Susskind - Solutions Manual The Theoretical Minimum 2 PDF

Quantum Mechanics
The Theoretical Minimum
Leonard Susskind
Art Friedman
Stanford University, Continuing Studies

Palo Alto, California
Exercises by Filip Van Lijsebetten

filipvl@vanlijsebetten.be
2015
Table of Contents
Lecture 1 – Exercise 1, 2
Lecture 2 – Exercise 1, 2, 3
Lecture 3 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
Lecture 4 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
Lecture 5 – Exercise 1, 2
Lecture 6 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
Lecture 7 – Exercise 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12
Lecture 8 – Exercise 1
Lecture 9 – Exercise 1, 2, 3
Lecture 10 – Exercise 1
Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

filipvl@vanlijsebetten.be 1
The Theoretical Minimum – Quantum Mechanics – Exercise 1.1
1) Using the axioms for inner products, prove {⟨𝑨| + ⟨𝑩|} |𝑪⟩ = 〈𝑨|𝑪〉 + 〈𝑩|𝑪〉.
The axioms are ⟨𝐶| {|𝐴⟩ + |𝐵⟩} = ⟨𝐶|𝐴⟩ + ⟨𝐶|𝐵⟩ and ⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐴|𝐵⟩∗ .
{⟨𝐴| + ⟨𝐵|} |𝐶⟩

= (𝐶| {|𝐴⟩ + |𝐵⟩})∗ second axiom
= (⟨𝐶|𝐴⟩ + ⟨𝐶|𝐵⟩)∗ first axiom
= 〈𝐶|𝐴〉∗ + 〈𝐶|𝐵〉∗ the complex conjugate of a sum is the sum of the complex conjugates (1)
= 〈𝐴|𝐶〉 + 〈𝐵|𝐶〉 second axiom
2) Prove 〈𝑨|𝑨〉 is a real number.
We use the second axiom for inner products.
〈𝐴|𝐴〉 = 〈𝐴|𝐴〉∗
We know that any inner product is a complex number.

Any complex number that is equal to its own complex conjugate is a real number.
(1) 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ
Let 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 and 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖 be two complex numbers.
[(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖)]∗

= (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖)∗
= (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 + 𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖)
= (𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 − 𝑑𝑖)
= (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖)∗ + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖)∗

Show that the inner product defined by Eq. 1.2 satisfies all the axioms of inner products.
𝛼1
Eq. 1.2 is ⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩ = (𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽3 ) ( 2 ) = 𝛽1 ∗ 𝛼1 + 𝛽2 ∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛽3 ∗ 𝛼3
𝛼 ∗ ∗ ∗
𝛼3
The axioms are ⟨𝐶| {|𝐴⟩ + |𝐵⟩} = ⟨𝐶|𝐴⟩ + ⟨𝐶|𝐵⟩ and ⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐴|𝐵⟩∗ .
⟨𝐶| {|𝐴⟩ + |𝐵⟩}

𝛼1 𝛽1
∗ ∗ ∗ 𝛼 𝛽
= (𝛾1 𝛾2 𝛾3 ) [( 2 ) + ( 2 )]
𝛼3 𝛽3
𝛼1 + 𝛽1
= (𝛾1 ∗ 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛾3 ∗ ) [(𝛼2 + 𝛽2 )]
𝛼3 + 𝛽3
= 𝛾1 ∗ 𝛼1 + 𝛾1 ∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛽2 + 𝛾3 ∗ 𝛼3 + 𝛾3 ∗ 𝛽3
= 𝛾1 ∗ 𝛼1 + 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛾3 ∗ 𝛼3 + 𝛾1 ∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛽2 + 𝛾3 ∗ 𝛽3
𝛼1 𝛽1
= (𝛾1 ∗ 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛾3 ∗ ) (𝛼2 ) + (𝛾1 ∗ 𝛾2 ∗ 𝛾3 ∗ ) (𝛽2 )
𝛼3 𝛽3
⟨𝐶|𝐴⟩ + ⟨𝐶|𝐵⟩
⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩
𝛼1
∗ ∗ ∗
= (𝛽1 𝛽2 𝛽3 ) (𝛼2 )
𝛼3
= 𝛽1 ∗ 𝛼1 + 𝛽2 ∗ 𝛼2 + 𝛽3 ∗ 𝛼3
= 𝛼1 𝛽1 ∗ + 𝛼2 𝛽2 ∗ + 𝛼3 𝛽3 ∗
= (𝛼1 ∗ 𝛽1 + 𝛼2 ∗ 𝛽2 + 𝛼3 ∗ 𝛽3 )∗
𝛽1 ∗
∗ ∗ ∗
= [(𝛼1 𝛼2 𝛼3 ) (𝛽2 )]
𝛽3
= ⟨𝐴|𝐵⟩∗

Prove that the vector |𝒓⟩ in Eq. 2.5 is orthogonal to vector |𝒍⟩ in Eq. 2.6.
1 1
|𝑟⟩ = |𝑢⟩ + |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
1 1
|𝑙⟩ = |𝑢⟩ − |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
Two vectors are orthogonal if their inner product is 0.
1
1 1
√2 = 1 − 1 = 0
⟨𝑟|𝑙⟩ = ( )
√2 √2 − 1 2 2
( √2)

Prove that |𝒊⟩ and |𝒐⟩ satisfy all of the conditions in Eqs. 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9. Are they unique in that
respect?
|𝑢⟩ = 1|𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑⟩

|𝑑⟩ = 0|𝑢⟩ + 1|𝑑⟩
1 1
|𝑟⟩ = |𝑢⟩ + |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
1 1
|𝑙⟩ = |𝑢⟩ − |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
1 𝑖
|𝑖⟩ = |𝑢⟩ + |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
1 𝑖
|𝑜⟩ = |𝑢⟩ − |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
1
1 −𝑖 1 𝑖2 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑜⟩ = ( ) √2 = + = − =0
√2 √2 −𝑖 2 2 2 2
(√2)
1
1 𝑖 1 1 1 1
⟨𝑜|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑜⟩ = [( ) ( )] (1 0) √2 = =
√2 √2 0 𝑖 √2 √2 2
−
[ ( √2)]
1
1 𝑖0 √2 𝑖 −𝑖 1
⟨𝑜|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑜⟩ = [( ) ( )] (0 1) = =
√2 √2 1 𝑖 √2 √2 2
−
[ ( √2)]
1
1 −𝑖 1 1 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑖⟩ = [( ) ( )] (1 0) √2 = =
√2 √2 0 𝑖 √2 √2 2
[ (√2)]
1
1 −𝑖 0 √2 −𝑖 𝑖 1
⟨𝑖|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑖⟩ = [( ) ( )] (0 1) = =
√2 √2 1 𝑖 √2 √2 2
[ (√2)]

1 1
1 𝑖 1 1 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 1 𝑖2 1 1 1
⟨𝑜|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑜⟩ = ( ) √2 ( √2
) = ( + )( − ) = − = + =
√2 √2 1 √2 √2 − 𝑖 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2
[ (√2)] [ ( √2)]
1 1
1 𝑖 1 −1 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 1 𝑖2 1 1 1
⟨𝑜|𝑙⟩⟨𝑙|𝑜⟩ = ( ) √2 ( ) √2 = ( − )( + ) = − = + =
√2 √2 −1 √2 √2 − 𝑖 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2
[ ( √2 )] [ ( √2)]
1 1
1 −𝑖 1
1 𝑖 1 𝑖 1 1 𝑖2 1 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑖⟩ = ( ) √2 ( ) √2 = ( − ) ( + ) = − = + =
√2 √2 1 √2 √2 𝑖 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2
[ (√2)] [ (√2)]
1 1
1 −𝑖 1 −1 1 𝑖 1 𝑖 1 𝑖2 1 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑙⟩⟨𝑙|𝑖⟩ = ( ) √2 ( ) √2 = ( + )( − ) = − = + =
√2 √2 −1 √2 √2 𝑖 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 2
[ ( √2 )] [ (√2)]
The vectors are not unique in that respect. It’s always possible to multiply any of them by a phase factor
and still get the same results. Here’s an example. As we know, 𝜃 ∈ ℝ.
|𝑥⟩ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 |𝑢⟩ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 |𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑⟩
𝑖𝜃
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝜃
|𝑦⟩ = 𝑒 |𝑜⟩ = |𝑢⟩ − |𝑑⟩
√2 √2
𝑒 𝑖𝜃
𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑖𝜃 √2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 1 1 1
⟨𝑦|𝑥⟩⟨𝑥|𝑦⟩ = [( ) (𝑒 )] (𝑒 −𝑖𝜃 0) 𝑖𝜃
= = =
√2 √2 0 𝑖𝑒 √2 √2 √2 √2 2
−
[ ( √2 )]

For the moment, forget that Eqs. 2.10 give us working definitions for |𝒊⟩ and |𝒐⟩ in terms of |𝒖⟩ and
|𝒅⟩, and assume that the components 𝜶, 𝜷, 𝜸 and 𝜹 are unknown:
|𝒊⟩ = 𝜶|𝒖⟩ + 𝜷|𝒅⟩

|𝒐⟩ = 𝜸|𝒖⟩ + 𝜹|𝒅⟩
a) Use Eqs. 2.8 to show that
𝟏
𝜶∗ 𝜶 = 𝜷∗ 𝜷 = 𝜸∗ 𝜸 = 𝜹∗ 𝜹 =
𝟐
b) Use the above result and Eqs. 2.9 to show that
𝜶∗ 𝜷 + 𝜶𝜷∗ = 𝜸∗ 𝜹 + 𝜸𝜹∗ = 𝟎
c) Show that 𝜶∗ 𝜷 and 𝜸∗ 𝜹 must each be pure imaginary.
If 𝜶∗ 𝜷 is pure imaginary, then 𝜶 and 𝜷 cannot both be real. The same reasoning applies to 𝜸∗ 𝜹.
a)
1
⟨𝑜|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑜⟩ = ⟨𝑜|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑜⟩ = ⟨𝑖|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑖⟩ = ⟨𝑖|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑖⟩ =
2
1 1 𝛾 1 1
⟨𝑜|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑜⟩ = ⇔ [(𝛾∗ 𝛿∗ ) ( )] [(1 0) ( )] = ⇔ 𝛾∗ 𝛾 =
2 0 𝛿 2 2
1 0 𝛾 1 1
⟨𝑜|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑜⟩ = ⇔ [(𝛾∗ 𝛿∗ ) ( )] [(0 1) ( )] = ⇔ 𝛿∗ 𝛿 =
2 1 𝛿 2 2
1 1 𝛼 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑢⟩⟨𝑢|𝑖⟩ = ⇔ [(𝛼∗ 𝛽∗ ) ( )] [(1 0) (𝛽)] = ⇔ 𝛼∗ 𝛼 =
2 0 2 2
1 0 𝛼 1 1
⟨𝑖|𝑑⟩⟨𝑑|𝑖⟩ = ⇔ [(𝛼∗ 𝛽∗ ) ( )] [(0 1) (𝛽)] = ⇔ 𝛽∗ 𝛽 =
2 1 2 2
b)
1
⟨𝑜|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑜⟩ = ⟨𝑜|𝑙⟩⟨𝑙|𝑜⟩ = ⟨𝑖|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑖⟩ = ⟨𝑖|𝑙⟩⟨𝑙|𝑖⟩ =
2
1
∗ ∗ √2 1 1 𝛾 𝛾∗ 𝛿∗ 𝛾 𝛿 𝛾∗ + 𝛿∗ 𝛾 + 𝛿
⟨𝑜|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑜⟩ = (𝛾 𝛿) [( ) ( )] = ( + ) ( + ) = ( )( )
1 √2 √2 𝛿 √2 √2 √ 2 √2 √2 √2
[ ( √ 2) ]
1 ∗ ∗ 1
𝛾 ∗ 𝛾 + 𝛾 ∗ 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿 ∗ + 𝛿 ∗ 𝛿 2 + 𝛾 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿 + 2 1 + 𝛾 ∗ 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿 ∗
= = =
2 2 2
1 + 𝛾∗ 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿∗ 1
⇔ = ⇔ 1 + 𝛾∗ 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿∗ = 1 ⇔ 𝛾∗ 𝛿 + 𝛾𝛿∗ = 0
2 2

1
∗ √2
∗
1 1 𝛼 𝛼∗ 𝛽∗ 𝛼 𝛽 𝛼∗ + 𝛽∗ 𝛼 + 𝛽
⟨𝑖|𝑟⟩⟨𝑟|𝑖⟩ = (𝛼 𝛽) [( ) ( )] = ( + ) ( + ) = ( )( )
1 √2 √2 𝛽 √2 √2 √ 2 √2 √2 √2
[ ( √ 2) ]
1 ∗ ∗ 1
𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 + 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 ∗ + 𝛽 ∗ 𝛽 2 + 𝛼 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 + 2 1 + 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 ∗
= = =
2 2 2
1 + 𝛼∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽∗ 1
⇔ = ⇔ 1 + 𝛼∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽∗ = 1 ⇔ 𝛼∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽∗ = 0
2 2
c)
𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 ∗ = 0 ⇔ 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = −𝛼𝛽 ∗ = −[(𝛼 ∗ 𝛽)∗ ]

Let 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 with 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Then (𝛼 ∗ 𝛽)∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖.
It follows from the above that
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = −(𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖) ⇔ 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 = −𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 ⇔ 𝑎 = −𝑎
This is only possible if 𝑎 = 0. So 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = 0 + 𝑏𝑖 = 𝑏𝑖 is pure imaginary.
An analogue reasoning goes for 𝛾 ∗ 𝛿.

