Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 1

MARITIME

ASSESSMENT OF SELECTED
ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND
TECHNOLOGIES
June 2018

SAFER, SMARTER, GREENER

2 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 SUMMARY 3

2 BACKGROUND 3

3 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND TECHNOLOGIES 4

3.1 Which fuels are alternatives? 8
3.2 CO2 Emissions 9
3.3 NOX 9
3.4 Overall Emission behaviour 10
3.5 Some thoughts on fuel pricing 11
3.6 Fuel availability 12
3.7 Concluding remarks 13
Alternative fuels 14
Alternative technologies 15

4 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS AND CLASS RULES 16

5 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND TECHNOLOGIES – A BRIEF OVERVIEW 17

5.1 Principles 17
5.2 Reference fuels – HFO and MGO 18
5.3 LNG 20
5.4 LPG 22
5.5 Methanol 24
5.6 Biofuels 26
5.7 Hydrogen 28
5.8 Wind-assisted propulsion 32
5.9 Batteries 35
5.10 Fuel cells 38

6 WE SUPPORT YOU TO MAKE THE RIGHT DECISION 40

7 DNV GL CLASS SERVICES 42

ANNEX: ENGINES FOR GAS-FUELLED SHIPS ARTICLE 44

 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 3

1 SUMMARY
The shipping industry is under increasing pressure to
act upon the Paris Agreement and reduce green-
house gas (GHG) emissions. The substantial emission
reductions which must be achieved over the next
decades are expected to drive technology develop-
ment and, in particular, the introduction of low-
carbon fuels. Furthermore, authorities are increasingly
paying attention to the consequences of hazardous
NOX, SOX and particle emissions at the local level.
Around the world, air pollution is causing serious
health problems and premature death1, and local
air pollution will be subject to tougher regulations
over the coming years.
Reducing emissions to air and introducing new
propulsion technologies are key challenges for the
worldwide transport sector, including shipping. The
world’s future fleet will have to rely on a broader
range of fuels, propulsion solutions and energy
efficiency measures.
All alternative fuel options are accompanied by
benefits and challenges. This guidance paper
provides an introduction to alternative fuels and
technology solutions. It includes an overview of
selected alternative ship fuels – LNG, LPG, methanol,
biofuel and hydrogen – as well as emerging tech-
nologies such as batteries, fuel cell systems and
wind-assisted propulsion.
2 BACKGROUND
Marine fuel currently contributes approximately
3 per cent to global man-made CO2 emissions. Most
seagoing ships are still using heavy fuel oil (HFO) or
marine gas oil (MGO), with a maximum sulphur limit
of 3.5 per cent (mass) in force for HFO and 0.1 per
cent (mass) for low-sulphur MGO.
Looking at the future with the IMO 2020 low-sulphur
standards and upcoming CO2 emission regulation
regime in mind, the share of conventional oil-based
ship fuels will drop and the share of alternative fuels
will grow.
Prerequisites for introducing a new fuel include
availability of sufficient production and distribution
facilities as well as an adequate bunkering infrastruc-
ture. In addition, new fuels in many cases require
extensive on-board modifications and a reversal to
a conventional system is complex and costly. This
guidance paper intends to provide decision support
to customers when selecting a fuel for the ships they
order today and in coming years.

The objective of this guidance paper is to provide

decision support for investments in ships over the
coming 5 to 10-year period. The paper focuses
on technical parameters and limitations without
accounting for local market conditions, considerations
and incentive schemes which may have a significant
impact on competitiveness and the uptake of alter-
native fuels and technologies.
4 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

3 INTRODUCTION TO ALTERNATIVE FUELS

International initiatives towards reducing CO2
and other emissions are driving the research into
alternatives to conventional petroleum-based
ship fuels. A wide range of alternative fuels are
being discussed, and technologies such as fuel
cell systems and Combined Gas Turbine and
Steam Turbine Integrated Electric Drive Systems
(COGES), which can only be applied efficiently in
conjunction with cleaner fuels, have appeared on
the agenda.
In particular, the decision of the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) to limit the sulphur content of
ship fuel from 1 January 2020 to 0.5 per cent world-
wide, and the recently adopted ambition to reduce
GHG emission by 50% within 2050 have the potential
to become game changers. As illustrated in Figure
2, the combined amount of heavy fuel oil (HFO) and
marine gas oil (MGO) consumed by ships accounts
for no more than 25 per cent of the global diesel fuel
and petrol production (2016 figures).

