Basic Principles to be considered for an aboveground GRP

piping system
The present article aims to give some basic principles and cares to be considered at the moment of the
draft design of an aboveground GRP pipeline. The article is published in two parts.
The designer should evaluate if a deeper stress and strain analysis is required for the pipeline, for the
supports and for other bearing structures connected to the pipeline.
Apart from special cases, GRP pipes should be always connected to the bearing structures by means of
saddles, made of steel or concrete or of other materials (GRP itself for instance), in order to distribute the
loads on a length and on an angle that is able to minimize the stress concentration on the pipe/support
contact points.
In nearly all aboveground applications tensile resistant couplings should be used.
Only in case of well supported pipe lines for nonpressure applications a non-tensile resistant system can
be used. The forces close to elbows or other singular points such as valves, reductions or tees, can become
relevant.
PRESSURE CLASS SELECTION:
The selection of the pressure class has to be made according to the following loads:

 working pressure
 surge pressure (water hammer)
 spacing of supports
 thermal load

The stress in hoop direction due to the internal pressure is calculated as shown in fig. 1:

Fig. 1: Calculation of Hoof Stress and Axial Stress for a GRP Piping System

 In GRP pipes it is important to always check the axial stress due to internal pressure since the
material is anisotropic and the difference of strength in hoop and axial direction is relevant.
  The sum of stresses due to the above loads, calculated in the hoop and axial direction, has to be
lower than the allowable stresses, defined for each pipe class or by a specific job.
 Approximate values for allowable stresses for a common filament wound pipe for above ground
use may be 50 Mpa in hoop direction and 30 MPa in axial direction.
 High working temperature could reduce the allowable stress in GRP and consequently reduce the
pressure class.
 The Code (AWWA M45) generally considers a 40% of tolerance in the allowable stresses in case
of transient surge pressure based on the increased strength of fiberglass pipes for rapid strain
rates.

Both the following equations (Fig. 2) have to be calculated:

Fig. 2: Equations to calculate stresses

VACUUM DESIGN:
The AWWA M45 standards admit a safety factor for vacuum conditions between 1.3 and 3.
For different pressure classes and the same standard pipe (55° filament winding) the approximate relation
between pressure class, stiffness and vacuum resistance is resumed in the following table (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3: Table showing Vacuum resistance with respect to pressure class and pipe stiffness
For low pressure pipes with vacuum, a convenient solution can be either to provide stiffening ribs or a
sandwich pipe wall structure with a mortar core.
THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICENT:
The approximate axial coefficient of thermal expansion (α) for a GRP pipe made by filament winding with
winding angle of 55°is:
α = 1.8×10−5 m/m °C
For different GRP pipe classes (with mortar core) or for different winding angles, please consult the GRP
Vendor.
The total expansion (or contraction) of a pipe length ( L ) is calculated as:
ΔL =α ⋅ L ⋅ ΔT
ΔT is the temperature gradient (positive or negative) with reference to the installation temperature T 0.
The thermal expansion coefficient of GRP has the same magnitude as the steel coefficient (α=1.2× 10 -5 °C-
1), whilst thermal end loads for restrained expansion are significantly lower, since the axial E-modulus of

GRP (Ea) is around 1/20th of steel’s.

The loads applied to expansion joints and to bearing structures are hence considerately lower in GRP
pipelines.
END LOADS:
The thermal end load (F) due to constrained expansion is calculated as shown in Fig. 4:

Fig. 4: Calculation of end loads for GRP piping for constrained expansion
and ID is the internal (nominal) diameter.
The thermal end load due to constrained expansion could be too big for both the stress arisen in the pipe,
and for the load that the bearing structures have to support.
Considering the pipe itself, its elastic stability has to be checked. The pipe’s elastic stability depends on the
pipe section, on the E-modulus and on the span between axial guide supports that is the length of free
deflection.
The allowable compressive end load due to instability (Pcr) is calculated as shown in Fig. 5:

Fig. 5: Calculation of End load due to Instability

When the end loads are too big, they should be reduced by providing the system with anchor points and
expansion joints, or better, by operating on the pipeline’s geometry and on the supports placement in order
to let the line expand where it is not dangerous. Expansion loops can be added to the system where it is
possible.
The second solution is preferable since the involved loads and thrusts are much lower than in a similar
steel pipeline.
ANCHOR POINTS:
They have to be placed in such a way that pipeline expansions are forced in predetermined directions, in
order to balance loads and displacements on the different expansion devices, and to minimize
displacements close to dangerous locations, for example in weak branch connections or in connections
that are not allowed to move. More detailed description about the anchor points are provided in part-2 (Final
part) of this article.
DIRECTION CHANGES:
Changes of direction in a pipeline can be used to partially absorb the line’s elongation, when close to an
elbow; a branch that is free to expand is available, as shown in the following figure (Fig. 6):

Fig. 6: Effect of Direction Changes

The “available bending strength” is considered the remaining strength, after that all of the other stresses on
the pipe have been removed, such as the stresses due to internal pressure.
Clearly any term of the equation can be obtained once that all of the other terms are known, for instance
the length ΔL that can be absorbed can be found, when the length of the leg that is available is H.

EXPANSION LOOPS: “U” expansion loops are provided for long straight pipeline runs, as shown in the
figure (Fig. 7) below:
 Fig. 7: Expansion loop in GRP piping system
The recommended spacing between axial guide supports close to the expansion loop are also shown in
the drawing. Other supports shall be spaced following other calculations (beam load).
EXPANSION JOINTS:
Various kinds of standard expansion joints can be used. Low stiffness expansion joints are preferable since
they develop a low reaction in correspondence with relatively big displacements. GRP pipes expand more
than steel pipes but have much lower thrusts.
Using stiff expansion joints would reduce the stresses in the pipe only by a little
We suggest rubber joints with one or more waves, possibly with limiting travel devices, with an activation
load lower than the Pcr load calculated in part 1 of this article, and with a working travel equal to the total
expansion.
SUPPORTS SPACING:
Horizontal pipes should be supported according to the spacing suggested by the support spacing data or
according to a specific project.
Pipe span is defined as the distance between two consecutive pipe supports or anchoring devices.
The maximum span length for every pipe size and class is suggested by the Technical Department of GRP
Vendor for standard pipes or according to a specific project.
The span length is limited by the following considerations:

1. the maximum axial strain must not exceed the allowable value;
2. the mid span deflection has to be smaller than 1/300 th of the span length and anyway not exceed
15 mm which is the minimum value.

