mechanical damage and of damage by fluids or vapors, to

cables must be minimized. Where possible, cables are so routed as to
avoid such risks; otherwise, adequate protection must be provided
for the cables.
Cables must be so installed or protected as to be unaffected by

sources of heat which, together with heat generated within the cable
on load, could produce temperatures in excess of the maximum
permissible continuous temperature for which the cable is designed.
Cables must not be so sharply bent as to cause risk of damage or

deterioration.
Page 97 of 245
The ends of all conduits, tubes and ducts which carry electric cables
must be so prepared or bushed with insulating material at the points
of entry as to reduce to a minimum the risk of damage in service,
and when drawing in the cable. Inspection panels may have to be
provided for continuous ducts.
CABLE ENVIRONMENT
Aircraft electrical cables often suffer from the effects of extreme

changes in temperature, and this change often takes place very
quickly. Not all cables can be kept within the pressurized
compartment, and in some installations the cables may be subjected
to temperature changes of 600C. Remember that cables routed along
the rear spar of a civil air transport may be experiencing ambient at
altitude (-560C) and then a tropical airport at 300C. The cable can get
very wet.
What causes the cables to become wet when they are subject
to the above conditions?
Page 98 of 245
The water is produced by condensation, so the cables are often

dripping with water and the aircraft designer must do all he can to
avoid the consequences of this condensation. The condensation
cannot be prevented.
Cable Drainage
Wherever possible, cables connected to apparatus must be arranged

to run downwards from the apparatus. Where this is not possible, the
cable must incorporate a downward loop immediately before entering
the apparatus.
Where conduits, tubes or ducts are used, they must be so installed

that any moisture accumulating in them will drain safely away; in
addition, the cables used in them must be capable of withstanding
such moisture as may nevertheless be encountered.
CABLE SUPPORT
Particular care in the supporting of cables is necessary at the

following points:-
 Adjacent to cable terminations.
 Where relative movement is likely to occur between adjacent

parts of the structure to which the cables are fitted.
 Where cables are in proximity to moving parts,
 At bends, especially where several small cables are run

together to form a relatively heavy group.
Cable Support at Terminal Fittings
At terminations it is particularly important to guard against cable

movement (vibratory or otherwise) which can lead to fatigue fracture
of the conductor or the terminal fitting. Cables should be secured as
near as possible to the terminal fitting, and it is recommended that
where practicable the distance from terminal to nearest point of
support should not exceed six inches (measured along the cable).
Where it is not possible to provide this degree of support, the means
used for terminating the cable should withstand any stresses
resulting from movement of unsupported cables under vibration.
Page 99 of 245
Cable Clip Cushioning
The means used for supporting cables should not themselves

introduce the risk of damage to cable coverings. For example, where
hard fiber or metal clips or saddles are used, suitable cushioning
should be interposed between the clip or saddle and the cable.
Protection of Cabling
The cables are required to be protected from abrasion, mechanical

strain and excessive heat, and against the deleterious effects of fuel,
oil and other aircraft fluids, water in either liquid or vapor form, and
the weather. Cables should be spaced from the skin of the aircraft so
as to reduce the effect of the high skin temperatures likely to be
reached in the tropics. The cables should not be run near the hot
parts of an engine or other hot components, unless a cooled-air
space or heat barrier is interposed.
CABLE LOOMING
A number of wires which run close together along parallel paths can
be formed into a cable loom.
There are four tasks commonly involved in the creation of a loom.

They are:-
 Lacing.
 Starting.
 Finishing.
 Branching.
Lacing
A running stitch is pressed tightly against the cable loom by means

of locking knots or locking stitches formed at regular intervals along
the loom. The running stitches should be kept in line, and parallel to
the wires of the cable loom (see Fig. 2).
RUNNING STITCH RUNNING STITCH
LOCK STITCH
LOCK KNOT DIRECTION OF LACING
Fig. 2 CABLE LACING
Page 100 of 245

General Wiring
The lacing cord used for most aircraft looms is one millimeter
diameter pvc covered nylon cord, colored black. Looms are bound by
continuous lacing and are tied with locking knots spaced as far apart
as adequate support will allow. In some cases a rot-proofed braided
flax cord is used, normally sea-green or brown.
Equipment Wiring
In miniaturized radio equipments the lacing is often done using a thin

waxed linen or flax tape. As this tape is less prone to slip than the
nylon cord, the lacing is often tied with locking stitches spaced
evenly at one inch or half inch intervals along the loom.
Fig. 3 below shows a wooden jig being used to make a cable loom.
The locations of the terminal tags are determined from a drawing of
the routing, which is fixed with nails to the jig.
Fig. 3 MAKING A CABLE LOOM
Starting
There are two common methods of starting:-
 A whipped start.
 A knotted start.
Page 101 of 245

Whipped Start
Hold one end of the cord on the cable and wrap about four turns
tightly around the cable and over the cord (see Fig. 4 below). When
the end is well secured, whip a further eight turns and make a lock
stitch (the whipping can be continued for any distance required as a
protection against chafing).
Fig. 4 WHIPPED STARTS
Knotted Start
Make a clove hitch around the cable and secure the ends with a reef
knot (see Fig. 5 below). Make a lock stitch and then lace normally.
Fig. 5 KNOTTED START
Finishing
To terminate the cable lacing, wrap the cord four times round the
loom, tight against the last lock stitch. Using a separate piece of
cord, form a loop and lay it along the loom, as shown in Fig. 6 on the
next page. Wrap eight turns over the loop and pass the end of the
running cord through the loop. Pull the loop out by its free ends, thus
locking the cord under the last eight turns. Cut off any excess cord.
Page 102 of 245

Fig. 6 TERMINATING LACING
Branching
If only one wire is branched out from the main cable loom, it should
be branched out at a lock stitch without any variation in lacing. If a
group of wires leaves the loom at the same point, they should be
laced together. At the required branching point, make a lock stitch,
wrap six turns closely together and make another lock stitch. This
whipping takes any sideways forces due to the junction without
straining the main lacing or separating the wires of the loom. Form
the wires into the required branch loom, using a knotted start where
it leaves the main cable (see Fig. 7).
Fig. 7 BRANCHING A CABLE LOOM
There is another method of creating a wire loom that uses nylon

strapping and nylon preformed closures. The procedure is called
cable binding.
Cable Binding
A group of wires can also be formed into a cable loom by binding

them together at suitable intervals. The binding method uses a pre-
tensioned nylon strapping and preformed nylon closures. These
closures are fastened using a special binding tool (Heller man Tyton
Mk 4, shown in Fig. 8 on the next page). The strapping is supplied in
24 foot reels which enable looms of almost any size to be handled.
Page 103 of 245

Fig. 8 CABLE BINDING TOOL
Two types of closure are available (see Fig. 9 below), one of which
has a single hole fixing lug to enable the loom to be fastened to a
panel or chassis if required. Where the loom may have to be
removed occasionally for servicing or repair operations, it can be
fitted to the airframe using the special nylon cradle shown in Fig. 9.
CRADLE
Fig. 9 CABLE BINDING METHOD
Page 104 of 245

Binding Method
Strapping from the tool is passed round the group of wires and back
through the nylon closure in the head of the binding tool. To fasten
the loop, the binding is tightened and the nylon retaining rivet of the
closure is driven horne by the tool. This forces both thicknesses of
the strapping into a closely mated hole (Fig. 9). The nylon rivet
expands slightly when forced into position, and will remain in position
even under vibration conditions. As the strapping is not pierced
during the fastening process, it retains its full strength and will not
tear out of the closure.
Although cable binding tools vary in design, the example shown in

this booklet is in common use today in the aircraft industry. Here's
how to use it.
Cable Binding Tool - Operation
A normal closure is loaded into the head of the binding tool, as

shown in Fig. 10 below. Hold in the button, hold in the trigger and
release the button. Swing· over the magazine, release the trigger
and swing back the magazine. If a single lug closure is to be used, it
should be pressed into the head of the tool whilst the trigger is
squeezed.
Fig. 10 OPERATION OF BINDING TOOL
Push out a length of strapping through the closure in the tool head
(see Fig. 11 on the next page). Pass the strapping round the wires
and feed about one inch back through the closure in the tool head.
Press the lever on the right hand side of the tool to grip the free end
of the strap in position.
Page 105 of 245

Fig. 11
Tighten the loop by turning the reel anticlockwise and fasten the
closure by squeezing the trigger (keeping the strap under tension).
Release the trigger, and cut off excess strapping by pressing the
button on the left hand side of the tool and re-squeezing the trigger
(see Fig. 12).
Fig. 12
It is important to make sure that the cables are arranged neatly so

that when the loop is tightened the loom remains firm. Remember
that most looms will be subject to some vibration for long periods
during aircraft operation.
Here are some common methods of securing wire groups, looms and
bulkhead routing.
Protecting Looms from Fluid Lines
Fig. 13 on the next page shows a cable loom secured to, but remote
from, a hydraulic line. Notice a wide air gap is provided between the
line and the cables.
Page 106 of 245

PLUMBING LINE
Fig. 13 SECURING CABLE LOOM
Drainage Loop and Drain Hole
Fig. 14 below shows a drain loop and drainage hole in the conduit.
The hole should be 1/8 inch in diameter, and at the lowest point of
the conduit.
CABLING
Fig. 14 CONDUIT DRAINAGE
The drain hole should be made after cable installation has been
completed, and the lowest point is firmly established.
Page 107 of 245

CABLE INSTALLATION PRACTICES
Fig. 15 below shows correctly routed loom cables, as well as some

common mistakes.
BEND TOO SHARP
BEND TOO LOOSE
NO STRESS RELIEF
Fig. 15 CABLE INSTALLATION PRACTICE
Prevention of Chafing
When it is impossible to prevent cable loom contact with the aircraft

structure, then wrapping is the recommended method of protection
(see Fig. 16).
HARNESS
Fig. 16 PREVENTION OF CHAFING
Page 108 of 245

Routing Through Bulkheads
When a loom has to pass through a bulkhead, cable clamps and

grommets are used to keep the cables clear of the bulkhead
structure (see Fig. 17).
BULKHEAD CLEARANCE 1/8 INCH MINIMUM
MS 21919 CABLE CLAMP

NYLON GROMMET
MS 21919 CABLE CLAMP
WIRE GROUP
BULKHEAD
CATERPILLAR GROMMENT
Fig. 17 ROUTING THROUGH BULKHEADS
Slack between Loom Supports
The slack or droop of a loom between loom supports should be not

more than 1/2 inch when moderate hand pressure is applied at the
mid point between clamps, as shown in Fig 18
Fig. 18 SLACK BETWEEN LOOM SUPPORTS
Page 109 of 245

Loom Installation Practices
Fig. 19 below shows how splices should be arranged so they can be

inspected; they should be staggered to keep the size of the loom as
small as possible.
CLAMP SUPPORT CLAMP SUPPORT

TIE SPLICE (TYP)
WIRE BUNDLE
Fig. 19 SPLICE ARRANGEMENTS
When installing a loom, the following points must be considered:
 The minimum bend radius of a bundle is five times the outside

diameter.
 The minimum bend radius on coaxial cables is 12 times the

outside diameter, unless otherwise noted on engineering
drawings.
 The wires must be completely insulated from the metal of the

clamp.
Cable Clamps
Cable clamps are designed to meet a specific situation when a cable

loom is secured. There are many types of clamp and many different
arrangements. Some are shown in Fig. 20 on the next page.
Page 110 of 245

SCREW LENGTH IS DETERMINED

BY THE NUMBER OF CLAMPS USED
BUTTERFLY
SINGLE
TRIPLE BUTTERFLY
DOUBLE BUTTERFLY
CLAMPS MAY BE INSTALLED IN BELLY UP POSITION

(AS SHOWN) OR IN THE BELLY DOWN POSITION
Fig. 20 TYPICAL CABLE CLAMPS
We have had a look at cable looms, harnesses and the correct

methods used to secure cables to the aircraft's structure. The last
part of this booklet considers cable disconnects and terminations.
Page 111 of 245

CABLE DISCONNECTS AND TERMINATIONS
A cable disconnect is provided where the cable or cables are

expected to be removed frequently from their components. A
termination is a much more permanent connection such as an earth
point or a busbar connection. We will look at disconnects first.
PLUGS AND SOCKETS - CARE AND PRECAUTIONS
To prevent damage and the entry of dirt, the protective caps which
are provided with connectors should be fitted at all times other than
when the connectors are being worked on. During work, protection
may then be in the form of a linen or plastic bag, totally enclosing
the connector and secured to the cables. This temporary protection
should only be removed just prior to connection being made in the
aircraft. When a connector is disconnected, and it is intended that it
be left open for a period of time, then both plug and socket should be
protected to prevent damage and the entry of dirt.
Miniature Connectors
Extreme care should be taken when handling and connecting

miniature and sub-miniature connectors. Both plugs and sockets
should be checked for any signs of dirt, bent pins or physical damage
to the shells before attempting to connect. If connectors will not
mate, check for the reason, and rectify or renew. On no account
should force be used to effect mating.
Page 112 of 245

ACTIVITY 3 1 Minute
What could be applied to plug threads to prevent seizure making

subsequent removal difficult?
Page 113 of 245

Some connections require that a lubricant be used.
Lubrication
Some ranges of plugs and sockets require the engaging threads to be

lubricated with a suitable lubricant to ensure that they can readily be
disconnected. Lubrication should be carried out in accordance with
the recommendations in the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual,
Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification Drawing.
Plugs and Sockets - Maintenance
There are many different types of plug and socket connector, each
having its own maintenance requirements, therefore reference
should always be made to the relevant manufacturer's Maintenance
Instructions and aircraft Maintenance Manual or Wiring Diagram
Manual for precise details of cable preparation, special tool
requirements (including insertion and extraction tools) and crimping
information.
Soldered Connectors
Several types of plug and socket in general use are attached to the
cable by soldered joints. For assembly instructions of a particular
type, the manufacturer's leaflet should be consulted. The most
common type is the Plessey Mk 4.
Plessey Mk 4
The Plessey Mk 4 range consists of nine basic plugs or sockets

accommodated in three basic shell sizes. They are normally supplied
as fixed plugs (for mounting on equipment panels) and free sockets
(for terminating cables). A range of straight and right angled outlets
is provided to enable the connector to be fitted in almost any
position. The orientation of the plug or socket in its shell can be
altered using a special tool kit supplied. By using different
orientations for adjacent plugs, the chances of mis-connection are
minimized.
Assembly
Fig. 21 on the next page shows an exploded view of a Plessey Mk 4

socket, and names the various parts. The procedure for connecting
cables to this type of socket is described below:
Page 114 of 245

