PROCESSING OPTIONS FOR GOLD-TELLURIDES

Yao Zhang1, Jian Zhang1, Yung Ngothai2,*, William R Richmond3, Haipeng Wang1, Wubiao Weng1 , Wen
Liang4, Jing Zhao4, Yuan Mei4, Min Xie4, Yanlie Jia5, Hui Ma6, Ping Liu7, Fei Gao5, ,

1. WA School of Mines, Curtin University of Technology, Kalgoorlie, WA 6430, Australia.

2. School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
3. Department of Applied Chemistry, Curtin University of Technology, Bentley, WA 6102, Australia
4.Faculty of Science & Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
5. School of Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
6. Shanxi Fengxi Industry (Group) Ltd. Jiefang North Road, Yuncheng City, Shanxi Province, China
7. Private Consultant, 20 Cardigan Street, Auburn, NSW 2144, Australia
* Presenting author & Corresponding Author. Email: yung.ngothai@adelaide.edu.au

Abstract: The gold telluride ores are important gold refractory ores, although they exist in
only a few regions worldwide. Their commercial treatment is therefore not widely utilized.
Usually, these ores are regarded as refractory due to the presence of sulfides and other
gangue materials. The classification and main physical properties of gold telluride ores are
described and possible treatment methods including milling, flotation, leaching and oxidation
are reviewed. Milling is the fundamental step for the downstream processes. Flotation
procedures are much easier for gold tellurides compared to other refractory gold-bearing
ores. For the conventional cyanide leaching process, pretreatment such as oxidation is
required to achieve high gold recovery. Roasting is a relatively simple but not environment-
friendly method; bio-oxidation technology seems more suitable for oxidation of flotation
concentrate. Other treatment methods involve cyanide leaching, thiourea leaching,
ammoniacal thiosulfate leaching, carbon-in-pulp and resin-in-pulp, all of which are less
commonly utilized.

Keywords: gold- tellurides, flotation, leaching, oxidation

1. INTRODUCTION

Gold occurs primarily in its native form and secondarily as gold solid-solution of which tellurides are an example
(Chryssoulis and Cabri, 1990). Gold-telluride ores can be classified into six mineral groups: calaverite (AuTe2),
sylvanite [(Ag,Au)2Te4], montbrayite [(AuSb)2Te3], krennerite [(Au1-x,Agx)Te2], petzite (Ag3AuTe2), and
muthmannite [(Ag,Au)Te2]. Among them, Calaverite is the simplest and most common association of tellurium with
gold. It is also the most common gold bearing mineral apart from native gold. Gold recovery from tellurides has
attracted increasing attention over the past decades. Gold tellurides have been commercially treated in Kalgoorlie
(Western Australia), Vatukoula (Fiji), Cripple Creek (Colorado), and Kirkland Lake (Ontario). The first modern
treatment of gold-telluride ores was performed in 1891 in the Cripple Creek goldfield near the Rocky Mountains in
Colorado. Kalgoorlie, in Western Australia, has the honour of being the second major goldfield where tellurides
were successfully processed to extract gold. In a modern gold processing plant, the recovery can be up to 98% with
the aid of the latest concentration and smelting techniques. A successful gold recovery strategy relies on a
fundamental understanding of the ore mineralogy and its chemical/physical behaviours under various leach,
flotation, and oxidation conditions.

Grinding is generally used as a pretreatment method for gold-telluride processing, producing an optimum particle
size and distribution for the next stage, such as flotation. The grinding process makes it easier to ‗unlock‘ the gold
trapped in the gauge materials (for example pyrite). Usually the particle size following grinding is dependent on the
requirements of subsequent processing steps.

