Coulomb’s law

• Electric force between two charged particles is

• Directly proportional to product of their charges,
• Inversely proportional to square of distance between them,
• Directed along the line joining them, and
• Repulsive (attractive) for like (unlike) charges.

• If q1 and q2 are two charged

particles situated at points P(x, y, z)
and S(x′, y′, z′), electric force acting
on q1 due to q2 is

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Coulomb’s law

• F12 is force experienced by q1 due to q2,

• K is constant of proportionality,

where ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 ≈ 10−9/36π farad/meter (F/m) is

permittivity of free space (vacuum).
• R12 is distance between points P and S,
• a12 is unit vector pointing in© direction
Dr. A P Khandale
from point S to point P.
 Coulomb’s law

• Equation is valid, charged particles such as electrons and protons, as

well as for charged bodies that can be considered point charges.
• Charged bodies are envisioned as point charges as long as their sizes
are much less than distance between them.
• Force exerted by q1 on q2 is equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction to force that q2 exerts on q1.
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Coulomb’s law
• Total force Ft acting on a point charge q due to system of n point
charges is vector sum of forces exerted individually by each charge
on q,

principle of superposition

Where r and ri are the

position vectors of point
charges q and qi

© Dr. A P Khandale
Force experienced by a charge q
in a system of n charges
 Electric field intensity
• Electric field intensity E, force per unit charge exerted on a test
charge qt as magnitude of qt → 0

where F is total force acting on qt .

• E is a vector field, has units of

Newtons per coulomb (N/C) or
Force acting on a test charge
volts per meter (V/m).
• If E is electric field intensity at a point P in space, force acting on a
charge q at that point is

Equation can be used to compute electrostatic force experienced by a

charge when placed in an electric
© Dr. A field.
P Khandale
 Electric field intensity
• Expression for electric field intensity at any point P due to a point
charge q at S as

aR is the unit vector directed from S toward P.

• Electric field intensity due to n point charges

where ri is distance vector directed from location of charge qi toward

point of measurement of E. © Dr. A P Khandale
 Line charge density
• When charge is distributed over a linear element, line charge density
is charge per unit length.

where 􏳬 Δq is the charge on a linear element

􏳬 Δl
Surface charge density
• When charge is distributed over a surface, surface charge density is
charge per unit area

where 􏳬 Δq is the charge on a surface element

􏳬 Δs

Volume charge density

• If charge is confined within a volume, volume charge distribution is
charge per unit volume.

where
© Dr. A P􏳬Khandale
Δq is the charge on a volume element
Electric field intensity due to charge distributions

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Electric field intensity due to charge distributions

• where r is position vector of point P and ri′ is position

vector of point P′(x′, y′, z′) of charge element Δli′ .
• Primed letters are used for coordinates of source
point and unprimed letters for points at which
desired quantity is to be determined in.

• where r is position vector of point P(x, y, z) and r′ is the position vector of point
P′(x′, y′, z′) at the length element dl′© Dr. A P Khandale
Expression for electric field intensity due to a surface charge
distribution

Electric field intensity at point P due to a volume charge

distribution,

© Dr. A P Khandale
Ex. 1: Two point charges of 0.7 mC and 4.9 μC are situated in free
space at (2, 3, 6) and (0, 0, 0). Calculate the force acting on the 0.7-mC
charge. (Ans: 0.63 N)

Ex.2: Three equal charges of 200 nC are placed in free space at (0, 0, 0),
(2, 0, 0), and (0, 2, 0). Determine the total force acting on a charge
of 500 nC at (2, 2, 0). (Ans: 430.8 μN)

Ex.3: Two point charges of 20 nC and −20 nC are situated at (1, 0, 0)

and (0, 1, 0) in free space. Determine the electric field intensity at (0, 0,
1). (Ans: 63.67[−ax +ay] V/m)

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Electric flux and electric flux density
• Number of lines of force due to a charge is equal to magnitude of the
charge in coulombs.

line of force • Field lines are represent electric flux.

or a flux line
• Magnitude of field is indicated by
density of lines.
• Strong near center where field lines are
close together.
• Weaker farther out where they are
relatively far apart.
• For an isolated positive point charge, the
electric flux points radially outward.
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Lines of electric flux between a
positive and a negative charge
Lines of electric flux between two
positively charged bodies

• Field lines begin on +ve charges and end on –ve charges.