An impressive number of restrictions aiming to im- This is roughly equivalent to the amount of energy
prove the environmental footprint of shipping are in consumed using liquefied natural gas (LNG)
force or under preparation (refer to Figure 1). (24 per cent); however, LNG represents only a small

FIGURE 1: SHIPPING BECOMES GREENER AND MORE COMPLEX

Selected items from regulatory timeline towards 2030

IMO GHG
strategy

Key ports in
All ports in Chinese Chinese area –
Chinese area –
area – 0.5% sulphur 0.5% sulphur
0.5% sulphur

EU CO2 monitoring,
Global fuel consumption
IGF Code in force reporting and
data collection system
verification

2017 2018 2019

California sulphur
regulations to lapse ?

Adopted

In the pipeline, or possible

 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
AND TECHNOLOGIES
portion (approximately 10 per cent) of the overall
gas market.
Provided that the IMO regulations are enforced as of
2020, up to 48 million tonnes of ship fuel containing
0.1 per cent or less of sulphur will be consumed
annually from that time onwards. Most of the fuel
consumed (70 to 88 per cent) will have a sulphur
content between 0.1 and 0.5 per cent. This means
that low-sulphur fuel may take the role of today’s
high-sulphur fuel. Assuming an installed base of
about 4,000 scrubbers at that time, no more than
11 per cent of ship fuel usage will be high-sulphur
fuel. Latest estimates assume only 1,000 to 1,500
0.5% global
sulphur cap
EEDI phase 2 Baltic/North Sea NECA
2020 2021–2024
Chinese ECA(s) Short-term GHG
application ? reduction measures
EU ETS includes
shipping
DNV GL – Maritime 5
scrubber installations available in 2020. This raises
the question whether high-sulphur fuel will even be
available any more if only 4,000 or even less ships
can use it. The next question is at what price HFO will
be available.
These practical challenges related to sulphur reduc-
tion are knocking at the door. At the same time there
is an accelerating worldwide trend towards pushing
down CO2, NOX and particle emissions. All of these
factors are reason enough to intensify the search for
fuels and technologies that can help the industry
meet the challenges ahead.
EEDI phase 3
2025+
? EEDI phase 4 ?
?
6 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

LNG-powered vessels2 have been in operation since
2000. As of 1 March 2018, 121 LNG-fuelled ships
were in operation and 127 newbuilding orders were
confirmed. Biofuels (including renewables) and
methanol[1],[2] are available at certain ports, and fully
electrical/hybrid ships are emerging in the short sea,
offshore and passenger segments. Based on current
technology, a distinction between short-sea and
deep-sea shipping should be made with regards to
applicability of various fuels:
■■ Short-sea shipping: Vessels typically operating
in limited geographical areas on relatively short
routes with frequent port calls. Due to their rela-
tively low energy demand, these vessels are often
ideal candidates for testing new fuels marked by
high energy or fuel storage costs. The Norwegian
ferry sector is in the process of being electrified,
with about 50 battery-electric ferries to be phased
in over the next few years. The use of hydrogen is
also technically feasible, and the Norwegian national
road authorities, supported by DNV GL, are working
on the development of hydrogen applications and
intend to put a new hydrogen-powered ferry into
service by 2021[3].
■■ Deep-sea shipping: This includes large, ocean-
going vessels covering long routes, often without
a regular schedule. These vessels require fuel that
is globally available. The energy source carried on
board must have a sufficiently high energy density
to maximize the available cargo space. For these
vessels, LNG can be a viable option once an ade-
quate bunkering infrastructure is available globally.
Sustainable biofuels, methanol and LPG can also be
a choice, provided that they can be made available
in the required quantities and at an adequate
quality level.
Based on current technology, batteries are viewed
as impractical as a source of main propulsion energy
for these vessels in the foreseeable future. Nuclear
propulsion is technically feasible for large vessels,
but there are political, societal and regulatory
barriers to consider. Various sail arrangements
(e.g. sail, kite, fixed-wing, Flettner rotors) have been
tried on merchant vessels over the years. A new
Delft study concludes that there is significant saving
potential in wind-assisted propulsion on large
tankers and bulk carriers (Delft, 2017).