2. PROCESSING OPTIONS
Unlike free gold, the gold tellurides do not undergo rapid dissolution in the conventional alkaline cyanide leach
solution. Therefore, alternative treatments must be applied to break down the gold-telluride structure and release
free gold. The general processing methods are: milling, flotation, leach, and oxidation.
2.1. Milling
Gold-tellurides are invariably associated with other gangue minerals. Milling is adopted to reduce the particle size
fine enough to achieve complete liberation of the desired minerals. A typical milling system for gold-telluride
liberation involves the use of cylindrical mills, which contain loose grinding media in the form of steel rods, balls,
or hard rocks. The feed is generally between 5 to 50 mm in size and reduced to between 10 and 300 m after
milling. The resulting particle size should meet the requirement of the subsequent processing, such as flotation. The
main gold telluride, calaverite (AuTe2), being of a brittle nature, is prone to milling with high efficiency. A
hydrocyclone is commonly used after milling to classify the mill product so that a preferential grinding of gold-
tellurides can be performed over other ores. This helps to form a finer particle size of the gold-bearing material.
However, over-grinding can also cause potentially undesirable side effects in the subsequent flotation process. For
instance, too fine a particle size of tellurides renders slow flotation kinetics and even considerable loss of gold to
concentrator tails (Bindi and Cipriani, 2004).
2.2. Flotation
Several researchers have pointed out that gold tellurides possess intrinsic floatability (Smith, 1962; Colbert, 1980;
Yan and Hariyasa, 1997). Regulators of pH, such as lime, soda ash and sodium hydroxide are added to adjust the
pulp pH to give optimum performance. Small amounts of copper sulfate are also added, since copper sulfate serves
as an activator to facilitate the mineral attachment to collectors.
A classic example of an integrated telluride-flotation circuit is the Emperor Mine in Fiji, where telluride minerals
were selectively floated in the 1970s and 1980s (Dunne, 2005). The telluride flotation was conducted in a standard
rougher, cleaner and recleaner circuit. See fig. 1. Lime was added to depress flotation of the sulfide minerals
(Colbert,1980). A small amount of frother ICI Teric 407 (polyoxypopylene glycol ether) was introduced at a rate of
0.03 kg/t to the flotation circuit at pH 9 (Yan and Hariyasa, 1997). The resulting telluride concentrate was collected
after adding a small amount of sodium silicate as a gangue slime depressant. Soda ash was added to the flotation
tailings as pH regulator to maintain pH at 9.5 prior to conditioning the slurry with xanthate and frother. Sulfide
concentrate was then floated and reground before cleaning. Usually the cleaned concentrate was roasted before the
cyanide-leaching circuit to remove pyrite and other sulfides, which might otherwise have caused high consumption
of cyanide.

Feed
Rougher

Tailing
Cleaner

Recleaner

Concentrate

Fig. 1. A simplified flowsheet of telluride flotation in Emperor Mine in Fiji. Rougher: the feed for this circuit is new
feed and cleaner tailings. Cleaner: the feed for this circuit is rougher concentrate and recleaner tailings. Recleaner:
the feed is cleaner concentrate.
In an earlier publication, Smith (1962) reported that tellurides could be preferentially floated in reference to sulfides
in the absence of collectors. Only copper sulfate and frother (Aerofroth 65) were used in his tests. It was also
concluded by Smith (1963) that the telluride concentrate grade could be further improved by introducing an
additional stage of cleaning. His experiments provided evidence of the intrinsic floatability of tellurides, which can
be further enhanced if the flotation is performed in a slightly acidic media.
This method was further explored by Yan and Hariyasa (1997) who studied the flotation of tellurides in the North
Kalgoorlie samples. The effects of collector type and pH on the recovery was studied, and Fig. 2 shows that the
telluride floats in the absence of a collector at pH 8, therefore, the rate is slow and the maximum recovery is only
around 74%. However, under the same conditions, the recovery of gold can be up to 88% by using frother (Teric
401 (polyoxypropylene glycol ether)) only. There are significant increases in gold recovery by introducing some
collectors. Preferred collectors are SEX (Sodium ethyl xanthate), PAX (Potassium amyl xanthate) and AP 407
(Mercaptobenzothiazol and Aerofloat promoter). Other collectors, AF211(Sodium diisopropyl dithiophosphate),
AF208 (Sodium diethyl dithiophosphate/sodium di-secondary butyl dithiophosphate), AP 407
(Mercaptobenzothiazol and Aerofloat promoter), AP 3477 (Dithiophosphate type) resulted in reduction in gold
recoveries and flotation rate. The impact of pH on the recovery of telluride varies for each of the collectors used.
Typical curves showing infinite recovery of tellurium vs. pH are shown in Fig. 3. The pH value has little effect on
the infinite tellurium recovery when PAX was used as collector, but when AF 211 was used as collector, the final
tellurium recovery decreased dramatically in the pH range 8-11.
100

80
Recovery (%)

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6
Time (min)
NONE SEX PAX AF211 AF208 AP3477

Fig. 2. The effect of collector type on the time-recovery curve for tellurium flotation. (Yan and Hariyasa, 1997) 50
g/t collector, 20 g/t Teric 401, 100 g/t copper sulfate, pH 8.0.

