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SPECIAL WELL CONTROL SITUATIONS

LOST CIRCULATION

Lost circulation is defined as the loss of mud into a porous, cavernous or fractured formation.
During well control operations lost circulation is normally caused by induced fractures. Induced
fractures can occur when the fracture pressure of the weakest formation is exceeded. This can
happen at any time during initial shut-in or during the actual kill operation.

When addressing the topic of lost circulation, it is important to differentiate between partial and
severe or complete losses. The remedies for these two problems are considerably different. Partial
losses are addressed in this section and severe or complete loss of returns is covered in detail under
tertiary control.

Recognition of Partial Losses.

Decrease in pit level. This will sometimes be difficult to see because of barite additions, possible
transfer of mud and, in the case of a gas kick, a normal gain caused by gas expansion.

Drop in gauge pressures. Drillpipe and Casing pressures will drop and neither responds, as they
should to choke operation.

Well Control Options when Partial Losses Occur.

If the mud volume can be kept up by mixing, continue killing the well in a conventional manner;
i.e. maintain kill rate pump speed and drill pipe pressure as originally planned to keep a constant
bottom hole pressure. Once the influx passes the zone of lost returns, the problem may solve itself.

1: Add lost circulation material to the kill mud (if possible).

2: Stop pumping and shut in. Give the hole time to cure it. Observe pressures.

If the permeability of the kicking formation is low, then consideration could be given to reducing
casing pressure thereby allowing a small additional influx into the well. This option should be
considered only when it is estimated that the volume of this additional influx is less than the
volume of the original pit gain. Reduce the casing pressure by the estimated annular pressure
losses. Be aware that if this annular pressure loss figure is exceeded, the well will go under
balanced and additional influx will occur. It is important to consider the permeability of the kicking
zone to determine the allowable pressure reduction. When there is a strong possibility of a kick
with lost circulation, consideration may be given to installing a circulating sub in the BHA to allow
trouble free pumping of LCM.

Judgement on the part of the crew is extremely important when dealing with partial losses during
well control. There is no fixed set of rules. The situation will dictate the method of cure. If the
problem persists and losses become severe or complete, then tertiary methods should be
considered.

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Regarding losses and well control, two distinct situations may arise:

1: Losses at bottom of the hole and well kicks higher up in the well.

2: Losses occur higher up in the wellbore and the well kicks on bottom.

The standard procedures to be implemented should lost circulation occur for the scenarios above
are:

1: Losses on bottom well kicks higher up in the wellbore, the losses must be cured first. With
loss zone cured, the well can then be killed.

2: A kick on bottom and losses occur higher up in the wellbore. If losses are the result
of a kick then the kick on bottom must first be controlled.

Lost circulation may be caused through:

1: Poor well planning (i.e. setting casing string to high).

2: Through drilling too fast, therefore overloading the annulus causing excessive ECD's
throughout the wellbore resulting in formation breakdown occurring.

3: Inducing excessive pressures into the wellbore (i.e. running the drill string in to the hole too
fast).

4: Through deteriorating mud properties causing hole to pack off and pump pressure to be
induced directly to the wellbore formation causing formation breakdown to occur.

Losses are generally categorised into four categories:

1: Slight losses 0 - 20 bbls per hour.

2: Intermediate losses 20 - 50 bbls per hour.

3: Severe losses > 50 bbls per hour.

4: Total losses, the fluid level in the annulus cannot be maintained.

Identifying a Lost Zone.

Formations present in the wellbore will indicate certain characteristics to the treatment required for
each loss zone and situation experienced. It is therefore important to clearly ascertain and identify
formation type and location within the wellbore such that the correct cure can be applied to stem
losses efficiently and effectively.

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Example.

In an offshore well for the depths given what is the maximum mud weight that could be used
without breaking down formation with mud returns to surface? Since the shallowest exposed
formation is below the 30" conductor shoe this would normally be the weakest point in the
wellbore.

1: Rig floor to mean sea level: 80ft.

2: Mean sea level to seabed: 220ft.

3: Rig floor to 30" conductor shoe: 600ft.

4: Sea water gradient: 0.45 psi/ft.

5: Formation breakdown gradient: 0.65 psi/ft.

6: Maximum mud hydrostatic allowed: 294 psi.

Therefore: (220 ft x 0.45 psi/ft + 300 ft x 0.65 psi ft) (99 psi + 195 psi) / 600 ft.

0.49 psi/ft  0.052 = 9.4 ppg.

Loss Circulation Prevention while Drilling Surface Hole.

From the practical point of view problems with surface hole drilling are accentuated by:

1: The weaknesses of exposed formations and their vulnerability to bulk mud losses.

2: Soft fast drilling formations, which generate large volumes of cuttings that can accumulate
in the wellbore if not properly, circulated and cleaned out. This also will effectively increase
the fluid gradient in the wellbore.

3: Annular velocities are low in large holes.

4: Top hole drilling fluids may have a poor carrying capacity.

5: Kicks will occur quickly if allowed.

6: Reservoirs can have very high permeability’s; therefore time for emergency action is very
limited.