FIGURE 2: SHIP FUEL CONSUMPTION IS MUCH LOWER THAN DIESEL AND

GAS OIL CONSUMPTION

Yearly energy consumption in relation to diesel and gas oil consumption

.

Crude oil 3.05

HFO
0.21
(marine)
MGO
0.04
(marine)
Share in consumption
Biogasoline
0.04 Total consumption
(ethanol)
FAME
0.02
(biodiesel)
LPG 0.23

Natural gas
2.43
(total)
Gas 2.19
Yearly diesel and
LNG 0.24 gas oil consumption
1.0

Source: Figures represent 2016 statistics. Compiled form “bp-statistical-review-of-world-energy-2017-underpinning-data.xlsx”

and “BWK, Bd 69(2017), No 5”

2) Not including the approx. 450 LNG carriers which also run on LNG.
[1] Stena Germanica bunkering in Gothenburg is the only present example of a ship bunkering methanol:
http://www.bunkerindex.com/news/article.php?article_id=18047
[2] Seven 50,000 tonne deadweight vessels are being built with the first-of-its-kind MAN B&W ME-LGI two-stroke
dual-fuel engine that can run on methanol, fuel oil, marine diesel oil, or gas oil:
https://www.methanex.com/about-methanol/methanol-marine-fuel#sthash.oW84bYPp.dpuf
[3] Breaking new ground in hydrogen ferry project:
https://www.sjofartsdir.no/en/news/news-from-the-nma/breaking-new-ground-in-hydrogen-ferry-project/
Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 7
8 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

3.1 WHICH FUELS ARE ALTERNATIVES?

Among the proposed alternative fuels for shipping,
DNV GL has identified LNG, LPG, methanol, biofuel
and hydrogen as the most promising solutions. Among
the new technologies we believe battery systems, fuel
cell systems and wind-assisted propulsion to harbour
reasonable potential for ship applications. As has been
demonstrated by our PERFECt Ship concept study
(refer to PERFECt Ship video available on YouTube),
the well-known combined cycle gas and steam turbine
technology has potential for ships in the power range
above 30 MW, provided that low-sulphur fuels are
widely used in the shipping sector and/or high-
sulphur fuels are required to undergo extensive
treatment.
Fuel cell (FC) systems for ships are under develop-
ment, but it will take time for them to reach a degree
of maturity sufficient for substituting main engines.
Battery systems are finding their way into shipping;
however, on most seagoing ships their role is limited
to efficiency and flexibility enhancement. Batteries
cannot store the huge amounts of energy needed
to power a large ship. Finally, wind-assisted propul-
sion, while not a new technology, will require some
development work to make a meaningful difference
for modern vessels.
The greatest challenges are related to environmental
benefits, fuel compatibility, the availability of sufficient
fuel for the requirements of shipping, fuel costs and
the international rule setting by the IGF Code.
The IMO continues its work on the IGF Code for
methanol and low-flashpoint diesel and the rules for
fuel cell systems. The other fuels named above are not
on the current agenda for the IGF Code. This should
be taken into consideration by owners contemplating
LPG or hydrogen applications in the near future.

FIGURE 3: CO2 EMISSIONS OF FUEL ALTERNATIVES IN SHIPPING

Oil fuel (HFO)

Oil fuel (MGO) TTP – Tank to propeller
WTT – Well to tank
LNG (from Qatar used in Europe)
LNG (from Qatar used in Qatar)
LPG
Methanol (from CH4)
Methanol (from black liquor)
Biodiesel
Biogas (97% methane – liquefied)
Hydrogen (liquid – from CH4)
Hydrogen (liquid – from water)