If factor (b) is the determinant factor, then the distance between supports must not be changed by reducing
the working pressure.
Often the spacing between the supports is set by other reasons, as for instance joint spacing or existing
bearing structures. Normally the 6 meters half-length span is the maximum that is used, even for large
diameter pipe, for which a theoretical longer span could be used. The maximum support span in meters is
shown in the following table (Fig. 8), for different pipe sizes and pressure classes:
 Fig. 8: Table showing typical support span for a specific project
The maximum span has to be evaluated for a continuous span length when the joint can transmit axial
loads.
In this case the span is the distance LC between two supports of a pipeline, placed at a distance from the
joint that in general shall not exceed the value of 1.2 m for pipe size up to DN 200 or 2 m for pipe size above
DN 200.
SUPPORTS:
Following are suggested the basic rules to design and for the positioning of supports, anchors and guides.

1. Loads with linear and punctiform contacts have to be avoided, therefore curved supports that bear
at least 120 degrees of the bottom part of the pipe and that have a maximum bearing stress of 600
kPa have to be used. Unprotected pipes are not allowed to press against roller supports or flat
supports. Do not bear any pipe directly against ridges or other points of the support’s surface.
Protective sleeves have to be used in these cases.
2. To protect pipes against external abrasion between the pipe and the steel collar, a PVC saddle
(Fig. 9) or a protective rubber layer has to be positioned in-between. The PVC saddle is necessary
when free axial sliding of the pipe must be permitted (axial guides).
3. Valves and other heavy equipment must be supported independently in both horizontal and vertical
directions.
4. The clamps must fit firmly but must not transfer excessive force to the pipe wall. This could result
in deformations and excessive wall stresses

5. Vertical runs have to be supported as shown in Fig. 9. Excessive loading in vertical runs have to be
avoided. It is preferable to design a “pipe in compression” than a“ pipe in tension”. If the “pipe in tension”
method cannot be avoided, take care to limit the tensile loading below the maximum tensile rate
recommended for the pipe. The guiding collars will have to be installed by using the same space intervals
used for horizontal supports.
 Fig. 9: Figure showing typical arrangement of PVC saddle and Vertical Supports
ANCHORING POINTS:
An anchoring point must efficiently restrain the movement of the pipe against all of the applied forces.
Anchors can be installed in both horizontal and vertical directions. Pipe anchors divide a pipe system into
two sections and must be attached to some structure that is capable of withstanding the applied forces. In
some cases pumps, tanks and other similar equipment function as anchors.
However, most installations require additional anchors where pipe sizes change or where fiberglass pipes
join another material or a product from another manufacturer. Additional anchors are usually located on
valves, pipeline changes of direction and major branch connections.
It is a good practice to anchor long, straight runs of aboveground piping at intervals of approximately 90 m.
In any case the correct positioning of anchor points has to be decided only after a detailed stress analysis.
The pipe must be able to expand radially within the pipe clamps.
To secure the pipe to the clamp it is suggested to apply a GRP lamination (as shown in Fig. 10 below) on
each side of the clamp. If the movement of the pipe has to be restrained only in one direction, it is sufficient
to apply only one overlay ring of GRP in the opposite position.

Fig. 10: Figure showing GRP lamination in pipe anchors

Pipe Rack and Rack Piping: A presentation
This is a small presentation on Pipe Rack and Rack Piping. It will be very helpful for the beginners into
piping industry. This article will cover the following points in brief:

 INTRODUCTION
 PIPE RACK
 Pipe Rack design criteria
 Shapes
 Future Space
 Width of Pipe Rack
 Clearance
 Pipe Rack Loading
 RACK PIPING
 Positions of Lines (Process & Utilities)
 Hot Lines & Cold Lines
 Bigger Size Lines
 Pipe Spacing
 Anchor Bay
 Unit Battery Limit
 Expansion Loops
 Pipe Route
 Trays

INTRODUCTION:
A pipe rack is the main artery of a process unit. It connects all equipment with lines that cannot run
through adjacent areas. Because it is located in the middle of the most plants, the pipe rack must be
erected first, before it becomes obstructed by rows of equipment. Pipe racks carry process, utility piping
and also include instrument and electrical cable trays as well as equipment mounted over all of these.
Fig. 1 shows a typical pipe rack.
The primary data required for detailed development of a pipe rack :-

 Plot Plan
 P&ID’s
 Client Specification
 Construction Materials
 Fire proofing requirements
 Statutory requirements
 Fig. 1: Typical pipe rack
PIPE RACK DESIGN CRITERIA:

 Shapes

There are various shapes of pipe rack like L/T/U/H/Z. These shapes shall be considered based on the
area available.

 Future Space

The total width of the pipe rack shall include 25% extra space for future expansion/modification in unit for
rack-width up to 16 m and 10% for rack-width above 16 m. The future space %age is normally based on
the client requirements.

 Width of Pipe rack

The width of the rack shall be 6 m, 8 m or 10 m for single bay and 12 m, 16 m or 20 m for double bay
having 4 tiers maximum. The spacing between pipe rack portals shall be taken as 6m in general.
However it can be increased to 8m depending on the size of the pumps to be housed below pipe rack.

 Clearance

For units, clearance beneath pipe rack shall be 4 m minimum both in longitudinal and transverse
directions.
For Offsite, clearance beneath pipe rack shall be 2.2 m minimum both in longitudinal and transverse
directions.
Road clearance shall be 7 m for main road and 5 m for secondary road.
RACK WIDTH SELECTION CRITERIA: Refer Fig. 2 for details
 Fig. 2: Rack width selection criteria
PIPE RACK LOADING :
Pipe rack loads shall be given by stress group to Civil & structural discipline for pipe rack design.