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Special alertness is essential. If the hole is not kept clean, effective mud weight may increase and
cause formation failure, so that shallow reservoirs may no longer be overbalanced. To prevent this
happening, avoid mud weight increase downhole by:

1: Restricting penetration rates.

2: Drill a large diameter hole in two stages (drill a pilot hole).

3: Circulate slugs of viscous mud intermittently to keep the hole clean.

4: Displace the hole to clean mud before pulling out.

5: Eliminate swabbing risks through pumping out of the hole.

6: Control drilling penetration rates.

Loss Circulation Prevention.

In areas where loss circulation are regularly experienced, the following preventative measures
should be considered prior to and during drilling into potential lost circulation zones.

1: Drill with the lowest mud density that can be safely used.

2: Reduce overbalance to that of the possible lost zone formations.

3: Utilise drilling fluids with a low yield point and low plastic viscosity and ensure that
optimum mud properties are always maintained. This again reduces overbalance in the well
by
minimising ECD, swab and surge tendencies that poor drilling fluid properties would incur.

4: Lower the circulation rate to reduce annular friction losses. (i.e. reduce ECD)

5: Adjust drill string configuration to minimise swab and surge and annular friction losses (run
only what you need).

6: Ensure nozzles are large enough such that Lost Circulation Material (Referred to as LCM)
can be pumped through the bit without plugging, (16/32nds is generally recommended for
121/4 " hole).

7: Run a circulating sub in the assembly. (Secondary back up for pumping LCM should the bit
become plugged).

8: In order to restore circulation or minimise the loss. Losses are evaluated by pulling the drill
string out of the wellbore and observing the well's condition while circulating and if losses
persist to establish loss rate under static conditions.

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BULLHEADING

If normal well killing techniques with conventional circulation are not possible or will result in
critical well control conditions, bullheading may be considered as a useful method to improve the
situation. Mud/influx are displaced/squeezed back downhole into the weakest exposed open hole
formation.
This technique may or may not result in fracturing the formation. Bullheading is however a
relatively common method of killing a well during workover operations. This technique is
generally used only during workover operations when there is adequate reservoir permeability.

When to Consider Bullheading

Bullheading may be considered when the following well control situations occur:

1: H2S or high-pressure gas influx cannot be handled safely by rig personnel and equipment.

2: Normal circulation is not possible because:

a: The pipe has been sheared or no pipe in the hole.

b: The string is off bottom.

c: Drill string is blocked.

d: Drill string is washed out or parted.

3: A combined kick and losses situation is experienced (downhole annulus bullhead rates must
exceed the gas migration rate to ensure the situation does not deteriorate further).

4: Kick calculations show that casing pressure during conventional kill operations will
probably result in a detrimental well control situation. (In this case, only the influx needs to
be squeezed back).

5: When a very large influx has been taken.

6: When displacement of the influx by conventional methods may cause excessive surface
pressures.

7: When displacement of the influx by conventional methods would result in an excessive


volume of gas at surface conditions.

8: When an influx is taken with no pipe in the hole.

9: To reduce surface pressures prior to implementing further well control operations.

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Bullheading is not a routine well control method. In many cases, it will be doubtful whether the
well can be killed by squeezing back the influx into the formation and permanent lost circulation
may be created by pumping fluid immediately below the shoe into the formation. The method
should in most cases be considered only as a last resort.

In some instances, though, bullheading will be considered as prime method, in such case, the
choice of bullheading shall be made clear in the well plan. Examples of such cases are high
pressure/high temperature, H2S wells or killing of well after a well test or before workover
operations.

The Important Factors.

Bullheading during drilling operations should be implemented when standard well control
techniques are considered inappropriate. During such situations, it is unlikely that accurate
information is available regarding the feasibility of bullheading. In most cases therefore, the
likelihood of successfully bullheading an influx will not be known until it is attempted.

However, the major factors that will determine the feasibility of bullheading include the following:

1: The characteristics of the open hole.

2: The rated pressure of the well control equipment and the casing (making allowance for wear
and deterioration).

3: The type of influx and the relative permeability of the formation.

4: The quality of the filter cake at the permeable formation.

5: The consequences of fracturing a section of the open hole.

6: The position of the influx in the hole.

Prior to Bullheading.

Consider using the Volumetric Method to eliminate the complication of migrating gas. If the gas
can be largely removed this way, the bullheading operation is likely to be much easier and more
effective in killing the well. Pressure limitations of pumping equipment, wellhead equipment and
casing must be kept in mind throughout.

If a gas influx is suspected (shut in pressures continue to rise indicating migrating gas), pumping
rate for bullheading must be fast enough to exceed the rate of gas migration. If pump pressures
increase instead of decreasing, it is an indication that the pumping rate is too low to be successful.
This can be a problem in large diameter holes.

Note: that increasing the viscosity of the kill mud may or may not be helpful in controlling this
problem, and could possibly even make it worse.