Dismantle the socket into the component parts shown in Fig. 21.
Correct the orientation of the socket body in the shell if necessary.
Obtain the type of outlet required for the finished connector.
Page 115 of 245

RUBBER SEALING RING

SHELL
BODY OUTLETNUT UNION NUT
COUPLING NUT
OUTLET
RUBBER OUTLET GASKET
Fig. 21 EXPLODED VIEW OF PLESSEY HARK 4 SOCKET
The following procedure should be followed:
 Slip the union nut over the cable end.
 Strip the cable braiding (approx. one inch).
 Clamp the metal braiding between metal ferrules.
 Strip outer insulation (approx 1/2 inch).
 Fit the rubber sealing ring over cable.
 Strip each wire for 1/8 inch.
 Tin each wire, using 22 SWG resin cored solder and a miniature
iron.
 Fit a half inch insulating sleeve over each lead, using Heller
man pliers.
METAL BRAIDING
SLEEVE
OUTER
INSULATION
METAL FERRULES
Fig. 22
Page 116 of 245

Here are the next steps:
 Slip the outlet nut, the outlet and the rubber outlet gasket over
the end of the cable.
 Ease back the metal "braiding and component parts of the

housing to obtain working room for the soldering iron to be
used in comfort, as shown in Fig. 23.
Fig. 23
The next stage is as follows:
 Fill the buckets with solder, using a miniature iron at its full
working temperature, as shown in Fig. 24 below.
 Solder the leads into the correct places.
 Test each joint with a light pull.
 Clean off any surplus flux, using a stiff brush and solvent.
 Position the sleeves flush against the main body moulding.
Fig. 24
Page 117 of 245

Finally:
 Insert the rubber outlet gasket into the main body.
 Fit the outlet into the castellation of the main body.
 Tighten the outlet nut.
 Slide forward the metal braiding and its retaining ferrules.
 Tighten the union nut.
Final Assembly Checks
After assembly, all connectors should be checked electrically to

ensure that:
 All leads are connected to the correct positions.
 All joints have a low resistance.
 All leads are insulated from each other and from the shell of
the connector.
Some connectors have a ground connection point, provided with a

grounding screw and washer, which should always be removed if a
ground wire is not being connected.
Page 118 of 245

How is a plug protected from dust if the plug or socket is not to be

connected for a while?
Page 119 of 245

Dust caps are usually used; but there is another method.
Prevention of Dust
Dust caps are usually used; but there is another method.
When connectors are installed as a provision for the installation of

equipment at a later date, they should be protected by dust caps.
Unused connectors supported only by the cables should be protected
with an insulating sleeve pulled over the connector and cables so that
it extends sufficiently to enable the end to be folded back and
secured. This should then be clamped to the aircraft structure.
Fig. 25 below shows a few more commonly used connectors.
Fig. 25 COMMON CONNECTORS
Page 120 of 245

Finally we will look at the more permanent arrangement

terminations.
TERMINATIONS
Wires must be connected to each other, or to terminals, without

introducing excessive losses. Joints should have as small a resistance
as possible and must also be mechanically sound within the limits of
their operating conditions. There" are two main types of
termination:-
 Permanent.
 Repairable.
Permanent
Crimped joints of various types are the recommended method of

making permanent joints in wiring systems. Some small joints,
usually inside miniaturized equipment, have been welded by the
manufacturer.
Repairable
The main type of joint used inside equipments is the soldered

connection. Some modern equipments use the solder less wrapped
wire joint as the normal connecting method.
Reliability - Quality
As component parts become more reliable, wiring failures are

causing an increasing percentage of equipment breakdowns. New
and more reliable connecting methods are being developed, but a
major improvement in reliability can be achieved by careful, accurate
work by electrical and electronic tradesmen.
Crimping and Soldering
The method most commonly used is the solder less or crimped

termination. The soldered method is also used, but is generally
confined to the joining of internal circuit connections of consumer
equipment and in some cases, to the connection of single core cables
and plug and socket contacts. The means of terminating cables and
effecting junctions between cables and equipment must be in
accordance with the requirements of the relevant aircraft
Maintenance Manual, Wiring Diagram Manual or Modification
Drawing. Therefore, the information given in the following
paragraphs is of a general nature and is intended only as a guide.
Page 121 of 245

General Requirements
The conductors should be firmly secured to the connections on the

equipment, using the appropriate method for the particular
installation. The surfaces of electrical contacts should be clean, and
the mating parts should be in contact over the full area. The
protective sleeves fitted over connections should be undamaged and
positioned correctly. Holding screws and nuts should be properly
locked where provision is made for this to be done; particular care
should be taken where varnish is the locking medium, as it must not
be allowed to spread onto, or over, the electrical contact surfaces.
Securing Terminations
Torque loading of holding screws or nuts should be to the

recommended values and should be marked in accordance with the
maintenance instructions. The connections should not place either
the cable or the equipment in a state of tension. Twisting and kinking
in the vicinity of the connection should be avoided, as this may lead
to a fracture if the cable is subjected to vibration.
Multiple Terminations
There may be one, two, three or four terminal connections on one

terminal, but it is not usual to have more than four. Fig. 26 below
shows a four lug installation procedure.
NOTE
1. LUGS MAY BE BENT TO A
MAXIMUM OF 45 DEGREES
NO LUG SHALL BE BENT
HORE THAN ONCE.
2. TIGHTENING NUTS ON ALL

TERMINALS SHALL MEET
THE REQUIREMENTS
SPECIFIED IN THE
TORQUE VALUES
INDICATED IN THE TABLE
OF THIS ILLUSTRATION
Fig. 26 MULTIPLE TERMINATIONS
Page 122 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Which chapter in the Maintenance Manual deals with Standard

Practices?
2. Name the four main groups into which aircraft cables are
placed.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. What causes condensation on aircraft cables?
4. How are cable termination positions fixed on a wooden looming

rig?
5. When should a cable conduit drain hole be made?
6. What is cable harness wrapping used for?
7. What is the maximum slack or droop permissible in a cable

loom?
8. What is done to prevent socket and plug threads from seizing?
Page 123 of 245

1. Chapter 20.
2. (a) General Services a.c.
(b) General Services d.c.
(c) Radio.
(d) Intercommunication.
3. Rapid temperature change from cool to warm air.
4. With nails.
5. After the cable installation has been completed.
6. To protect a cable from chafing when expedient routing cannot

avoid contact with the aircraft structure.
7. 1/2 inch.
8. The threads are lubricated during assembly.
SUMMARY
This booklet has dealt with the methods of manufacturing cable

looms, and mentioned some of the requirements and precautions.
You will now have a good idea of how the cables are routed and what
process is involved in strapping the separate wires into a cable loom
or bundle.
You will have read how water is prevented from contaminating cable
conductors, insulation and conduits.
The booklet has also discussed terminal connections and disconnects.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITY
Try to examine some aircraft cable installations and see if you can
identify some of the techniques you have learned about.
Page 124 of 245

BOOKLET: 07
CONTENTS
Introduction 126
Activity 1. 127
Circuit Analysis and Troubleshooting 128
Circuit Faults 129
Activity 2. 131
Activity 3. 133
Activity 4. 135
Troubleshooting Parallel Circuits 139
Activity 5. 142
Troubleshooting Series Parallel Circuits 143
Activity 6. 146
Function Testing 148
Safety 148
Self Assessment 149
Summary 150
Page 125 of 245

OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have studied this booklet you will be able to:-
 State which aircraft system cables carry the highest current

flow.
 State the function of a volt drop test and when it is used.
 Define an open circuit and describe typical defect symptoms.
 Describe the symptoms of a short circuit.
 State the methods of circuit testing series, parallel, and series

parallel circuits.
 State what power source should be used when function testing

an aircraft electrical circuit.
 Explain the precautions to be observed when testing the

aircraft's battery.
It should take you about an hour to study this booklet.
INTRODUCTION
Electrical circuits in aircraft are used to provide many functions from

simple indicating arrangements to heavy current carrying circuits. It
is largely the size of current flow through a circuit which is
considered for selection of the electrical cables, terminations and
protective devices.
The cables which carry the highest current flow on civil air transports
are usually the supply feeders to the galleys, ovens and hot cup
heaters.
Hot tap water in the washbasin supply is often heated by its own
heater which also carries quite a high current.
Perhaps the highest currents of all can be found in engine electrical

starter circuits and the cables which supply electrically operated
water injection pumps. In all of these circuits, a high resistance
connection can cause severe problems.
Page 126 of 245

How is the value of a high resistance cable termination measured?
Page 127 of 245

Well, you may have known that a resistance measuring check is not
easy to carry out, and as the result of a high resistance termination
is a voltage drop across the connection, a voltage drop test is a much
more appropriate test.
A voltage drop test is the CAA approved check for establishing the
presence of a high resistance at a connection. There are other
problems.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING
Troubleshooting is the process of locating causes for malfunctions or

trouble in a circuit. The following definitions serve as a guide in the
troubleshooting discussion.
Short Circuit
This is a low resistance path. It can be across the power source or

between the sides of a circuit. It usually creates high current flow
which will burn out or cause damage to the circuit conductor or
components.
Open Circuit
This is a circuit that is not complete or continuous.
Continuity
This is the state of being continuous, or connected together; said of a

circuit that is not broken or is not an open circuit.
Discontinuity
This is the opposite of continuity, indicating that a circuit is broken or

not continuous.
The methods of testing and inspection will vary with different types
of aircraft and the equipment fitted, therefore reference must be
made to the appropriate Maintenance Manuals for detailed
information.
Circuit Testing Equipment
Each test requires specified equipment, and care should be taken

that it is correctly used (e.g. good electrical contact should always be
made).
Page 128 of 245

To ensure the reliability of test equipment, it should be carefully

serviced and certified at the periods recommended by the
manufacturer. The performance of equipment should also be checked
before and after use.
After completion of all tests, the installations should be inspected to

ensure that all connections have been re-made and secured, and that
test equipment, tools etc. have been removed. This should be carried
out immediately prior to the fitting and securing of panels, covers
etc. as appropriate. The circuits should then be proved, as far as the
installation permits, by making ground functioning checks of the
services concerned. A dated record of all relevant figures obtained
during the checks should be retained.
Any disconnections or disturbance of circuits associated with flying or

engine controls will require duplicate inspection and functioning tests.
CIRCUIT FAULTS
There are two common faults to be found in electrical circuits; they

are:-
 Open circuits.
 Short circuits.
Open Circuits
Fig. 1 below shows some of the most common sources of open

circuits.
Fig. 1 SOURCES OF OPEN CIRCUITS
Page 129 of 245

A loose connection or no connection is a frequent cause of- an open

circuit. In 'A' of Fig. I, the end of a conductor has separated from the
battery terminal. This type of malfunction opens a circuit and stops
the flow of current.
Another type of malfunction that will cause an open circuit is a

burned-out resistor, shown in 'B' of Fig. 1. When a resistor
overheats, its resistance value changes, and, if the current flow
through it is great enough, it can burn and open the circuit.
In ‘C’, 'D' and 'E' of Fig. 1, three more likely causes of open circuits
are shown.
Circuit Testing
The circuit shown in Fig. 2 below is designed to cause current to flow

through a lamp, but because of the open resistor, the lamp will not
light. To locate this open circuit, a voltmeter or an ohmmeter can be
used.
Fig. 2 AN OPEN CIRCUIT
Page 130 of 245

In the circuit shown in Fig. 2, will there be:-
(a) Any current flow?
(b) A voltage drop across the lamp?
(a)
(b)
Page 131 of 245

(a) No current flows.
(b) There is "no voltage drop across the lamp.
Using a Voltmeter (Continuous Circuit)
If a voltmeter is connected across the lamp, as shown in Fig. 3

below, the voltmeter will read zero. Since no current can flow in the
circuit because of the open resistor, there is no voltage drop across
the lamp. This illustrates a troubleshooting rule that should be
remembered:-
 When a voltmeter is connected across a good (not defective)

component in an open circuit, the voltmeter will read zero.
Fig. 3 VOLTMETER ACROSS LAMP IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT
Using a Voltmeter (Open Circuit)
In this case the voltmeter is connected across the open resistor, as

shown in Fig. 4 below. The voltmeter has closed the circuit by
shunting (paralleling) the burned-out resistor, allowing current to
flow. Current will flow from the negative terminal of the battery,
through the switch, through the voltmeter and the lamp, back to the
positive terminal of the battery.
Fig. 4 VOLTMETER ACROSS RESISTOR IN AN OPEN CIRCUIT
Page 132 of 245

Will the bulb in Fig. 4 light up?
Page 133 of 245

No, because the resistance of the voltmeter is so high that only a

very small current flows in the circuit. The current is too small to
light the lamp, but the voltmeter will read the battery voltage.
A point worth reinforcing here is that:-
 When a voltmeter is placed across an open component in a

series circuit, it will read the battery, or applied voltage.
Using an Ohmmeter - Open Circuit Fault
This type of open circuit malfunction can also be traced by using an

ohmmeter. When an ohmmeter is used, the circuit component to be
tested must be isolated and the power source removed from the
circuit. In this case, as shown in Fig. 5 below, these requirements
can be met by opening the circuit switch.
Fig. 5 USING AN OHMMETER TO CHECK A CIRCUIT COMPONENT
The ohmmeter is zeroed and placed across (in parallel with) the
lamp. In this circuit, some value of resistance is read. This illustrates
another important troubleshooting point:-
 When an ohmmeter is properly connected across a circuit

component and a resistance reading is obtained, the
component has continuity and is not open.
Page 134 of 245