• They can not terminate in the midair, they may extend out to infinity.
• Field lines never cross. © Dr. A P Khandale
Electric flux:
• must be independent of medium,
• Its magnitude solely depends upon charge from which it originates,
• If a point charge is enclosed in an imaginary sphere of radius R,
electric flux must pass perpendicularly and uniformly through
surface of sphere,
• Electric flux density, flux per unit area, is then inversely proportional
to R2.
• Electric field intensity also satisfies these constraints, except that its
magnitude depends upon the permittivity of the medium
Electric flux density

• If E due to a point charge q, electric flux density at a radius r is

© Dr. A P Khandale
(C/m2)
 Gauss’s law
• Net outward flux passing through a closed
surface is equal to total charge enclosed by
that surface

• Field lines that originate on +ve charge must either pass out through
surface or else terminate on –ve charge inside.
• A charge outside surface will not contribute to total flux because field
lines pass in one side and out© other
Dr. A P Khandale
• If point charge q is at origin, flux through sphere of radius r is

Flux through any surface enclosing the charge is q / ε0

• Consider bunch of charges scattered out instead of single charge at

origin.
• Total electric field will be sum of all individual fields
• Flux through surface that encloses all of them,

• For any closes surface

Integral form of Gauss’s law
© Dr. A P Khandale
 ρ - Charge density

Since this holds for any volume, integrals are equal

Differential form of Gauss’s law

© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Application of Gauss’s law
• Symmetry is important for the application of Gauss’s law.
• Spherical symmetry-Gaussian surface is concentric sphere.
• Cylindrical symmetry- Gaussian surface is coaxial cylinder.
• Plane symmetry- Gaussian surface is like pillbox that straddles the
surface

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Application of Gauss’s law

• Although direct use of Gauss’s law is limited to cases of spherical,

cylindrical and planner symmetry, combination of objects possessing
such symmetries can be put together, although the arrangement as a
whole is not symmetrical.
• Ex. Electric field in the vicinity of two uniformly charged parallel
cylinders or spheres near an infinite charged planes.

© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Curl of E
• For a point charge at origin, electric field

Curl of electric field of a© Dr.point charge at origin is zero.

A P Khandale
• For n number of charges located anywhere, electric field

Curl of electric field is zero for any static charge distribution.

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Electric potential
• Electric field is a vector function whose curl is always zero.
• Any vector whose curl is zero is equal to the gradient of some scalar.
•  X E = 0 i.e. line integral around closed loop is 0.
• Line integral of E is independent of path.

• O is reference point infinitely far from the charge.

• V depends on r called electric potential.
• Potential difference between two points a and b will be

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Electric potential

Fundamental theorem of gradient

Electric field is gradient of scalar (electric) potential.

• Surface over which potential is constant is called equipotential.
• Potential at any given point is sum of potentials due to all the source
charges.
• Measured in Joules per coulomb
© Dr. A P Khandale
called Volt.
 Poisson’s Equation and Laplace’s Equation

Divergence of E is Laplacian of V.

Known as Poisson’s Equation

• Poisson’s equation states that potential distribution in the region

depends upon the local charge distribution.
• In the region where there is no charge  = 0

Known
© Dr. A P Khandale as Laplace’s Equation
 Potential of a localized charge distribution

• Consider the reference point is at infinity, potential of a point charge

q at origin is

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Potential of a localized charge distribution
• In general, potential of a point charge q is

• For n number of charges, potential of collection of charges will be

• For continuous distribution of charges, potential will be

• For continuous distribution of

© Dr. A P Khandale
volume charge, potential is
 • Potential of line charges

• Potential of surface charges

• Electric field for continuous charge distribution over a volume is

© Dr. A P Khandale
Reference point is at infinity
Boundary Conditions

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Boundary Conditions
• Electric field undergoes discontinuity when cross a surface charge.
• Amount by which E changes at boundary is boundary condition.

Gauss’s law

• Sides of pillbox contribute nothing to flux in

the limit as thickness goes to zero.