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There is often a chance, particularly with relatively long open hole sections below the last casing
shoe, that bullheading could break down the formation at the shoe rather than at the producing
formation. In this event, rather than killing the well, this procedure may aggravate the development
of an underground blowout, which could pose risks to nearby wells in communication with the
formations involved. It could also increase risk of a blowout around casing in place with
subsequent obvious risks. Thus, this method should be considered when these risks are considered
the lesser of the potential evils.

A check valve is recommended between the pumping unit and the well to act as a failsafe valve in
the event surface equipment should fail during the procedure. If possible, the cementing unit should
be used for better control and adequate pressure rating.

Large mud volume and LCM pills should be available in case major losses are experienced during
the operation.

In general, bullheading procedures can only be drawn up bearing in mind the particular
circumstances at the rig site. For example, there may be situations in which it is considered
necessary to cause a fracture downhole to bullhead away an influx containing H2S. In another
situation with shallow casing set, it may be considered very unacceptable to cause a fracture in the
open hole.

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WELL CONTROL CONSIDERATIONS - WITH OIL BASED MUD.

Kick Detection.

Kicks taken while drilling with oil base mud may be difficult to detect due to the serious problems
created by gas solubility in muds. Gas may go into solution during a kick instead of migrating
upwards as occurs with water base drilling fluids.

Unless the producing formation becomes considerably underbalanced when using OBM, the Driller
may not start seeing any changes in pit volumes until the gas influx (in solution in the OBM,
therefore, occupying little or no extra volume) has been pumped a considerable distance up the
wellbore. In this case, when the gas-saturated mud reaches a location where hydrostatic pressure
falls below the bubble point, the gas will start coming out of solution causing a very rapid increase
in flow. In some cases, this can unload the annulus resulting in large pit gains and high annulus
pressures. Since kicks can be best controlled if detected when they occur and not when the bubble
reaches the surface, the following procedures and recommendations should be considered when oil
based muds are in use.

Shut-in Procedures while Drilling.

If, while drilling with oil base mud, the Driller encounters any indication of a kick i.e. drilling
break, increase in flow, pit gain, decrease in pump pressure and/or increase in strokes, consideration
should be given to closing the well in even if a flow check proves inconclusive. If there is no
indication of flow, it does not necessarily mean that a kick has not taken place. It is recommended
that after the well has been closed in that a bottoms-up circulation through a fully open choke at a
selected slow circulation rate is carried out. The above course of action should be reviewed with the
operator prior to drilling with oil base mud. In any event, the drill crew will be informed of the
procedure to take if a kick warning sign occurs.

Special Precautions while Drilling.

1: Gas sensors must be installed.

2: Toolpusher must be notified of any changes in background gas or connection gas.

3: At no time will anything such as base oil, oil base mud or diesel oil be transferred directly
from supply boat to the active mud pits while drilling operations are in progress.

4: Flow checks taken after any kick indicators have been observed should be extended to
between 15 and 30 minutes on the trip tank.

5: If any changes are to be made to the active system such as mud transfers or solids control
equipment all the relevant parties must be informed prior to the start and as soon as
operations are finished.

6: Communication between the Driller, Loggers and Derrickman are essential.


Special Precautions while Tripping.

While circulating when back on bottom, if flow rate or pit gain indicate a kick, consider completing
the bottoms up circulating through the choke as you would in the Driller's method, as it could
indicate trip gas rather than an on bottom influx, and calculations of required kill mud using the
ordinary well control formulas at this time could result in excessive formation overbalance.

H2S - HYDROGEN SULPHIDE.

Properties.

Hydrogen sulphide H2S is one of the most poisonous of all naturally occurring gases. It occurs
worldwide in various concentrations in the scope of the drilling industry. It is extremely toxic,
explosive, and heavier than air. In small concentrations, it has an offensive rotten egg odour while
greater concentrations can paralyse the olfactory nerves so no odour is detected. When ignited it
burns with a blue flame producing sulphur dioxide, which also can cause serious injury.

Drilling Operations.

When drilling a well where H2S is suspected, sound practice demands that all personnel be trained
in special procedures relative to well control, testing and coring. In addition, it is recommended that
all H2S equipment be installed and functional 1,000 ft (300 meters) above or one week prior to
penetration of the suspected zone, or as necessary to comply with local regulations, whichever is
most stringent.

Well Control.

1: H2S monitoring equipment should be continually surveyed and tested regularly.

2: Personnel should be trained in H2S procedures and personal breathing apparatus usage.

3: When H2S is expected to surface, personal breathing apparatus should be worn.

Emergency Procedures.

In the event of an emergency situation involving the release of H2S into the atmosphere, at either
the visual or auditory alarm, all off duty and non-essential personnel should immediately secure
their personal breathing apparatus and proceed to the designated briefing area upwind of the
wellbore.
Special H2S Precautions.

If drilling known H2S zones the following should be considered:

1: All casing and tubing strings should be J-55, C-75 and C-95 material or special H2S
resistant grades.

2: BOPs and wellhead to be H2S trimmed.

3: Use Grade "E" or X-95 drill pipe whenever possible and limit use of Grade "G "or "S", drill
pipe.