What will the ohmmeter read if the instrument is connected across

the open circuit as shown in Fig. 5?
Page 135 of 245

As there is no current flow, the ohmmeter will read maximum

resistance.
When the ohmmeter is connected across the open resistor, as shown

in Fig. 6 below, it indicates infinite resistance, or a discontinuity.
Thus, the open circuit has been located with both a voltmeter and an
ohmmeter.
Fig. 6 USING AN OHMMETER TO LOCATE AN OPEN IN A CIRCUIT COMPONENT
An open in a series circuit will cause the current flow to stop. A short
circuit, or 'short', will cause the opposite effect. A short across a
series circuit produces a great than normal current flow.
Common Short Circuits
Some examples of shorts, as shown in Fig. 7 on the next page, are

two bare wires in a circuit that are touching each other, two
terminals of a resistor connected together, etc. Thus a short can be
described as a connection of two conductors of a circuit through a
very low resistance.
Page 136 of 245

BARE WIRES
TOUCHING
RESISTOR
TERMINALS
BATTERY
LEAD
IMPROPER
WIRING
Fig. 7 COMMON SHORT CIRCUITS
A Shorted Resistor
Fig. 8 below is a circuit designed to light a lamp. A resistor is

connected in the circuit to limit current flow. If the resistor is
shorted, as shown in the illustration, the current flow will increase
and the lamp will become brighter. If the applied voltage were high
enough, the lamp would burn out, but in this case the fuse would
protect the lamp by opening first.
Fig. 8 A SHORTED RESISTOR
Page 137 of 245

Usually a short circuit will produce an open circuit by either blowing

(opening) the fuse or burning out a circuit component. But in some
circuits, such as that illustrated in Fig. 9 below, there may be
additional resistors which will not allow one shorted resistor to
increase the current flow enough to blow the fuse or burn out a
component.
With one resistor shorted out, the circuit will still function since the
power dissipated by the other resistors does not exceed the rating of
the fuse.
Fig. 9 A SHORT THAT DOES NOT OPEN THE CIRCUIT
To locate the shorted resistor while the circuit is functioning, a

voltmeter could be used. When it is connected across any of the un
shorted resistors, a portion of the applied voltage will be indicated on
the voltmeter scale. When it is connected across the· shorted
resistor, the voltmeter will read zero.
Locating A Shorted Resistor in Series
The shorted resistor shown in Fig. 10 below can be located with an

ohmmeter. First the switch is opened to isolate the circuit
components.
Fig. 10 USING AN OHMMETER TO LOCATE A SHORTED RESISTOR
Page 138 of 245

The circuit in Fig. 10 is shown with an ohmmeter connected across

each of the resistors. Only the ohmmeter connected across the
shorted resistor shows a zero reading, indicating that this resistor is
shorted.
TROUBLESHOOTING PARALLEL CIRCUITS
The procedures used in troubleshooting a parallel circuit are

sometimes different from those used in a series circuit. Unlike a
series circuit, a parallel circuit has more than one path in which
current flows. A voltmeter cannot be used, since when it is placed
across an open resistor, it will read the voltage drop in a parallel
branch. But an ammeter or the modified use of an ohmmeter can be
employed to detect an open branch in a parallel circuit.
Fig. 11 FINDING AN OPEN BRANCH IN A PARALLEL CIRCUIT
If the open resistor shown in Fig. 11: above was not visually
apparent, the circuit would appear to be functioning properly since
current would continue to flow in the other two branches of the
circuit.
To determine that the circuit is not operating properly, the total

resistance, total current, and the branch currents of the circuit should
be calculated as if there were no open in the circuit:-
 Ri = N
R
= 30
3
= 10 ohms total resistance.
Page 139 of 245

Since the voltage applied to the branches is the same and the value
of each branch resistance is known.
 I1 = E1 I2 = E2 I3 = E3
R1 R2 R3
= 30 volts = 30 volts = 30 volts

30 ohms 30 ohms 30 ohms
= 1 ampere = 1 ampere = 1 ampere
The total resistance is therefore:-
 IT = ET
RT
= 30 volts
10 ampere
= 3 amperes (total current)
Measuring the Current
An ammeter placed in the circuit (see Fig. 11) to read total current
would show two amperes instead of the calculated three amperes.
Since one ampere of current should be flowing through each branch,
it is obvious that one branch is open. If the ammeter is connected
into the branches, one after another, the open branch will be located
by a zero ammeter reading.
A modified use of the ohmmeter can also locate this type of open
circuit.
If the ohmmeter is connected across the open resistor, as shown in

Fig. 12 on the next page, an erroneous reading of continuity would
be obtained. Even though the circuit switch is open, the open resistor
is still in parallel with R1 and R2, and the ohmmeter would indicate
that the open resistor had a resistance of 15 ohms, the equivalent
resistance of the parallel combination of R1 and R2.
Page 140 of 245

Fig. 12 A MISLEADING OHMMETER INDICATION
Opening the Circuit
Thus, it is necessary to open the circuit as shown in Fig. 13 below, in

order to check the resistance of R3. In this way, the resistor is not
shunted (paralleled) and the reading on the ohmmeter will indicate
infinite resistance. On the other hand, if an open should occur in this
circuit (Fig. 13) between the battery and point A, or between the
battery and point B, current would not flow in the circuit.
Fig. 13 OPENING A BRANCH CIRCUIT TO OBTAIN AN ACCURATE OHMMETER READING
Open Circuit in Parallel
Look at Fig. 12 and see if you can answer the next question.
Page 141 of 245

Will the open circuit in Fig. 12 cause the fuse to blow?
Page 142 of 245

The fuse would not blow, as there is a reduction in current flow when
the circuit is opened by the open circuit resistor.
Short Circuit in Parallel
As in a series circuit, a short in a parallel circuit will usually cause an

open circuit by blowing the fuse. But, unlike a series circuit, one
shorted component in a parallel circuit will stop current flow by
causing the fuse to open. This can be seen by referring to the circuit
in Fig. 14.
Fig. 14 A SHORTED COMPONENT CAUSES THE FUSE TO OPEN
If resistor R3 is shorted, a path of almost zero resistance will be

offered to the current, and all the circuit current will flow through the
branch containing the shorted resistor. Since this is practically the
same as connecting a wire between the terminals of the battery, the
current will rise to an excessive value, and the fuse will open. Since
the fuse opens almost as soon as a resistor shorts out, there is no
time to perform a current or voltage check. Thus, troubleshooting a
parallel d.c. circuit for a shorted component should be accomplished
with an ohmmeter. But, as in the case of checking for an open
resistor in a parallel circuit, a shorted resistor can be detected with
an ohmmeter only if one end of the shorted resistor is disconnected.
TROUBLESHOOTING SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUITS
Troubleshooting a series parallel resistive circuit involves locating

malfunctions similar to those found in a series or a parallel circuit.
In the circuit shown in Fig. 15 on the next page, an open circuit has
occurred in the series portion of the circuit. When an open occurs
anywhere in the series portion of a series parallel circuit, current flow
in the entire circuit will stop. In this case, the circuit will not function,
and the lamp, L1, will not be lit.
Page 143 of 245

Fig. 15 AN OPEN IN THE SERIES PORTION OF A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
If an open occurs in the parallel portion of a series parallel circuit, as

shown in Fig. 16 below, part of the circuit will continue to function. In
this case, the lamp will continue to burn, but its brightness will
diminish, since the total resistance of the circuit has increased and
the total current has decreased.
Fig. 16 AN OPEN IN THE PARALLEL PORTION OF A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
If a break occurs in the branch containing the lamp, as shown in Fig.

17 below, the circuit will continue to function with increased
resistance and decreased current, but the lamp will not burn.
Fig. 17 AN OPEN LAMP IN A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Page 144 of 245

Using a Voltmeter and Ohmmeter in Series Parallel Circuits
To explain how the voltmeter and ohmmeter can be used to

troubleshoot series parallel circuits, the circuit shown in Fig. 18 below
has been labeled at various points. By connecting a voltmeter
between points A and D, the battery and switch can be checked for
opens.
By connecting the voltmeter between points A and B, the voltage

drop across R1 can be checked. This voltage drop is a portion of the
applied voltage. Also, if R1 is open, the reading between B and D will
be zero. The conductor between the positive terminal of the battery
and point E, as well as the fuse, can be checked for continuity by
connecting the voltmeter between points A and E. If the conductor or
fuse is open, the voltmeter will read zero.
Fig. 18 USING THE VOLTMETER TO TROUBLE SHOOT A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
If the lamp is burning, it is obvious that no open circuit exists in the

branch containing the lamp, and the voltmeter could be used to
detect an open in the branch containing R2 by removing lamp LI from
the circuit.
Troubleshooting the series portion of a series parallel circuit presents

no difficulties, but in the parallel portion of the circuit, misleading
readings can be obtained.
Page 145 of 245

Should the switch be opened or closed if an ohmmeter is to be used

for circuit tests in Fig. 18?
Page 146 of 245

The switch should be open.
If you are unsure of this answer, read the text again.
An ohmmeter can be used to troubleshoot the circuit given in Fig. 18.

with the switch open, the series portion of the circuit can be checked
by placing the ohmmeter leads between points A and B. If R or the
conductor is open, the ohmmeter will read infinity; it not, the value
of the resistor will be indicated on the ohmmeter. Between points D
and E the fuse and conductor can be checked for continuity, but in
the parallel portion of the circuit, care must be exercised, since
misleading ohmmeter indications can be obtained. To check between
points Band E, the branch must be disconnected at one of these
points, and while one of these points and the switch are open, the
branch containing the lamp can be checked with the ohmmeter.
A short in the series part of a series parallel circuit will cause a

decrease in total resistance, which will cause total current to
increase. In the circuit shown in Fig. 19 below, the total resistance is
100 ohms and the total current is two amperes. If R1 became
shorted, total resistance would become 50 ohms, and the total
current would double to four amperes. In the circuit shown, this
would cause the three amp fuse to blow, but with a five amp fuse the
circuit would continue to function. The result would be the same if
R2? or R3 were to become shorted. The total resistance in either case
would drop to 50 ohms.
Fig. 19 FINDING A SHORT IN A SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT
From this, it can be stated that when a short occurs in a series

parallel circuit, the total resistance will decrease and the total current
will increase. A short will normally cause an open circuit by either
blowing the fuse or burning out a circuit component. And, as in the
case of an open, a short in a series parallel circuit can be detected
with either an ohmmeter or a voltmeter.
Page 147 of 245

FUNCTION TESTING
When circuit testing has been completed and any defects rectified,
the system or component which has been repaired must be function
tested.
Precautions before Testing
 Before conducting any tests, all precautions for aircraft and

personnel safety should be taken.
 Whenever possible, functioning tests should be carried out

using an external supply coupled to the ground supply
connector.
 Tests must ensure proper functioning of individual and

integrated sections of circuits, and should be in accordance
with schedules established by reference to details in the
relevant Maintenance Manual, Wiring Diagram Manual or,
where appropriate, instructions relating to the incorporation of
a modification or any substantial rewiring.
 For certain circuits (e.g. standby lighting) functioning tests can

only be carried out using the aircraft battery system, but this
battery should be used as little as possible.
 After the normal functioning test of an individual circuit has

been completed and the circuit switched off, the fuse should be
removed or the circuit breaker tripped and the circuit again
switched on to check the isolation of the circuit concerned.
 When the operation of a circuit (e.g. generator equalizer

circuit) depends on the inherent resistance value of the circuit,
the resistance should be measured with a low reading
ohmmeter (such as that used in a bonding tester) to determine
that the resistance is within the specified limits.
SAFETY
Remember that before working on any circuits or components which

require breakers to be pulled, the breakers must be tagged with
warning notices indicating that they should not be set until after the
test.
Page 148 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Name three aircraft electrical systems which have cables which

carry high current flow.
(a)
(b)
(c)
2. Which test is used to check the resistance of a connection?
3. What term is used to describe a circuit which has a break in it?
4. Which two instruments are used to test for open circuits and
short circuits?
5. Is the resistance of a voltmeter high or low?
6. What name is given to a fault caused by bare touching wires?
7. How is the current flowing through a resistor calculated, given

the voltage and resistance?
8. How can a misleading ohmmeter reading be avoided when

using the instrument to check a resistor?
Page 149 of 245

1. (a) Galleys.
(b) Engine starting.
(c) Hot cup heaters.
2. Voltage drop test.
3. Open circuit.
4. (a) Ohmmeter.
(b) Voltmeter.
5. Very high resistance.
6. Short circuit.
7. Current (I) is found by dividing the voltage (E) by the

resistance (R).
8. By opening the circuit.
SUMMARY
This booklet has considered the testing procedures for tracing the
faults in several different types of circuit.
In studying the booklet you will have seen the most common faults
found in defective circuits, how to determine what these faults are,
and how to locate them.
The instruments used for troubleshooting these circuits are covered

in a later booklet, on Electrical Measuring Instruments.
Page 150 of 245

BOOKLET: 08
CONTENTS
Introduction 152
Universal Ammeter Shunt 152
Multimeters 153
Activity 1. 154
Voltmeters 157
Activity 2. 158
Activity 3. 162
Ohmmeters 164
Activity 4. 166
Ohmmeter Application 168
Activity 5. 169
Types of Megger 172
The Moving Coil or D.C. Meter 172
Self Assessment 176
Summary 177
Page 151 of 245

OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
 Explain how to connect a voltmeter.