 Sustain Load (Dead Load): Weight of piping, valve and load insulation
 Thermal Load: Load by thermal expansion of piping & Reaction force by internal pressure of
expansion bellows
 Dynamic Load
 Load by vibration of piping & by wind and earthquake
 Sustained Load (Live Load): Liquid load for hydro static pressure test

RACK PIPING:

 Position of Lines: Predominantly process lines are to be kept at lower tier and, utility & hot
process lines on upper tier.
 Hot Lines & Cold Lines: Generally hot lines & cold lines are to kept at different tiers or at
different groups on a tier.
 Pipe Spacing: Minimum spacing between adjacent lines shall be decided based on O.D. of
bigger size flange (minimum rating 300# to be considered), O.D. of the smaller pipe, individual
insulation thickness and additional 25mm clearance. Even if flange is not appearing the min.
spacing shall be based on above basis only. Actual line spacing, especially at ‘L’ bend and loop
locations, shall take care thermal expansion/thermal contraction/non-expansion of adjacent line.
Non-expansion/thermal contraction may stop the free expansion of the adjacent line at ‘L’ bend
location.
 Bigger Size Lines: Large size lines (14” and larger) shall be arranged close to the column in
order to decrease the bending moment of beam. Water lines more than 30” shall not be routed
over pipe rack, these shall be routed underground.
  Anchor Bay: Anchors on the racks are to be provided on the anchor bay if the concept of anchor
bay is adopted. Otherwise anchor shall be distributed over two to three consecutive bays.
 Anchors shall be provided within unit on all hot lines leaving the unit.
 Pipe Route: Racks shall be designed to give the piping shortest possible run and to provide clear
head rooms over main walkways, secondary walkways and platforms.
 Trays: Generally top tier is to be kept for Electrical cable trays (if not provided in underground
trench) and Instrument cable ducts/trays. Cable tray laying to take care of necessary clearances
for the fire proofing of structure.
 Battery Limit (ISBL): Process lines crossing units (within units or from unit to main pipeway) are
normally provided with a block valve, spectacle blind and drain valve. Block valves are to be
grouped and locations of block valves in vertical run of pipe are preffered. If the block valves have
to be located in an overhead pipe-way, staircase access to a platform above the lines shall be
provided.

EXPANSION LOOPS (Fig. 3):

Fig. 3: Examples of Expansion Loops

 Expansion loop is provided on the high temperature lines. This information shall be given by
stress group. All the loops shall be located around one column only.
 MAKE LINES INTO A GROUP AND INSTALL A LARGE SIZE PIPING AND HIGH
TEMPERATURE PIPING TO THE EDGE OF THE RACK
 When necessary to install an expansion loop on the condensate line, do it horizontally to prevent
water hammering. But do as above if horizontal loop is impossible.

Even though the presentation is not a detailed one still it will be useful for the beginners.
Rack Piping for a Piping Stress Engineer
While designing a pipe rack, there are two main factors which a stress engineer should look into details.
Those are: 1. Expansion loop design and placement and 2. Pipe rack loading. The following write up will
list few of the considerations while designing pipe loop and rack loading.

1. Expansion Loop design and placement:

In most of the organizations there is no defined criteria for designing and placing an expansion loop in a
pipe rack. So most of the time the expansion loop is designed and located based on user experience. The
important parameters which governs the design of expansion loop are listed below:

A. Design/Maximum operating temperature of line

B. Allowed Displacement or movement (Normally allowed thermal displacement is 250-300mm inside a

loop, and 75-100mm in outside turns)

C. Allowed Expansion stress (normally within 80% of code allowable)

D. Line size (Bigger sizes require more leg to absorb expansion)

E. Loop Supporting Requirements (locations at which the loop will be supported)

F. Fluid type (Normally Flare and condensate lines require 2D loop)

G. Line sagging criteria from Project specification (Sometimes Steam, Condensate, Two Phase flow
lines and Flare lines require sagging limited within 3-5 mm for others it can go upto 15 mm)

H. Rack length and width

After having the above mentioned parameters ready one can proceed to locate the loops over the rack.
Follow the below mentioned steps for a preliminary guideline:

a. Select an elevation of pipe rack and check what are the lines running over that rack.

b. Select the line with maximum temperature first. Check the allowed maximum movement outside loop
(say 75mm) and place the first anchor at a distance which will be nearer to the allowed thermal
movement (75mm) as mentioned above.
c. Now as one anchor is fixed one can easily calculate the thermal displacement at design temperature
towards other end/turn. If the displacement is within allowed displacement (75mm) then an expansion
loop is not required. But if the calculated displacement is more (>75mm) then expansion loop is required.
From this displacement you can decide how many expansion loops are required for the straight run
allowing a maximum of 250-300mm displacement inside the loop. (Care should be taken for expansion
leg requirement as sometimes allowing 300 mm displacement may cause expansion failure or huge
anchor load. In that case increase no of expansion loops.)

d. It is better to place lines with high temperature at outside of the rack so that longer loop length can be
achieved on the other side.

e. It is better to nest the loops in a single location (same structures can be utilised for supporting)

f. Dont mix lines which required 2D loops with lines which required 3D loop in same elevation.

g. It is better to place anchors in similar locations for deciding anchor bay.

h. After deciding the loops check the loop length requirements from Pipe-Data-Pro, Caesar modelling
(most optimized approach), Nomograph, Manual calculation etc.

2. Pipe Rack Loading:

Rack loading is provided to CSA for economic designing of the pipe rack. Providing pipe rack loading is a
very difficult task for a stress engineer as most of the organizations does not have any guidelines.
Normally Pipe rack loads are transferred in 3 stages:

a. Initial rack loading for rack foundation design (before piling): Project has just started and very less data
is available. Piping design places the lines over the rack based on preliminary P&ID. Rack loads are
provided mostly based on assumption/experience. Conservative loads are to be provided.

b. Rack loading for member sizing (after 30% model review): Most of the data has started arriving. Loads
to be provided based on actual analysis.

c. Rack loading for final member checking (after 60% model review): All vendors are decided. Line size
and locations are finalized. All critical lines are fixed. Loads are provided for checking designed members
again. Loads to be provided based on Software analysis.