4: Treat mud system to a pH of 12 - 13 with caustic soda and maintain 6 lb/bbl of lime for
corrosion protection.

5: Treat mud with 0.2 gal/bbl of Kontol 141 and 3 - 5 lbs/bbl of Milgard (Milchem) or
equivalent chemicals to avoid drill string failures.

6: Avoid drill stem testing unless with special tools.

7: Know maximum allowable overpull on string and avoid it.

KICKS WITH DRILL COLLARS OR CASING IN THE BOP STACKS.

Drill Collars.

The detection of a kick when the drill collars are in the BOP stack is a time of concern for the
safety of the crew and the drilling unit as the normal methods of secondary control using the BOPs
may fail. A kick of this nature can occur when the drill string is being pulled out of the hole and is
extremely hazardous for the following reasons:

1: As the hydrostatic pressure should always be high enough to balance the formation
pressure prior to pulling out of the hole, the kick is probably due to swabbing or a failure to
ensure the hole takes the correct amount of mud.

2: The force exerted by the wellbore pressure may exceed the weight of the drill collars.

3: The late detection of the kick could indicate that the influx is close to the surface. The
existence of the influx usually becomes apparent when the hoisting speed is reduced while
handling the heavy, cumbersome drill collars. This is probably because the bubble migration
rate and tripping speed are approximately equal.

4: In many cases, there is no float valve in the string and it is difficult to install a full opening
safety valve. The annulus can only be closed by the annular preventer, which may not be
able to prevent the drill collars from being lifted if the wellbore pressure is high.
When the kick has been detected, the Driller must quickly decide whether to close in the well and
strip/snub to bottom or as a last resort, to drop the drill collars. Unless everything is readily
available and the crew is well trained then it may be necessary to drop the drill collars and shut the
well in with the blind or blind/shear rams.

Shut-in Procedure with Surface BOPs.

If the well kicks while the drill collars are in the BOP, the following procedure should be followed:

1: Position the drill collars at the rig floor and set the slips.

2: Install the appropriate crossover.

3: Pick up a joint or a stand of drill pipe, make-up and run a joint or stand into the hole.

4: Make up full opening safety valve and close the valve.

5: Close the annular preventer.

6: Open the hydraulic controlled valve, close the remote choke, if applicable and read and
record pressures and pit gain.

7: Install an inside BOP above the safety valve.

The string can now be stripped/snubbed to bottom if necessary. If it is necessary to control the well
at the present depth then provision should be made to secure the drill pipe to the rotary table with
chains.

Dropping the Drill Collars.

A quick decision may have to be made by the Driller to drop the drill collars. The success of this
last resort method depends on the severity of the kick and quick implementation of the correct
procedure. One procedure for dropping the drill collars is as follows:

1: Position the elevators near the floor.

2: Close the annular preventer such that the elevators can be opened.

3: Open the annular preventer to drop the drill collars,

4: Close the blind or blind/ shear rams.

5: Open HCR/failsafe valve.

6: Read and record shut-in pressure and pit gain.

When the string is out of hole, the drill collars should be racked in such a way that the drill pipe can
be run in the hole first. Access to the stand with the drill pipe to drill collar x-over should be
maintained at all times.
CASING

Precautions to take when running casing:

1: Change the rams to the casing size (on surface stack) and test the BOP bonnets.

2: Prepare a circulating head.

3: Ensure a crossover from casing to drill pipe is onboard (floating rigs) to allow the string to
be hung off if needed.

4: Take care while filling up the casing. Use clean mud and ensure that junk does not fall into
the casing.

5: Record the annular volume between the casing and open hole and outer casing.

6: Calculate the running speed to allow an acceptable fluid velocity and a limited surge into
the open hole.

7: A record of the tank level is necessary and should be compared with the calculated volume
increment due to the metal displacement of the casing.

In case of a kick while RIH casing, if the shoe cannot be pulled above the shear /blind rams, the
casing rams should be closed (surface BOP) or the annular preventer shut-in (subsea BOP). Prior to
doing so, it is recommended that the circulating head should be installed in case of float equipment
failure. Due to the large size of the string, the weight of the casing may not be sufficient to
overcome the force pushing the casing out. The circulating head must be chained to the
substructure if necessary.
EXTRACT FROM API RP 59

Running Casing.

A kick while running casing can produce extreme complications. Stripping the casing to bottom
should only be attempted if the casing shoe is within a few joints of bottom. If only a short section
of casing is in the hole, annulus pressure will tend to force the casing upward, in which case it must
be tied down and filled with drilling fluid immediately. If a long section of casing is in the hole, the
combination of tension forces, external annulus pressure, and the force of the blowout preventers
could collapse the casing; therefore, annular blowout preventers should be closed with extreme care
and with the choke fully open. As the choke is closed or manipulated, casing should be carefully
observed. When long casing sections are exposed to annulus pressure, significant hook load
reductions will be observed as annulus pressure increases. Because of the relatively large diameter
casing and the small annulus area, pumping rates to displace the well fluids must be slower, and it
will take much longer to completely fill the casing with weighted drilling fluid.