 Explain how to connect an ohmmeter.
 Describe how to connect a voltage measuring instrument.
 State the units of voltmeter sensitivity.
 Explain why a bridge circuit is used in a voltmeter.
 State which instrument is polarity conscious?
 Explain the theory and describe the construction of the three
meters covered in this booklet.
 State the precautions which should be observed when using the
instruments covered in this booklet.
INTRODUCTION
Booklet No. 7 of this Study Plan dealt with the theoretical application
of Ohm's Law and showed how faults can be determined in series,
parallel and series/parallel circuits.
This booklet deals with the construction and theoretical arrangement

of the internal circuits in electrical measuring instruments; their use
for electrical maintenance and defect rectification will be covered in
Booklet No. 9.
UNIVERSAL AMMETER SHUNT
The schematic drawing in Fig. 1 on the next page, the universal

shunt, shows an arrangement whereby two or more ranges are
provided by tapping the shunt resistor at the proper points. In this
arrangement, a 0-5 mA. movement with a resistance of 20 ohms is
shunted to provide a 0-25 mA. ranqe and a 0-50 mA. range.
Page 152 of 245

Fig. 1 UNIVERSAL AMMETER SHUNT
MULTI METERS
Meters which have a number of internal shunts are commonly

incorporated in multiple purpose instruments such as multimeters or
volt-ohm-millimeters. These instruments vary somewhat according to
the design used by different manufacturers, but most incorporate the
functions of an ammeter, a voltmeter, and an ohmmeter in one unit.
A typical multimeter is shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 A MULTIKETER SET TO MEASURE ONE AMPERE
Page 153 of 245

This multimeter has two selector switches: a function switch and a

range switch. Since a multimeter is actually three meters in one
case, the function switch must be placed in the proper position for
the type of measurement to be made. In Fig. 2 the function switch is
shown in the ammeter position to measure d.c. milliamperes and the
range switch is set at 1,000. Set in this manner, the ammeter can
measure up to 1,000 milliamperes or one ampere.
Multimeter Scales
Multimeters have several scales, and the one used should correspond
properly to the position of the range switch. If a current of unknown
value is to be measured, always select the highest possible range to
avoid damage to the meter. The test leads should always be
connected to the meter in the manner prescribed by the
manufacturer. Usually the red lead is positive and the black lead is
negative, or common. Many multimeters employ color coded probes
as an aid in connecting the meter into the circuit to be tested.
ACTIVITY 1 1 Minute
When using a multimeter to measure current flow, should the

meter be connected in series or parallel?
Page 154 of 245

The meter should always be connected in series, as Fig. 3 shows.
Fig. 3 A MULTIMETER SET TO MEASURE CURRENT FLOW
Precautions When Using the Multimeter
The precautions to be observed when using an ammeter are

summarized as follows:
 Always connect an ammeter in series with the element through

which the current flow is to be measured.
 Never connect an ammeter across a source of voltage, such as

a battery or generator. Remember that the resistance of an
ammeter, particularly on the higher ranges, is extremely low
and that any voltage, even a volt or so, can cause very high
current to flow through the meter, causing damage to it.
 Use a range large enough to keep the deflection less than full
scale. Before measuring a current, form some idea of its
magnitude. Then switch to a large enough scale or start with
the highest range and work down until the appropriate scale is
reached. The most accurate readings are obtained at
approximately half scale deflection.
Page 155 of 245

 Many milliammeters have been ruined by attempts to measure

amperes. Therefore, be sure to read the lettering either on the
dial or on the switch positions and choose the proper scale
before connecting the meter in the circuit.
 Observe proper polarity in connecting the meter in the circuit.

Current must flow through the coil in a definite direction in
order to move the indicator needle up-scale. Current reversal
because of incorrect connection in the circuit results in a
reversed meter deflection and frequently causes bending of the
meter needle. Avoid improper meter connections by observing
the polarity markings on the meter.
Page 156 of 245

VOLTMETERS
Voltmeters are current measuring instruments, designed to indicate

voltage by measuring the current flow through a resistance of known
value, see Fig. 4.
Fig. 4 SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF A VOLTMETER
Range Changing
Various voltage ranges can be obtained by adding resistors 1n series

with the meter coil. For low range instruments, the resistance is
mounted inside the case and usually consists of resistance wire
having a low temperature coefficient which is wound either on spools
or card frames. For higher voltage ranges, the series resistance may
be connected externally. When this is done, the unit containing the
resistance is commonly called a multiplier.
Page 157 of 245

Apply Ohm's Law and state how the current through the voltmeter
varies with respect to the voltage.
Page 158 of 245

The current is proportional to the voltage. Let us see how this

behavior is applied to extend the range of the voltmeter.
Extending the Range
The value of the necessary series resistance is determined by the

current required for full scale deflection of the meter and by the
range of voltage to be measured. Because the current through the
meter circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage, the meter
scale can be calibrated directly in volts for a fixed series resistance.
Total Coil and Series Resistance 'R'
For example, assume that the basic meter (micro ammeter) is to be

made into a voltmeter with a full scale reading of 1 volt. The coil
resistance of the basic meter is 100 ohms, and 0.0001 ampere (100
microamperes) causes a full scale deflection. The total resistance, R,
of the meter coil and the series resistance is:-
 R=E= 1 = 10,000 ohms

I 0.0001
and the series resistance alone is:-
 RS = 10,000 – 100 = 9,900 ohms
Multirange Voltmeter
Multirange voltmeters utilize one meter movement with the required

resistances connected in series with the meter by a convenient
switching arrangement.
Multirange Voltmeter Circuit
A multirange voltmeter circuit with three ranges is shown in Fig. 5 on

the next page.
Page 159 of 245

Fig. 5 MULTIRANGE VOLTMETER SCHEMATIC
The total circuit resistance for each of the three ranges beginning
with the one volt range is:-
 R = E = 1 = 0.01 megohm
I 100
 100 = 1 megohm
100
 1,000 = 10 megohms
100
Multirange Voltmeter - Construction
Multirange voltmeters, like multirange ammeters, are used

frequently. They are physically very similar to ammeters, and their
multipliers are usually located inside the meter with suitable switches
or sets of terminals on the outside of the meter for selecting ranges.
Page 160 of 245

Voltage measuring instruments are connected across (in parallel

with) a circuit). If the approximate value of the voltage to be
measured is not known, it is best, as in using the ammeter, to start
with the highest range of the voltmeter and progressively lower the
range until a suitable reading is obtained.
Polarity Conscious Voltmeters
In many cases, the voltmeter is not a central-zero indicating

instruments. Thus, it is necessary to observe the proper polarity
when connecting the instrument to the circuit, as is the case when
connecting the d.c. ammeter. The positive terminal of the voltmeter
is always connected to the positive terminal of the source, and the
negative terminal to the negative terminal of the source, when the
source voltage is being measured. In any case, the voltmeter is
connected so that the electrons will flow into the negative terminal
and out of the positive terminal of the meter.
Measuring the Volts Drop in a Circuit
Fig. 6 below shows a multimeter properly connected to a circuit to

measure the voltage drop across a resistor. The function switch is set
at the d.c. volts position and the range switch is placed in the 50 volt
position.
Fig. 6 A MULTIMETER CONNECTED TO MEASURE A CIRCUIT VOLTAGE DROP
The function of a voltmeter is to indicate the potential difference

between two points in a circuit. When the voltmeter is connected
across a circuit, it shunts the circuit. If the voltmeter has low
resistance, it will draw an appreciable amount of current. The
effective resistance of the circuit will be lowered, and the voltage
reading will consequently be lowered.
Page 161 of 245

Measuring Voltage in High Resistance Circuits
When voltage measurements are made in high resistance circuits, it

is necessary to use a high resistance voltmeter to prevent the
shunting action of the meter. The effect is less noticeable in low
resistance circuits because the shunting effect is less.
ACTIVITY 3 1 Minute
What unit is used to determine voltmeter sensitivity?
Page 162 of 245

You may have answered that the unit of sensitivity is given in ohms
per volt.
Voltmeter Sensitivity
The sensitivity of a voltmeter is given in ohms per volt (Ω/E) and is

determined by dividing the resistance (Rm) of the meter plus the
series resistance (Rs) by the full scale reading in volts.
Thus:-
 sensitivity = Rm + RS
E
This is the same as saying that the sensitivity is equal to the
reciprocal of the current (in amperes).
That is:-
 sensitivity = ohms = 1 = 1 .
volts volts amperes
ohms
Thus, the sensitivity of a 100 microampere movement is the

reciprocal of 0.0001 ampere, or 10,000 ohms per volt.
Voltmeter Accuracy
The accuracy of a meter is generally expressed in per cent. For

example, a meter with accuracy of one per cent will indicate a value
within one per cent of the correct value. The statement means that,
if the correct value is 100 units, the meter indication may be
anywhere within the range of 99 to 101 units.
Page 163 of 245

OHMMETERS
Two instruments are commonly used to check the continuity or to

measure the resistance of a circuit or circuit element. These
instruments are:-
 The ohmmeter.
 The Megger or megohmmeter.
The Ohmmeter
The ohmmeter is widely used to measure resistance and to check the

continuity of electrical circuits and devices. Its range usually extends
to a few megohms.
The Megohmmeter
The Megger is widely used for measuring insulation resistance, such

as the resistance between the windings and the frame of electric
machinery, and for measuring the insulation resistance of cables,
insulators and bushings. Its range may extend to more than 1,000
megohms. When measuring very high resistances of this nature, it is
not necessary to find the exact value of resistance, but rather to
know that the insulation is either above or below a certain standard.
When precision measurements are required, some type of bridge
circuit is used. Ohmmeters may be of the series or shunt type.
Series Type Ohmmeters
A simplified schematic of an ohmmeter is shown below in Fig. 7. E is

a source of emf; R1 is a variable resistor used to zero the meter; R2 is
a fixed resistor used to limit the current in the meter movement; and
A and B are test terminals across which the resistance to be
measured is placed.
Fig. 7 OHMMETER CIRCUIT
Page 164 of 245

Full Scale Deflection (FSD)
If A and B are connected together (short circuited), the meter, the

battery and resistors R1 and R2 form a simple series circuit. With R1
adjusted so that the total resistance in the circuit is 4,500 ohms, the
current through the meter is 1 mA. and the needle deflects full scale.
Scale Calibration to Zero
Since there is no resistance between A and B, this position of the

needle is labeled zero (see Fig. 8).
Fig. 8 A TYPICAL OHMMETER SCALE
If a resistance equal to 4,500 ohms is placed between terminals A

and B, the total resistance is 9,000 ohms and the current is 0.5 mA.
This causes the needle to deflect half scale. This half scale reading,
labeled 4.5 k ohms, is equal to the internal resistance of the meter,
in this instance 4,500 ohms. If a resistance of 9,000 ohms is placed
between terminals A and B, the needle deflects one third scale.
Resistances of 13.5 k and 1.5 k placed between terminals A and B
will cause a deflection of one fourth and three fourths scale,
respectively.
If terminals A and B are not connected (open circuited), no current

flows and the needle does not move. The left side of the scale is,
therefore, labeled infinity to indicate an infinite resistance.
Page 165 of 245

ACTIVITY 4 1 Minute
Is the scale of an ohmmeter linear or non linear? Look at Fig. 8 and

write your answer down.
Page 166 of 245

The scale is not linear and is crowded at the high resistance end. For
this reason, it is good practice to use an ohmmeter range in which
the reading are not too far from amid scale. A good rule is to use a
range in which the reading obtained does not exceed ten times; or is
not less than one tenth; the mid scale reading.
Multi Scale Ohmmeters
The useful range of the scale shown is, by this rule, from 450 ohms
to 45,000 ohms. Most ohmmeters have more than one scale.
Additional scales are made possible by using various values of
limiting resistors and battery voltages. Some ohmmeters have a
special scale called a low ohm scale for reading low resistance. A
shunt type ohmmeter circuit is used for this scale.
Shunt Type Ohmmeters
Shunt type ohmmeter are used to measure small values of

resistance. In the circuit shown in Fig. 9 below; E (voltage) is applied
across a limiting resistance R and a meter movement in series.
Fig. 9 SHUNT TYPE OHMMETER
Resistance and battery values are chosen so that the meter

movement deflections full scale when terminals A and B are open.
When the terminals are short circuited, the meter reads zero; the
short circuit conducts all the current around the meter. The unknown
resistance RX is placed between terminals A and B in parallel with the
meter movement. The smaller the resistance value being measured,
the less current flows through the meter movement.
Page 167 of 245

The value of the limiting resistor R is usually made large compared to

the resistance of the meter movement, to keep the current drawn
from the battery practically constant.
Note that in a shunt type ohmmeter, current is always following from

the battery through the meter movement and the limiting resistor.
Therefore, when using an ohmmeter with a low ohm scale, do not
leave the switch in low ohm position.
OHMMETER APPLICATION
The ohmmeter is not as accurate a measuring device as the ammeter

or the voltmeter because of the associated circuitry. Thus, resistance
values cannot be read with greater than five to ten per cent
accuracy. While there are instruments which read the resistance of
an element with very great accuracy, they are usually more
complicated to use.
Checking Continuity
In addition to measuring the resistance, the ohmmeter is a very

useful instrument for checking continuity in a circuit. Often, when
troubleshooting electronic circuits or wiring a circuit, visual
inspections of all parts of the current path cannot be readily
accomplished. Therefore, it is not always apparent whether a circuit
is complete or whether current might be flowing in the wrong part of
the circuit because of contact with adjacent circuits.
One method of checking a circuit under these conditions is to send a

current through the circuit. The ohmmeter is the ideal instrument for
checking circuits in this manner. It provides the power and the meter
to indicate whether the current is flowing.
Page 168 of 245

When choosing a scale, in which part of the scale should you arrange
the reading to be?
Page 169 of 245

You should choose a scale which will contain the resistance of the
component to be measured, and in general, use a scale which will
deflect the needle to the upper half of the scale (near full scale
deflection).
Let us now consider' the precautions to be observed when using an

ohmmeter.
Precautions
 Short the leads together and set the meter to read zero ohms
by setting the zero adjustment.
 If the scale is changed, readjust to zero ohms.
 Connect the unknown resistance between the test leads and
read its resistance from the scale.
 Never attempt to measure resistance in a circuit while it is
connected to a source of voltage.
 Disconnect at least one end of the element being measured to
avoid reading the resistance of parallel paths.
Megohmmeter
The Megger, or megohmmeter, is a high range ohmmeter containing

a hand operated generator. It is used to measure insulation
resistance and other high resistance values. It is also used for
ground, continuity, and short circuit testing of electrical power
systems. The chief advantage of the Megger over an ohmmeter is its
capacity to measure resistance with a high potential, or 'breakdown'
voltage.
This type of testing ensures that insulation or a dielectric material,

will not short or leak under potential stress electrical stress.
Fig. 10 below shows a simplified Megger circuit.
Fig. 10 SIMPLIFIED MEGGER CIRCUIT
Page 170 of 245