Few points to keep in mind while providing Rack loading:

1. Operating, Water filled and Occasional loads for big size lines (>16 inch NPS) to be provided
separately. For guides and anchors loads with and without friction should be provided.

2. For Flare line 1/3rd water filled weight can be considered.

3. Proper directions to be marked.

4. After a long run dont provide guide in the immediate first possible location after bend.

5. Consider concentrated loads of inline valves, flanges, equipments etc.

6. Sometimes large equipments are placed over the pipe racks (Air Fin Fan Cooler, Heat Exchangers
etc). So take operating weight of equipments from mechanical group.

7. Cable tray loads are to be taken from electrical/instrumentation group. (In absence of data a uniformly
distributed load of 1.0 KPa for single level and 1.9 KPa for double level of cable trays can be considered)

8. Include the forces of PSV reactions if applicable.

In absence of data following guidelines can be used as preliminary piping loads:

a. A uniformly distributed load of 1.9KPa for piping, product and insulation can be considered for line size
(for each line)

b. For line size larger than 12 inch nominal diameter actual concentrated load including the weight of
piping, product, valves, fittings and insulation shall be used.
A short article on “Expansion Loop” on piping system
All piping engineers are well acquainted with expansion loops (Fig 1). These are mainly required in piping
system design to

 Reduce system stress and

 Limit thermal displacements

Fig 1 shows typical loops used in piping system.

Fig. 1: Typical Expansion loops

 Loops provide the necessary leg of piping in a perpendicular direction to absorb the thermal
expansion. They are safe when compared with expansion joints but take more space.
 Load due to axial expansion causes bending stresses to be developed, increasing upwards in the
vertical pipes and becoming a maximum at the loop elbows.
 That bending moment stays at that maximum bending moment level for the entire length of the
top horizontal pipe until it gets to the next elbow and starts’ reducing until it reaches the bottom
pipe on the other side of the loop.
 As the loop gets higher, both axial resultant stress in the horizontal pipes and the bending
moments in the loop are reduced.

Expansion loops are categorized in different styles:

Symmetric loop vs Nonsymmetric loop (Fig. 2):
Ideally loops shall be located centered between anchors with equal legs on either side of anchor.
Symmetrical loops are advantageous to absorb the equal amount of expansion from both directions.
When this isn’t practical make legs on either side of anchor as equal as possible.
Friction Forces are determined by the number of pipe supports a line crosser. By making these legs
equal, the forces at the anchor should remain nearly balanced.

Fig. 2: Symmetric and non-symmetric loops

2-D vs 3-D Loops (Fig. 3): Loops may be 2-D or 3-D types. Normally for steam lines, flare lines,
condensate lines etc 2-D loops are preferred. Otherwise 3-D loop can be provided.

Fig. 3: 2-D vs 3-D Loops.

Multiple Loops (Fig. 4):
More than one loop may be required when:

1. It is impossible to make branch connections flexible enough.

2. Spacing between branches and neighboring lines or steel is limited.
3. When loop becomes too large to support or fit into space available.
4. Anchor forces become too unbalanced and steel cannot be economically braced.
5. More than one loop may be required when, the forces required to bend the loop are too great,
and the anchors cannot be economically reinforced.
 Fig. 4: Multiple Expansion loops in a piping system
Placing Expansion Loops/ Expansion Loop Placements:

1. Loop width should always be based on utilizing existing supports.

2. Thermal expansion must be allowed for when spacing adjacent loops.
3. Loop width does not have to be near 20 feet just because the loop nomographs happen to use
that number. Loop width has only secondary effect on results.
4. Minimum loop height depends on the berthing of the line with respect to the location of the loop
support.
5. Loops cannot extend too far beyond an existing support or the overhang will cause the loop to
“loose its balance.” This sets the maximum allowable loop height.
6. The first two points have more influence on loop design than stress formulas, from the piping
point of view.
7. Three dimensional loops are widely used because this arrangement does not block the routing of
low temperature lines under the loop.
8. Vertical loops are placed at road crossings and sometimes are nonsymmetrically located due to
the location of the road

Method for Sizing Pipeway Loops:

1. Anchor lines near their center to determine which lines require loops by checking the allowable
expansion at each end of the run. If each end will absorb the resulting expansion, no loop is
required, usually. If the line spacing cannot be adjusted to take the movement, a loop is required.
2. Determine which of the lines requiring loops need the largest loop, second largest, etc., by the
following:

 Multiply the total expansion of each line between its proposed anchors by the pipe’s moment of
inertia (E). (The stiffness of a line is measured by its “Moment of inertia.”)
 The line with the largest of these calculated numbers will require the largest loop, the next smaller
number, the next smaller loop, etc.
 The above rule does not check stress. This is checked after the loops are roughly dimensioned.

3. Fit the loops between two pipe supports using minimum spacing plus allowance for line
expansion and bowing. Make the loops as wide as possible, but keep the height to a minimum. If
stress or force is extremely high, check with stress engineer for height of loop.
4. Send finished pipe way to stress for accurate calculation of anchor forces for transmittal to
Structural and accurate evaluation of stresses in the piping.
A WRITE UP ON BURIED GRP/FRP PIPE LAYING AND
INSTALLATION PROCEDURE: Part -1
This Write-up/ Article guides to the proper installation of underground fiberglass piping systems.
Designing a piping system to the latest engineering standards and techniques makes up for half of the
job. The other half consists of the installation and the implementation of the design specifications. The
requirements for installing fiberglass piping systems differ significantly from those of other conventional
materials, for example from steel piping requirements.
GRP (glass reinforced plastic) pipes, possibly built with mortar siliceous aggregates, are classified as
“flexible” pipes, since they can work in a deflected condition, up to 5% of the diameter (long term), fully in
conformity with safety requirements.
SOIL- PIPE SYSTEM:
The external loads (soil and traffic) above a GRP buried pipe cause a reduction of the vertical diameter
and a consequent increase of the horizontal diameter (deflection).
This horizontal movement develops a passive soil resistance that enhances the pipe’s support by
contrasting the deflection and increases its lift (fig.1). Please see the next picture.