Gas entering the casing can continue upward in spite of pumping and may complicate pumping
pressure calculations, but this problem can wait until the annulus has been completely displaced
with higher density drilling fluid to control the influx. Dangers of lost circulation and an
underground blowout are much greater while running casing due to the small annulus area. As a last
resort to gain well control, a barite plug may be pumped through the casing or casing may he
cemented in place.

Running Liner.

Well kicks which occur while running a liner in the hole can generally he handled in the same
manner as a kick which occurs while drilling. If the liner is near bottom, an attempt should be made
to strip it into the hole to the desired point before it becomes stuck. The influx can then be
circulated out, the drilling fluid conditioned, and the liner cemented in place. In some cases,
considerations should be given to stripping the liner back tip into the casing to prevent becoming
stuck in the unstable open hole. The annulus pressure may often be reduced by bullheading heavy
drilling fluid to overbalance the pressure. This may permit the preventers to be opened temporarily.
It must be noted that running pipe into the well under these conditions displaces part of the heavy
drilling fluid and may start the well flowing again. Pumping high density drilling fluid into the
annulus can cause or aggravate lost circulation below the casing shoe, and these effects must be
considered as a penalty for being able to conduct stripping operations with less or no pressure on
the annulus. After the influx zone is killed, the liner can be tripped out of the hole and the hole
reconditioned prior to rerunning the liner. If the well kick occurs while running the liner inside the
casing and the bottom of the liner is not as deep as the casing shoe, an attempt should be made to
strip the liner to the casing shoe but not into open hole below the shoe.
HYDRATES

Hydrates are a complex crystalline structure of hydrocarbons and water. In simple terms, a hydrate
is a frozen gas, commonly methane. Natural gas hydrates have the appearance of hard snow and
consist of chemical compounds of light hydrocarbons and liquid water. They are formed at
temperatures above the normal freezing point of water at certain conditions of temperature and
pressure. This formation process is accelerated when there are high gas velocities, pressure
pulsations or other agitations, such as downstream of a choke and at elbows, which cause the
mixing of hydrocarbon components.

Formation of Hydrates.

The formation of hydrates is dependant upon a combination of the following conditions:

1: The presence of free water.

2: Gas at or below its dew point.

3: Low temperature.

4: High pressure.

During well control operations, gas hydrates may cause the following serious problems:

1: Plugging of subsea choke/kill lines.

2: Preventing opening and closing of subsea BOPs.

3: Scaling off wellbore annuli and immobilising the drillstring.

4: Plugging up remote and manual chokes during well control operations.

5: Immobilising choke manifolds.

There have been recorded incidents of such occurrences with subsea stacks in water depth of 350m
and deeper. The plugging of surface lines at and downstream of the choke is particularly hazardous
when high gas flow rates are experienced through low-pressure equipment (such as the poor boy
separator and gas vent line). The formation of hydrate plugs under these conditions can rapidly
overpressure low-pressure well control equipment.

The major factors, which determine the potential for hydrate formation, are gas composition, liquid
content, pressure, and temperature. It should be noted that the conditions for hydrate formation
could be created at a subsea stack operating in a cold-water environment.
One or a combination of the following can combat hydrates:

1: Injecting antifreeze agents such as methanol into the gas flow, this has the effect of
dissolving liquid water deposits, and thus lowering the temperature at which hydrates would
be expected to form. Methanol is often injected at the subsea test tree during well testing
operations from a floating rig. The most appropriate place to inject methanol at surface is at
the choke manifold. The point of injection should be upstream of the choke. High-pressure
chemical injection pumps are suitable for this application.

2: Heating the gas above the temperature at which hydrates may form. During gas well testing
operations, a stream exchanger will usually be provided for this purpose. Experience has
shown that this is the most effective and reliable method of preventing the formation of
hydrates. The combination of heating and antifreeze injection is ideal.

3: Reducing line pressure in order to allow the hydrates to melt. This is a temporary measure
and not always practical. Once hydrates have formed, it often takes a considerable length of
time to clear the line.

4: Reducing free water by using oil based muds or maximizing the chloride content of water
based mud.

5: Maintaining circulating temperature as high as possible.

6: Injecting glycol at a rate of 0.5 gallon per minute on the upstream side of a choke or line.

It is important that adequate contingency is provided, along the above lines, to deal with hydrates,
if it is suspected that the potential exists for hydrate formation. Subsea water temperatures and
pressures should be checked as well as the potential for hydrate formation at surface in the event of
a gas kick. It is aggravated by pressure drop/gas expansion (e.g. through a choke) and pressure
pulsations. Hydrates usually occur in production and drilling operations in cold climates such as
northern Canada, where they can be a routine occurrence.

Well Control Considerations.

Hydrates can cause severe problems by forming a plug in valves or chokes completely blocking
flow. Upstream pressure then increases, which compounds the problem. The two critical areas are
the passage in to the choke fine through the failsafes and at the choke itself. The resulting pressure
drop as the gas passes through these restrictions and the sudden increase in velocity causes
expansion cooling of the gas immediately downstream of the choke. Prevention of hydrate
formation is a great deal less difficult than removal of hydrates once they have formed. In areas
where hydrate formation is possible it is essential that at least one of the four conditions necessary
for hydrate formation be controlled in such a way that hydrate formation cannot occur.