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
CO2 emissions; g/MJ

Source: DNV GL calculations

 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 9

3.2 CO2 EMISSIONS 3.3 NOX

Figure 3 illustrates the CO2 footprint of various fuels.
Green House Gas emissions (GHG) are measured
as CO2- equivalent emissions. Of all relevant fossil
fuels, LNG produces the lowest CO2 emissions
as can be seen from Fig. However, the release of
unburned methane (so-called methane slip) could
reduce the benefit over HFO and MGO because
methane (CH4) has 25 to 30 times the green house
gas effect compared to CO2. Nevertheless, engine
manufacturers claim that the Tank-to-Propeller (TTP)
CO2-equivalent emissions of Otto-cycle dual-fuel (DF)
and pure gas engines are 10 to 20 percent below
the emissions of oil-fuelled engines. Diesel-cycle
gas DF engines have very low methane slip, and
their TTP emissions are very close to those in the
illustration. This is also the case for COGES system
as proposed by the PERFECt Ship concept*.
Figure 4 illustrates the influence of various ship engine
technologies and fuels on NOX emissions. The value for
HFO-fuelled Tier II diesel engines is used as a baseline
(100 per cent). The values are only comparable when
assuming the same rotational speed.
The bars on the right-hand side of the diagram
represent the potential emission reduction through
switching from Tier II to Tier III (NOX%).
It is obvious that for all fuels given in the below figure,
diesel-cycle engines must be equipped with exhaust
gas treatment systems to comply with the IMO Tier III
limits. Only Otto-cycle engines burning LNG or
hydrogen have the potential to remain within the
Tier III limits without requiring exhaust gas treatment.
This means that in most cases a switch of fuel is not
sufficient to comply with the Tier III NOX limits.

The comparison between the CO2 emissions from

LNG used in Qatar, close to the production site,
versus LNG used in Europe reveals that the required FIGURE 4: NOX EMISSIONS OF
transport of LNG does not increase the carbon foot- ALTERNATIVE FUELS
print significantly. 120
NO X% (diesel-cycle, Tier II engine)
NO X% (Otto-cycle, Tier II engine)
The carbon footprints of methanol and hydrogen
100
produced from natural gas are larger than those of
HFO and MGO.
80
% (100% = HFO)

The key benefit of fuels produced using renewable

energy is clearly a small carbon footprint. Among these 60
fuels, first-generation biodiesel has a relatively low
CO2 reduction potential. However, liquefied methane
40
produced from biomass (biogas) has extremely high
CO2 reduction potential. It should be noted that the
main component of LNG is also methane, therefore 20

both liquefied gases are equivalent.

0
The cleanest fuel is hydrogen produced using H F O M GO LNG LPG G) en f ue
ls %
m N ydro g Bio NO X r II
l (f ro H i e
renewable energy. Liquefied hydrogen could be used t ha
n o / T
Me r III
T ie
in future shipping applications. Because of its very
Note that not for all listed fuels ship piston engines are
low energy density, its storage volume is large. This may available on the market. E.g. there are no ship piston
prevent hydrogen from being used directly in inter- engines available for hydrogen as fuel.
national deep-sea shipping. In a sustainable energy
world where the entire energy demand is covered by Source: DNV GL calculations
renewable, energy sources, hydrogen and CO2 will
be the basic ingredients for fuel production, most
likely in the form of methane or diesel-like fuels
produced in a Sabatier, Fischer-Tropsch process.