• - component of E perpendicular to surface immediately above.

• - component od E perpendicular to surface immediately below.
Normal component of E is discontinuous by an amount σ/0 at
boundary.
• If there is no surface charge © Dr. A PisKhandale
continuous
• Tangential component of E is always continuous
• If we apply to thin rectangular loop

Boundary conditions on E is

© Dr. A P Khandale
• Potential is continuous across any boundary

• As path length shrinks to zero,

where
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Work and Energy in Electrostatics
Work done to move a charge
• At any point along path ab, electric force on Q is Test
F = QE charge

• External force in opposition to electric force is

F = -QE Stationary
• Work done to move test charge from a to b is source
charges

• Potential difference between point a and b is equal to work per unit

charge required to carry a particle from a to b.
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Work done to move a charge

• If charge Q has to be brought from infinity to the point r then

• If the reference point is set at infinity

Potential is the potential energy (work it takes to create the system)

per unit charge ( just as the field is the force per unit charge)

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Energy of a point charge distribution
• Work needed to assemble entire collection of charges.
• First charge q1 takes no work, since there is yet no opposing filed.
• To bring second charge q2 at r2, work done will be
q2V1(r2)
• Where V1 is potential due to q1
• r2 is the place where q2 will be put in.

© Dr. A P Khandale
• To bring second charge q3 at r3,
work done will be
q3V1,2 (r3)
• Where V1,2 is potential due to q1
and q2 i.e.

• Total work necessary to assemble first four charges

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Energy of a point charge distribution

This is the amount of work necessary to assemble a configuration of

point charges or it represents energy stored in the configuration.
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Energy of a continuous charge distribution
• For a volume charge density 

(Integration by parts)

(Integration over a
region where
charge is located)

• For larger distances from charge, surface integral goes down and
volume integral goes up as we take larger an larger volume

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Polarization
• Three main polarisation mechanisms occur within a dielectric
material: electronic polarisation, ionic polarisation (atomic
polarisation) and orientational polarisation.

Electronic
polarisation

• Atom develops dipole moment p, which points in the same

direction as E.

•  atomic polarizability depends

© Dr. A Pon the structure of atom
Khandale
Ionic polarisation

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Orientational polarisation
• All non-conducting materials are capable of electronic polarisation,
which is why all insulators are dielectric to some degree.
• In contrast, ionic and orientational modes are only available to
materials possessing ions and permanent dipoles respectively.

Permanent dipoles
© Dr. A P Khandale
Orientational polarisation

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Alignment of polar molecules

• If field is uniform, force on +ve end F+= qE

cancels force on –ve end F-= -qE
• However, Torque will be

• Dipole p = qd in uniform field E experiences torque

• Dipole p = qd in uniform field E experiences torque

• N is in such a direction as to©line p up parallel to E.
Dr. A P Khandale
 Alignment of polar molecules

• If field is nonuniform, there will be net force on the dipole in

addition to the torque.

• For a perfect dipole of infinitesimal length torque about the centre

of a dipole is

• About any other point, N = (p  E) + (r  F)

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Dipole potential

• Approximate potential at large distance from charge

© Dr. A P Khandale
Dipole potential

Dipole moment for the distribution

Dipole contribution to the potential

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Filed of a polarized object
Polarization P- dipole moment per unit volume.
• For a single dipole p

• Total potential is

© Dr. A P Khandale
 Potential of surface charge Potential of volume charge

Potential of a polarized object is same as that produced by volume

© Dr. A P Khandale
charge density plus surface charge density
• Field due to polarization of medium is just the field due to the
bound charges
• Total charge density within the dielectric

Gauss’s law

Gauss’s law © Dr. A P Khandale

© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
© Dr. A P Khandale
 Basic Properties of conductor
• E = 0 inside the conductor
•  = 0 inside the conductor
• The number of plus charges is equal to minus so,
the net charge density in the interior is zero.
• Any net charge resides on the surface.
• A conductor is equipotential.
• If a and b are any two points within (or at the surface of) given
conductor
• E is perpendicular to the surface just outside the conductor
• Charges can not flow since it is confined to
the conducting object
© Dr. A P Khandale