Fig. 1: Figure showing Soil Pipe Interaction

Thanks to the flexibility of the pipe, all of the external loads, such as soil and traffic that are loaded on the
pipe, are sustained by a combination of the pipe’s stiffness and the stiffness of the soil surrounding the
pipe.
DEFLECTION:
The amount of deflection depends on the soil load, on the alive load, on the native soil’s characteristics,
on the pipe’s backfill material, on the trench width, on the filling and on the pipe’s stiffness.
Buried fiberglass pipes generally accommodate 4-5% of long term deformation without structural damage.
An appropriate selection of the pipe’s stiffness class and its corresponding installation method allows to
maintain the pipe deflection within acceptable values.
TERMINOLOGY:
The figure (Fig. 2) below shows the meaning and the position of the elements that are used in this article,
such as foundation, bed, primary backfilling, secondary backfilling etc.
 Fig. 2: Figure Showing Terminologies used for the article
Following are listed a few terms and concepts that are used for soil description:

 fines = particles passing through the ASTM No. 200 sieve (with an opening of 0.075 mm), made
of silt and clay
 fine grained soils = soils where fine grained particles are >50%
 coarse grained soils = soils where fine grained particles are <50%; made of sand and gravel
 sand = soil retained by the ASTM No.200 sieve, but passing the ASTM No. 4 sieve (opening
4.5mm)

GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS:

 The conditions of the different soils crossed by pipelines to be laid should be determined before
installation.
 If these informations are missing, or are not available or are incomplete, an investigation of these
soils will have to be carried out.
 The result of this investigation not only will give the informations that are necessary to define the
suitable backfilling and compaction procedures, but will also define possible areas of unsuitable
materials, in order to minimize the use of selected material
 Fine grained soils with a medium/high plasticity, as highly plastic clay and silts, or organic soils,
generally are unsuitable for the backfilling area.
 The parameters that define the soil’s behaviour have a determinant influence on the dimensioning
formulae and on all of the verifications that are necessary for buried PRFV pipes.

IN SITU SOILS:
It is important to determine the in situ soil conditions prior to the installation and even prior to pipeline
design.
Data to be collected are:
  soil composition: ratio between coarse grained particles and fine grained particles
 compaction degree (for soils with a predominance of coarse grained particles) or cohesive
strength (for fine grained soils), that can be ascertained by means of penetration and shear tests
 groundwater conditions Investigations are addressed to evaluate the modulus of soil reaction
(E’n) of the native soil at the pipe elevation and how it can affect the global reaction of the
embedment.

Native soils with very low characteristics may reduce remarkably the stiffness of the embedment.
Since in most projects, the embedment materials and the rate of compaction are required to develop a
modulus of soil reaction in the range 7-14 Mpa, any normally consolidated and undisturbed native soil, is
able to produce a modulus of soil reaction of the same magnitude or higher.
EMBEDMENT MATERIALS:
The material used for the bedding and for the backfilling of the pipe, is classified according to its
composition and its compaction degree
SOIL STIFFNESS CATEGORIES:
The soil Classification and the Soil Stiffness Categories are summarised in the following table (Fig. 3)

Fig. 3: Table showing Soil Stiffness Categories

For further details regarding soil classification, please see ASTM-D2487.

 Most coarse grained soils (SC1, SC2 and SC3) make acceptable beddings and pipe zone backfill
materials.
 Fine grained soils with medium to high plasticity, such as CH and MH, and organic soils such as
OL, OH and PT generally are proven to be unsuitable for pipe zone backfill materials. High
plasticity and organic soils request special design considerations.
 The maximum grain size for backfill materials is 18 mm.
 Pipe zone backfill material must be compatible with the native trench so it will not wash away nor
migrate into native soil. Likewise, one must prevent migration of the native soil into the pipe zone
backfill area. Either of these events would result in a loss of side support for the pipe and
consequently cause an excessive deflection.
 Migration can only occur if there is movement of water in the pipe zone. When using incompatible
materials, they will have to be separated with a filter cloth.

PIPE BURIAL:
STORAGE AND HANDLING-When storing fiberglass pipes, prior to their assembly and burial, use at
least three supports (wooden beams). Separate each row of pipes with supports. When a pipe is stored
directly on the ground, ensure that the surface is smooth and rock free. Do not roll the pipe on the ground.
  Prior to installation, inspect each section of pipe on both the internal and external surface in order
to locate possible damages. Inspect also all joints, surfaces and edges. Do not use damaged
pipes without having first consulted our site supervisors.
 Only lift pipe sections with fabric straps.

EXCAVATING THE TRENCH-

 On most construction sites it is best to execute the trench excavation, the pipe installation and the
backfilling consecutively in order to minimize logistic problems and to reduce supervision costs.
 The bottom of the trench must be flat, continuous, smooth and free from large rocks. The
excavation of the trench bottom has to be deep enough to provide a minimum of 150 mm of
bedding under the pipe.
 Trench construction will vary according to the different types of soil encountered (stable or
unstable, granular or soft). In any case the bottom of the trench must be flat and continuous.

STABLE TRENCH WALLS OR ROCK TRENCH-

 Soils are considered stable only when it is possible to excavate the whole of the trench wall
vertically, without the need of any supports or shores.

UNSTABLE TRENCH WALLS AND BOTTOM-

 With unstable soils the trench wall may be excavated vertically with the insertion of sheet piles,
bulkheads or shores (installation method 1).