Prove the following: if a vector space is 𝑵-dimensional, an orthonormal basis of 𝑵 vectors can be
constructed from the eigenvectors of a Hermitian operator.
The dimension of a space is defined as the maximum number of mutually orthogonal vectors in that
space. So a complex vector space of 𝑁 dimensions always has exactly 𝑁 mutually orthogonal unit
vectors that form an orthonormal basis.
The standard orthonormal basis is often referred to as ê1 , ê2 , … , ê𝑛 .
But starting with any vector 𝑢

⃗ 1 , we can find exactly 𝑁 − 1 other mutually orthogonal vectors.
Dividing them by their own length would normalize them. This way we have again an orthonormal basis
û1 , û2 , … , û𝑛 .
A Hermitian operator 𝐿 in a complex vector space of 𝑁 dimensions is an 𝑁 × 𝑁 matrix. We know that

the basic eigenvalue equation is 𝐿|𝜆⟩ = 𝜆|𝜆⟩. We can also write this as 𝐿|𝜆⟩ − 𝐼𝜆|𝜆⟩ = 0 or
(𝐿 − 𝐼𝜆)|𝜆⟩ = 0. This means that there is a nonzero vector that, when multiplied by (𝐿 − 𝐼𝜆), gets
mapped to zero. This means that the determinant of (𝐿 − 𝐼𝜆) is zero. This gives us the characteristic
equation |𝐿 − 𝐼𝜆| = 0. Knowing that (𝐿 − 𝐼𝜆) is an 𝑁 × 𝑁 matrix, the characteristic equation gives us 𝑁
roots. These roots are the solutions for 𝜆, and so we have 𝑁 eigenvalues. Plugging the eigenvalues back
into the basic eigenvalue equation will give us 𝑁 corresponding eigenvectors.
We know that eigenvectors with different eigenvalues are orthogonal to each other.
Some eigenvectors can have the same eigenvalue. But we also know that any linear combination of
eigenvectors is also an eigenvector and that we can therefore always choose the eigenvectors to be
orthogonal.
So in the complex vector space of 𝑁 dimensions we can always find 𝑁 mutually orthogonal eigenvectors
of a Hermitian 𝑁 × 𝑁 operator. If we normalize these vectors, by dividing them by their own length,
they still are eigenvectors. These 𝑁 eigenvectors form a legal orthonormal basis of the 𝑁-dimensional
complex vector space.

Prove that Eq. 3.16 is the unique solution to Eqs. 3.14 and 3.15.
3.14
(𝜎 ) (𝜎𝑧 )12 1 1
( 𝑧 11 )( ) = ( )
(𝜎𝑧 )21 (𝜎𝑧 )22 0 0
3.15
(𝜎 ) (𝜎𝑧 )12 0 0
( 𝑧 11 )( ) = −( )
(𝜎𝑧 )21 (𝜎𝑧 )22 1 1
3.16
(𝜎 ) (𝜎𝑧 )12 1 0
( 𝑧 11 )=( )
(𝜎𝑧 )21 (𝜎𝑧 )22 0 −1
We work out Eqs. 3.14 and 3.15.

(𝜎𝑧 )11 ∙ 1 + (𝜎𝑧 )12 ∙ 0 = (𝜎𝑧 )11 = 1
(𝜎𝑧 )21 ∙ 1 + (𝜎𝑧 )22 ∙ 0 = (𝜎𝑧 )21 = 0
(𝜎𝑧 )11 ∙ 0 + (𝜎𝑧 )12 ∙ 1 = (𝜎𝑧 )12 = 0
(𝜎𝑧 )21 ∙ 0 + (𝜎𝑧 )22 ∙ 1 = (𝜎𝑧 )22 = −1
These lead to exactly one solution for Eq. 3.16.

(𝜎 ) (𝜎𝑧 )12 1 0
( 𝑧 11 )=( )
(𝜎𝑧 )21 (𝜎𝑧 )22 0 −1

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝝈𝒏 = ( )
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜶
Calculate the eigenvectors and eigenvalues of 𝝈𝒏 . Assume the eigenvector |𝝀𝟏 ⟩ has the form ( ),
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜶
where 𝜶 is an unknown parameter. Plug this vector into the eigenvalue equation and solve for 𝜶 in
terms of 𝜽. Why did we use a single parameter 𝜶? Notice that our suggested column vector must have
unit length.
The length of a vector is √⟨𝜆|𝜆⟩ or √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 which is indeed equal to 1.

𝜎𝑛 is a single spin operator, so we will have 2 eigenvalues and their corresponding eigenvectors.
𝐿|𝜆⟩ = 𝜆|𝜆⟩
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 cos 𝛼
⇔ ( )( ) = 𝜆( )
sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 sin 𝛼
cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 = 𝜆 cos 𝛼
⇔ {
sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 = 𝜆 sin 𝛼
cos (𝜃 − 𝛼) = 𝜆 cos 𝛼
⇔ {
sin (𝜃 − 𝛼) = 𝜆 sin 𝛼
cos (𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝜆=
⇔ { cos 𝛼
sin (𝜃 − 𝛼)
𝜆=
sin 𝛼
cos (𝜃 − 𝛼) sin (𝜃 − 𝛼)
=
cos 𝛼 sin 𝛼
⇔ cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼 − sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) cos 𝛼 = 0
⇔ sin(𝛼 − 𝜃 + 𝛼) = 0 ⇔ sin(2𝛼 − 𝜃) = 0
𝜃
2𝛼 − 𝜃 = 0 ⇔ 𝛼1 =
{ 2
𝜃 𝜋
2𝛼 − 𝜃 = 𝜋 ⇔ 𝛼2 = +
2 2
𝜃 𝜃
cos cos
𝜆1 = 2 = 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜆 ⟩ = ( 2)
𝜃 1 𝜃
cos 2 sin
2
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
cos (𝜃 − 2 − 2 ) cos (2 − 2 ) cos ( + ) −sin
𝜆2 = = = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝜆2 ⟩ = ( 2 2 )= ( 2)
𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃 𝜋 𝜃
cos ( + ) cos ( + ) sin ( + ) cos
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

Let 𝒏𝒛 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 , 𝒏𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓 , 𝒏𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓. Angles 𝜽 and 𝝓 are defined according to the
usual conventions for spherical coordinates. Compute the eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the matrix
of Eq. 3.23.
𝑛𝑧 (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
Eq. 3.23 gives 𝜎 ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝜎𝑛 = [ ].
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) −𝑛𝑧
This matrix has two eigenvalues. The trace of this matrix is 0.

We know that 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 = 1. So the determinant is −𝑛𝑥 2 − 𝑛𝑦 2 − 𝑛𝑧 2 = −1.
This means that 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 = 0 and 𝜆1 𝜆2 = −1. This leads to 𝜆1 = +1 and 𝜆2 = −1.
Now we fill in the values for the elements of the matrix.

cos 𝜃 (sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 − 𝑖 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙)
[ ]
(sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙) − cos 𝜃
We use cos 𝜙 − 𝑖 sin 𝜙 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 and cos 𝜙 + 𝑖 sin 𝜙 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 here to simplify the matrix.
cos 𝜃
= ( 𝑖𝜙 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 )
𝑒 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃
cos 𝛼
When trying ( ) as the form of the solution, like we did in exercise 3.3, we get stuck in the
sin 𝛼
equations below. An extra phase factor needs to be added to get rid of 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 .
cos 𝛼
The form ( 𝑖𝜙 ) will do.
𝑒 sin 𝛼
cos 𝜃
( 𝑖𝜙 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 ) ( cos 𝛼 ) = ( cos 𝛼 )
𝑒 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼
⇔ { cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

𝑒 sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼
𝑖𝜙
cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

⇔{
sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 − cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 = sin 𝛼
cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) = cos 𝛼 𝜃
⇔{ ⇒𝛼 =
sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = sin 𝛼 2
𝜃
cos 2
|𝜆1 ⟩ = ( 𝜃
) and 𝜆1 = +1
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 2

sin 𝛼
We now use the fact that |𝜆1 ⟩ and |𝜆2 ⟩ are orthogonal. This leads to the form ( 𝑖𝜙 ).
−𝑒 cos 𝛼
cos 𝜃
( 𝑖𝜙 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 ) ( sin 𝛼 ) = − ( sin 𝛼 )
𝑒 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 −𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos 𝛼 −𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos 𝛼
⇔ { cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 = − sin 𝛼

𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 + cos 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos 𝛼 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos 𝛼
cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝛼 = −sin 𝛼
⇔{
sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 + cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 = cos 𝛼
− sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) = − sin 𝛼 𝜃
⇔{ ⇒𝛼 =
cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) = cos 𝛼 2
𝜃
sin 2
|𝜆2 ⟩ = ( 𝜃
) and 𝜆2 = −1
−𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos 2

̂ direction and
Suppose that a spin is prepared so that 𝝈𝒎 = +𝟏. The apparatus is then rotated to the 𝒏
𝝈𝒏 is measured. What is the probability that the result is +𝟏?
Note that 𝝈𝒎 = 𝝈 ∙ 𝒎̂ , using the same convention we used for 𝝈𝒏 .
We can set up our coordinate system in such a way that the normalized vector 𝑚
̂ lies along the 𝑧 axis.
This means that the components of 𝑚̂ are 𝑚𝑧 = 1, 𝑚𝑥 = 0 and 𝑚𝑦 = 0.
1 0
𝜎𝑚 = 𝜎 ∙ 𝑚
̂ = 𝜎𝑥 𝑚𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝑚𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝑚𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 = ( )
0 −1
1
If the spin is prepared in the up state, then the initial state is |𝑢⟩ or in component form ( ).
0
Let 𝑛𝑧 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 , 𝑛𝑦 = sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙. By convention 𝜃 is the angle of 𝑛̂ with the 𝑧 axis
(which is also the angle with 𝑚
̂) and 𝜙 is the angle of 𝑛̂ with the 𝑥 axis. From Exercise 3.4 we have some
results for this situation.
𝑛𝑧 (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) cos 𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 )

𝜎𝑛 = [ ] = ( 𝑖𝜙
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛 𝑦) −𝑛 𝑧 𝑒 sin 𝜃 − cos 𝜃
This is our Hermitian operator or observable in the 𝑛̂ direction.
For the result of the measurement to be +1, the eigenvalue of 𝜎𝑛 has to be 𝜆1 = +1. We know that the
𝜃
cos 2
column expansion of the corresponding eigenvector |𝜆1 ⟩ is ( 𝜃
).
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin
2
Now we can calculate the probability to measure +1.