The Megger consists of two primary elements, both of which are

provided with individual magnetic fields from a common permanent
magnet:-
 A hand driven d.c. generator, G, which supplies the necessary

current for making the measurement.
 The instrument portion, which indicates the value of the

resistance being measured.
The instrument portion is of the opposed coil type. Coils A and B are
mounted on the moveable member with a fixed angular relationship
to each other, and are free to turn as a unit in a magnetic field. Coil
B tends to move the pointer counterclockwise and coil A, clockwise.
The coils are mounted on a light, moveable frame that is pivoted in
jewel bearings and free to move about axis 0.
Coil A is connected in series with R3 and the unknown resistance, Rx'

to be measured. The series combination of coil A, R3 and R 1S
connected between the + and - brushes of the d.c. generator. Coil B
is connected in series with R2 and this combination is also connected
across the generator. There are no restraining springs on the
moveable member of the instrument portion of the Megger. When
the generator is not in operation, the pointer floats freely and may
come to rest at any position on the scale.
If the terminals are open circuited, no current flows in coil A, and the
current in coil B alone controls the movement of the moving element.
Coil B takes a position opposite the gap in the core (since the core
cannot move and coil B can), and the pointer indicates infinity on the
scale.
When a resistance is connected between the terminals, current flows

in coil A, tending to move the pointer clockwise. At the same time,
coil B tends to move the pointer counterclockwise. Therefore, the
moving element, composed of both coils and the pointer, comes to
rest at a position at which the two forces are balanced. This position
depends upon the value of the external resistance, which controls the
relative magnitude of current of coil A.
Because changes in voltage affect both coil A and B in the same

proportion, the position of the moving element is independent of the
voltage. If the terminals are short circuited, the pointer rests at zero
because the current in A is relatively large. The instrument is not
damaged under these circumstances because the current is limited
by R3.
Page 171 of 245

TYPES OF MEGGER
There are two types of hand driven Megger:-
 The variable type.
 The constant pressure type.
The speed of the variable Megger is dependent on how fast the hand
crank is turned.
The constant pressure Megger utilizes a centrifugal governor, or slip

clutch. The governor becomes effective only when the Megger is
operated at a speed above its slip speed, at which speed its voltage
remains constant.
THE MOVING COIL OR D.C. METER
This type of meter movement is a current measuring device which is

used in the ammeter, voltmeter and ohmmeter. Basically, both the
ammeter and .the voltmeter are current measuring instruments, the
principal difference being the method in which they are connected in
a circuit. While an ohmmeter is also basically a current measuring
instrument, it differs from the ammeter and voltmeter in that it
provides its own source of power and contains other auxiliary
circuits.
We will see how this movement, common to all three instruments, is

used in the ammeter.
An ammeter is an instrument designed for measuring direct current

flowing in an electrical circuit and consists of the following parts:-
 A permanent magnet.
 A moving element mounting.
 Bearings.
 A case which includes terminals.
 A dial.
 Screws.
The Permanent Magnet
The permanent magnet furnishes a magnetic field which will react

with the magnetic field set up by the moving element.
Page 172 of 245

The Moving Element
The moving element is mounted so that it is free to rotate when

energized by the current to be measured. A pointer which moves
across a calibrated scale is attached to this element. A moving coil
mechanism is shown in Fig. 11 below. The controlling element is a
spring, or springs, whose main function is to provide a counter or
restoring force.
Fig. 11 MOVING COIL ELEMENT WITH POINTER AND SPRINGS
The strength of this force increases with the turning of the moving
element and brings the pointer to rest at some point on the scale.
Two springs are generally used; they are wound 1n opposite
directions to compensate for the expansion and contraction of the
spring material due to temperature variation. The springs are made
of non magnetic mater1al and conduct current to and from the
moving coil in some meters.
The moving element consists of a shaft with very hard pivot points to
carry the moving coil or other moveable element. The pivot points
are so fitted into highly polished jewels or very hard glass bearings
that the moving element can rotate with very little· friction. Another
type of mounting has been designed in· which the pivot points are
reversed and the bearings are inside the moving coil assembly.
Page 173 of 245

Operation
The major units are mounted in their relationship to one another, as

shown in Fig. 11. Note that the coil portion of the moving element is
in the magnetic field of the permanent magnet.
Assume that the coil of the moving element is placed in a magnetic

field, as shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12 EFFECT OF A COIL IN A MAGNETIC FIELD
The coil is pivoted so that it is able to rotate back and forth within
the magnetic field set up by the magnet. When the coil is connected
in a circuit, current flows through the coil in the direction indicated by
the arrows and sets up a magnetic field within the coil. This field has
the same polarity as the adjacent poles of the magnet. The
interaction of the two fields causes the coil to rotate to a position so
that the two magnetic fields are aligned.
This force of rotation (torque) is proportional to the interaction

between the like poles of the coil and the magnet and, therefore, to
the amount of current flow in the coil. As a result, a pointer attached
to the coil will indicate the amount of current flowing in the circuit as
it moves across a graduated scale.
Damping
In order that meter readings can be made quickly and accurately, it

is desirable that the moving pointer overshoots its proper position by
only a small amount and comes to rest after not more than one or
two small oscillations. The term 'damping' is applied to methods used
to bring the pointer of an electrical meter to rest after it has been set
in motion. Damping may be accomplished by electrical means, by
mechanical means, or by a combination of both.
Page 174 of 245

Electrical Damping
A common method of damping by electrical means is to wind the

moving coil on an aluminum frame. As the coil moves in the field of
the permanent magnet, eddy currents are set up in the aluminum
frame. The magnetic field produced by the eddy currents opposes the
motion of the coil. The pointer will therefore swing more slowly to its
proper position and crone to rest quickly with very little oscillation.
Mechanical Damping
Air damping is a common method of damping by mechanical means.

A vane is attached to the shaft of the moving element and enclosed
in an air chamber. The movement of the shaft is retarded because of
the resistance which the air offers to the vane. Effective damping is
achieved if the vane nearly touches the walls of the chamber.
Page 175 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. What is the name given to an ammeter having a number of

internal shunts?
2. When measuring current flow with a multimeter, should the

instrument be connected in series or parallel?
3. Is the resistance of an ammeter high or low?
4. How many meter movements does a multirange voltmeter use?
5. Should a voltage measuring instrument be connected in series

or parallel?
6. How is the accuracy of a voltmeter generally expressed?
7. Is the scale of an ohmmeter linear?
8. What type of ohmmeter is used to measure small values of

resistance?
9. What are the two types of moving coil damping method?
(a)
(b)
Page 176 of 245

1. Multirange ammeter.
2. In series.
3. Low.
4. One.
5. Parallel.
6. In per cent.
7. No.
8. Shunt type.
9. (a) Electrical.
(b) Mechanical.
SUMMARY
This booklet has considered the moving coil instruments and stated
how the movement is used in the construction of the ammeter,
voltmeter and ohmmeter.
After studying the booklet you will now be able to understand how
the three instruments work, and have a good idea of how they are
used.
There is another booklet that you should read after this one, which
will explain how the meters should be used in the aircraft industry,
and what checks must be carried out before and after their use. This
booklet also states which meter should be used for particular tasks
when working with circuits.
Page 177 of 245

BOOKLET: 09
CONTENTS
Introduction 179
Bonding 179
Activity 1. 182
Bonding Conductors 183
Bonding Tester 184
Activity 2. 188
Circuit Testing Ohmmeter 189
Safety Ohmmeter 189
Continuity Testing 190
Activity 3. 192
250 Volt Insulation Tester 193
Insulation Testing Procedure 194
Activity 4. 195
The BM6 Battery Megger 197
The Bridge Megger 198
Marking and Certification of Test Instruments 201
Self Assessment 203
Summary 204
Page 178 of 245

OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
When you have studied this booklet you will be able to:-
 State the reasons for bonding an aircraft.
 State how bonding is achieved.
 Describe how to test the bonding tester.
 State the procedure for using the bonding tester.
 Explain the purpose of the bonding tester leads and where they
are used.
 State the functions of the ohmmeters dealt with in this booklet.
 Describe how to conduct a continuity test.
 State the procedure when using an insulation tester.
 State the three functions of a battery Megger tester.
 Explain the uses of a bridge Megger.
 Explain what a tong tester is used for.
 State who is responsible for the standards of test instruments.
It should take you about an hour to study this booklet.
INTRODUCTION
Booklets Nos. 7 and 8 of this Study Plan dealt with the theory and
construction of electrical test meters and the procedures used for
circuit testing. This booklet deals with the practical use of the test
meters and how they can determine the reliability of aircraft circuits.
The first part of the booklet looks at bonding.
BONDING
Bonding is the electrical interconnection of metallic parts of an

aircraft, normally at earth potential, for the safe distribution of
electrical charges and currents.
Page 179 of 245

Function of Bonding
Bonding provides a means of protection against charges as a result

of the build-up of precipitation static and electrostatic induction
resulting from lightning strikes, so that the safety of the aircraft or
its occupants is not endangered. The means provided are such as
to:-
 Minimize damage to the aircraft structure or components.
 Prevent the passage of such electrical currents as would cause

dangerous malfunctioning of the aircraft or its equipment.
 Prevent the production of high potential differences within the

aircraft.
Bonding also reduces the possibility of electric shock from the

electrical supply system, reduces interference with the functioning of
essential services (e.g. radio communications and navigational aids)
and provides a low resistance electrical return path for electric
current in earth-return systems.
Primary and Secondary Conductors
Primary conductors are the conductors which are required to carry

lightning discharge current, whilst secondary conductors are those
provided for other forms of bonding. Chapter D4-6 of British Civil
Airworthiness Requirements (BCAR) provides detailed information.
Bonding of Aircraft of Metallic Construction
The skin of an all-metal aeroplane is considered adequate to ensure

protection against lightning discharge provided that the method of
construction is such that it produces satisfactory electrical contact at
the joints.
NOTE: An electrical contact with a resistance less than 0.05 ohm is

considered satisfactory.
Bonding of Aircraft of Non-Metallic Construction
With regard to aircraft of non-metallic or composite construction, a

cage, consisting of metallic conductors with surge carrying
capabilities, must be provided to form part of the aircraft structure.
Metal parts of the aircraft should be bonded to this cage.
Page 180 of 245

Ground Discharge Methods
The earth system, which in the case of metallic construction is

normally the aircraft structure, must be automatically connected to
ground landing. This is normally achieved on through the nose wheel
tyre which is impregnated with an electrically conducting compound.
NOTE: On some aircraft a static discharge whip or similar device

trailed from a landing wheel assembly is used to give ground contact
on landing.
Electrostatic Charges
The reduction or removal of electrostatic charges which build up on

such surfaces as glass fibre reinforced plastic, can be achieved by the
application of a special paint which produces a conductive surface.
Page 181 of 245

Why is it necessary to provide bonding conductors with high current

carrying capacity?
Page 182 of 245

When a bonding connection is to be made or renewed, it is essential

that the conductor has the specified current-carrying capacity, since
the bond may have been designed to carry relatively high electrical
loads, e.g., under circuit fault conditions.
Let us now move on to the need for conductors for bonding.
BONDING CONDUCTORS
The manufacturers of solid bonding strip and braided bonding cord

usually quote the cross-sectional area on the relevant data sheet.
However, in the case of renewal or repair, if the original conductor
cannot be matched exactly, a replacement manufactured of the same
type of material, but of greater cross-sectional area, should be
selected.
Braided copper or aluminum cords fitted at each end with connecting

tags or lugs (usually referred to as 'bonding jumpers'), should be
used for bonding connections between moving parts or parts
subjected to vibration, and these are suitable both as primary and
secondary conductors.
Tag Connections
The tags or lugs on bonding jumpers are generally fitted by the

crimping method and only the correct form of crimp and crimping
tool should be used for the connection concerned.
During assembly of the connections to aluminum cords, anti-oxidant

(crimping) compound should be applied to the connections.
Special care is necessary because overheating and cooling of

conductors will cause brittleness, whilst a loss of flexibility up to 1
inch from the lug may occur as a result of the capillary action of the
molten solder.
There are quite a few precautions and instructions which the CAA
require us to follow when bonding and these can be found in CAIPs.
Let's now look at the methods used to test the bond.
Resistance Values
When testing the bonding it is important to consult the Maintenance

Manual for acceptable resistance values. Here are some typical
values.
Page 183 of 245

The resistance between the extremities of the fixed portions of the

aeroplane must not exceed 0.05 ohm.
Metallic parts normally in contact with inflammable fluids must be

bonded together and to the main earth system, the resistance
between each bonded part and earth and between the parts
themselves must not be greater than 1 ohm.
All isolated conducting materials inside and outside the aeroplane,

having an area greater than 3 sq. in. and a linear dimension greater
that 3 in., which may be subjected to electrostatic charging because
of precipitation or of fluid or air in motion, must be so electrically
bonded that the leakage resistance to the main earth system will not
exceed 0.5 megohm.
BONDING TESTER
The bonding tester is a low reading ohmmeter usually contained in a

wooden box. The movement is quite delicate and the instrument
should be handled with care to prevent damage.
The bonding tester is designed for the accurate measurement of

resistance values in the range 0 0.1 ohms, although used primarily
for testing the continuity resistance of 'bonded' connections in
aircraft.
The ohmmeter is a permanent magnet, moving coil, radiometer, as

shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 BONDING TESTER
Page 184 of 245

The scale of the tester is graduated in divisions of 0.002 ohms.
The equipment consists of a direct reading ohmmeter and an alkaline

cell combined in a hardwood case supported by two straps. Fig. 2.
Two test leads are provided one of 6 ft. and the other of 60 ft.
Fig. 2 BONDING TESTER COMPLETE
The 60 ft. lead of the test-meter should be connected to the main

earth (also known as the bond datum point).
Since the length of a standard bonding tester lead is 60 feet, the

measurement between the extremities of larger aircraft may have to
be done by selecting one or more main earth points successively, in
which event the resistance value between the main earth points
chosen should be checked before proceeding to check the remote
point.
The test lead should be used to check the resistance between

selected points; these are usually specified in the bonding test
schedule or the manufacturer's publication for the aircraft concerned.
When the pronged ends of the test lead are brought into contact with
the aircraft part, the test-meter will indicate, in ohms, the resistance
of the bond.
Page 185 of 245