It may be necessary to inject methanol to suppress hydrate formation. This is normal practice on
surface choke manifolds and whereas it could also apply at the BOP stack, this has not been
attempted. If hydrates do form and plug off a choke or line they can be very difficult to remove.

Considerable heat is required for decomposition. Such decomposition can be explosive since once
the process begins it will continue extremely quickly. The best method of decomposing hydrates is
to circulate hot brine solution.
Drilling Considerations.

Obviously, if an oil-based mud is being used there is no further problem. With water based muds,
maintaining a high chloride concentration in the mud will serve to lower the freezing point. A
further precautionary method is to displace the choke and kill lines to methanol, which will prevent
hydrate formation in the BOP stack. For methane, hydrates will form at pressures of 380 psi and
temperatures up to 0 C (320 F). At 5,000 psi, the temperatures must be less than 240 C (750 F).

NO CIRCULATION

Plugged Bit.

If circulation cannot re-establish by increasing the pump pressure, a wireline operation should be
planned to try to open the bit with a string shot or perforate as far down the string as possible.

While rigging up to perforate, observe SICP for gas migration. If gas migration is suspected,
consider using the Volumetric method to control BHP.

Bit out of Hole.

If the well kicks when the bit is out of hole and it is impossible to get back into the hole with the
BOP open, the well must be shut-in with the blind or blind/shear rams and the well pressure
observed. Stripping procedures can be planned according to the well pressure.

A calculation must be made to check if the upward force is greater than the weight of the drill string
(IBOP is installed at lower end of the string).

Force = Pressure x Area

We must add the friction generated while stripping through the annular preventer (+/-5-10 tons). If
the upward force due to the well pressure acting on the lower end of the string is greater than the
weight of the string, it will be necessary to force the pipe through the stripping preventer by means
of snubbing operation. Depending on preparation time to apply the technique chosen, the surface
pressure can be reduced according to the Volumetric method. As an alternative bullheading may
also be considered.

Determining Shut-in Drill Pipe Pressure with a Float Valve in the Drill String.

There are a number of methods that can be utilized to open a float so shut-in drill pipe pressure can
be determined. The two most widely applied methods are as follows:

Method 1.

Pump into the closed in wellbore through the drill pipe at a slow rate and closely monitor drill pipe
and shut-in casing pressure. When the casing pressure just begins to rise, shut off the pumps and
record the drillpipe pressure. This value will be the shut-in drill pipe pressure.
Method 2.

Bring pump to kill speed holding a constant casing pressure (for subsea stacks, reduce casing
pressure by choke line friction loss, if known or maintain the kill line pressure constant). When the
pump is up to kill rate speed, switch to the drill pipe gauge and read Initial Circulating Pressure.
Subtract the slow circulation rate pressure from initial circulating pressure. This value will be the
shut-in drill pipe pressure.

TERTIARY CONTROL

In the event that secondary control cannot be properly maintained due to hole conditions or
equipment failure, certain emergency procedures can be implemented to prevent the loss of control.
These procedures are referred to as Tertiary Control and usually lead to partial or complete
abandonment of the well.

Unlike primary and secondary control, there are no established tertiary well control procedures that
will work in most situations. The procedures to be applied depends on the particular operating
conditions which are encountered, and specific recommendations regarding appropriate tertiary
control procedures cannot be given until the circumstances leading to the loss of secondary control
are established.

However, there are two procedures, which are widely used. These involve the use of:

1: Barite plugs.

2: Cement plugs.

Barite Plugs.

A barite plug is slurry of barite in fresh water or diesel oil, which is spotted in the hole to form a
barite bridge that will seal the formation fluid flow and allow control of the well to be re-
established.

The plug is displaced through the drill string and, if conditions allow, the string is pulled up to a
safe point above the plug. The barite settles out rapidly to form an impermeable mass capable of
shutting off high rates of flow.

The effectiveness of a barite plug derives from the high density and fine particle size of the barite
and its ability to form a tough impermeable barrier. To be effective, the slurry must have the
following properties:

1: The viscosity and yield point should be as low as possible to ensure a rapid settling rate and
prevent channelling. High quality barite with low clay content should be used where
possible.

2: The slurry should have a high density, at least 3ppg greater than the mud density.

3: The fluid loss should be high to allow rapid dehydration of the slurry. The high fluid loss
can sometimes cause the hole to slough and bridge itself.
A barite plug has the following advantages:

1: It can be pumped through the bit and offers a reasonable chance of recovering the drill
string.

2: The material required is normally available at the rig site.

3: The plug can be drilled easily if required.

The main disadvantage is the risk of settling and consequent plugging of the drill string if pumping
is stopped before the slurry has been completely displaced.

Two types of barite slurries can be used:

1: Barite - fresh water slurry.

2: Barite - diesel oil slurry.

Cement Plugs.