Installation in unstable soil-Shoring should preferably be done using a small thickness and it will have to
be removed in concomitance with the backfill. Every backfill layer should be placed and compacted as the
sheeting is being pulled out of an equivalent height, in order to avoid the occurrence of voids beneath the
sheeting and maintain the requested compaction. Refer Fig. 4

Fig. 4: Installation in unstable soils

 The second installation method is done with the trench wall angle at the natural slope of the soil.

GRANULAR SOIL TRENCH: In this case the trench walls will be at the natural slope (Fig. 4) of the native
granular material.
SOFT SOIL TRENCH: When the native soil is composed of soils with high plasticity, very compressible,
with a water content percentage on the dry soil weight exceeding 50%, as for soft clays, very melted
muds, etc., the granular soil used for the laying bed and for the backfilling can be absorbed by the native
soil. In this case, it is suitable to cover the bottom and the walls of the trench with a geotextile filter fabric,
which has the function of separating the layers to prevent the granular materials composing the bed and
the backfilling from being mixed or buried.
TRENCH WIDTH: The trench width must be wide enough to guarantee a minimum distance between the
pipe and the trench wall that can allow the backfilling compaction, according to the type of material used
and the compacting method.
Furthermore, in case of excavation in soils that are not able to guarantee the side support requested by
the project, the trench will have to be widened, according to the designer’s prescriptions, in order to
stabilize the trench wall.
Suggested values for the trench width (L) are the following:
DN ≤ 400 mm L= DN + 400 mm
400< DN ≤ 1000 mm L= DN + 600 mm
DN > 1000 mm L= DN + 800 mm
The depth of the trench must be executed in such a way to guarantee the dimensions of the bedding in
accordance to the prescriptions of the following paragraphs. If the soil is not able to give the vertical
support requested by the project, the trench will be deepened of 20cm or more, according to the
prescriptions given by the designer, in order to obtain a stabilization of the soil.
Moreover, should butt and strap joints be executed directly inside the trench, this must be widened and
the trench bottom must be adequately lowered, to allow the lamination operations being practical. These
spaces will then be filled during the trench filling.
MULTIPLE PIPES:
If several parallel pipes are laid in the same trench, all of the pipes should have the same bottom level.
The clear spacing between adjacent pipes must be at least 0.2 m, in any case not less than the diameter
of the smaller pipe, and can be limited to 1 m.
Same spacing will be used for crossing pipes at different heights.
TRENCH EXCAVATION BELOW WATER TABLE:
When an unstable soil condition is encountered that is caused by a water table, the bottom of the trench
must be drained before laying the pipes. This can usually be accomplished by lowering the water table to
aprox. 30 cm below pipe level by means of pumps and stabilizing the bottom as previously described.
To minimize the soil dewatering, only a length of trench to place one or two sections of pipe should be
opened and then be backfilled.
FOUNDATION:
The foundation shown in the above figures is required when the trench bottom is unstable, i.e. made of
soils whose displacement, due to variation in stress or moisture content, is very high.
According to the different conditions of instability for the trench bottom, the installation contractor may
require different types of foundations such as:

1. stabilization and reclamation of the bottom, by removing an ulterior layer of at least 200 mm of
depth and replacing it with stabilized gravel or sand, into which the unstable soil will not penetrate
(ground capacity from 0.7 to 0.9 kg/cm2), that is able to redistribute the vertical pressures more
regularly.
 2. pouring of lean concrete with a minimum depth of 150 mm (ground capacity from 0.5 to 0.7
kg/cm2);
3. Foundation made with piles capped by concrete (ground capacity lower then 0.5 kg/cm2).

The above indications must be more closely followed as the diameter of the pipe to install is larger.
BEDDING:

 On the bottom of the trench the bedding will be laid by using the materials that are described in
the following sections. The bedding must have a thickness corresponding to 15% of the pipe’s
diameter and in any case a minimum thickness of 150 mm that provides the pipe of a uniform and
continuous support over its entire length.
 The bedding surface must be even and recesses have to be projected in correspondence to
every pipe joint. These recesses have to be backfilled after pipe installation and joining.
 The use of pea gravel, or crushed stone or sand as bedding material, with a fine content not
exceeding 12% is recommended. Fines are considered the materials, which pass through the
ASTM 200 sieve. The dimensions for the bed materials grain diameter should not be greater than
20mm.
 The bed must be compacted until reaching 70% of its maximum density, before the pipe
installation
 Different kinds of materials and compaction ratios can be authorized by the Designer.

BACKFILLING:
Backfilling is divided in two areas

1. Primary backfilling, which extends vertically from the culvert of the pipe up to 70% of the
diameter; it should preferably be composed by the same materials used for the bedding
(maximum fines content 12% and maximum grain diameter 20mm), symmetrically laid by
alternating layers of 20-25cm, compacted one by one, until reaching 70% of the maximum density
for the specific material (90% Proctor Standard). Be sure that the areas under the pipe are filled
up and compacted with accuracy, in order to grant a valid support over an arc of at least 60% .
2. Secondary backfilling, extending as far as 15 cm above the invert of the pipe; it can be made
with the excavation resulting materials, even if it is preferable to use the same material as for the
bed and the primary backfilling, symmetrically laid with alternating layers of 30-40 cm compacted
one by one.
3. Backfilling up to the ground level has to be completed with native material.
4. During the backfilling one must avoid any pipe impact that may be caused by stones or by any
other material that could damage it. If the backfiling is disposed in a non symmetrical way or with
a non uniform compaction, the alignment of the pipeline may be altered in such a way that it could
influence the pipe’s seal.