To ensure good electrical contact at the test prongs it may be

necessary to penetrate or remove a small area of a non-conducting
protective coating. Therefore, after test, any damage to the
protective coating must be restored.
If the resistance at a bond connection is excessive, rectification

action will depend on the type of connection.
NOTE: Corrosion tends to form at bonding or earth connection and is

often the cause of excessive resistance.
Rectification of High Resistance Connections
If the resistance is unsatisfactory, the terminal assembly should be

removed, the contacting faces cleaned with a fine abrasive (e.g.,
aluminum wool), and re-assembled using, where applicable, new
corrosion washers. The connecting area should be sealed and treated
with anti-oxidant compound as specified in the relevant drawing and
specification.
NOTE: Leads connected to earth terminal assemblies should be of

insulated cable with terminal tags fitted by the crimping method. It is
important that the cable is of the specified gauge for the service
concerned and is kept as short as possible.
Primary and Secondary Conductor Testing
Although the Maintenance Manual should be consulted for bonding

resistance, Tables I and 2 will give you an idea of the values which
you must look for.
Test Condition Maximum

Resistance
Between extremities of the fixed portions of aircraft Estimated and

of non-metallic or composite construction. declared by
manufacturer.
Primary Between extremities of the fixed portion of metallic

Conductors aircraft.
0.05 ohm
Between bonded components and portions of main

earth system to which they are connected.
TABLE 1
Page 186 of 245

Between metallic parts normally in contact with 1 ohms

flammable fluids and main earth system and also (See Note 1)
between the parts themselves.
Between all isolated conducting parts which may be 0.5 megohm or

subject to appreciable electrostatic charging and 100,000 ohms per
the main system. (See Note 2.) sq.ft. of surface area
Secondary whichever is the less
Conductors
Between equipment supplied from an unearthed
system, of any voltage, and the main earth system.
1 ohm
(See Note 1)
Between equipment containing circuits carrying 50
volts (r.m.s. or d.c.) or more, and the main earth
system.
TABLE 2
After Test Checks
It is just as important to test the bonding tester after the test as

before. These are the checks to carry out in both cases.
Hold the 60 ft. lead clear, then bridge the 6 ft. double prongs
together. Maximum resistance will be indicated.
Bridge the ·6 ft. double prongs with the 6 ft. lead prong and the
meter will read minimum resistance.
Bonding Tester Servicing
A tester requires little in the way of servicing, apart from periodic

attention to the alkaline cell, which should be removed at prescribed
intervals for routine servicing. When replacing the cell, it is most
important that the polarity of connection is correct. The ohmmeter is
normally sealed in its case and no attempt should be made to open
it. If a fault should develop, then the complete instrument should be
withdrawn from use and overhauled.
Page 187 of 245

ACTIVITY 2 1 Minute
When the bonding tester is checked for accuracy what tolerance is

allowed?
Page 188 of 245

It is 10%. That is within 10% of the ohmic values of the test

resistors supplied for testing purposes by the Standards Room.
We can now move on to consider other meters.
CIRCUIT TESTING OHMMETER
The instrument shown in Fig. 3 is a battery operated radiometer.
Fig. 3 CIRCUIT TESTING OHMMETER
The circuit testing ohmmeter is used for measuring circuit resistance

in the ranges 0-3 ohms or 0-30 ohms.
The battery must be replaced if the pointer movement is sluggish.
With the two leads shorted the tester will indicate zero when the
switch on the probe is operated.
SAFETY OHMMETER
A schematic of a typical safety ohmmeter is shown in Fig. 4 on the

next page. The indicator is a d.c. radiometer.
Page 189 of 245

DEFLECTING COIL
RESISTANCE HAND DRIVEN

UNDER TEST LIMITED CURRENT
P/M GENERATOR
COIL
CONTROL COIL SHUNT
Fig. 4 SAFETY OHMMETER
The power source is a simple hand-driven generator. The output of

the generator cannot exceed 10 mA.
When testing detonators it is necessary, for safety, to use leads of

considerable length. It is essential that the resistance of the test
leads is checked.
A test resistor, with alternative values of 2.5 ohms and 5 ohms, is

supplied for checking the calibration of the tester.
CONTINUITY TESTING
An open circuit may be found by using a continuity tester. This

should consist of a low voltage battery (3 V) and a test lamp or low
reading voltmeter as illustrated in Fig. 5 on the next page.
Page 190 of 245

Fig. 5 CONTINUITY TESTER
Before testing, the main electrical supply should be switched off or

disconnected. A check should be made that all fuses are intact and
that the circuit to be tested is not disconnected at any intermediate
point. All switches and thermal circuit breakers should be closed to
complete the circuit.
When carrying out a low voltage continuity check, it is essential to

work progressively through the circuit, commencing from the
relevant circuit fuse or circuit breaker and terminating at the
equipment. Large circuits will probably have several parallel paths
and these should be progressed systematically, breaking down as
little as possible at plug and socket or terminal block connections. In
all testing of this nature, it is valueless to check several low
resistance paths in parallel.
Page 191 of 245

What instrument is used to check the insulation of a cable?
Page 192 of 245

A 250 volt hand wound d.c. generator is used. It is often referred to

as a Megger; its correct name is an insulation tester.
250 VOLT INSULATION TESTER
The tester shown in Fig. 6 includes a hand operated d.c. generator

and radiometer indicator. The generator is designed to give a
constant output of 250 V when the handle is turning at speeds over
160 rpm.
Fig. 6 250 VOLT INSULATION TESTER (MEGGER)
Insulation testing is not simply a matter of measuring the resistance,

in ohms, between two points that are reputedly in electrical contact.
Under working conditions the insulation of an electrical installation is
subjected to electrical stress. This stress can cause a reduction in
effective resistance between the points under consideration. It is
important that comparable conditions of electrical stress should be
established when insulation resistance is being measured.
Any insulation tester must have an output voltage that is equal to

(and for preference appreciably higher than) the working voltage of
the circuit under test.
Page 193 of 245

Insulation tests should be carried out after circuit installation and

where specified in the Maintenance Manual. The test should be
carried out with a 250 V tester. The output of the tester should be
controlled so that the testing voltage cannot exceed 300 V.
INSULATION TESTING PROCEDURE
Before beginning an insulation test the following preparations should

be made:
 All switches in the circuit concerned should be 'ON'.
 All items of ancillary equipment which are supplied by the

system should be disconnected. Filaments should be removed.
 Components such as cut-outs and relays which are normally

open should have their terminals bridged.
 Remove the appropriate fuse or trip the appropriate circuit

breaker.
 One lead of the tester should be connected to earth and the

other to the terminal on the circuit side of the fuse holder or
CB.
The insulation resistance values are likely to vary with changes in the
temperature and humidity of the local atmosphere. Results of tests
and the weather conditions at the time should be recorded.
Page 194 of 245

Which document gives guidance for insulation testing during aircraft

maintenance?
Page 195 of 245

Section J of British Civil Airworthiness Requirements does not specify

minimum values of insulation resistance, but gives guidance on
values that may be expected during maintenance testing. These
values can be, and frequentlyCOIL are, exceeded considerably on new
installations.
Insulation Testing Values
Here are the values given in BCAR to give you an idea of the
resistance expected when conducting insulation tests.
Wiring (including accessories for jointing and terminating):-
 In engine nacelles, undercarriage wheel wells and other

situations exposed to weather or extremes of temperature
………. 2 megohms.
 Galley and other non-essential services, lighting, signaling and

indication services ………………5 megohms.
 Other services ……………………………………….………………10 megohms.
After Testing
Immediately after an insulation test, functioning checks should be

made on all the services subjected to the test. If the insulation test
or subsequent functioning tests should reveal a fault, the fault should
be rectified and the insulation and functioning tests should be
repeated in that sequence on the affected circuits.
Also remember to test the insulation tester before and after the test.
Here are the tests:-
 Turn the handle with test leads touching and the reading
should be - no resistance.
 Turn the handle with the leads apart – the needle will move
towards infinity.
There is another type of insulation tester which is not hand wound.

This is the battery insulation tester.
Page 196 of 245

THE BM6 BATTERY MEGGER
This instrument provides a different concept in small portable testers

with ranges for insulation, continuity and circuit testing. A typical
tester is shown in operation in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7 BM6 BATTERY MEGGER
The tester is powered by six U7 batteries and incorporates a battery

test position on the range switch.
The normal testing voltage on the megohm range is 500 V d.c. This
voltage is produced by a static inverter.
The instrument is also available with a testing voltage of 250 V d.c.

on the insulation range.
Page 197 of 245

Insulation Testing
The selector switch is moved to the megohm range for insulation

testing.
Continuity Testing
Here the selector switch is moved to the ohms scale for continuity
testing.
Fuse protection is provided on all ranges.
Capacitive circuits are automatically discharged inside the instrument

when the test push-button is released.
THE BRIDGE MEGGER
The bridge Megger combines the function of insulation tester and

bridge type resistance measuring device. A typical bridge Megger is
shown in Fig. 8.
DECADE
RESISTORS
Fig. 8 BRIDGE MEGGER
Page 198 of 245

Insulation Test
Before making any connections to the tester, set the change-over

switch to MEGGER, carry out a preliminary check for infinity
alignment on the MEGGER setting and make any slight adjustment
that may be found necessary. The tester can then be used as a
normal insulation tester.
Wheatstone Bridge Test
Adjust the meter to infinity.
After this has been done, set the change-over switch to BRIDGE and
connect the component or circuit that is to be investigated across the
line and earth terminals. To check the resistance of a component of
known 'reputed' value, put the ratio-switch to the appropriate setting
for maximum accuracy of measurement and connect the resistor as
shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 BRIDGE MEGGER - BRIDGE MODE CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Adjust the control of the decade resistance to show the reputed value
on the dials. If for example the reputed resistance of the component
is 85 ohms, the ratio switch should be set to '+100' and the decade
controls should be manipulated until the dials, reading from left to
right show 8500. Turn the generator handle steadily; note the
position of the indicator pointer on the scale relative to the infinity
mark. Adjust the decade resistance to bring the bridge into balance
(pointer at. infinity).
Page 199 of 245

Interpreting the Dial Numerals
The actual resistance of the component under investigation is then

shown by the dial numerals corrected for the "ratio switch setting. If
in the case just mentioned a balance is obtained, the dial reading
7937 the actual resistance of the component is 7937/100 = 79.37
ohms.
Amprobe Junior
This instrument is sometimes referred to as a 'tong tester' and is

shown in Fig. 10.
It is a multi-meter but it differs from the Avo type instrument in that

as an ammeter it measures alternating currents only and it does so
by use of a current transformer.
Fig. 10 AMPROBE JUNIOR TONG TESTER
Page 200 of 245

The secondary of the transformer is housed in the instrument, the

primary is the wire carrying the current to be measured and the
transformer core is in the form of a pair of tongs which are opened to
enclose the primary.
The advantage of this principle is that it enables a current to be

sampled with the absolute minimum of interference to the wiring and
as such is extremely convenient to use, particularly where access is
limited, where an open circuit is suspected or where the need arises
to compare current levels in different lines, e.g., in 3 phase circuits.
Tong Tester Limitations
There are some limitations in its use and the following points should
be borne in mind when using the instrument:-
 The instrument is a 50 Hz device and on 400 Hz it will over

read hence it should not be used for purposes requiring a
calibrated instrument.
 It should only be used on single cables.
 It is not effective on screened cable.
 Where sufficient cable slack is available the indication can be

sensitized by doubling or tripling the number of turns of cable
in the primary when the reading should be divided by the
number of primary turns.
 The pointer must be released by the button to the left of the

scale selector before a reading may be taken.
MARKING AND CERTIFICATION OF TEST

INSTRUMENTS
A typical procedure for the marking and certification of test

instruments is as follows:-
 The Chief Inspector is responsible for maintaining the

standards of test instruments and equipment which, by reason
of failure or inaccuracy, could have an adverse effect on the
airworthiness of airborne equipment. To meet this requirement
a Standards Room needs to be available.
Page 201 of 245

 Such test instruments and equipment are referred to as

controlled equipment.
 This control consists of acceptance checking, registration,

allocation of re-test periods, repair and adjustment, re-
certification and maintenance of records.
 Controlled portable test instruments can be identified by the

Stores Section and Ref. No., a Registration No., and a
validation label.
 The validation label is a small white label affixed in a

conspicuous position on the item and showing the 'expiry' date.
 It is the responsibility of users of controlled test instruments

and equipment to ensure that the validity period has not
expired.
Page 202 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Does bonding provide a high or low resistance path?
2. What instrument is used to test a bonded connection?
3. What type of instrument is the bonding tester?
4. What are the lengths of the bonding tester leads?
(a)
(b)
5. What type of battery is fitted to a bonding tester?
6. What is the voltage of the battery used for continuity testing?
7. Does an insulation tester have a d.c. or an a.c. generator?
8. When using a 250 volt insulation tester what is the maximum

voltage that should not be exceeded?
9. What value of insulation is acceptable for circuits in wheel

wells?
10. How are capacitive circuits discharged when using the battery
Megger tester?
Page 203 of 245

These are the correct answers:-
1. Low.
2. A bonding tester.
3. A low reading ohmmeter.
4. (a) 60 ft.
(b) 6 ft.
5. An alkaline cell.
6. 3 volts.
7. D.C.
8. 300 Volts.
9. 2 megohms.
10. Automatically when the test push button is released.
SUMMARY
This booklet has considered the practical uses of testing instruments,

their limitations and the testing procedures approved for
maintenance and evaluation of aircraft circuits.
In studying this booklet you will have seen which instrument is used
for a particular purpose and how the test is conducted.
Page 204 of 245

BOOKLET: 10
CONTENTS
Introduction 206
Manual Layout 207
Numbering System 210
Activity 1. 212
Effectively 213
Service Bulletins 214
Revisions 214
Maintenance Manuals 214
Activity 2. 216
Illustrated Parts Catalogue 217
Activity 3. 220
Self Assessment 222
Summary 225
Suggested Practical Activities 225
Page 205 of 245

OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
I have assumed that you have already studied and fulfilled the
objectives of the booklets in Study Plans Nos. 1 - 7 of Module No. 20.
fulfill the following objectives, associated with aircraft Manuals
written according to the ATA 100 specification:-
 State the Chapters associated with each of the four main

aircraft groups.
 Describe the numbering system used to break down aircraft

Manuals.
 State how to determine which information is applicable to a

particular aircraft.
 Explain the purpose of service bulletins.
 Describe the type of information contained in Maintenance