𝜃
cos 𝜃 𝜃 1
2 )] [(
𝑃(+1) = ⟨𝑢|𝜆1⟩⟨𝜆1 |𝑢⟩ = [(1 0) (
𝜃 cos 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin ) ( )]
2 2 0
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin
2
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
= (cos ) (cos ) = cos2
2 2 2

Prove that if 𝑼 is unitary, and if |𝑨⟩ and |𝑩⟩ are any two state vectors, then the inner product of 𝑼|𝑨⟩
and 𝑼|𝑩⟩ is the same as the inner product of |𝑨⟩ and |𝑩⟩. One could call this the conservation of
overlaps. It expresses the fact that the logical relation between states is preserved with time.
𝑈 is unitary, so 𝑈 † 𝑈 = 𝐼.
⟨𝐵|𝑈 † 𝑈|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐵|𝐼|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩

Prove that if 𝑴 and 𝑳 are both Hermitian, 𝒊[𝑴, 𝑳] is also Hermitian. Note that the 𝒊 is important. The
commutator is, by itself, not Hermitian.
If 𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿] is Hermitian, then 𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿] = (𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿])† . We start from the right side of this equation.
(𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿])† = [𝑖(𝑀𝐿 − 𝐿𝑀)]† = (𝑖𝑀𝐿 − 𝑖𝐿𝑀)† = (𝑖𝑀𝐿)† − (𝑖𝐿𝑀)†
= (𝑖𝑀𝐿)† − (𝑖𝐿𝑀)† = −𝑖(𝑀𝐿)† + 𝑖(𝐿𝑀)† (1)
We have to find out what the complex conjugate of the product of two Hermitian matrices is.
We know that 𝑀 = 𝑀† and 𝐿 = 𝐿† and so 𝐿𝑗𝑖 † = 𝐿𝑖𝑗 ∗ = 𝐿𝑗𝑖 and 𝑀𝑘𝑗 † = 𝑀𝑗𝑘 ∗ = 𝑀𝑘𝑗 .
Now let 𝐾 = 𝐿𝑀
⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 = 𝐿𝑖𝑗 𝑀𝑗𝑘
⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝐿𝑖𝑗 ∗ 𝑀𝑗𝑘 ∗
⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝐿𝑗𝑖 𝑀𝑘𝑗
⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝑀𝑘𝑗 𝐿𝑗𝑖
⇔ 𝐾𝑘𝑖 † = 𝑀𝑘𝑗 𝐿𝑗𝑖
⇔ 𝐾 † = 𝑀𝐿
We continue further with (1).
= −𝑖𝐿𝑀 + 𝑖𝑀𝐿
= 𝑖𝑀𝐿 − 𝑖𝐿𝑀
= 𝑖(𝑀𝐿 − 𝐿𝑀)
= 𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿]

Go back to the definition of Poisson brackets in Volume I and check that the identification in Eq. 4.21
is dimensionally consistent. Show that without the factor ℏ, it would not be.
[𝐹, 𝐺] ⇔ 𝑖ℏ{𝐹, 𝐺}
From the definition of Poisson brackets we get

𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐺 𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐺
𝑖ℏ{𝐹, 𝐺} = 𝑖ℏ ( − )
𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑞
The units of 𝐹 and 𝐺 cancel against each other on the left and the right side. So we have no units left on
the left side.
Further, there are no units for 𝑖.
The units of ℏ are
𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
𝑠
1
The unit of is
𝜕𝑞
1
𝑚
1
The units of 𝜕𝑝 are
1 𝑠
𝑚 = 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
𝑘𝑔 ( 𝑠 )
Bringing these elements together we get
𝑘𝑔 𝑚2 1 𝑠
𝑠 𝑚 𝑘𝑔 𝑚
All these terms cancel, so also on the right side we have no units left. That would obviously not be the
case without ℏ.

Verify the commutation relations of Eqs. 4.26.
0 1 0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 0 1
[𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 ] = [( )( )−( )( )]
1 0 𝑖 0 𝑖 0 1 0
𝑖 0 −𝑖 0 2𝑖 0 1 0
=( )−( )=( ) = 2𝑖 ( ) = 2𝑖𝜎𝑧
0 −𝑖 0 𝑖 0 −2𝑖 0 −1
0 −𝑖 1 0 1 0 0 −𝑖
[𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 ] = [( )( )−( )( )]
𝑖 0 0 −1 0 −1 𝑖 0
0 𝑖 0 −𝑖 0 2𝑖 0 1
=( )−( )=( ) = 2𝑖 ( ) = 2𝑖𝜎𝑥
𝑖 0 −𝑖 0 2𝑖 0 1 0
[𝜎𝑧 , 𝜎𝑥 ] = [(1 0
)(
0 1
)−(
0 1 1 0
)( )]
0 −1 1 0 1 0 0 −1
=(
0 1
)−(
0 −1
)=(
0 2
) = ( 02 −2𝑖 2 ) = 2𝑖 (0 −𝑖 ) = 2𝑖𝜎
𝑦
−1 0 1 0 −2 0 2𝑖 0 𝑖 0

𝝎ℏ
⃗ and form the operator 𝑯 =
Take any unit 3-vector 𝒏 𝝈∙ ⃗.
𝒏
𝟐
Find the energy eigenvalues and eigenvectors by solving the time-independent Schrödinger equation.
⃗ in component form.
Recall that Eq. 3.23 gives 𝝈 ∙ 𝒏
𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ 𝑛𝑧 (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
𝐻= 𝜎 ∙ 𝑛⃗ = 𝜎𝑛 = [ ]
2 2 2 (𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) −𝑛𝑧
𝜎𝑛 has two eigenvalues. We know that 𝑛⃗ has unit length, and so 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 = 1.

The trace of this matrix is 0 and the determinant is −𝑛𝑧 2 − (𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 ) = −1.
So 𝜆1 + 𝜆2 = 0 and 𝜆1 𝜆2 = −1. This leads to 𝜆1 = +1 and 𝜆2 = −1.
𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ 2
Now, if the Hamiltonian is 𝜎 , the determinant becomes − ( ) and so the energy eigenvalues are
2 𝑛 2
𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ
𝐸1 = 2
and 𝐸2 = − 2
.
Continuing with 𝜎𝑛 we get the following equations, of course starting from 𝐿|𝜆𝑗 ⟩ = 𝜆𝑗 |𝜆𝑗 ⟩.
𝑎
Suppose that the eigenvectors have the form |𝜆𝑗 ⟩ = ( ).
𝑏
First let λ1 = +1.
𝑛𝑧 𝑎 + (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑏 = 𝑎
{
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑎 − 𝑛𝑧 𝑏 = 𝑏
(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑏 = (1 − 𝑛𝑧 )𝑎
⇔ {
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑎 = (1 + 𝑛𝑧 )𝑏
1−𝑛𝑧
From the first equation we get 𝑏 = 𝑎 .
(𝑛𝑥 −𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
The second equation brings nothing extra. So we have to bring in the fact that our eigenvector should
also have unit length. We can do so by stating that 𝑎∗ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 1 and we replace b by the above result.
∗
1 − 𝑛𝑧 1 − 𝑛𝑧
𝑎∗ 𝑎 + [𝑎 ] [𝑎 ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
1 − 𝑛𝑧 1 − 𝑛𝑧
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 + 𝑎∗ 𝑎 [ ][ ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
(1 − 𝑛𝑧 )2
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 [1 + ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 )
∗
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 ) + (1 − 2𝑛𝑧 + 𝑛𝑧 2 )
⇔ 𝑎 𝑎[ ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 )
2 − 2𝑛𝑧
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 ( )=1
𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2
2(1 − 𝑛𝑧 ) 2 1 + 𝑛𝑧 1 + 𝑛𝑧
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 2
= 1 ⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 = 1 ⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑎=√
1 − 𝑛𝑧 1 + 𝑛𝑧 2 2

We fill this in for a to find b.
1+𝑛𝑧
1 𝜔ℏ
And so we find that |𝜆1 ⟩ = |𝐸1 ⟩ = √ 2
( 1−𝑛𝑧 ) for 𝜆1 = +1 and 𝐸1 = 2
.
Now here we see that 𝑛𝑥 and 𝑛𝑦 may not simultaneously be equal to zero. If they are, then it follows
1 0
from 𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 + 𝑛𝑧 2 = 1 that 𝑛𝑧 = 1. In this case 𝜎𝑛 = 𝜎𝑧 = ( ). It’s easy to see that this leads
0 −1
1 0
to the solution |𝜆1 ⟩ = |𝐸1 ⟩ = ( ) and |𝜆2 ⟩ = |𝐸2 ⟩ = ( ).
0 1
Now let 𝜆2 = −1.
𝑛𝑧 𝑎 + (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑏 = −𝑎
{
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑎 − 𝑛𝑧 𝑏 = −𝑏
(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑏 = −(1 + 𝑛𝑧 )𝑎

⇔ {
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )𝑎 = −(1 − 𝑛𝑧 )𝑏
−(1+𝑛𝑧 )
From the first equation we get 𝑏 = 𝑎 . Again we continue now with 𝑎∗ 𝑎 + 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 = 1.
∗
∗
−(1 + 𝑛𝑧 ) −(1 + 𝑛𝑧 )
𝑎 𝑎 + [𝑎 ] [𝑎 ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
−(1 + 𝑛𝑧 ) −(1 + 𝑛𝑧 )
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 + 𝑎∗ 𝑎 [ ][ ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 + 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 )
(1 + 𝑛𝑧 )2
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 [1 + ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 )
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 ) + (1 + 2𝑛𝑧 + 𝑛𝑧 2 )
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 [ ]=1
(𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2 )
2 + 2𝑛𝑧
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 ( )=1
𝑛𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑦 2
2(1 + 𝑛𝑧 ) 2 1 − 𝑛𝑧 1 − 𝑛𝑧
⇔ 𝑎∗ 𝑎 = 1 ⇔ 𝑎 ∗
𝑎 = 1 ⇔ 𝑎 ∗
𝑎 = ⇒ 𝑎 = √
1 − 𝑛𝑧 2 1 − 𝑛𝑧 2 2
Again we fill this in for a to find b.

1−𝑛𝑧
1 𝜔ℏ
And so we find that |𝜆2 ⟩ = |𝐸2 ⟩ = √ 2
( −(1+𝑛𝑧) ) for 𝜆2 = −1 and 𝐸2 = − 2
.
In exercise 3.4 we let 𝑛𝑧 = cos 𝜃 , 𝑛𝑥 = sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 , 𝑛𝑦 = sin 𝜃 sin 𝜙 in 𝜎𝑛 . In other words, we switched
to the generalized spherical coordinates.
𝜃 𝜃
cos sin
2 2
We then found the eigenvectors |𝐸1 ⟩ = ( 𝜃
) and |𝐸2 ⟩ = ( 𝜃
).
𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin −𝑒 𝑖𝜙 cos
2 2

𝝎ℏ
Carry out the Schrödinger Ket recipe for a single spin. The Hamiltonian is 𝑯 = 𝟐 𝒛
𝝈 and the final
observable is 𝝈𝒙 . The initial state is given as |𝒖⟩ (the state in which 𝝈𝒛 = +𝟏).
After time t an experiment is done to measure 𝝈𝒚 . What are the possible outcomes and what are the
probabilities for those outcomes?
𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ 1 0
1) 𝐻 = 𝜎
2 𝑧
= (
2 0
)
−1
1
2) |Ψ(0)⟩ = |𝑢⟩ = 1|𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑⟩ = ( )
0
𝜔ℏ 2
3) The trace of the matrix is 0 and the determinant is − ( 2 ) .
𝜔ℏ 2 𝜔ℏ 𝜔ℏ
This means that 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = 0 and 𝐸1 𝐸2 = − ( 2 ) . So 𝐸1 = 2
and 𝐸2 = − 2
.
1 0
This corresponds to |𝐸1 ⟩ = ( ) and |𝐸2 ⟩ = ( ).
0 1
1 1
4) 𝛼1 (0) = ⟨𝐸1 |Ψ(0)⟩ = (1 0) ( ) = 1 and 𝛼2 (0) = ⟨𝐸2 |Ψ(0)⟩ = (0 1) ( ) = 0
0 0
1
5) |Ψ(0)⟩ = |𝑢⟩ = 1|𝐸1 ⟩ + 0|𝐸2 ⟩ = ( )
0
6) |Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = 𝛼1 (𝑡)|𝐸1 ⟩ + 𝛼2 (𝑡)|𝐸2 ⟩
−𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝜔𝑡

7) 𝛼1 (𝑡) = 𝛼1 (0)𝑒 2 =𝑒 2 and 𝛼2 (𝑡) = 𝛼2 (0)𝑒 2 =0
−𝑖𝜔𝑡
|Ψ(𝑡)⟩ = 𝛼1 (𝑡)|𝐸1 ⟩ + 𝛼2 (𝑡)|𝐸2 ⟩ = (𝑒 2
) is our Schrödinger Ket.
0
1 1
0 −𝑖 2 2
The observable 𝜎𝑦 = ( ) has eigenvalues +1 and -1 and eigenvectors |𝑖⟩ = (√𝑖 ) and |𝑜⟩ = (√−𝑖 ).
𝑖 0
√2 √2
So the possible outcomes for a measurement are +1 and -1. The probabilities for those outcomes are
given by the square of the dot product of the state vector with the corresponding eigenvector for that
eigenvalue.
1
1 −𝑖 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 1
𝑃(+1) = ⟨𝑖|Ψ(𝑡)⟩⟨Ψ(𝑡)|i⟩ = [( ) (𝑒 2 )] (𝑒
𝑖𝜔𝑡 √2 = ( 𝑒 2 ) (𝑒 2 )=
√2 √2
2 0) 𝑖 √2 √2 2
0
[ (√2)]
1
1 𝑖 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 1
𝑃(−1) = ⟨𝑜|Ψ(𝑡)⟩⟨Ψ(𝑡)|o⟩ = [( ) (𝑒 2 )] (𝑒
𝑖𝜔𝑡 √2 = ( 𝑒 2 ) (𝑒 2 )=
√2 √2
2 0) −𝑖 √2 √2 2
0
[ (√2)]

Any 𝟐 × 𝟐 Hermitian matrix can be written as a sum of four terms, 𝑳 = 𝒂𝝈𝒙 + 𝒃𝝈𝒚 + 𝒄𝝈𝒛 + 𝒅𝑰, where
𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 and 𝒅 are real numbers. Verify this claim.
This means that

𝑟 𝑤 0 1 0 −𝑖 1 0 1 0
( ∗ ) = 𝑎( )+𝑏( )+𝑐( )+𝑑( )
𝑤 𝑟′ 0 1 𝑖 1 0 −1 0 1
𝑟 =𝑐+𝑑
𝑤 = 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
⇔{ ∗
𝑤 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
𝑟 ′ = −𝑐 + 𝑑
It’s clear that 𝑤 and 𝑤 ∗ are a complex number and its complex conjugate, where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real
numbers.
If 𝑟 and 𝑟 ′ are two real numbers, then we have a set of two equations of two unknowns, 𝑐 and 𝑑, of first
order. There is always an unambiguous solution to this for the real numbers 𝑐 and 𝑑. We can solve these
equations with substitution.
𝑐+𝑑 =𝑟
{
𝑑 − 𝑐 = 𝑟′
From the second equation we get:
𝑑 = 𝑟′ + 𝑐
We substitute this in the first equation and get the solution for 𝑐.
′
𝑟 − 𝑟′
𝑐+𝑟 +𝑐 =𝑟⇔𝑐 =
2
And back in the previous equation to get 𝑑.
𝑟 − 𝑟′ 2𝑟 ′ + 𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ 𝑟 + 𝑟′
𝑑 = 𝑟′ + ⇔𝑑 = ⇔𝑑 =
2 2 2

̅ 𝟐 〉 and (∆𝑩)𝟐 = 〈𝑩
1) Show that (∆𝑨)𝟐 = 〈𝑨 ̅ 𝟐〉
We learned that (∆𝐴)2 = ⟨Ψ|𝐴̅ 2 |Ψ⟩, which is equal to 〈𝐴̅ 2 〉.

Same goes for (∆𝐵)2 = 〈𝐵̅ 2 〉.
̅, 𝑩
2) Show that [𝑨 ̅ ] = [𝑨, 𝑩]
[𝐴̅, 𝐵̅]
= [𝐴 − 〈𝐴〉, 𝐵 − 〈𝐵〉]
= (𝐴 − 〈𝐴〉)(𝐵 − 〈𝐵〉) − (𝐵 − 〈𝐵〉)(𝐴 − 〈𝐴〉)
= 𝐴𝐵 − 〈𝐴〉𝐵 − 𝐴〈𝐵〉 + 〈𝐴〉〈𝐵〉 − 𝐵𝐴 + 𝐵〈𝐴〉 + 〈𝐵〉𝐴 − 〈𝐵〉〈𝐴〉
Expectation values are just numbers, so the order of multiplication doesn’t matter and therefore
six of these terms cancel.
On the other hand 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴 because these are matrices that are supposed to represent any
two observables that don’t commute.
= 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐵𝐴 = [𝐴, 𝐵]
𝟏
3) Show that ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩 ≥ 𝟐 |⟨𝚿|[𝑨, 𝑩]|𝚿⟩|
1
We know that ∆𝐴̅ ∆𝐵̅ ≥ 2 |⟨Ψ|[𝐴̅, 𝐵̅]|Ψ⟩| and so 2√〈𝐴̅ 2 〉〈𝐵̅ 2 〉 ≥ |⟨Ψ|[𝐴̅, 𝐵̅]|Ψ⟩|
Now we plug in the results of 1) and 2).
2√(∆𝐴)2 (∆𝐵)2 ≥ |⟨Ψ|[𝐴, 𝐵]|Ψ⟩|
1
⇔ ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ≥ |⟨Ψ|[𝐴, 𝐵]|Ψ⟩|
2

Prove that if 𝑷(𝒂, 𝒃) factorizes, then the correlation between 𝒂 and 𝒃 is zero.
This means that if 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎)𝑃𝐵 (𝑏) then 〈𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 〉 − 〈𝜎𝐴 〉〈𝜎𝐵 〉 = 0 or 〈𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 〉 = 〈𝜎𝐴 〉〈𝜎𝐵 〉.
〈𝜎𝐴 〉 = ∑ 𝑎 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎)
𝑎
〈𝜎𝐵 〉 = ∑ 𝑏 𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)
𝑏
〈𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 〉 = ∑ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (𝑎𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏)

𝑎𝑏 𝑎𝑏
〈𝜎𝐴 𝜎𝐵 〉 = 〈𝜎𝐴 〉〈𝜎𝐵 〉
⇔ ∑ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎𝑃𝐴 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑏𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)

𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
The left and right side have the same amount of terms, after we have multiplied out the right side. Every
one term on the left side corresponds with one term on the right side. In order for the whole equation
to be true, each corresponding term has to be equal.
⇔ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎) 𝑏 𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)
⇔ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎)𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)

Show that if the two normalization conditions of Eqs. 6.4 are satisfied, then the state vector of Eq. 6.5
is automatically normalized as well. In other words, show that for this product state, normalizing the
overall state vector does not put any additional constraints on the 𝜶’s and 𝜷’s.
The normalization conditions for the individual components of the product state are
𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 = 1
𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 = 1
The state vector of the product state is
𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩
For this state vector to be normalized, the condition is
𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 = 1
⇔ 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 = 1
⇔ 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 1
⇔ (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )(𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 1
⇔1∙1 =1

Show that the state |𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈⟩ cannot be written as a product state.
1 1 1
|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ = (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 0|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑𝑑⟩
√2 √2 √2
In order for this to be a product state, the coefficients have to be defined as follows:
𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 = 0
1
𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 =
√2
1
𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 = −
√2
{ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 = 0
From the first equation we see that if 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 = 0 then it must be true that 𝛼𝑢 = 0 or 𝛽𝑢 = 0.
1
If 𝛼𝑢 = 0 then in the second equation 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 would become 0. But since 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 = , this cannot be.
√2
1
So 𝛽𝑢 = 0, but then in the third equation 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 would become 0 too. Now since 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 = − , this
√2
cannot be either.
From this we can conclude that |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ cannot be written as a product state.

Use the matrix forms of 𝝈𝒛 , 𝝈𝒙 and 𝝈𝒚 and the column vectors for |𝒖} and |𝒅} to verify Eqs. 6.6. Then,
use Eqs. 6.6 and 6.7 to write the equations that were left out of Eqs. 6.8. Use the appendix to check
your answers.
1 0 1 1
𝜎𝑧 |𝑢} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = |𝑢}
0 −1 0 0
1 0 0 0 0
𝜎𝑧 |𝑑} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = − ( ) = −|𝑑}
0 −1 1 −1 1
0 1 1 0
𝜎𝑥 |𝑢} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = |𝑑}
1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1
𝜎𝑥 |𝑑} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = |𝑢}
1 0 1 0
0 −𝑖 1 0 0
𝜎𝑦 |𝑢} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = 𝑖 ( ) = 𝑖|𝑑}
𝑖 0 0 𝑖 1
0 −𝑖 0 −𝑖 1
𝜎𝑦 |𝑑} = ( ) ( ) = ( ) = −𝑖 ( ) = −𝑖|𝑢}
𝑖 0 1 0 0
𝜎𝑧 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = |𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑧 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = |𝑢𝑑⟩ 𝜎𝑧 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = −|𝑑𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑧 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = −|𝑑𝑑⟩

𝜎𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = |𝑑𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = |𝑑𝑑⟩ 𝜎𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = |𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = |𝑢𝑑⟩
𝜎𝑦 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = 𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑦 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩ 𝜎𝑦 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = −𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜎𝑦 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = −𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩
𝜏𝑧 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = |𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜏𝑧 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = −|𝑢𝑑⟩ 𝜏𝑧 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = |𝑑𝑢⟩ 𝜏𝑧 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = −|𝑑𝑑⟩

𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = |𝑢𝑑⟩ 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = |𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = |𝑑𝑑⟩ 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = |𝑑𝑢⟩
𝜏𝑦 |𝑢𝑢⟩ = 𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩ 𝜏𝑦 |𝑢𝑑⟩ = −𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ 𝜏𝑦 |𝑑𝑢⟩ = 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩ 𝜏𝑦 |𝑑𝑑⟩ = −𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩

Prove the following theorem:
When any one of Alice’s or Bob’s spin operators acts on a product state, the result is still a product
state.
We can write a product state in a general form.

(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩) = {𝛼𝑢 (1) + 𝛼𝑑 (0)} ⊗ {𝛽𝑢 (1) + 𝛽𝑑 (0)}
0 1 0 1
Now let’s see what happens if Alice’s spin operators work on this product state.
(𝜎𝑧 ⊗ 𝐼)[(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)]

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
= [( )⊗( )] [{𝛼𝑢 ( ) + 𝛼𝑑 ( )} ⊗ {𝛽𝑢 ( ) + 𝛽𝑑 ( )}]
0 −1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
= [( ) {𝛼𝑢 ( ) + 𝛼𝑑 ( )}] ⊗ [( ) {𝛽𝑢 ( ) + 𝛽𝑑 ( )}]
0 −1 0 1 0 1 0 1
1 0 𝛼 0 1 0
= [( ) {( 𝑢 ) + ( )}] ⊗ [{𝛽𝑢 ( ) + 𝛽𝑑 ( )}]
0 −1 0 𝛼𝑑 0 1
1 0 𝛼 1 0 0
= [( ) ( 𝑢) + ( ) ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
0 −1 0 0 −1 𝛼𝑑
𝛼 0
= [( 𝑢 ) + ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
0 −𝛼𝑑
1 0
= [𝛼𝑢 ( ) − 𝛼𝑑 ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
0 1
= (𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} − 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
(𝜎𝑥 ⊗ 𝐼)[(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)]

0 1 𝛼𝑢 0 1 0
= [( )( )+ ( ) ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
1 0 0 1 0 𝛼𝑑
0 𝛼
= [( ) + ( 𝑑 )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
𝛼𝑢 0
0 1
= [𝛼𝑢 ( ) + 𝛼𝑑 ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
1 0
= (𝛼𝑑 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑢 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
(𝜎𝑦 ⊗ 𝐼)[(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)]
0 −𝑖 𝛼𝑢 0 −𝑖 0
= [( )( )+ ( ) ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
𝑖 0 0 𝑖 0 𝛼𝑑
0 −𝑖𝛼𝑑
= [( ) + ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
𝑖𝛼𝑢 0

0 1
= [𝑖𝛼𝑢 ( ) − 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ( )] ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
1 0
= (−𝑖𝛼𝑑 |𝑢} + 𝑖𝛼𝑢 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)
All three are still product states. It’s easy to see that the same is true for Bob’s spin operators 𝜏𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥 and
𝜏𝑦 . Analogously they will only act on Bob’s part of the product state.
⃗ or 𝝉
Show that in a product state, the expectation value of any component of 𝝈 ⃗ is exactly the same as
it would be in the individual single spin states.
We will use the above results in the calculations below and then expand to component form.
For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑧 in the product state we get:
〈𝜎𝑧 〉 = ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑧 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} − 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ − 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩

− 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ) + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )
= (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 )(𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑧 in Alice’s single state we get:
〈𝜎𝑧 〉 = ⟨(⟨𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑧 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
𝛼 𝛼
= (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) (1 0 ) (𝛼𝑢 ) = (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) (−𝛼𝑢 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
0 −1 𝑑 𝑑
For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑥 in the product state we get:
〈𝜎𝑥 〉 = ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑥 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(𝛼𝑑 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑢 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩
+ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 ) + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 )
= (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 )(𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑥 in Alice’s single state we get:
〈𝜎𝑥 〉 = ⟨(⟨𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑥 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩

𝛼 𝛼
= (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) (0 1) (𝛼𝑢 ) = (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) (𝛼𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
1 0 𝑑 𝑢

For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑦 in the product state we get:
〈𝜎𝑦 〉 = ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑦 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢} + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= ⟨({𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + {𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ⊗ (⟨𝑢|𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(−𝑖𝛼𝑑 |𝑢} + 𝑖𝛼𝑢 |𝑑}) ⊗ (𝛽𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|(−𝑖𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ − 𝑖𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝑖𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩
+ 𝑖𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= −𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 − 𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 (−𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 ) + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 (−𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 )
= (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 )(−𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 ) = −𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢

For the expectation value of 𝜎𝑦 in Alice’s single state we get:
〈𝜎𝑦 〉 = ⟨(⟨𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑦 |(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑⟩)⟩

𝛼 −𝑖𝛼𝑑
= (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) (0 −𝑖 ) (𝛼𝑢 ) = (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ∗ ) ( ) = −𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
𝑖 0 𝑑 𝑖𝛼𝑢
All three expectation values are the same. From here we understand that the same is true for the
expectation values of 𝜏𝑧 , 𝜏𝑥 and 𝜏𝑦 in an analogous way.

Assume Charlie has prepared the two spins in the singlet state. This time, Bob measures 𝝉𝒚 and Alice
measures 𝝈𝒙 . What is the expectation value of 𝝈𝒙 𝝉𝒚?
What does this say about the correlation between the two measurements?
1 1
〈𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦 〉 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦 |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜎𝑥 [ (−𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ − 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
−𝑖 −𝑖 1 −𝑖
= ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜎𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔| [ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] [ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2 √2
−𝑖 −𝑖
= [(⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢|)][(|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)] = (1 − 1) = 0
2 2
We know that 〈𝜎𝑥 〉 = 0 for the singlet state.

1 −𝑖
〈𝜏𝑦 〉 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜏𝑦 |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝜏𝑦 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔| [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
−𝑖
= [(⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢|)][(|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = 0
2
The correlation is defined as 〈𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑦 〉 − 〈𝜎𝑥 〉〈𝜏𝑦 〉, of which the result here is 0.
This means that there is no correlation between the two measurements.

𝟏
Next, Charlie prepares the spins in a different state, called |𝑻𝟏⟩, where|𝑻𝟏⟩ = (|𝒖𝒅⟩ + |𝒅𝒖⟩)
√𝟐
In these examples 𝑻 stands for triplet.
What are the expectation values of the operators 𝝈𝒛 𝝉𝒛, 𝝈𝒙 𝝉𝒙 and 𝝈𝒚 𝝉𝒚 ?
1 1
〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 |𝑇1⟩ = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑧 [ (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇1| [ (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| + ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] [ (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (−1 − 1) = −1
2
1 1
〈𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 〉 = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 |𝑇1⟩ = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇1| [ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| + ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] [ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2
1 1
〈𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 〉 = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 |𝑇1⟩ = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = ⟨𝑇1|𝜎𝑦 [ (−𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇1| [ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| + ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2

Do the same for the other two entangled triplet states
𝟏 𝟏
|𝑻𝟐⟩ = (|𝒖𝒖⟩ + |𝒅𝒅⟩) and |𝑻𝟑⟩ = (|𝒖𝒖⟩ − |𝒅𝒅⟩)
√𝟐 √𝟐
and interpret.
For |𝑇2⟩ we get:

1 1
〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 |𝑇2⟩ = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑧 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇2| [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2
1 1
〈𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 〉 = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 |𝑇2⟩ = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇2| [ (|𝑑𝑑⟩ + |𝑢𝑢⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] [ (|𝑑𝑑⟩ + |𝑢𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2
1 1
〈𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 〉 = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 |𝑇2⟩ = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇2|𝜎𝑦 [ (𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩ − 𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇2| [ (−|𝑑𝑑⟩ − |𝑢𝑢⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] [ (−|𝑑𝑑⟩ − |𝑢𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (−1 − 1) = −1
2
For |𝑇3⟩ we get:

1 1
〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 |𝑇3⟩ = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑧 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇3| [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| − 𝑑𝑑|)] [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2
1 1
〈𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 〉 = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 |𝑇3⟩ = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑥 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇3| [ (|𝑑𝑑⟩ − |𝑢𝑢⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| − 𝑑𝑑|)] [ (−|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (−1 − 1) = −1
2

1 1
〈𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 〉 = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 |𝑇3⟩ = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = ⟨𝑇3|𝜎𝑦 [ (𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
1 1 1
= ⟨𝑇3| [ (−|𝑑𝑑⟩ + |𝑢𝑢⟩)] = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| − 𝑑𝑑|)] [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2 √2
1
= (1 + 1) = +1
2
Alice and Bob each measure every time the same component of the spin.
The triplet states each have a value of −1 for one of the expectation values and +1 for the other
expectation values. The expectation value of −1 is a different one for each of them.
An expectation value of −1 means that every time Alice measures −1, Bob measures +1, and vice
versa.
An expectation value of +1 means that every time they measure, Alice and Bob get the same result,
either they both measure −1 or they both measure +1.

⃗ ∙𝝉
Prove that the four vectors |𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈⟩, |𝑻𝟏⟩, |𝑻𝟐⟩ and |𝑻𝟑⟩ are eigenvectors of 𝝈 ⃗ . What are their
eigenvalues?
(𝜎 ∙ 𝜏)|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ = 𝜆|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩
1 1
⇔ (𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 ) [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = 𝜆 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 (−𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ − 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ − |𝑢𝑑⟩) + (|𝑑𝑢⟩ − |𝑢𝑑⟩) + (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ 3|𝑑𝑢⟩ − 3|𝑢𝑑⟩ = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) ⇔ −3(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) ⇔ 𝜆 = −3
(𝜎 ∙ 𝜏)|𝑇1⟩ = 𝜆|𝑇1⟩
1 1
⇔ (𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 ) [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)] = 𝜆 [ (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)]
√2 √2
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 (−𝑖|𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝑖|𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩) + (|𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩) + (−|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩)
⇔ |𝑢𝑑⟩ +|𝑑𝑢⟩ = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) ⇔ 𝜆 = 1
(𝜎 ∙ 𝜏)|𝑇2⟩ = 𝜆|𝑇2⟩
1 1
⇔ (𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 ) [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = 𝜆 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 (𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩ − 𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ (|𝑑𝑑⟩ + |𝑢𝑢⟩) + (−|𝑑𝑑⟩ − |𝑢𝑢⟩) + (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ |𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩ = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) ⇔ 𝜆 = 1

(𝜎 ∙ 𝜏)|𝑇3⟩ = 𝜆|𝑇3⟩
1 1
⇔ (𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 ) [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)] = 𝜆 [ (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)]
√2 √2
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 𝜏𝑥 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ 𝜎𝑥 (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑦 (𝑖|𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝑖|𝑑𝑢⟩) + 𝜎𝑧 (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ (|𝑑𝑑⟩ − |𝑢𝑢⟩) + (−|𝑑𝑑⟩ + |𝑢𝑢⟩) + (|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⇔ |𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩ = 𝜆(|𝑢𝑢⟩ − |𝑑𝑑⟩) ⇔ 𝜆 = 1

𝝎
A system of two spins has the Hamiltonian 𝑯 = ⃗ ∙
𝝈 ⃗.
𝝉
𝟐
What are the possible energies of the system, and what are the eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian?
Suppose the system starts in the state |𝒖𝒖⟩. What is the state at any later time? Answer the same
question for initial states |𝒖𝒅⟩, |𝒅𝒖⟩ and |𝒅𝒅⟩.
In Exercise 6.9 we found that |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩, |𝑇1⟩, |𝑇2⟩ and |𝑇3⟩ are the eigenvectors of 𝜎 ∙ 𝜏. Their eigenvalues
are −3 for |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩, and the degenerate eigenvalue 1 for |𝑇1⟩, |𝑇2⟩ and |𝑇3⟩.
𝜔
This means that |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩, |𝑇1⟩, |𝑇2⟩ and |𝑇3⟩ are also eigenvectors of 𝐻 = 2
𝜎 ∙ 𝜏.
−3𝜔 𝜔
The eigenvalues and so the possible energies of the system are then 2
in the singlet state and 2
in the
triplet states.
Since the space of states of a system of two spins has 4 dimensions, we know that the 4 eigenvectors of
𝐻 are a complete set that form an orthonormal basis. We will use this basis to rewrite our initial states
in.
First the system is in the initial state |𝒖𝒖⟩.
𝛼1 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝑢𝑢⟩ = 0 and 𝛼2 = ⟨𝑇1|𝑢𝑢⟩ = 0

1 1
𝛼3 = ⟨𝑇2|𝑢𝑢⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] |𝑢𝑢⟩ =
√2 √2
1 1
𝛼4 = ⟨𝑇3|𝑢𝑢⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| − ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] |𝑢𝑢⟩ =
√2 √2
1 1
|𝑢𝑢(0)⟩ = |𝑇2⟩ + |𝑇3⟩
√2 √2
1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
|𝑢𝑢(𝑡)⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇2⟩ + 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇3⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ (|𝑇2⟩ + |𝑇3⟩)
√2 √2 √2
Then the system is in the initial state |𝒖𝒅⟩.

1 1
𝛼1 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝑢𝑑⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] |𝑢𝑑⟩ =
√2 √2
1 1
𝛼2 = ⟨𝑇1|𝑢𝑑⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| + ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] |𝑢𝑑⟩ =
√2 √2
𝛼3 = ⟨𝑇2|𝑢𝑑⟩ = 0 and 𝛼4 = ⟨𝑇3|𝑢𝑑⟩ = 0
1 1
|𝑢𝑑(0)⟩ = |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ + |𝑇1⟩
√2 √2
1 3𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
|𝑢𝑑(𝑡)⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ + 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇1⟩
√2 √2

Next the system is in the initial state |𝒅𝒖⟩.
1 −1
𝛼1 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝑑𝑢⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] |𝑑𝑢⟩ =
√2 √2
1 1
𝛼2 = ⟨𝑇1|𝑑𝑢⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑑| + ⟨𝑑𝑢|)] |𝑑𝑢⟩ =
√2 √2
𝛼3 = ⟨𝑇2|𝑑𝑢⟩ = 0 and 𝛼4 = ⟨𝑇3|𝑑𝑢⟩ = 0
1 1
|𝑑𝑢(0)⟩ = − |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ + |𝑇1⟩
√2 √2
1 3𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
|𝑑𝑢(𝑡)⟩ = − 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ + 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇1⟩
√2 √2
Finally the system is in the initial state |𝒅𝒅⟩.
𝛼1 = ⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|𝑑𝑑⟩ = 0 and 𝛼2 = ⟨𝑇1|𝑑𝑑⟩ = 0

1 1
𝛼3 = ⟨𝑇2|𝑑𝑑⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] |𝑑𝑑⟩ =
√2 √2
1 1
𝛼4 = ⟨𝑇3|𝑑𝑑⟩ = [ (⟨𝑢𝑢| − ⟨𝑑𝑑|)] |𝑑𝑑⟩ = −
√2 √2
1 1
|𝑑𝑑(0)⟩ = |𝑇2⟩ − |𝑇3⟩
√2 √2
1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 1 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
|𝑑𝑑(𝑡)⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇2⟩ − 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑇3⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ (|𝑇2⟩ − |𝑇3⟩)
√2 √2 √2

Write the tensor product 𝑰 ⊗ 𝝉𝒙 as a matrix, and apply the matrix to each of the |𝒖𝒖⟩, |𝒖𝒅⟩, |𝒅𝒖⟩ and
|𝒅𝒅⟩ column vectors. Show that Alice’s half of the state vector is unchanged in each case. Recall that 𝑰
is the 𝟐 × 𝟐 unit matrix.
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
𝐼 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 = ( )( ) = (1 0 0 0)
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
(𝐼 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 )|𝑢𝑢⟩ = (1 0 0 0) (0) = (1) = |𝑢𝑑⟩
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1
(𝐼 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 )|𝑢𝑑⟩ = (1 0 0 0) (1) = (0) = |𝑢𝑢⟩
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
(𝐼 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 )|𝑑𝑢⟩ = (1 0 0 0) (0) = (0) = |𝑑𝑑⟩
0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 0 0
(𝐼 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 )|𝑑𝑑⟩ = (1 0 0 0) (0) = (0) = |𝑑𝑢⟩
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 0
Alice’s half is unchanged in the four cases, as we can see in the ket representations of the vectors.