USE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS:

Materials that are different from the ones above described, but approved by the Designer, can be used for
the composition of the laying bed and the backfilling, as long as the content of the granular materials
(retained by the ASTM 200 sieve) is greater than 30% and the liquid limit is lower than 50%.
Please take note that by increasing the fines content of the material, the energy required for the tamping
of the material itself will increase. Furthermore, it’s useful to intensify quality controls and check the right
laying of the backfilling
PIPES INSTALLATION:
To install the pipes, the following procedure can be used, as a function of the type of joint and of the pipe
diameter:
a) for any type of joint and diameter: lay and align the pipe bars on the bed that has been previously
prepared, and perform the junctions inside the trench.
b) for pipes with joints that guarantee the axial continuity:

 lay on the bed two or three bars, previously joined outside the trench, in order to reduce the
number of junctions to be performed inside the trench.
 align and join the pipe bars alongside the trench or above it, by using ties; lower the jointed
pipeline into the trench by using several hoisting equipments being careful not to cause excessive
deformations; this method can be used for small diameters only.

In case of bell/spigot or socket joints with o-rings, please verify that the angles that have been given do
not exceed those allowed. Refer Fig. 5

Fig. 5: Deviation angles with respect to Diameter

TYPICAL COMPACTION METHODS:
Compaction can be made by using a pulse compactor or other suitable systems. In case the backfill is
composed by sand, the compaction can be obtained by saturation. If this method is used, it is necessary
to verify the draining capacities of both the bed of the trench and of the native soil; if necessary provide
suitable drainage systems and use an adequate quantity of water, in order to prevent the pipe from
floating.
The laying trench should be filled up as soon as possible, as far as ground level or for a height of 1.3
diameters, in order to prevent the pipe from floating, in case of laying in presence of a water table or in
little draining soils.
MODULUS OF SOIL REACTION:
Pipes are generally checked in the actual working conditions, by using a certain Modulus of Soil Reaction,
that becomes one of the design’s mandatory prescriptions, together with:

 material to be used for embedment

 compaction degree (soil density) and
 trench width.

If the installer is given the possibility to change one of the above parameters, in the following table is
shown the Modulus of Soil Reaction that can be achieved with different materials and soil densities.
INSTALLATION CONTROL:
Deflection checks must be carried out when the first installed pipes have been backfilled. Further
periodical checks must be done throughout the entire project.
Where it is practical, a measurement has to be taken of the density of the pipe zone material primarily
compacted to ensure compliance with the design assumptions.
CONCRETE BLOCK CONNECTION:
When connecting with concrete blocks and walls, it is necessary to follow some prescriptions, in order to
avoid damages to the pipes, due to these two phenomena;

1. high differential settlements between manufactured product and pipe, due to the considerable
weight of the concrete works in comparison with the relatively light PRFV pipes; this phenomenon
is particularly clear if the concrete work, or a part of it, is made after having already laid and
buried the pipeline, and it can cause high longitudinal shear and flexural stresses to the pipe;
2. Very sudden passage of the transversal section of the pipe from a deformed configuration due to
the normal deflection, to an un-deformed circular configuration in the area filled up with concrete;
this phenomenon only occurs to a short section, at the end of the concrete block, due to a
complex stress condition.

In both cases the larger is the pipe diameter, the more evident is the phenomenon, and it is necessary to
take care that the deflection is minimum near the manufactured product.
It is suggested to take the following precautions, according to the actual working conditions

 in correspondence to the connections with the concrete, always wrap the pipe with a rubber
sheet, (Fig. 6) 100/200 mm large and 10/30 mm thick, in order to reduce strain concentrations:
 design and verify with accuracy the concrete works and thrust blocks, with particular care to the
settlement check
 improve the stiffness of the backfilling near the manufactured products, by widening and
deepening the trench (Fig. 6) and filling it up with well compacted granular materials; the variation
of the trench section should take place gradually, over a length of about two diameters.

As an alternative, backfill the pipe with lean concrete (70 kg/mc) for a length of about one diameter (Fig.
6), near the connection without using form works, this allows the lean concrete to flow, following the
natural angle of friction
 Fig. 6: Some precautions to follow during concrete block connection

 create a strong PRFV ribbing on the pipe close to the connection with the concrete manufactured
product;
 If you can’t keep the differential settlement within an acceptable limit, one should use a flexible
joint (bell/spigot or socket joint), which allows a rotation of 1-2° just out of the concrete
manufacture (generally it is not necessary for diameters up to 300 mm).
Stress Analysis of GRP / GRE / FRP piping system using
Caesar II
GRP products being proprietary the choice of component sizes, fittings and material types are limited
depending on the supplier. Potential GRP vendors need to be identified early in design stage to
determine possible limitations of component availability. The mechanical properties and design
parameters varies from vendor to vendor. So it is utmost important that before you proceed for stress
analysis of such systems you must finalize the GRP/FRP/GRE vendor. Several parameters (Fig. 1) for
stress analysis have to be taken from vendor.
Stress analysis of GRP piping system is governed by ISO 14692 part 3. The GRP material being
orthotropic the stress values in axial as well as hoop direction need to be considered during analysis. The
following article will provide a guideline for stress analysis of GRP piping system in a very simple format.
Before you open the input spreadsheet of Caesar II communicate with the vendor through mail and
collect the following parameters as listed in Fig.1.

Fig.1: Parameters required for stress analysis of GRP piping

The values shown in the above figure is for example only. Actual values will differ from vendor to vendor.
The above parameters are shown for a 6” pipe.
Inputs Required for Analysis:
For performing the stress analysis of a GRP piping system following inputs are required:

 GRP pipe parameters as shown in Fig. 1.

 Pipe routing plan in form of isometrics or piping GA.
 Analysis parameters like design temperature, operating temperature, design pressure, fluid
density, hydro test pressure, pipe diameter and thickness etc.

Modelling in Caesar II:

Once all inputs as mentioned above are ready with you open the Caesar II spreadsheet. By default
Caesar will show B 31.3 as governing code. Now refer to Fig. 2 and change the parameters as mentioned
below:

Fig. 2: Typical Caesar II input spreadsheet for GRP Piping

 Change the default code to ISO 14692.