100

80
Infinite Recovery (%)

60

40

20

0
4 6 8 10 12
pH
PAX AF211

Fig. 3. The effect of pH on the Infinity Recovery of tellurium. (Yan and Hariyasa, 1997) 50 g/t collector (PAX or
AF211), 20 g/t Teric 401, 100 g/t copper sulphate.
2.3. Oxidation
Usually, gold telluride ores appear to be refractory as they are always associated with pyrite and other sulfides. This
would ‗lock‘ the gold and give rise to elevated cyanide consumption. For this reason, oxidative pre-treatments are
generally conducted to improve gold recoveries.
The presence of gold telluride minerals may render an ore refractory, the extent of this depending on the telluride
mineral present and on its mineralogical association (Jackman and Sarbutt, 1990). Gold-, silver- and gold/silver-
telluride minerals in ores dissolve more slowly than native gold in cyanide solutions, which results in less efficient
gold extraction (Henley and Clarke, 1995). Similarly, cyanide leaching tests on synthetic calaverite (AuTe2) and
sylvanite (AuAgTe4) resulted in lower gold recoveries (Lu and Lawson, 1994). Jayasekera et al. (1991) studied the
dissolution of calaverite electrochemically in both acidic and alkaline media. It is shown that the slow dissolution
rate in alkaline cyanide solutions is due to the formation of a passivating film of H2TeO3 that protected the mineral
surface from further oxidation (see Eq. 1 and 2); this film dissolved at higher pH (Eq. 2).
AuTe2(s) + 2CN- + 8OH- Au(CN)2- + 2H2TeO3(s) + 2H2O + 9e- (1)
H2TeO3(s) + 2OH- TeO32- + 2H2O (2)
2.3.1. Roasting
Roasting is the simplest and most frequently used oxidative process. Roasting consists of heating the
ores/concentrates below their fusion point, while in contact with air, oxygen, water vapor, carbon, sulphur or
chlorine. This aims to produce the desired chemical and/or physical change that will be beneficial to downstream
processing for the recovery of the metal (Venkatachalam, 1998). Roasting may be realized through one of the
following processes: oxidizing roast; volatilizing roast; chloriding roast; sulfatizing roast; magnetizing roast;
reducing roast; carburizing roast; sintering or blast roasting. The high temperature can sufficiently decompose the
tellurides and leave behind the valuable gold residue.
One concern with this procedure is that during oxidation roasting, pyrite and other sulfide minerals will emit
poisonous gas such as SO2. For example,
2FeS2 + 5.5O2 Fe2O3 + 4SO2 (3)
A further issue is that a considerable amount of gold may deposit on the internal wall and other parts of a roaster,
and this gold can only be collected when the roaster is shut down (Bindi and Cipriani, 2004). These two factors are
the primary concerns when roasting gold telluride ores.
2.3.2. Bio-oxidation
A more promising method of gold telluride pre-treatment is bio-oxidation. As an alternative pre-treatment to
roasting for refractory gold concentrates, its advantage lies in the elimination of toxic gaseous emissions. It simply
uses the capability of acidophilic chemolithotrophic bacteria to oxidize pyrite and arsenopyrite and release the gold
or gold telluride trapped within their grains. The gold can then be complexed by cyanide in an oxidising, alkaline
environment (see Eq. 4 and 5), and extracted/recovered by carbon-in-leach (CIL) or carbon-in-pulp (CIP)
technology.