Calculate the matrix elements of 𝝈𝒛 ⊗ 𝝉𝒙 by forming inner products as we did in Eq. 7.2.
⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩

⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩
𝜎𝑧 ⊗ 𝜏𝑥 =
⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩
(⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩
⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩
=
−⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩
(−⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑢𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝜏𝑥 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
⟨𝑢𝑢|𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝑑𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑢|𝑑𝑢⟩
⟨𝑢𝑑|𝑢𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝑢𝑢⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝑑𝑑⟩ ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝑑𝑢⟩
=( )
−⟨𝑑𝑢|𝑢𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝑢𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝑑𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑢|𝑑𝑢⟩
−⟨𝑑𝑑|𝑢𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝑢𝑢⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝑑𝑑⟩ −⟨𝑑𝑑|𝑑𝑢⟩
0 1 0 0
= (1 0 0 0 )
0 0 0 −1
0 0 −1 0

a) Rewrite Eq. 7.10 in component form, replacing the symbols 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝒂 and 𝒃 with the matrices and
column vectors from Eqs. 7.7 and 7.8.
(𝐴 ⊗ 𝐵) (𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏) = (𝐴𝑎 ⊗ 𝐵𝑏)
𝐴 𝐴12 𝐵 𝐵12 𝑎11 𝑏 𝐴 𝐴12 𝑎11 𝐵 𝐵12 𝑏11
⇔ [( 11 ) ⊗ ( 11 )] [(𝑎 ) ⊗ ( 11 )] = [( 11 ) ( )] ⊗ [( 11 ) ( )]
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐵21 𝐵22 21 𝑏21 𝐴21 𝐴22 𝑎21 𝐵21 𝐵22 𝑏21
b) Perform the matrix multiplications 𝑨𝒂 and 𝑩𝒃 on the right hand side. Verify that each result is a
𝟐 × 𝟏 matrix.
𝐴 𝐴12 𝑎11 𝐴 𝑎 + 𝐴12 𝑎21
[( 11 ) ( )] = ( 11 11 )
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝑎21 𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21
𝐵 𝐵12 𝑏11 𝐵 𝑏 + 𝐵12 𝑏21
[( 11 ) ( )] = ( 11 11 )
𝐵21 𝐵22 𝑏21 𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21
c) Expand all three Kronecker products.

𝐴11 𝐵11 𝐴11 𝐵12 𝐴12 𝐵11 𝐴12 𝐵12
𝐴 𝐴12 𝐵 𝐵12 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴11 𝐵22 𝐴12 𝐵21 𝐴12 𝐵22
[( 11 ) ⊗ ( 11 )] = ( 11 21 )
𝐴21 𝐴22 𝐵21 𝐵22 𝐴21 𝐵11 𝐴21 𝐵12 𝐴22 𝐵11 𝐴22 𝐵12
𝐴21 𝐵21 𝐴21 𝐵22 𝐴22 𝐵21 𝐴22 𝐵22
𝑎11 𝑏11
𝑎11 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
[(𝑎 ) ⊗ ( 11 )] = ( 11 21 )
21 𝑏21 𝑎21 𝑏11
𝑎21 𝑏21
(𝐴11 𝑎11 + 𝐴12 𝑎21 )(𝐵11 𝑏11 + 𝐵12 𝑏21 )
𝐴11 𝑎11 + 𝐴12 𝑎21 𝐵11 𝑏11 + 𝐵12 𝑏21 (𝐴11 𝑎11 + 𝐴12 𝑎21 )(𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21 )
( )⊗( )=
𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21 𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21 (𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21 )(𝐵11 𝑏11 + 𝐵12 𝑏21 )
[(𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21 )(𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21 )]
d) Verify the row and column sizes of each Kronecker product.
𝐴 ⊗ 𝐵 : 4 × 4, 𝑎 ⊗ 𝑏 : 4 × 1, 𝐴𝑎 ⊗ 𝐵𝑏 : 4 × 1. These are all correct.

e) Perform the matrix multiplication on the left hand side, resulting in a 𝟒 × 𝟏 column vector. Each
row should be the sum of four separate terms.
𝐴11 𝐵11 𝐴11 𝐵12 𝐴12 𝐵11 𝐴12 𝐵12 𝑎11 𝑏11
𝐴11 𝐵21 𝐴11 𝐵22 𝐴12 𝐵21 𝐴12 𝐵22 𝑎11 𝑏21
( )( )
𝐴21 𝐵11 𝐴21 𝐵12 𝐴22 𝐵11 𝐴22 𝐵12 𝑎21 𝑏11
𝐴21 𝐵21 𝐴21 𝐵22 𝐴22 𝐵21 𝐴22 𝐵22 𝑎21 𝑏21
𝐴11 𝐵11 𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝐴11 𝐵12 𝑎11 𝑏21 + 𝐴12 𝐵11 𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝐴12 𝐵12 𝑎21 𝑏21
=( )
f) Finally, verify that the resulting column vectors on the left and right hand sides are identical.
𝐴 𝐵 𝑎 𝑏 + 𝐴11 𝐵22 𝑎11 𝑏21 + 𝐴12 𝐵21 𝑎21 𝑏11 + 𝐴12 𝐵22 𝑎21 𝑏21
( 11 21 11 11 )
(𝐴11 𝑎11 + 𝐴12 𝑎21 )(𝐵11 𝑏11 + 𝐵12 𝑏21 )
(𝐴11 𝑎11 + 𝐴12 𝑎21 )(𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21 )
=
(𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21 )(𝐵11 𝑏11 + 𝐵12 𝑏21 )
[(𝐴21 𝑎11 + 𝐴22 𝑎21 )(𝐵21 𝑏11 + 𝐵22 𝑏21 )]

Calculate the density matrix for |𝚿⟩ = 𝜶|𝒖⟩ + 𝜷|𝒅⟩.
Answer: 𝝍(𝒖) = 𝜶; 𝝍∗ (𝒖) = 𝜶∗; 𝝍(𝒅) = 𝜷; 𝝍∗ (𝒅) = 𝜷∗

𝜶∗ 𝜶 𝜶∗ 𝜷
𝝆𝒂′ 𝒂 = ( ∗ )
𝜷 𝜶 𝜷∗ 𝜷
Now try plugging in some values for 𝜶 and 𝜷. Make sure they are normalized to 𝟏. For example 𝜶 =
𝟏 𝟏
and 𝜷 = .
√𝟐 √𝟐
1 1
𝛼= and 𝛽 =
√2 √2
1 1
𝜌𝑎 ′ 𝑎 = (2 2)
1 1
2 2
𝛼 = 1 and 𝛽 = 0
1 0
𝜌𝑎 ′ 𝑎 = ( )
0 0
1 𝑖
𝛼= and 𝛽 =
√2 √2
1 𝑖
𝜌𝑎 ′ 𝑎 =( 2 2)
𝑖 1
−
2 2

𝒂 𝟎 𝟐 𝟐
a) Show that ( ) = (𝒂 𝟎)
𝟎 𝒃 𝟎 𝒃𝟐
𝑎 0 2 𝑎 0 𝑎 0 2
( ) =( )( ) = (𝑎 0)
0 𝑏 0 𝑏 0 𝑏 0 𝑏2
𝟏
𝟑
𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
b) Now suppose 𝝆 = ( 𝟐 ). Calculate 𝝆 , 𝑻𝒓(𝝆), 𝑻𝒓(𝝆 ).
𝟎 𝟑
2
1 1
0 0
𝜌2 = (3 ) = (9 )
2 4
0 0
3 9
𝑇𝑟(𝜌) = 1
5
𝑇𝑟(𝜌2 ) =
9
c) If 𝝆 is a density matrix, does it represent a pure state or a mixed state?
It represents a mixed state. The reason is that 𝜌 ≠ 𝜌2 and that 𝑇𝑟(𝜌2 ) < 1.

Use Eq. 7.22 to show that if 𝝆 is a density matrix, then 𝑻𝒓(𝝆) = 𝟏.
𝑃(𝑎) = 𝜌𝑎𝑎
This means that for all 𝑎’s, the probability to get 𝑎 is the entry in the density matrix with index 𝑎𝑎. So
this probability is just the corresponding entry on the diagonal of the square matrix.
Now, we also know that the sum of all the probabilities for all 𝑎’s is equal to 1. And that the trace of a
square matrix is just the sum of the diagonal elements.
∑ 𝑃(𝑎) = 1 ⇔ ∑ 𝜌𝑎𝑎 = 1 ⇔ 𝑇𝑟(𝜌) = 1

𝑎 𝑎

Use Eq. 7.24 to calculate 𝝆𝟐 . How does this result confirm that 𝝆 represents an entangled state?
1
0
𝜌 = (2 )
1
0
2
1
0
𝜌2 = (4 )
1
0
4
This density matrix 𝜌 represents an entangled state because
𝜌 ≠ 𝜌2
and
1
𝑇𝑟(𝜌2 ) = <1
2

Consider the following states:
𝟏
|𝝍𝟏 ⟩ = (|𝒖𝒖⟩ + |𝒖𝒅⟩ + |𝒅𝒖⟩ + |𝒅𝒅⟩)
𝟐
𝟏
|𝝍𝟐 ⟩ = (|𝒖𝒖⟩ + |𝒅𝒅⟩)
√𝟐
𝟏
|𝝍𝟑 ⟩ = (𝟑|𝒖𝒖⟩ + 𝟒|𝒖𝒅⟩)
𝟓
For each one, calculate Alice’s density matrix and Bob’s density matrix. Check their properties.
The entries of Alice’s density matrix can be written as
𝜌𝑎′ 𝑎 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎′ , 𝑏)

𝑏
1
|𝜓1 ⟩ = (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
2
1
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
11 11 1
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = + =
22 22 2
1
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
1
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) =
2
1
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜌𝜓1 = (2 2) , 𝜌 2 = (2
𝜓1
2) (2 2) = (2 2) , 𝑇𝑟(𝜌 ) = 𝑇𝑟(𝜌 2 ) = 1
𝜓1 𝜓1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
This is a pure state.
1
|𝜓2 ⟩ = (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
√2
1
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
√2
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 0

1 1 1
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = =
√2 √2 2
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 0
1 1 1
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = =
√2 √2 2
1 1
0 0 1
𝜌𝜓2 =(2 ) , 𝜌𝜓2 2 = (4 ) , 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓2 ) = 1, 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓2 2 ) =
1 1 2
0 0
2 4
This is an entangled state. No surprise, it’s the triplet state |𝑇2 ⟩.
1
|𝜓3 ⟩ = (3|𝑢𝑢⟩ + 4|𝑢𝑑⟩)
5
3
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) =
5
4
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) =
5
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
9 16
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = + =1
25 25
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
1 0 1 0
𝜌𝜓3 = ( ) , 𝜌𝜓3 2 = ( ) , 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓3 ) = 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓3 2 ) = 1
0 0 0 0
This is also a pure state.
The entries of Bob’s density matrix can be written as
𝜌𝑏′ 𝑏 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎, 𝑏 ′ )

𝑎
1
|𝜓1 ⟩ = (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩ + |𝑑𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
2
1
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
11 11 1
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = + =
22 22 2

1
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
1
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) =
2
1
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝜌𝜓1 = (2 2) , 𝜌 2 = (2
𝜓1
2) (2 2) = (2 2) , 𝑇𝑟(𝜌 ) = 𝑇𝑟(𝜌 2 ) = 1
𝜓1 𝜓1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
This is confirmed to be a pure state.
1
|𝜓2 ⟩ = (|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑑𝑑⟩)
√2
1
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) =
√2
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 0
1 1 1
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = =
√2 √2 2
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0

𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 0
1 1 1
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = =
√2 √2 2
1 1
0 0 1
𝜌𝜓2 = (2 ) , 𝜌𝜓2 2 = (4 ) , 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓2 ) = 1, 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓2 2 ) =
1 1 2
0 0
2 4
This is the entangled triplet state |𝑇2 ⟩.
1
|𝜓3 ⟩ = (3|𝑢𝑢⟩ + 4|𝑢𝑑⟩)
5
3
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) =
5
4
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) =
5
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
9
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) =
25

3 4 12
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = =
5 5 25
12
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) =
25
4 4 16
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = =
5 5 25
9 12
𝜌𝜓3 = (25 25)
12 16
25 25
9 12 9 12 9 12
1 81 + 144 108 + 192 1 225 300
𝜌𝜓3 2 = (25 25) (25 25) = ( ) = 2( ) = (25 25)
12 16 12 16 252 108 + 192 144 + 256 25 300 400 12 16
25 25 25 25 25 25
𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓3 ) = 𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝜓3 2 ) = 1
This is also confirmed to be a pure state.