A cement plug can be used to shut off a downhole flow. However, this generally involves
abandonment of the well and loss of most of the drilling tools.

Cement plugs are set by pumping a quantity of quick setting (accelerated) cement into the annulus
via the drill string. The cement is usually displaced until the pump and choke pressures indicate that
a bridge has formed. Quick setting cement reduces the possibility of gas cutting.

If a cement plug has to be set off bottom with mud below it, then consideration should be given to
spotting as plug of viscous mud below the zone to be plugged off. This precaution should be
considered in long or deviated hole when the cement slurry is substantially heavier than the mud.

Setting a cement plug offers little chance of recovering the drill string. It is also likely that the
string will become plugged after pumping the cement, precluding any second attempt if the first
should not succeed. Therefore, cement plugging should be regarded as the final option.
EQUIPMENT PROBLEMS

Washed out Choke.

When the well is controlled using the Driller's method or the Wait and Weight method, constant
pump strokes must be maintained to detect any change in the circulating system i.e. choke washout.

A choke is unlikely to suddenly cut out. In this respect, there will not be any dramatic indication
that this problem is occurring.

As a choke washes out it will become necessary to gradually close it in to maintain circulating
pressure. If the operator finds that he has to gradually close in the choke to maintain circulating
pressure, the first reaction should be to check the pit volume to ensure that lost circulation is not
occurring.

Having established that there is no loss of circulation a washed out choke should be suspected.

There may come a stage when it is no longer possible to maintain a suitable circulating pressure
even with the choke apparently fully closed. At or preferably before this stage, the flow should be
switched to another choke and repairs affected to the worn choke.

If a washed-out choke is suspected the well should be shut-in. The secondary circuit using a spare
adjustable choke should be prepared. Well control procedures will be re-established using the spare
adjustable choke.

Immediate repair action on the washed-out choke should be considered.

Plugged Choke.

A plugged choke is indicated by an unexpected increase in choke pressure accompanied after a


period by an equal increase in drillpipe pressure. Some plugging of the choke is to be expected if
the annulus is loaded with cuttings.

Clearly, the first course of action is to open the choke in an attempt to both clear the restriction in
the choke and to avoid over pressuring the well. If this action is not successful, the pump should be
stopped immediately. After switching to an alternate choke the excess pressure in the well should
be bled-off at, the choke and the displacement restarted in the usual manner.

One of the reasons for displacing a kick at slow circulation rates is to avoid over pressuring the well
if cuttings plug the choke. In this respect, circulation rates should be minimised in critical
conditions if the annulus is likely to contain a substantial volume of cuttings.
Annular Preventer.

The most vulnerable part of the annular preventer is the rubber packer unit, which is subject to
wear. The annular should never be closed on open hole during function testing as this will shorten
the life of the packing element.

When packing element leakage occurs during kick control, a pipe ram preventer should be closed
and if necessary, a second set of ram preventers should be equipped with pipe rams before the
killing operation is resumed.

Close monitoring of the integrity of the annular should be made by circulating above the closed
preventer using the Trip Tank and regularly recording the volume in it.

Packing Unit Replacement with Drill Pipe in Hole (Surface Stack):

1: Disconnect bell nipple.

2: Remove BOP head.

3: Attach and secure BOP head and bell nipple under rotary table.

4: Cut with knife and remove worn, packing unit.

5: Cut new packing unit, for easier cutting exert tension between segments, use a knife and
water. (Do not use a saw or other rough cutting tool).

6: Install the new packing unit.

7: Replace BOP head and bell nipple.

Ram Packer Damage.

To prevent rapid deterioration of ram packers the following precautions should be observed:

1: Recommended hydraulic pressure should be used to operate ram preventer 1,500 psi.
(Higher pressures may be required to shear pipe with shear rams).

2: Never close the ram on open hole during function tests.

On surface stacks, where only one other set of rams is available, the bottom rams should be closed
and the damaged ram packers changed before the killing operation is resumed. If during the time
necessary to change ram packers the surface pressures increase, the DP pressure may be kept
constant, if necessary and safely feasible, by bleeding through the stand pipe manifold. If two or
more rams are still available, the Toolpusher/Drilling Supervisor will decide whether to change the
damaged rams or continue with the kill.
Mud Pump Problems.

Efficiency of the pumps is very important in all well control calculations. The Toolpusher/Driller
should know the efficiency of the pumps at the low rate (a percentage which can be different from
high rate efficiency).

If pump failure occurs during kick control, this can be observed by:

1: Rotary hose vibration.

2: Variation in DP pressure.

3: Peaks of pressure on DP pressure gauge.

4: Pump hydraulic knocking.

If any of the above indicators are noticed, the well should be shut-in and the following action taken.

1: Isolate the pump.

2: Line up the reserve mud pump.

3: Resume the kick control operation.

4: Repair the failed pump immediately.

If the second pump fails when the first one is still under repair the kick control will be stopped and
well shut-in, bottom hole pressure can be kept constant by maintaining a constant DP pressure,
bleeding off as necessary through the choke.

Pressure Gauge Failure.