4Au(s) + O2 + 8CN- + 2H2O 4Au(CN)2 + 4OH- (4)

2Au(s) + O2 + 4CN- + 2H2O 2Au(CN)2 +2H2O2 (5)

Climo et al (2000) investigated the biooxidation of a pyritic refractory gold concentrate, in which some of the gold
occurred as gold telluride (calaverite). Chemical and bio-oxidative pre-treatments of the concentrate under different
conditions were compared, and the mechanism is illustrated in Eq. 6 and 7. It was found that the mechanism of
oxidation is an indirect one in which the role of the bacteria is to regenerate the ferric that is consumed during the
oxidation of telluride.
2Fe2+ + 1/2O2 + 2H+ 2Fe3+ + H2O (bacterially mediated) (6)
AuTe2 + 8Fe3+ + 4H2O Au°(s) + 2HTeO2 + + 6H + + 8Fe2+ (7)
Biooxidation of refractory gold ores in heaps (Brierley, 1997) and of flotation concentrates in stirred reactors
(Miller, 1997) are proven technologies applied all over the world on a commercial scale, while in Australia, three
bio-oxidation plants have been operated successfully: Harbour Lights (1992-1994), Youanmi (1994-1997) and
Wiluna (1993-current). All three are in Western Australia. Three further plants are planned or under construction, at
Beaconsfield Gold Mine, Tasmania, Perseverance Gold Mine, Victoria and Maud Creek, Northern Territory (Bindi
and Cipriani, 2004).
 2.4. Leaching
Leaching is a process that dissolves valuable metals contained in the ores into solutions. The cyanide leach is
commonly employed in the treatment of gold ores. The cyanidation reaction of gold is as follows:

4Au 8NaCN O2 2H2O 4Na[Au(CN)2 ] 4NaOH (8)

While the rich gold telluride ores can be treated directly in this manner, the leaching process cannot be carried out
with ease for low grade telluride ores. In general, only 80% of the gold can be extracted without pretreatment.
However, following bacterial oxidation pretreatment, 98% of the gold may be amenable to cyanide extraction
(Climo et al., 2005). Usually, the purpose of pre-oxidation is to eliminate such factors that might result in extra
consumption of cyanide. In an alkaline cyanide solution, the gold telluride is leached via the following reactions,
which involve the formation of tellurite ions or tellurate ions.
2
AuTe 2 4OH 2O 2 Au 2TeO 3 2H 2 O (9)
2 2
2TeO 3 O2 2TeO 4 (10)

Deschenes et al (1998) investigated the influence of mineral composition on the cyanidation of sulfide ores. They
used lead nitrate and oxygen to alleviate detrimental impact of sulfides on gold ores. It was found that lead nitrate
was detrimental to cyanide leaching if it was not administrated properly; it is capable of inhibiting the gold
dissolution and increasing the cyanide consumption. Deschenes et al (2006) suggested that high lime concentration
with addition of lead nitrate and injection of oxygen will improve the leaching rate.
100

80
Au Extraction (%)

60

40

20

0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48
Time (h)
Oxygen concentration 15ppm 7ppm

Fig. 4. Effect of oxygen on gold leaching of a low sulphide-bearing gold ore (Deschenes et al., 1998). Cyanidation:
pH 11.1, 550 mg/l NaCN, 48 h.
Fig. 4 shows that increased oxygen aeration did not improve leaching kinetics and the final gold recovery was
almost the same (about 95%). In addition, increases in oxygen injection resulted in slightly higher cyanide
consumption (Deschenes et al., 1998).
The effects of lime concentration and lead nitrate concentration on the leaching rates are shown in Fig. 5 and 6,
respectively. Obviously, the use of high lime concentration is necessary to achieve high leaching rate. It was also
found that the higher lead nitrate concentration only slightly improved the leaching rate.
Another leaching method for telluride ores is ammoniacal thiosulfate leach. In comparison with conventional
cyanide leach techniques, the merits of this technology include lower environmental pollution, lower costs, greater
efficiency, and more effective lixiviant of thiosulfate anion (Grosse et al., 2003). In contrast to cyanide leaching,
thiosulfate leaching can be used to treat tellurides containing high level of carbonaceous content (Aylmore and
Muir, 2001). Its drawback is the utilization of volatile and toxic ammonia (Grosse et al., 2003). Nonetheless, this
method is of interest to metallurgists worldwide in spite of its complex and unclear mechanism.
 120

100

80

Au Extraction (%)
60

40

20

0
0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48
Time (h)
120ppm CaO 800ppm CaO

Fig. 5. Effect of lime concentration on the leaching kinetics of calaverite (Deschenes et al., 2005). 8 ppm O2,
500 ppm NaCN, 500 g/t lead nitrate, AuTe2: 57 g/t, 10 μm powder.