Given any Alice observable 𝑨 and Bob observable 𝑩, show that for a product state, the correlation
𝑪(𝑨, 𝑩) is zero.
𝐶(𝐴, 𝐵) = 〈𝐴𝐵〉 − 〈𝐴〉〈𝐵〉

If this expression has to be zero, we get
〈𝐴𝐵〉 = 〈𝐴〉〈𝐵〉
⇔ ∑ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃𝐴𝐵 (𝑎𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎𝑃𝐴 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑏𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)

𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
⇔ ∑ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = ∑ 𝑎𝑃𝐴 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑏𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)

𝑎𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
We have found earlier that this equation has an equal amount of terms on the left and right side, after
multiplying out the right side. In order for the whole equation to be true, every corresponding term has
to be equal.
⇔ 𝑎𝑏 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑎 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎) 𝑏 𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)
⇔ 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑃𝐴 (𝑎)𝑃𝐵 (𝑏)

We have also learned earlier that if the probabilities factorize in this way, then there is no correlation. In
a product state, which is pure, the probabilities factorize this way, so the correlation is zero.

Verify that the state vector in 7.30 represents a completely unentangled state.
The state vector in 7.30 is written as
𝛼𝑢 |𝑢, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑, 𝑏⟩
The state space has 6 dimensions, and every state vector can be written as a superposition of the 6 basis
vectors. We can check if the state vector represents a product state. If this is the case, then we have a
pure and so completely unentangled state.
The general form of a product state in this space of states is
𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑏 |𝑢, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽+ |𝑢, +1⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽− |𝑢, −1⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑏 |𝑑, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽+ |𝑑, +1⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽− |𝑑, −1⟩
We can set our coefficients equal to the following values:
𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼𝑢 , 𝛼𝑑 = 𝛼𝑑 , 𝛽𝑏 = 1, 𝛽+ = 0, 𝛽− = 0
And we get
𝛼𝑢 1|𝑢, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 0|𝑢, +1⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 0|𝑢, −1⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 1|𝑑, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 0|𝑑, +1⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 0|𝑑, −1⟩
= 𝛼𝑢 |𝑢, 𝑏⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑, 𝑏⟩
We can also write this state vector as a tensor product:
(𝛼𝑢 |𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 |𝑑⟩) ⊗ (|𝑏})

Calculate Alice’s density matrix for 𝝈𝒛 for the “near-singlet” state.
The state vector of the “near-singlet” state in the 𝜎𝑧 basis is
√0,6|𝑢𝑑⟩ − √0,4|𝑑𝑢⟩
Alice’s density matrix elements are defined by
𝜌𝑎′ 𝑎 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎′ , 𝑏)

𝑏
The list of values for 𝜓(𝑎, 𝑏) is
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 0
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = √0,6
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = −√0,4
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
The list of elements of Alice’s density matrix are
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 0,6

𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0,4
Alice’s density matrix then becomes

0,6 0
𝜌𝐴 = ( )
0 0,4

Verify the numerical values in each rap sheet.
Rap sheet 1, product state

|𝛹⟩ = 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩
The list of elements of Alice’s density matrix are defined by
𝜌𝑎′𝑎 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎′ , 𝑏)

𝑏
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑

= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑
= 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 (𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
Alice’s density matrix then becomes
𝛼 ∗𝛼 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢
𝜌𝐴 = ( 𝑢 ∗ 𝑢 )
𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
The sum of the eigenvalues is 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 = 1 and

the product of the eigenvalues is 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 = 0.
This indeed limits the eigenvalues of this 2𝑥2 matrix to 1 and 0.
The eigenvector with eigenvalue 1 is the wave function of Alice’s subsystem. Let’s check this.
𝛼 ∗𝛼 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢
( 𝑢∗ 𝑢 ) ( ) = (𝛼 )
𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝑑
(𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 )𝛼𝑢 + (𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 )𝛼𝑑 = 𝛼𝑢

⇔{
(𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )𝛼𝑢 + (𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )𝛼𝑑 = 𝛼𝑑
𝛼𝑢 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑢
⇔{
𝛼𝑑 (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 ) = 𝛼𝑑

Now we have to check the expectation value property 〈𝜎𝑥 〉2 + 〈𝜎𝑦 〉2 + 〈𝜎𝑧 〉2 = 1.
𝛼 ∗𝛼 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 0 1 2 𝛼 ∗𝛼 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 2
〈𝜎𝑥 〉2 = (𝑇𝑟 𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑥 )2 = [𝑇𝑟 ( 𝑢 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ )( )] = [𝑇𝑟 ( 𝑑 ∗ 𝑢 )]
𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 1 0 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
= (𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )2 = 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 2𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
2
2 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 0 −𝑖 𝑖𝛼 ∗ 𝛼 −𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 2
〈𝜎𝑦 〉2 = (𝑇𝑟 𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑦 ) = [𝑇𝑟 ( )( )] = [𝑇𝑟 ( 𝑑 ∗ 𝑢 )]
𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝑖 0 𝑖𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 −𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
= (𝑖𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝑖𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )2 = −𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 2𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
𝛼 ∗𝛼 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 1 0 2 𝛼 ∗𝛼 −𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 2
〈𝜎𝑧 〉2 = (𝑇𝑟 𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑧 )2 = [𝑇𝑟 ( 𝑢 ∗ 𝑢 ∗ )( )] = [𝑇𝑟 ( 𝑢 ∗ 𝑢 )]
𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 0 −1 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 −𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
= (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )2 = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 2𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
Adding these 3 terms together should give us 1.
𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 2𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 2𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 − 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
+𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 2𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑
= 2𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 + 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 = (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )2 = 1
For Bob’s density matrix, wave function and expectation values, we can replace all the 𝛼’s with 𝛽’s and
𝜎’s with 𝜏’s in Alice’s above results.
Now let’s check the correlation property 〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 − 〈𝜎𝑧 〉〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = 0.

〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 = ⟨𝛹|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 |𝛹⟩
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 |(𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ + 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩

+ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )|𝜎𝑧 |(𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ − 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ + 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩
− 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= (⟨𝑢𝑢|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑢𝑑|𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑢|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ + ⟨𝑑𝑑|𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ )(𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 |𝑢𝑢⟩ − 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 |𝑢𝑑⟩ − 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 |𝑑𝑢⟩

+ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 |𝑑𝑑⟩)
= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 − 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑
〈𝜎𝑧 〉 = 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 and 〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 − 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑
〈𝜎𝑧 〉〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = (𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 )(𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 − 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 )
= 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 − 𝛼𝑢 ∗ 𝛼𝑢 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑 − 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑢 ∗ 𝛽𝑢 + 𝛼𝑑 ∗ 𝛼𝑑 𝛽𝑑 ∗ 𝛽𝑑
For 〈𝜎𝑧 𝜏𝑧 〉 − 〈𝜎𝑧 〉〈𝜏𝑧 〉, we see that all the terms cancel out and we indeed get 0.

Rap sheet 2, singlet state
1
|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩ = (|𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩)
√2
The density matrix of the composite system can be defined by the projection operator |𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔⟩⟨𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔|.
1 1 1 1
𝜌𝐴𝐵 = (0|𝑢𝑢⟩ + |𝑢𝑑⟩ − |𝑑𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑𝑑⟩) (0⟨𝑢𝑢| + ⟨𝑢𝑑| − ⟨𝑑𝑢| + 0⟨𝑑𝑑|)
√2 √2 √2 √2
0
1
√2 (0 1 1
= − 0)
1 √2 √2
−
√2
( 0 )
0 0 0 0
0 1/2 −1/2 0
=( )
0 −1/2 1/2 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1/2 −1/2 0 0 1/2 −1/2 0 0 1/2 −1/2 0
𝜌𝐴𝐵 2 =( )( )=( ) = 𝜌𝐴𝐵
0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 −1/2 1/2 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝐴𝐵 2 ) = 1
The list of elements of Alice’s density matrix are defined by
𝜌𝑎′𝑎 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎′ , 𝑏)

𝑏
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 0
1
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) =
√2
1
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = −
√2
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = 1/2
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 1/2
1/2 0
𝜌𝐴 = ( )
0 1/2

1/2 0 1/2 0 1/4 0
𝜌𝐴 2 = ( )( )=( ) ≠ 𝜌𝐴
0 1/2 0 1/2 0 1/4
𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝐴 2 ) = 1/2 < 1
Now we check the expectation value properties.

1/2 0 1 0 1/2 0
〈𝜎𝑧 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑧 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 1/2 0 −1 0 −1/2
1/2 0 0 1 0 1/2
〈𝜎𝑥 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑥 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 1/2 1 0 1/2 0
1/2 0 0 −𝑖 0 −1/2𝑖
〈𝜎𝑦 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑦 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 1/2 𝑖 0 1/2𝑖 0
Since Bob’s density matrix is exactly the same as Alice’s, we get the same results for the 𝜏’s.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1/2 −1/2 0
〈𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 )] = 𝑇𝑟 [( ) (0 −1 0 0 )]
0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 0 −1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 −1/2 1/2 0
= 𝑇𝑟 ( ) = −1
0 1/2 −1/2 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1/2 −1/2 0
〈𝜏𝑥 𝜎𝑥 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑥 𝜎𝑥 )] = 𝑇𝑟 [( ) (0 0 1 0)]
0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 −1/2 1/2 0
= 𝑇𝑟 ( ) = −1
0 1/2 −1/2 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
0 1/2 −1/2 0
〈𝜏𝑦 𝜎𝑦 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑦 𝜎𝑦 )] = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( 0 0 1 0 )]
0 −1/2 1/2 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 −1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 −1/2 1/2 0
= 𝑇𝑟 ( ) = −1
0 1/2 −1/2 0
0 0 0 0
With these results we can verify that the correlation property is 〈𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 〉 − 〈𝜎𝑧 〉〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = −1.

Rap sheet 3, “near-singlet” state
|Ψ⟩ = √0,6|𝑢𝑑⟩ − √0,4|𝑑𝑢⟩
The density matrix of the composite system can be defined by the projection operator |Ψ⟩⟨Ψ|.
0 0 0 0 0
√0,6 0 0,6 −√0,24 0
𝜌𝐴𝐵 = (0 √0,6 −√0,4 0) =
−√0,4 0 −√0,24 0,4 0
( 0 ) (0 0 0 0 )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0,6 −√0,24 0 0 0,6 −√0,24 0
𝜌𝐴𝐵 2 =
0 −√0,24 0,4 0 0 −√0,24 0,4 0
(0 0 0 0 ) (0 0 0 0 )
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0,36 + 0,24−√0,24(0,6 + 0,4) 0 0 0,6 −√0,24 0
= = = 𝜌𝐴𝐵
0 −√0,24(0,6 + 0,4) 0,24 + 0,16 0 0 −√0,24 0,4 0
(0 0 0 0 ) (0 0 0 0 )
𝑇𝑟(𝜌𝐴𝐵 2 ) = 1
This result is different from the information in the book on page 234.
We have already calculated Alice’s density matrix for this state in Exercise 7.11. Here’s the result.
0,6 0
𝜌𝐴 = ( )
0 0,4
0,36 0
𝜌𝐴 2 = ( ) ≠ 𝜌𝐴
0 0,16
𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 2 ) = 0,52 < 1
Now it’s time for the expectation value properties.