Manuals and illustrated parts Catalogues (IPCs).
 State the significance of page numbers in Maintenance

Manuals.
 Describe how to find part numbers using the IPC.
INTRODUCTION
Before an aircraft can be issued with a Certificate of Airworthiness,

the approved design organization, which is normally the aircraft
manufacturer, will be required to provide certain Manuals, in either
hard copy or microfilm versions.
These Manuals are produced in accordance with conditions laid down

in BCARs in a format laid down by the Air Transport Association of
America (ATA). The specification for the format is known as ATA 100.
What information is required to operate an aircraft? Well, Manuals

are required for the maintenance, overhaul and repair of the aircraft
and all its associated equipment. Manuals will also be required to
allow the flight crew to be able to operate the aircraft efficiently and
safely.
Page 206 of 245

The following engineering based Manuals are normally supplied by

the manufacturer:-
 Maintenance Manual.
 Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
 Wiring Diagram Manual.
 Structural Repair Manual.
 Numerous Overhaul Manuals.
In this booklet we are going to look at how these Manuals are

structured, 'and in particular at Maintenance Manuals and Illustrated
Parts Catalogues. The other Manuals will be dealt with in the next
booklet.
The way these Manuals are structured follows the common format
laid down by ATA 100. Let's now look at the layout of these Manuals.
MANUAL LAYOUT
The format divides the chapters of each Manual into groups. Take a
look at Fig. 1 to familiarize yourself with these groups, and we'll then
continue by examining them more closely.
POWER PLANT
AIRCRAFT AIRFRAME STRUCTURE GROUP
GENERAL SYSTEM GROUP GROUP
GROUP
CHAPTERS 70-83
CHAPTERS 5-12 CAHPTERS 20-49 CHAPTERS 51-57
Fig. 1 MANUAL ORGANISATION
Page 207 of 245

General Information
Each Manual will have:-
 Some general information with regard to the amendment state

of the Manual.
 An Introduction which will explain how to use the Manual.
 A list of service bulletins.
 A list of chapters.
Aircraft General
This information is peculiar to Maintenance Manuals, and occupies

Chapters 5 through to 12.
Chapter 5 Time Limits/Maintenance Checks.

Chapter 6 Dimensions and Areas.
Chapter 7 Lifting and Shoring.
Chapter 8 Leveling and Weighing.
Chapter 9 Towing and Taxing.
Chapter 10 Parking and Mooring.
Chapter 11 Required Placards.
Chapter 12 Servicing.
Airframe Systems
Several chapters are dedicated to various airframe systems. These

occupy Chapters 20 through to 49.
Chapter 20 Standard Practices.

Chapter 21 Air Conditioning.
Chapter 22 Automatic Flight.
Chapter 23 Communications.
Chapter 24 Electrical Power.
Chapter 25 Equipment and Furnishings.
Chapter 26 Fire Protection.
Chapter 27 Flight Controls.
Chapter 28 Fuel.
Chapter 29 Hydraulic Power.
Chapter 30 Ice and Rain Protection.
Chapter 31 Instruments.
Chapter 32 Landing Gear.
Chapter 33 Lights.
Page 208 of 245

Chapter 34 Navigation.
Chapter 35 Oxygen.
Chapter 36 Pneumatics.
Chapter 38 Water and Waste.
Chapter 49 Airborne Auxiliary Power.
Page 209 of 245

Structures
Chapters 51 through to 57 are dedicated to Structures. This

information is available in the Maintenance Manual; further detailed
repair information is to be found in the Structural Repair Manual.
Chapter 51 Structures General.

Chapter 52 Doors.
Chapter 53 Fuselage.
Chapter 54 Nacelles/Pylons.
Chapter 55 Stabilizers.
Chapter 56 Windows.
Chapter 57 Wings.
Propellers/Rotors
These sections will contain a separate chapter for each part.
Chapter 60 Standard Practices - Propeller/Rotor.

Chapter 61 Propellers.
Chapter 65 Rotors.
Power Plant
This section contains a separate chapter for each system, allocated

numbers 70 to 82.
Chapter 70 Standard Practices - Engine.

Chapter 71 Power Plant.
Chapter 72 Engine Turbine.
Chapter 73 Engine Fuel and Control.
Chapter 74 Ignition.
Chapter 75 Air.
Chapter 76 Engine Controls.
Chapter 77 Engine Indicating.
Chapter 78 Exhaust.
Chapter 79 Oil.
Chapter 80 Starting.
Chapter 82 Water Injection.
NUMBERING SYSTEM
A three element number system is provided to break down the

Manuals into their appropriate parts. It provides for dividing the
material into chapters, sections and subjects. Each element will
contain two digits, as shown in fig. 2 on the next page.
Page 210 of 245

Fig. 2 ATA NUMBERING SYSTEM
Material which is applicable to a system as a whole uses zeros in the

second and third elements of the numbers, that is, the chapter
number followed by '00-00'. For example, 22-00-00 (Automatic
Flight) is used for general description information which provides an
outline breakdown of the sections in the chapter.
Page 211 of 245

Take another look at Fig. 2. Which aircraft system is being dealt

with? Look it if you like.
Page 212 of 245

The answer is of course air conditioning. You wouldn't be expected to

remember this, but when you become more experienced at using
Manuals, chapter numbers and titles soon come to mind.
Let's now look at something known as affectivity. In other words,

does the information on a particular page of apply of a Manual to the
aircraft you are working on?
EFFECTIVITY
See Fig. 3 below. When a page applies to all aero planes, the word
'all' will be found in the affectivity block. If the information does not
apply to all aero planes, the effectively numbers of the aero planes to
which the information does apply will be indicated. A physical feature
may also be used as page affectivity. As a fictitious example: aero
planes with XYZ system installed. A cross reference tabulation of
affectivity numbers, customer numbers, manufacturing serial
numbers and registration numbers is provided. If the affectivity is
open ended, the last digits will be 999. For example: 205-999
indicates aeroplane 205 and subsequent.
Fig. 3 EFFECTIVITY
Page 213 of 245

SERVICE BULLETINS
When the manufacturer decides that it is necessary to modify the

aircraft in any way, a Service Bulletin will be issued. This will provide
the airline with all the information required to modify the aircraft. It
will include wiring diagrams, instructions, material specification, etc.
All of the Manuals will have a list of the Service Bulletins that have
been accomplished. This list will be included in the general
information at the front of each Manual.
REVISIONS
The manufacturers do provide revisions to Manuals. The reason for

the revision could be because of modification of the aeroplane, or
simply to make some parts of the Manual easier to understand. The
revised parts are identified by a letter R in the margin.
Sometimes it might be necessary to carry out a temporary

modification to an aeroplane system or component as an interim
measure. In these circumstances, a temporary revision is issued.
These are identified by yellow pages in the Manual concerned.
Everything you have read so far in this booklet applies to all the
Manuals we've mentioned. Let us now look more closely at
Maintenance Manuals.
MAINTENANCE MANUALS
The Maintenance Manual provides sufficient information to enable a

person who is unfamiliar with the aircraft to service, troubleshoot and
repair all systems and units, and to remove and replace any unit
normally requiring such action on the line or in the hangar.
Some manufacturers also supply a 'potted', single volume, pocket

sized Manual used for limited maintenance and servicing on the line.
It is known as the Ramp Maintenance Manual.
Both the Maintenance Manual and the Ramp Maintenance Manual are
laid out in the common format we have already looked at.
Each chapter in the Maintenance Manual begins with a Table of

Contents. The contents page provides an index of information for
rapid retrieval and location.
Each subject within a chapter is further divided into page blocks.

Let's look at them more closely.
Page 214 of 245

Page Numbering
Each subject is page numbered within itself and the identification of

each page is by both the subject number and subtopic page number.
These identification the topic or numbers appear in the lower right
hand corner of each page.
The subjects are divided into reasonably small topics and subtopics
to enable the user to locate the desired information more readily.
Topic Page Block
Description and Operation (D&O) 1 to 99

Fault Isolation (FI) 101 to 199
Maintenance Practices (MP) 201 to 299
Subtopic
Servicing (SRV) 301 to 399

Removal/Installation (R/I) 401 to 499
Adjustment/Test (A/T) 501 to 599
Inspection/Check (I/C) 601 to 799
Cleaning/Painting (C/P) 701 to 899
Approved Repairs (AR) 801 to 899
Normally each subtopic is written as an individual topic; however if

all subtopics for one subject are brief, they are combined into one
topic entitled Maintenance Practices and provided in the 201 to 299
page block.
Page 215 of 245

Which topic is the page referred to in Fig. 3 dealing with?
Page 216 of 245

The answer is to be found in the area related to page numbering.

Since page 101 is shown in Fig. 3, the information on that page will,
of course, be dealing with fault isolation.
Let us now move on to consider the Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE
If ever it is necessary to replace a part on an aircraft, you will of

course need to be able to order it correctly. To do this you need to
find the part number. The Illustrated Parts Catalogue will help you to
do this.
The Catalogue is arranged in a similar manner to the other aircraft

Manuals. An Introduction will describe how to go about finding the
part number of a particular component.
The first step is to refer to the appropriate chapter. If for instance

the item was a part of the air conditioning system, you would look up
Chapter 21. This will start with a Table of Contents, and will refer you
to the appropriate illustration. Once you recognize the part that you
want on the illustration, use the cross reference number to find the
part number from the parts list. The parts list will have the same ATA
number as the illustration. Notice in Figs. 4 and 5 on pages 12 and
13, that both the list and illustration have the number 21-50-06-02.
You will also notice in the example I've given that the ATA number
has a fourth element; this refers to the figure number.
Use the next Activity to practice finding a part number.
Page 217 of 245

HEAT SINK INSTL-STA 520 TO STA 560 ELECTRONICS COMPARTMENT AIR SUPPLY FIGURE 2
(SHEET 2)
21-58-06-02
Fig. 4 ILLUSTRATED PARTS CATALOGUE - ILLUSTRATION EXAMPLE
Page 218 of 245

Page 219 of 245

Imagine that you have found a broken bonding lead on an assembly

that you know is part of the air conditioning system. Find the part
number of a replacement part by using Figs. 4 and 5. Be careful, as
the bonding lead is referred to by a different name in the list.
Page 220 of 245

The bonding lead is identified with the number 40. When this is cross
referenced to the list, the part number 740A20-8 can be found. In
the list it is identified as a Jumper Assy. under nomenclature.
Remember that the Illustrated Parts Catalogue that you may use will
have full instructions on its use in the Introduction. I have only
described the basic method of finding a part number. The finer points
are given in great detail in your Manual.
Page 221 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT
Give yourself about fifteen minutes to answer the following questions

in the spaces provided. Be as brief and concise as you can.
1. List four main aircraft Manuals that follow the ATA 100 format.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
2. Identify the four main groups that Manuals are organized into.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. Identify the three main elements in the ATA numbering

system.
(a)
(b)
(c)
4. (a) What is meant by the term affectivity?
(b) Which part of the page of a Manual makes reference to

it?
(a)
(b)
5. What are Service Bulletins?
6. What kind of information would you expect to find in an aircraft

Maintenance Manual?
Page 222 of 245

7. What information would you find in page block 101 to 199.of a

particular subject?
8. Briefly, how would you use an IPC to find the part number of a
component?
Page 223 of 245

1. Any four will do.
(a) Maintenance Manual.
(b) Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
(c) Wiring Diagram Manual.
(d) Structural Repair Manual.
(e) Overhaul Manuals.
2. (a) Aircraft General.
(b) Airframe Systems.
(c) Structure Group.
(d) Power Plant.
3. (a) Chapter/System.
(b) Section/Subsystem.
(c) Subject/Unit.
4. (a) Effectively refers to whether or not a page refers to the

actual aircraft you are concerned with.
(b) It is found on the lower left hand side of the page.
5. Service Bulletins are documents issued by the manufacturer to

provide all the necessary information on modifications.
6. All the information necessary to maintain, fault find and repair

an aircraft.
7. Fault isolation.
8. Find the appropriate chapter, identify the component you want

from the illustration, and cross refer to the parts list.
If you had any difficulty with any of these questions, refer back to
the appropriate part of the booklet for clarification.
Page 224 of 245

SUMMARY
This booklet has introduced you to two major aircraft maintenance

documents:-
 The Maintenance Manual.
 The Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
The purpose of the documents has been explained, and you have
been given simple Activities to help you to become more familiar with
them.
Do, however, remember that they have a certain legal standing.

Spend time whenever you can to understand why they are used.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
The best way of becoming familiar with both the Maintenance

Manuals and Illustrated Parts Catalogues is actually to use them.
Remember, not only are these documents provided to make things
easy for you when you are working on an" aircraft, they are also the
legal references. Don't be tempted to use aircraft type course notes,
or your own little black book, as reference material.
So when you have the opportunity, get familiar with your Manuals.
For instance, the next time you do a job; even if you've done it
before, take a good look at what the Manuals say.
It will also help if you set yourself some exercises on the use of the
Manuals.
Page 225 of 245

BOOKLET: 11
CONTENTS
Introduction 227
Wiring Diagram Manual (WDM) 228
Activity 1. 230
Activity 2. 232
Activity 3. 237
Structural Repair Manuals 238
Overhaul Manuals 240
Activity 4. 242
Self Assessment 244
Summary 245
Suggested Practical Activities 245
Page 226 of 245

OBJECTIVES/ADVICE
I have assumed that you have already studied and fulfilled the
objectives of Module No. 20, Study Plan No.7, Booklet No. 10.

fulfill the following objectives:-
 State the type of information to be found in the Wiring Diagram

Manual (WDM) Introduction.
 Give the purpose of the WDM Equipment List and explain how
it relates to schematic and wiring diagrams.
 State the type of information to be found in WDM Standard

Practices.
 Discriminate between schematic diagrams and wiring diagrams,

and state the purpose of each.
 Describe the basic content of:-
- Structural Repair Manuals,
- Overhaul Manuals.
INTRODUCTION
In the previous booklet of this Study Plan we covered the basic ATA
100 specification. We looked in particular at how this was applied to
Maintenance Manuals and Illustrated parts Catalogues.
In this booklet we are going to see how ATA applies to the following:-
 Wiring Diagram Manuals.

