COOLTH

SOURCES
(Part 1)

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 1

The Active
Cooling
Question
How do you get heat to
flow “backwards” –
from a cool interior to
a warmer exterior?

… when heat always flows from high to low temperature

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 2

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 from ARCH 273 
Natural Heat Sinks
(Potential Passive Coolth Sources) Are:

• Dry-bulb air temperature

• Wet-bulb air-temperature
• Ground temperature
• Water temperature (lake, pond, ground water)
• Night sky radiation

none of these permit cool-to-warm heat flow; all have limited applicability
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 3

Now: Active Coolth Sources

• Vapor-compression refrigeration
– The most common active coolth source
– Enables apparent cool-to-warm heat flow
• Absorption refrigeration
– An alternative active coolth source
– Enables apparent cool-to-warm heat flow
• Evaporative cooler
– An alternative, climate-dependent, active coolth
source
– Cannot enable cool-to-warm heat flow
“coolth” denotes a reduction in or diminishing of heat
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 4

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 Let’s Start With
Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
• The most commonly used coolth source for
active HVAC systems–found in the vast
majority of cooling systems
• Available in a wide range of capacities–from
small to huge
• Usually driven by an electric motor (other
options are possible, but not as common)
• A fairly noisy process (and produces vibration)
• Available for use in local, central, and district
HVAC systems
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 5

The Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
schematic diagram

Refrigerant

refrigerant circulates among four key components

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 6

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Compressor
• This component drives
the system (it circulates √
the refrigerant) refrigerant
• Increases the pressure
of the refrigerant
• Several compressor
types are used (choice
is a function of capacity
and cost)
• Consumes energy
(usually electricity) and
as a result produces
waste heat (a good deal
of which goes into the
refrigerant)

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 7

Condenser refrigerant

• Is a refrigerant-to-air
(or refrigerant-to-
water) heat exchanger
• Is a coil (if air) or a
cylinder (if water) air
• Is located “outdoors”
(or connected to an
outdoor device)
• Warm refrigerant
passes through the
condenser tubes
• Outdoor air passes
over fins (or water
passes among tubes)
• Dumps heat from the
refrigerant outdoors
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 8

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Evaporator refrigerant

• A refrigerant-to-air
(or to-water) heat
exchanger
• A coil (or cylinder) air
• Located “indoors”
• Refrigerant passes
through coil tubes
• Room air passes
over fins that are
cooled by cold
refrigerant (or water
among tubes)
• Produces a cooling
effect in air or water

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 9

Expansion Valve refrigerant

• A small, but critical,

component
• It imposes a
pressure drop on the
refrigerant
• This reduction in
pressure causes the
evaporation of some
of the refrigerant,
thereby reducing its
temperature
• This device also
provides capacity
control for the
system
• An ingenious little
device photo: http://americanhvacparts.com/

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 10

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How Vapor Compression Works – 1

• Powering up the compressor

starts the flow of refrigerant
(within a closed-loop cycle)
hot temp
• Warm refrigerant gas is
sucked into the compressor high pres
• The compressor pressurizes
the refrigerant and the
resulting pressure difference
causes flow (fluids move from
higher to lower pressure)
• Hot (the actual temperature warm temp
depends upon the application)
refrigerant gas leaves the lower pres
compressor
• The compressor thus “pumps”
hot refrigerant gas toward the
condenser

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 11

How it Works – 2 (if air-cooled)

• Hot (above summer outdoor
air temperature) refrigerant
gas flows from the
compressor and through the refrigerant
condenser coil
• Outdoor air passes across
the condenser fins air
• Heat flows from the hotter
refrigerant to the hot or
warm outdoor air (flowing
from higher temp to lower
temp)
• Heat is thus dumped
outdoors
• Enough heat is removed
from the refrigerant that it
changes state (condenses)
• Liquid, but still hot,
refrigerant flows toward the
expansion valve

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 12

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 How it Works – 3
• Liquid, but still hot,
refrigerant reaches the
expansion valve
• The expansion valve (a flow
restriction point) imposes a
pressure drop on refrigerant
• The pressure drop (lowering
refrigerant pressure) causes
some of the liquid refrigerant
to boil (evaporate)
• The energy “consumed” to
enable the evaporation
process causes the
refrigerant temperature to
drop
• A cool, gas/liquid refrigerant
mixture flows toward the
evaporator

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 13

Not so Fast! What’s That, Again?

expansion valve

High pressure, high temperature Lower pressure, lower temperature

refrigerant liquid refrigerant gas/liquid mixture
 from condenser  to evaporator

Evaporation requires a heat input. Where’s the heat come from?