80

60
Au Extraction (%)

40

20

0
0 2 4 6
Time (h)

NONE 500g/t lead nitrate

200g/t lead nitrate 1000g/t lead nitrate

Fig. 6. Effect of lead nitrate concentration on cyanidation of the Fimiston concentrate (Deschenes et al., 2005).
Pretreatment: 30 h, 0.14 L/min air; CaO: 20 kg/t; cyanidation-CaO: 1.2 g/L; 10 ppm O2, NaCN: 4–7 g/L, carbon: 15
g/L
2.5. Carbon-in-pulp (CIP) and Resin-in-pulp (RIP) processes
CIP and RIP are considered downstream processes to purify the gold leach solution. They share similar extraction
mechanisms, relying on a physical adsorption process and associated recycling of the carbon or resin.
Generally, after gold tellurides are leached a CCD (counter current decantation) unit is needed to separate the gold
solution from the solid tails. The gold will then be recovered from the pregnant solution by solvent extraction or
electrowinning. The ―bottleneck‖ in this series of stages is the CCD solid-liquid separation step.
The main advantage of CIP and RIP is to use carbon and resin to capture gold directly from the leach slurry without
going through the time consuming solid-liquid separation stage, thus reducing the overall processing time.
The CIP/RIP extraction mechanism is outlined in Fig. 7. The carbon or resin absorbs gold-cyanide complex ions
from the leach slurry (pulp) until it reaches its maximum loading capacity. Carbon or resin particles are generally
larger than ore particles, so they can be easily separated from the slurry by screening. The carbon or resin, after
being stripped of gold, can be reused in the adsorption circuit.
For CIP, granular activated carbon is introduced into the solution and stirred with the pulp in a series of 5-7 tanks
(Kongolo and Mwema, 1998). Absorbed gold cyanide is eluted with a sodium cyanide (0.1-0.2%) and sodium
hydroxide (1%) solution. Certain organic solvents (e.g. alcohols) are frequently employed to increase the elution
rate. Subsequently, the granular carbon is reactivated in a kiln (at 600-900oC), cooled down and feed back to the
pulp (Kongolo and Mwema, 1998). The trace gold resident in the carbon has little impact on the whole process. For
RIP, the recycle process of resin is quite different from that of carbon, due to dissimilarity of their thermal
properties. Resin regeneration requires a chemical reagent to allow the co-occurrence of resin elution and
regeneration steps (Grosse et al., 2003). While absorption on carbon is non-selective, polymeric resins bearing
functional groups are capable of selectively absorbing a specific ion or complex (Grosse et al., 2003).
The two resins, Aurix (from Henkel Australia, bearing guanidine moieties) and Minix (from Minitek of South
Africa, bearing tributylammonium groups) are generally used for gold recovery from cyanide solutions (Grosse et
al., 2003; Dicinoski, 2000; MacKenzie et al., 1995).

Fig. 7. A simplified schematic presentation of CIP process.

3. CONCLUDING REMARKS
Gold tellurides exist only in a few places worldwide, and relevant research on their treatment is limited. Grinding of
these minerals needs to be tailored to meet the requirements of the subsequent processing steps.
Tellurides possess intrinsic floatability, so the presence of sulphides makes it difficult to separate the tellurides from
sulphides. These problems can be overcome by adding a proper collector, frother, and pH regulator into the solution
before leaching. Some low grade gold telluride ores need to be oxidized prior to cyanide leaching to reduce the
consumption of cyanide. The successful development of biooxidation as a pretreatment for gold telluride ores
containing sulphides has led to the commercial implementation of bioxidation pretreatments for telluride ores. It is
believed that the bioxidation mechanism involves a rapid and continuous oxidation of ferrous ions to ferric ions,
while the tellurium remains unaffected by the bacteria. The oxidation of telluride is attributed to the ferric ions
 produced by this bacteria-promoted oxidation reaction. Some other treatments (such as CIP, RIP, thiourea leaching
and ammoniacal thiosulfate leaching) can serve as useful supplementary methods for treating gold telluride ores.

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