Every effort should be made to ensure that all pressure gauges are working correctly, and that back
- up gauges are available in the event of failure of a pressure gauge during a well control operation.
Should gauge failure occur during a well control operation it is important that the defective gauge
be replaced as quickly as possible. If there is no back-up gauge immediately available, stop the
operation and shut in the well.
Use of Shear Rams.

Shear rams can be used to cut drillpipe and then act as a blind ram in order to isolate the drilling rig
from the well. Shearing the pipe is a technique that will be required only in exceptional
circumstances.

The use of the shear rams can be considered in the following situations:

1: In preference to dropping the pipe in the event of an uncontrollable blowout up the


drillstring (an internal blowout).

2: When it becomes necessary to move a floating rig off location at short notice.

Shear rams are designed to shear effectively only on the body of the drillpipe. Procedures for the
use of shear rams must therefore ensure that there is no tool joint opposite the ram prior to shearing.
Be aware that many subsea stacks have insufficient clearance between the top pipe rams and the
shear rams to hang off on the top rams and shear the pipe.

Specialist shear rams, such as the Cameron Super Shear rams, are designed to shear 7” drill collars
and casing up to 133/8” O.D. It is clearly important however, that rig site personnel are aware of the
capabilities and operating parameters of the shear rams. Maximum operating pressure should be
used to shear the pipe.

The following procedure can be used as a guideline for shearing the pipe in the case of an internal
blowout:

1: Space out to ensure that there is no tool joint opposite the shear rams.

2: Close the hang-off ram.

3: Hang-off on the rams and energise ram locks.

4: Ensure that the pipe above the hang off rams remains in tension.

5: Prepare to operate the shear rams.

6: Close the shear rams at maximum accumulator pressure.

7: Energise shear ram locks, monitor the well and implement appropriate control procedures.
Plugged Bit Nozzle.

A plugged nozzle in the bit is indicated by an unexpected sudden increase in drillpipe pressure,
which then stabilises, with little or no change in the choke pressure.

The choke operator may be tempted to open the choke in an attempt to reduce the drillpipe pressure
to the original circulating pressure. This will result in a drop in choke pressure and a corresponding
drop in bottom hole pressure.

Therefore should a plugged bit nozzle be suspected, the pump should be stopped, the well shut-in
and the pump restarted to establish the increased standpipe pressure that will maintain a suitable
bottom hole pressure.

An increase in drillpipe pressure could also be caused by the hole packing off around the BHA.
This would be likely to cause a slow steady increase, through fluctuating circulating pressures. A
hole pack-off will also increase bottom hole pressure and should be recognised as soon as possible.
The drillstring should be rotated and reciprocated in order to clear this problem.

If the bit becomes totally plugged, this will cause an abrupt and continually increasing drillpipe
pressure, with little or no change in choke pressure. In this event, if increased drillpipe pressure
does not clear the problem, the string must be perforated as close as possible to the bit in order to
re-establish circulation.

It is good practice, especially in critical hole sections, to run a circulating sub above the bit or
above a core barrel.

Drillstring Washout.

A washout in the drillstring may be indicated by an unexpected steady drop in drillpipe pressure,
while the choke pressure remains unchanged. A recommended procedure in the event of a
drillstring washout is to stop the pump and shut the well in.

Every effort must be made to ensure that the washout is not enlarged by extended circulation and
drillstring manipulation. The most critical situation would be in the event of a washout close to the
surface. Should this occur, it is unlikely that it will be possible to displace the influx from the hole
effectively, unless the influx is above the washout.

If the washout is identified as being near the bottom of the well, it may be possible to displace the
kick from the well effectively. In this case, there will of course be the risk of parting the drillstring
with continued circulation.

Regardless of the depth of the washout, it will be necessary to re-establish the correct circulating
pressure if the pump is restarted. Excessive downhole pressures may be caused if the original
circulating pressure is maintained at the standpipe. It is advisable to periodically re-establish the
circulating pressure, if the circulation is contained for prolonged periods through a washout.
Stuck Pipe.

The complication of stuck pipe during a well control operation can cause serious problems; most
especially if the pipe is stuck off bottom. Unfortunately, the likelihood of the pipe becoming stuck
during a well control operation is increased if the pipe is off bottom. The pipe should be rotated, to
minimise the risk of sticking the pipe, if the well is shut-in with the pipe off bottom and the BHA in
open hole.

Due to the relatively high wellbore pressures during a well control operation, the most likely cause
of stuck pipe is differential sticking. However, mechanical sticking may result if the hole sloughs
and packs-off because of the contact with the influx fluids.

If the pipe is differentially stuck with the bit on bottom, continue the operation because it is most
likely that circulation can still be carried out in order to kill the well. Efforts to free the pipe can be
made once the well has been killed.

Should the pipe be differentially stuck with the bit off bottom, the situation is complicated in that it
will generally not be possible to reduce the wellbore pressure at that depth by circulation. It may be
possible to free the pipe by spotting a freeing agent. However, if the influx was swabbed in, it may
be possible to regain control of the well by volumetric control.

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