 Change the material to FRP (Caesar Database Material Number 20) as shown in Fig. 2. It will fill
few parameters from Caesar database. Update those parameters from vendor information.
 Enter pipe OD and thickness from vendor information.
 Keep corrosion allowance as 0.
 Input T1, T2, P1, HP and fluid density from line list.
 Update pipe density from vendor information sheet, if vendor does not provide density of pipe
then you can keep this value unchanged.
 On the right side below the code, enter the failure envelop data received from vendor.
 Enter thermal factor=0.85 if pipe is carrying liquid, enter 0.8 if the pipe carries gas.
 After you have mentioned all the highlighted fields proceed modelling by providing dimensions
from the isometric/piping GA drawing. Add supports at proper location from isometric drawing.
  Now click on environment button and then on special execution parameter. It will open the
window as mentioned in figure 3.

Fig. 3: Typical Special Execution parameters Spreadsheet.

Now Refer Fig. 3 and change the highlighted parts from available data.

 Enter the GRP/FRP co-efficient of thermal expansion received from vendor

 Calculate the ratio of Shear Modulus and Axial modulus and input in the location.
 In FRP laminate keep the default value if data is not available.
 After the above changes click on ok button.
 While modelling remember to change the OD and thickness of elbows/bends.

Modelling of Bend and Tee Connections:

 Modelling of bends is a bit different as compared to CS piping. Normally bend thicknesses are
higher than the corresponding piping thickness. Additionally you have to specify the parameter,
(EpTp)/(EbTb), which is located at the Bend auxiliary dialogue box as shown in Fig. 4. This value
affects the calculation of the flexibility factor for bends.
 When you click on SIF and Tee box in Caesar II spreadsheet, you will find that only three options
(Tee, Joint and Qualified Tee) are available for you as shown in Fig. 4. Each type has their own
 code equation for SIF calculation. Use the proper connection judiciously. It is always better to use
SIF as 2.3 for both inplane and outplane SIF to adopt maximum conservative approach.

Fig. 4: Modelling of Elbows and Tees for FRP/ GRE piping

Load Cases for Analysis:
ISO 14692 informs to prepare 3 load cases: Sustained, Sustained with thermal and Hydro test. So
accordingly the following load cases are sufficient to analyse GRP piping system

1. WW+HP …………………….HYDRO
2. W+T1+P1 …………………..OPERATING-DESIGN TEMPERATURE
3. W+T2+P1 …………………..OPERATING-OPERATING TEMPERATURE
4. W+P1 ………………………..SUSTAINED

The expansion load cases are not required to create as no allowable stress is available for them as per
the code.
While preparing the above load cases you have to specify the occasional load factors for each load case
in load case options menu as shown in Fig. 5. ISO 14692 considers hydro test case as an occasional
case. In higher versions of Caesar II software (Caesar II-2016 and Caesar II-2017) these load factors are
taken care by default. So you need not enter the values. The option of these value entry will be available
only if you define the stress type as occasional for those software versions.
 Fig. 5: Specifying Occasional Load factors in Caesar II for GRP/FRP piping system
The default values of occasional load factors are 1.33 for occasional case, 1.24 for operating case and
1.0 for sustained case. This occasional load factors are multiplied with system design factor (normally
0.67) to calculate the part factor for loading f2.
For aboveground GRP piping the above load cases are sufficient. But if the Line is laid undeground then
two different caesar II files are required. One for sustained and operating stress check. And the other for
hydrotesting stress check as the buried depth during hydrotesting is different from the original operation.
Also buried depth may vary in many places. So caesar II modelling should be done meticulosly to take
care exact effects.
For buried modelling one need to split the long lengths into shorter elements to get proper results.
Element length of 3 m or less is advisable. Sometimes buried model contains slope, Those sloved are
required to model properly to get accurate results.
Output Results:
Both stress and load data need to be checked for GRP piping. Normally the stresses are more than 90%
(Even sometimes it may be as high as 99.9%).
Stress Analysis of GRP / GRE / FRP Piping

GRP / GRE / FRP / Reinforced HDPE Piping Stress Analysis

using PASS/Start-Prof
Download FRP piping example file. See how to open the piping model file
The main differences of GRP / GRE / FRP piping to steel piping is:

 The material is orthotropic. The stress values in axial as well as hoop direction need to be
considered during analysis. Mechanical properties needed for analysis is differ from steel piping:
Ea – Elasticity modulus in axial direction, Eh – Elasticity modulus in hoop direction, G – Shear
modulus, vh/a – Poisson ratio hoop/axial, va/h – Poisson ratio axial/hoop. See material
database for more details. Material properties is different for each vendor, so please ask
manufacturer for values needed for stress analysis in database
 Linear expansion for GRP / GRE / FRP piping is much greater than for steel piping. Pressure
elongation is significant (Bourdon effect), and thermal expansion is also great. Due to uneven
heating of pipe wall thickness, the real thermal expansion is lower than thermal expansion for full
temperature range. To consider this piping behavior thermal expansion is multiplied by
temperature range factor that is usually considered as 0.85. See more details in additional pipe
properties.
 Long-term failure envelope , , , , is used instead of single
allowable stress. See material database for more details. Allowable stresses depends on load
type factor f2, temperature factor A1, chemical resistance factor A2, fatigue factor A3. Different
envelope is used for pipes and fittings. See code stress for more details

To model GRP / GRE / FRP piping choose ISO 14692 code. This code is also suitable for modeling of
reinforced HDPE or other plastic piping:

Click to enlarge
Then select material from database:

Click to enlarge
That’s all. All other job is the same as for steel piping.
Database contain all material properties. If there’s no material you need in database, please ask your
vendor to fill the table and add it into database manually. Future pipe industries and NOV already
provided needed data and it is included into START-PROF database.

Click to enlarge
All load cases for ISO 14692 code will be created automatically. Just draw a piping. After analysis you get
results according to ISO 14692 code.
 Click to enlarge
Also we did job for vendor of MRPP pipes to add material properties into START-PROF database for 50
year service life and now START-PROF used for stress analysis of MRPP piping.
MRPP – a HDPE pipe, reinforced by a rigid steel carcass made of a welded wire.

The complete video explaining the stress analysis methodology using Start/Prof is given below for your
quick reference. https://youtu.be/KftZl5rmcHc