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 14

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 Boiling Points of Water & Stuff
31 in. Hg: 214 °F (at approx -1000 ft below sea level)
30 in. Hg: 212.15 °F (at approx sea level)
29 in. Hg: 210.3 °F (at approx 1000 ft above sea level)
28 in. Hg: 208.44 °F (at approx 2000 ft above sea level)
27 in. Hg: 206.59 °F (at approx 3000 ft above sea level)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boiling_point
25 in. Hg: 202.89 °F (at approx 5000 ft above sea level)
23 in. Hg: 199.19 °F (at approx 7000 ft above sea level)
21 in. Hg: 195.48 °F (at approx 10,000 ft above sea level)
19 in. Hg: 191.78 °F (at approx 12,000 ft above sea level)
17 in. Hg: 188.07 °F (at approx 15,000 ft above sea level)
10 in. Hg: 175.11 °F (at approx 27,000 ft above sea level)
5 in. Hg: 165.85 °F (at approx 42,000 ft above sea level)

boiling points usually decrease with decreasing pressure

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 15

How it Works – 4 (if direct expansion)

• The gas/liquid refrigerant

mixture that was cooled at
the expansion valve enters
the evaporator coil
• The cool refrigerant is a
heat sink for “warm” room
air passing across the
evaporator fins
• The room air is cooled
(sensible cooling)
• If the coil is at or below the
dew point of the room air
then moisture condenses
(latent cooling)
• The refrigerant is warmed;
and the addition of this heat
evaporates the remaining refrigerant
refrigerant liquid air

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 16

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 How it Works – 5
• Warm refrigerant gas from the
evaporator enters the
compressor
• The compressor pressurizes
the refrigerant (and warms it a
bit by friction)
• The refrigerant leaves the
compressor for another loop
through the cycle
• Room heat has been dumped
outdoors (into high or warm
temperature air) through this
ongoing relay process
• The room is cooled (by air
flowing across the low
temperature evaporator coil)
• Isn’t science great?

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 17

Refrigerants
A refrigerant is a fluid (typically manufactured) that has/is:

– Appropriate pressure/temperature relationships–it

evaporates at a useful temperature (say 40 deg F) under
reasonable pressure
– A hardy compound (with good life expectancy … an oops relative to
climate change)
– Not too viscous (it flows easily, reducing pumping energy)
– Not too expensive (it is affordable)
– Not too immediately dangerous (it’s not explosive or poisonous)
– Not too harmful to the environment (no long-term danger)

Many, many refrigerants are used today (many others are now
history)

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 18

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Refrigerants and
the Environment
Ozone Depletion

Ozone is an atmospheric gas that provides us with protection from harmful

radiation; ozone can be removed from the atmosphere by other gasses
Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) is the scientific measure of this removal
effect—and is used to rate refrigerants
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) are the main refrigerant culprits
CFCs are proven ozone-depleting substances
U.S. regulations ban “new” CFC manufacture/use
Regulatory basis is the “Montreal Protocol” (ratified in 1989)
A CFC-free system is a prerequisite for LEED-NC
Ozone-depletion is not the same as the greenhouse effect

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 19

Refrigerants and
the Environment
Greenhouse Gases

Numerous gasses can contribute to an increase in planetary temperature

by providing more “insulation” in the atmosphere
Global Warming Potential (GWP) is the scientific measure of this
effect—and is used to rate refrigerants
The climate-change problem associated with refrigerants is the addition
of more greenhouse gas to the atmosphere whenever a refrigerant
leaks or is intentionally released (“more” is relative to the already
extensive CO2 dumping)
Resolving this serious issue is a work in progress (and not going so well)
Refrigerants are evolving in response to this concern
See the next slide for some GWP values
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 20

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Refrigerants and
the Environment
GWP
Gas or Life GWP at 20 GWP at GWP at 500
Refrigerant yrs 100 yrs yrs
CO2 variable 1 1 1 *

CFC 11 45 6300 4600 1600

HFC 23 260 9400 12,000 10,000 **

HCFC 21 2 700 210 65

Halon 1301 65 7,900 6,900 2,700

CFC = chlorofluorocarbon; HFC = hydrofluorocarbon; HCFC = hydrochlorofluorocarbon

* serves as a benchmark; ** truly wicked stuff
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 21

Rating Cooling System Capacity

Equipment/system capacity is expressed in tons of cooling

1 ton = 12,000 Btu/hr (Btuh)

Btu = British thermal unit (a measure of heat)
Btuh = Btu per hour (a measure of heat flow)

A “ton” of cooling is derived from the cooling

capacity of 2,000 lbs (a ton) of ice melting per day

1 ton of cooling = (144 Btu/lb*)(2,000 lbs) / (24 hr) = 12,000 Btu/hr

* the latent heat of fusion of water

Using the “ton” was a brilliant promotional idea: a one-ton cooling system would replace
2,000 pounds of ice a day; what a convenience.
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 22

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 Expressing Cooling System
“Efficiency”
COP  coefficient of performance

COP = output (in Btu/hr) / input (in Btu/hr)

Alternatively, EER  energy efficiency ratio

EER = output (in Btu/hr) / input (in watts)

EER = (COP) (3.41) [3.41 Btu per watt]

The higher the COP, the more efficient the equipment.

“Efficiency” is not used for cooling equipment (as it would be >100%)

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 23

From Schematic Diagram

to Cooling Equipment

place the components in a sheet metal box, add bells and whistles, and …
Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 24

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You have a Window Air Conditioner
(a local system)

This one has seen better days, but is ready for deconstruction

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 25

Window (Unitary) Air Conditioner

evaporator coil
indoor air fan

fan motor

outdoor air fan

condenser coil

compressor

expansion valve

Ball State Architecture | ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS 2 | Grondzik 26

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