 Structural Repair Manuals.
 Overhaul Manuals.
So, let's start by looking first at the Wiring Diagram Manual (WDM).
Page 227 of 245

WIRING DIAGRAM MANUAL (WDM)
The Wiring Diagram Manual is a Manual which is a particularly useful

document for avionic personnel, especially when used in conjunction
with the Maintenance Manual. The chapters in the WDM are laid out
in the common ATA 100 format, but will have some unique leading
information.
Apart from the system chapters, there will be a substantial

Introduction.
WDM Introduction
The WDM Introduction will give detailed instructions on how to

interpret the symbols found in the schematic diagrams and the wiring
diagrams. It will also tell you how to cross refer between diagrams
and other information in the Manual. For instance, the WDM
Introduction provides information relating to how the aircraft is split
up into zones. A zone number will tell you exactly how to locate a
particular component on the aircraft; different manufacturers use
their own zoning systems. The zone number will be written adjacent
to the component on both the schematic and the wiring diagrams.
You'll see some examples of these later.
Equipment List
The Equipment List is another extensive part of the WDM. It lists

every component that has an electrical or electronic function. The list
provides part numbers of all the components. You can cross refer
between the Equipment List and both the schematic and wiring
diagrams.
Fig. 1 on the next page shows how one manufacturer presents an

equipment list. Take a good look at it, then we'll discuss it further.
Page 228 of 245

Fig. 1 EQUIPMENT LIST
The first line has Ref. Designation, Zone Station and Description of
the part. The second line has Qty, Part Number, Mod. Order/SB or
Service Bulletin, Dwg. No., and applicable customer aircraft
effectively.
The reference designation number is a unique number assigned to

each component on the aircraft. This number is printed next to the
component symbol on both schematic and wiring diagrams. The
number is the link between the diagrams and the List which enables
you to find the part number.
The Mod. Order/SB column refers to the modification status of the

system. When the letters LB and IB precede the SB number in the
Mod. Order/SB column, the letters LB (limited by) indicate before
incorporation of SB, and the letters IB (incorporated by) indicate
after incorporation of SB.
Page 229 of 245

You will see Fig. 1 that more than one part number is associated with
a single reference designation number. Why is this?
Page 230 of 245

You might have found that the clue to this was in the Mod. Order/SB
column. You will see that there is different mod. States and therefore
different part numbers.
Standard Practices
Standard Practices occupies Chapter 20 of the WDM. This, unlike the

Standard Practices to be found in the Maintenance Manual, covers
practices which are directed at the avionic trades. It deals with:-
 Crimping techniques and tools.

 Soldering techniques.
 Special repairs.
 Methods of protecting electrical wires and wire bundles.
 Methods of securing wires and wire bundles.
 Cleaning, and cleaning materials associated with avionic
equipment.
 Methods of connecting, and special treatment of earth
terminals.
In fact the Standard Practices section of the WDM covers all the
physical working practices an avionic technician requires.
Let's now go on to what is contained in the greater part of the WDM:

schematic diagrams and wiring diagrams.
Schematic Diagrams
These diagrams are designed to help you to understand how the

various systems work. The ATA 100 format also says that these
diagrams should also be suitable for training purposes. Unfortunately
some manufacturers' schematic diagrams fall a little short of this, as
they make their diagrams too unwieldy. In the main, however, they
are extremely useful tools.
Take a look now at Fig. 2 on the next page, it shows a part of a

schematic diagram with short descriptions of some of the features.
Page 231 of 245

Fig. 2 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
Consider the typical schematic diagram shown in Fig. 3 on the

next page. Find the reference designation numbers for the
items listed below:
(a) Indicator lights control box.
(b) ECS lights.
(c) Galley exhaust fan.
(d) Cool air ovbd. switch light.
Page 232 of 245

Fig. 3 TYPICAL SCHEMATIC
Page 233 of 245

I'm sure that you have understood from Fig. 2 that the reference
designation numbers have two parts, a four digit number followed by
a letter/number combination, so from Fig. 3 you will have found the
following:
(a) 3317 – A1
(b) 3317 – DS19
(c) 2124 – B1
(d) 2120 – DS1
Let's continue now by looking at some of the main features of wiring

diagrams.
Wiring Diagrams
Wiring diagrams show similar information to the schematic diagrams.

They do however provide additional important information. They are
more related to the actual physical aspects of the wiring of the
system.
Take a good look at Fig. 4 below to familiarize yourself with some of

the features of a wiring diagram. Only a part of the diagram has
been shown for simplicity.
Fig. 4 PART OF WIRING DIAGRAM
Page 234 of 245

You should have noticed that some of the things shown in Fig. 4 are
not shown in the equivalent schematic (Fig. 3). The wires or cables
are identified with a code, for instance, if you refer to Booklet No.1 of
this Study Plan on Cable Coding, you will find full information on this.
Bulkhead connectors are shown and identified, so are earth terminals
and terminal blocks.
Turn now to Fig. 5 on the next page to see how the small part of the
diagram in Fig. 4 fits into the complete system. Also have a good
look at the complete diagram to identify some of the features we've
just discussed. Notice that Fig. 5 is the equivalent wiring diagram of
the schematic shown in Fig. 3.
Page 235 of 245

Fig. 5 TYPICAL WIRING DIAGRAM
Page 236 of 245

Refer to Fig. 5 and write down the cable codes associated with the
five wires connecting Air Ovbd. circuit breaker with the Cool Air
Ovbd. switch light.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Page 237 of 245

The codes which you should have identified are the ones I've shown
below.
(a) 2120 - 1BA20

(b) 2120 - 1C20
(c) 2120 - 1A20
(d) 2120 - 1B20
(e) 2124 - 7A22
Notice that the last code is more complete than is actually shown on
the diagram. The extra parts of the code were drawn from footnotes
2 and 3.
Let us continue by looking at the type of information contained within

a Structural Repair Manual.
STRUCTURAL REPAIR MANUALS
The structures group of chapters occupies Chapters 51 through to

57. From the previous booklet we saw that the Maintenance Manual
provides information within the structures group. The information in
the Structural Repair Manual is much more extensive and will cover
the various repair schemes associated with the systems listed below.
Subject Chapter
Introduction
Structures – General 51
Doors 52
Fuselage 53
Nacelles/Pylons 54
Stabilizers 55
Windows 56
Wings 57
Page 238 of 245

The Structural Repair Manual, like the other Manuals, will have
leading information on how to use the document.
To give you some idea as to what sort of information is provided, I've

drawn up a list of typical subjects that are covered in Chapter 51, on
Structures - General.
• Damage classification.
• Protective treatments of metal repair parts.
• Hardness testing of metals.
• Fire damage evaluation.
• Mercury spillage corrective action.
• Corrosion removal.
• Repairs to composite structures.
• Sheet metal repairs.
• Equipment and tools for repair.
• Fasteners, their installation and removal.
• Torque values.
• Aluminum/honeycomb structure repairs.
• Glass fibre repairs.
• Adhesives.
• Support and jigging for repairs.
• Aeroplane leveling.
• Alignment checks.
The remaining chapters in the Structural Repair Manual cover the

particular structural subjects and will of course cross refer to the
various procedures and processes covered by the chapter on
Structures - General.
Page 239 of 245

OVERHAUL MANUALS
These Manuals are produced by the manufacturers of individual

components. They are of course written in the ATA 100 format, and
will contain all the information necessary to overhaul completely the
component in a workshop environment.
The Overhaul Manuals will be arranged as I have shown below.
Leading Material
This will include instructions on how to use the Manual, together with
an explanation of symbols used. There will be a list of effective
pages, and a list of service bulletins.
Description and Operation
Enough information will be provided to enable you to understand how

the component operates. Special features will be described.
Disassembly
Full information will be given to enable you to take the component

apart, careful attention being paid to the order in which this should
be done.
Cleaning
The necessary information on how the component parts are to be

cleaned is given here. The various cleaning fluids and processes are
specified.
Inspection/Check
A description of the inspection process is provided, together with

advice on which parts require special attention. Special measuring
equipment, tolerances and limits are also given.
Repair
If it is possible to repair any damaged part, all the necessary repair
schemes are provided, together with approved processes.
Page 240 of 245

Assembly
The information on assembly is provided. The order in which this is

done is normally the reverse of that for disassembly.
Fits and Clearances
This provides all the data relating to the limits and tolerances
associated with the assembly of the component.
Testing
This section provides all the information on how the component is to

be tested once assembly is complete. The test equipment and
functional data are also specified.
Fault Finding
Advice is given on how to troubleshoot the component should a

malfunction be detected during test. The information is often
provided in the form of a fault finding tree.
Storage
Instructions on ideal storage conditions are provided, particular

reference being made to temperature, humidity and any special
protection of the equipment.
Illustrated Parts List
A list of all the individual parts is provided together with:-
 Quantity.
 Manufacturers' part numbers.
 Description of the part.
This list will cross refer to appropriately numbered illustrations.
Page 241 of 245

You have just completed studying the section on Overhaul

Manuals. How are they sub-divided? Try to answer this question
without referring back to the text.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
Page 242 of 245

The Overhaul Manuals are sub-divided as shown below:
(a) Leading material.
(b) Description and operation.
(c) Disassembly.
(d) Cleaning.
(e) Inspection/check.
(f) Repair.
(g) Assembly.
(h) Fits and clearances.
(i) Testing.
(j) Fault finding.
(k) Storage.
(l) Illustrated Parts List.
How many did you get? Look back over the list again if necessary.
Page 243 of 245

SELF ASSESSMENT

the space provided. Be as brief and concise as you can.
1. In which part of the Wiring Diagram Manual will you find

information on crimping and soldering?
2. List the information to be found in the WDM Introduction.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
3. Where can the manufacturer’s part number of an electrical

component be found other than in the Illustrated Parts
Catalogue?
4. State to which type of diagram you would refer to gain

information on particular:-
(a) Terminal blocks.
(b) Bulkhead disconnects.
(c) Ground (earth) terminals.
(a)
(b)
(c)
5. What is the best type of electrical diagram to refer to when you

need to find out how a particular system operation?
Page 244 of 245

Your answers should read something like those below. If they contain
most of the points brought out in this review, then you've understood
the major part of the information present in this booklet.
1. Standard practices.
2. (a) Basically how to use the Manual.
(b) Electrical symbols.
(c) Aircraft zoning (location).
(d) How to cross reference between diagrams and the

Equipment List.
3. Equipment List.
4. Wiring diagrams for (a), (b) and (c).
5. Schematic diagrams.
SUMMARY
The booklet completes the subject of Aircraft Manuals started in

Booklet No. 10.
In particular it has dealt with:-
 Wiring Diagram Manuals.

 Structural Repair Manuals.
 Overhaul Manuals.
As an avionics tradesman you should now be more able to find your

way around the Wiring Diagram Manual in particular.
SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES
When you have an aircraft available, use the appropriate wiring

diagram to find your way around a particular system. The more you
use the WDM, the better will be your understanding of it and what it
can help you to do.
Page 245 of 245

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ATITA ELECTRICAL/INSTRUMENT/RADIO/RADAR STUDY PLAN-7

MODUL AV-20-02 REVISION: 00

Construction of the Series Code 3

Self Assessment Review 18

Recommended Further Reading 18

When you have completed this booklet I expect you to be able to

 Recognize series coding (ATA 100).

 Identify by name and state the function of:-

- Wire prefix number.

 Explain how to locate equipment connected to an individual

 Describe the basic construction of ‘positional’ wire coding.

This booklet should take you about one hour to study.

A modern aircraft contains miles and miles of wire and cable. It is

Nowadays most aircraft manufacturers have adopted a method of

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SERIES CODE

Fig. 1 CONSTRUCTION OF THE CODE

Wire Number Prefix

"NOTE: All wire codes are prefixed 3135."

Some manufacturers might use a letter designator to identify a

A different wire number is used for each conductor not sharing a

Fig. 2 WIRE NUMBERS

Parallel or identical systems are identified with a 5 digit wire number,

Fig. 3 PARALLEL OR IDENTICAL SYSTEMS

Name a case where it would be best not to discriminate between

The case would be that of engines. In order to allow

Let's now continue with the next part of the code.

Wire Segment Letter

In the case where two wires were permanently connected, such as in

A different letter is used for each segment sharing a common

The wire gauge is not shown on a wiring diagram if a note similar to

"NOTE: All wires are 20 gauges unless otherwise specified."

Ground, Phase or Thermocouple Letter

The letter N (ground or earth) is used as a suffix to the wire

item using the three phase a.c. power.

The phase letter 'V' is used as a suffix to the identification code to

Fig. 4 PHASE LETTER SUFFIXES

When a suffix letter such as N, indicating a ground wire is a part of

The following suffixes are used for thermocouple identification.

Let's now go on to see how we can determine to which equipment or

The manufacturer will normally provide a wire list or some similar

Fig. 6 TYPICAL WIRE LIST

Although the series code is an internationally accepted standard for

You've probably suggested that the code itself actually referred to

This form of identification is known as 'positional coding' and may be

The aircraft is divided into electrical zones. Each zone is given an

Sub panels of main panel assemblies are each allotted a reference as

Cables used in 3 Φ a.c. circuits have colored tracers for phase

RED TRACER - A Phase

YELLOW TRACER - B Phase

BLUE TRACER - C Phase

The a.c. neutral does not have a colored tracer.

The construction of positional coding is illustrated in Fig. 7 on the

Fig. 7 POSITIONAL CODING CONSTRUCTION

Give yourself about ten minutes to answer the following questions in

2. Under which circumstances will the wire number change?

4. Under which circumstances will the wire segment letter

5. When would the wire gauge be omitted from the code on a

7. How could you find the equipment to which a particular wire or

SELF ASSESSMENT REVIEW

2. Whenever a wire does not form a common connection with

3. That it is part of a parallel or identical system.

4. When it's necessary to differentiate between two wires that

5. Whenever a note giving the gauge of all wires in the diagram

6. That this wire is an ALUMEL thermocouple wire.