0,6 0 1 0 0,6 0
〈𝜎𝑧 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑧 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( ) = 0,2
0 0,4 0 −1 0 −0,4
0,6 0 0 1 0 0,6
〈𝜎𝑥 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑥 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 0,4 1 0 0,4 0
0,6 0 0 −𝑖 0 −0,6𝑖
〈𝜎𝑦 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐴 𝜎𝑦 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 0,4 𝑖 0 0,4𝑖 0
First we will calculate Bob’s density matrix, defined by
𝜌𝑏′𝑏 = ∑ 𝜓 ∗ (𝑎, 𝑏) 𝜓(𝑎, 𝑏′)

𝑎
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) = 0
𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) = √0,6
𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = −√0,4

𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
𝜌𝑢𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 0,4
𝜌𝑢𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑢)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0
𝜌𝑑𝑢 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑢) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑢) = 0
𝜌𝑑𝑑 = 𝜓 ∗ (𝑢, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑢, 𝑑) + 𝜓 ∗ (𝑑, 𝑑)𝜓(𝑑, 𝑑) = 0,6
0,4 0
𝜌𝐵 = ( )
0 0,6
And we continue with the expectation value properties.
0,4 0 1 0 0,4 0
〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐵 𝜏𝑧 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( ) = −0,2
0 0,6 0 −1 0 −0,6
0,4 0 0 1 0 0,4
〈𝜏𝑥 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐵 𝜏𝑥 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 0,6 1 0 0,6 0
0,4 0 0 −𝑖 0 −0,4𝑖
〈𝜏𝑦 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 (𝜌𝐵 𝜏𝑦 ) = 𝑇𝑟 [( )( )] = 𝑇𝑟 ( )=0
0 0,6 𝑖 0 0,6𝑖 0
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0,6
−√0,24 0 0 −1 0 0)
〈𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 )] = 𝑇𝑟 (
0 −√0,24 0,4 0 0 0 −1 0
[(0 0 0 0 ) 0 0 0 1 ]
0 0 0 0
0 −0,6 √0,24 0
= 𝑇𝑟 = −1
0 √0,24 −0,4 0
(0 0 0 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0,6 −√0,24 0
〈𝜏𝑥 𝜎𝑥 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑥 𝜎𝑥 )] = 𝑇𝑟 (0 0 1 0)
0 −√0,24 0,4 0 0 1 0 0
[(0 0 0 0 ) 1 0 0 0 ]
0 0 0 0
0 −√0,24 0,6 0
= 𝑇𝑟 = −2√0,24
0 0,4 −√0,24 0
( 0 0 0 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 −1
0 0,6 −√0,24 0
〈𝜏𝑦 𝜎𝑦 〉 = 𝑇𝑟 [𝜌𝐴𝐵 (𝜏𝑦 𝜎𝑦 )] = 𝑇𝑟 (0 0 1 0)
0 −√0,24 0,4 0 0 1 0 0
[(0 0 0 0 ) −1 0 0 0 ]
0 0 0 0
0 −√0,24 0,6 0
= 𝑇𝑟 = −2√0,24
0 0,4 −√0,24 0
( 0 0 0 0)

With these results we can verify that the correlation property is 〈𝜏𝑧 𝜎𝑧 〉 − 〈𝜎𝑧 〉〈𝜏𝑧 〉 = −1 + 0,04 =
−0,96.
How to derive Alice’s and Bob’s density matrices from the density matrix of the composite system?
Alice’s density matrix
1 3
𝜌𝐴𝐵 = ( 1 3 ) → 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 → 𝜌 = (1 3
)
𝐴
2 4 2 4
2 4
Bob’s density matrix
1 3
2 4 1 3
𝜌𝐴𝐵 = ( ) → 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 → 𝜌𝐵 = ( )
1 3 2 4
2 4

Prove that 𝑿 and 𝑫 are linear operators.
A linear operator has to fulfil three conditions.
1) When a linear operator acts on a function , it has to give back a function.
𝑋 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑥𝜓(𝑥)
𝑑𝜓(𝑥)
𝐷 𝜓(𝑥) = = 𝜓 ′ (𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
2) When a linear operator acts on a product of a complex number with a function, it has to be equal to
the product of the complex number with the linear operator acting on the function.
𝑋 𝑧𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑧𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑧 𝑥𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑧 𝑋 𝜓(𝑥)

𝑑𝑧𝜓(𝑥) 𝑧 𝑑𝜓(𝑥)
𝐷 𝑧𝜓(𝑥) = = = 𝑧 𝐷 𝜓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3) When a linear operator acts on a sum of two functions, it has to be equal to the sum of the linear
operators acting on the functions.
𝑋 (𝜓(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑥)) = 𝑥 (𝜓(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑥)) = 𝑥𝜓(𝑥) + 𝑥𝜙(𝑥) = 𝑋 𝜓(𝑥) + 𝑋 𝜙(𝑥)
𝑑(𝜓(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑥)) 𝑑𝜓(𝑥) 𝑑𝜙(𝑥)

𝐷 (𝜓(𝑥) + 𝜙(𝑥)) = = + = 𝐷 𝜓(𝑥) + 𝐷 𝜙(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Derive Eq. 9.7 by plugging Eq. 9.6 into Eq. 9.5.
Eq. 9.5
ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓(𝑥)
− = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
Eq. 9.6
𝑖𝑝𝑥
𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑒 ℏ
Eq. 9.7
𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚
ℏ2 𝜕 2 𝜓(𝑥)
− = 𝐸𝜓(𝑥)
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥 2
𝑖𝑝𝑥
2
ℏ2 𝜕 (𝑒 )
ℏ 𝑖𝑝𝑥
⇔− 2
= 𝐸𝑒 ℏ
2𝑚 𝜕𝑥
𝑖𝑝𝑥
ℏ 𝑖𝑝 𝜕 (𝑒 )
2 ℏ 𝑖𝑝𝑥
⇔− = 𝐸𝑒 ℏ
2𝑚 ℏ 𝜕𝑥
ℏ2 𝑖 2 𝑝2 𝑖𝑝𝑥 𝑖𝑝𝑥
⇔− 𝑒 ℏ = 𝐸𝑒 ℏ
2𝑚 ℏ2
𝑝2 𝑖𝑝𝑥 𝑖𝑝𝑥
⇔ 𝑒 ℏ = 𝐸𝑒 ℏ
2𝑚
𝑝2
⇔𝐸 =
2𝑚

Prove Eq. 9.10 by expanding each side and comparing the results.
Eq. 9.10
[𝑃2 , 𝑋] = 𝑃[𝑃, 𝑋] + [𝑃, 𝑋]𝑃
left side
[𝑃2 , 𝑋] = 𝑃2 𝑋 − 𝑋𝑃2
right side
𝑃[𝑃, 𝑋] + [𝑃, 𝑋]𝑃 = 𝑃(𝑃𝑋 − 𝑋𝑃) + (𝑃𝑋 − 𝑋𝑃)𝑃 = 𝑃2 𝑋 − 𝑃𝑋𝑃 + 𝑃𝑋𝑃 − 𝑋𝑃2 = 𝑃2 𝑋 − 𝑋𝑃2
Both results agree.

Show that the right-hand side of Eq. 9.17 simplifies to the right-hand side of Eq. 9.16.
Hint: First expand the second term by taking the derivative of the product. Then look for
cancellations.
We start with Eq. 9.17

𝑑 𝑑
[𝑉(𝑥), 𝑃] 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑉(𝑥) (−𝑖ℏ ) 𝜓(𝑥) − (−𝑖ℏ ) 𝑉(𝑥) 𝜓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝜓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑 𝜓(𝑥)
⇔ [𝑉(𝑥), 𝑃] 𝜓(𝑥) = −𝑖ℏ 𝑉(𝑥) + 𝑖ℏ 𝜓(𝑥) + 𝑖ℏ 𝑉(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
⇔ [𝑉(𝑥), 𝑃] 𝜓(𝑥) = 𝑖ℏ 𝜓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
⇔ [𝑉(𝑥), 𝑃] = 𝑖ℏ
𝑑𝑥
and we end up with Eq. 9.16.

Find the second time derivative of 𝒙 in Eq. 10.9, and thereby show that it solves Eq. 10.8.
Eq. 10.9
𝑥 = 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥̇ = −𝐴𝜔 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵𝜔 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡)
𝑥̈ = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) − 𝐵𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
Eq. 10.8
−𝜔2 𝑥 = 𝑥̈
We plug the above equations for 𝑥 and 𝑥̈ into this equation.
⇔ −𝜔2 (𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) + 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)) = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) − 𝐵𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)
⇔ −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) − 𝐵𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) = −𝐴𝜔2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜔𝑡) − 𝐵𝜔2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡)


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Quantum Mechanics

The Theoretical Minimum

Stanford University, Continuing Studies

Exercises by Filip Van Lijsebetten

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

{⟨𝐴| + ⟨𝐵|} |𝐶⟩

2) Prove 〈𝑨|𝑨〉 is a real number.

We use the second axiom for inner products.

We know that any inner product is a complex number.

[(𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖) + (𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖)]∗

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

⟨𝐶| {|𝐴⟩ + |𝐵⟩}

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

Two vectors are orthogonal if their inner product is 0.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

|𝑢⟩ = 1|𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑⟩

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

|𝑥⟩ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 |𝑢⟩ = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 |𝑢⟩ + 0|𝑑⟩

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

|𝒊⟩ = 𝜶|𝒖⟩ + 𝜷|𝒅⟩

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 ∗ = 0 ⇔ 𝛼 ∗ 𝛽 = −𝛼𝛽 ∗ = −[(𝛼 ∗ 𝛽)∗ ]

It follows from the above that

An analogue reasoning goes for 𝛾 ∗ 𝛿.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

The standard orthonormal basis is often referred to as ê1 , ê2 , … , ê𝑛 .

But starting with any vector 𝑢

A Hermitian operator 𝐿 in a complex vector space of 𝑁 dimensions is an 𝑁 × 𝑁 matrix. We know that

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

We work out Eqs. 3.14 and 3.15.

These lead to exactly one solution for Eq. 3.16.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

The length of a vector is √⟨𝜆|𝜆⟩ or √𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛼 which is indeed equal to 1.

⇔ cos(𝜃 − 𝛼) sin 𝛼 − sin(𝜃 − 𝛼) cos 𝛼 = 0

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

This matrix has two eigenvalues. The trace of this matrix is 0.

Now we fill in the values for the elements of the matrix.

⇔ { cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

cos 𝜃 cos 𝛼 + sin 𝜃 sin 𝛼 = cos 𝛼

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

⇔ { cos 𝜃 sin 𝛼 − 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 𝑒 𝑖𝜙 sin 𝛼 = − sin 𝛼

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

𝑛𝑧 (𝑛𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑦 ) cos 𝜃 𝑒 −𝑖𝜙 sin 𝜃 )

This is our Hermitian operator or observable in the 𝑛̂ direction.

Now we can calculate the probability to measure +1.

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

⟨𝐵|𝑈 † 𝑈|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐵|𝐼|𝐴⟩ = ⟨𝐵|𝐴⟩

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

(𝑖[𝑀, 𝐿])† = [𝑖(𝑀𝐿 − 𝐿𝑀)]† = (𝑖𝑀𝐿 − 𝑖𝐿𝑀)† = (𝑖𝑀𝐿)† − (𝑖𝐿𝑀)†

= (𝑖𝑀𝐿)† − (𝑖𝐿𝑀)† = −𝑖(𝑀𝐿)† + 𝑖(𝐿𝑀)† (1)

⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 = 𝐿𝑖𝑗 𝑀𝑗𝑘

⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝐿𝑖𝑗 ∗ 𝑀𝑗𝑘 ∗

⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝐿𝑗𝑖 𝑀𝑘𝑗

⇔ 𝐾𝑖𝑘 ∗ = 𝑀𝑘𝑗 𝐿𝑗𝑖

⇔ 𝐾𝑘𝑖 † = 𝑀𝑘𝑗 𝐿𝑗𝑖

We continue further with (1).

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

From the definition of Poisson brackets we get

Further, there are no units for 𝑖.

The units of ℏ are

Bringing these elements together we get

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015

Filip Van Lijsebetten 19/10/2015