* For the working principle of DF and gas engines and the Otto-/Diesel Cycle principle comp. Annex
or e.g. Dag Stenersen, Ole Thonstad, “GHG and NOx emissions from gas fuelled engines”,
SINTEF Ocean AS Maritim, 2017-06-13, report no. OC2017-F-108OC2017 F-108 OC2017 F-108
10 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
3.4 OVERALL EMISSION BEHAVIOUR
Ship propulsion concepts differ in their principal
emission behaviour. This is illustrated in Figure 5
below for diesel-cycle and Otto-cycle engines as well
as the gas steam turbine concept as applied in the
PERFECt Ship project.
1. Diesel cycle: HFO
The IMO rules can be fulfilled when applying
additional technical means, but at the cost of added
fuel consumption and increased CO2 emissions
caused by the scrubber and exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) and selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
equipment.
2. Diesel cycle: LSHFO/MGO
SOX compliance is ensured by the low SOX content
of the fuel. EGR/SCR equipment is required for Tier III
compliance. SCR increases the CO2 emissions.
3. Diesel cycle: LNG
LNG is sulphur-free so there are no SOX emissions.
The effort required to achieve Tier III compliance is
lower than for oil fuel, but EGR/SCR equipment is
still needed.
4. Otto cycle: LNG
Otto-cycle medium and low-speed engines (pure
gas and DF engines, comp. also Annex) can meet
Tier III requirements without additional exhaust gas
treatment. Methane slip compromises the benefit
in terms of CO2 reduction, so the maximum 28 to
30 per cent improvement cannot be achieved. Engine
manufacturers indicate potential CO2 reduction
values of 10 to 20 per cent over similar oil-fuelled
engines.
FIGURE 5: OVERVIEW: FUEL – ENGINE SYSTEM – EMISSION
HFO
SOx Scrubber
Diesel NOx Tier III: EGR/SCR
CO2 High carbon
SOx
Otto NOx
CO2
SOx
PERFECt
NOx
(COGES)
CO2
* Lowest CO2 of all fossil fuels
5. The COGES concept used in the PERFECt Ship
project is illustrated for comparison. It should be noted
that it can only achieve efficiency improvements and
a CO2 emission reduction similar to piston engines
if the power demand is high enough (30 to 35 MW
as an approximate lower limit). If this condition is
met, Tier III NOX compliance can be achieved with
internal means (dry low NOX burner) when operating
on oil or gas. Methane slip does not occur. All things
considered, the emissions of COGES systems as
proposed in the PERFECt Ship project meet all
foreseeable IMO limits. No external exhaust gas
cleaning is needed.
It is obvious that all propulsion concepts have their
pros and cons and that all of them are principally able
to reach the emission limits with all fuel alternatives.
The best concept for a given application needs to be
determined on a case-by-case basis; it also depends
on the owner’s preferences. DNV GL is prepared to
assist customers in the decision-making process.
LSHFO/MGO LNG
Compliance Future-proof
Tier III: EGR/SCR Tier III: EGR/SCR
High carbon Reduced CO2*
Future-proof
Future-proof
Reduced CO2 (CH4 slip)*
Compliance with 0.1 MGO Future-proof
Future-proof Future-proof
High carbon Reduced CO2 (No CH4 slip)*
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
3.5 SOME THOUGHTS ON FUEL PRICING
In most cases, the engine technology investment
is not the dominant factor for the business case.
The price of fuel over the lifetime of the ship, or the
desired return on investment over a given period, is
often the most relevant factor. Fuel pricing depends
on a number of factors, including market conditions,
which are difficult or impossible to predict. For inter-
national shipping it should be noted that subsidies
for preferred fuels do not exist because ship fuels are
tax-fee already. It remains to be seen whether this will
change, for example through the introduction of a
CO2 fee scheme.
The restrictions illustrated in Figure 6 reveal a quali-
tative trend based on price history.
The bars indicate the average minimum and maximum
price differences to Brent crude oil. The value 1.0
represents the Brent baseline. Various internal and
external sources were used to estimate the average
pricing from 2005 to 2015/2016 for the different
fuels. One of the main external sources is the BP
Statistical Review of World Energy.
Hydrogen is not included. When hydrogen is pro-
duced using renewable energy, it can be assumed
to be much more expensive than Brent crude oil. It
would only be competitive under the assumption of
massive subsidies, or of heavy taxes on conventional
fuels. Today, nearly all hydrogen is produced from
natural gas and therefore more expensive than
natural gas.
Historically, MGO has always been more expensive
and HFO much cheaper than Brent crude oil.
FIGURE 6: ARE ALTERNATIVE FUELS TOO EXPENSIVE?
Qualitative price range of possible ship fuels
1.6
(reference: Brent crude oil)
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Brent crude oil MGO HFO LNG
(Europe)
min. 1 1.1 0.65 0.6
max. 1 1.25 0.75 0.8
Source: DNV GL, IEA
DNV GL – Maritime 11
In Europe, LNG competes directly with the price of
pipeline gas. LNG that is fed into the grid cannot be
more expensive than pipeline gas. The calculations
for the diagram use the gas price on the European
spot market as a basis for LNG price predictions. The
natural gas price in Japan is always an LNG price
because the country imports all of its natural gas
as LNG. Today, the gas prices in Japan and Europe
are gradually aligning. The European and Japanese
LNG price can be regarded as an indicator for the
worldwide LNG prices regardless of major local
deviations. It should be noted that these diagrams
do not account for LNG distribution costs.
Most LPG is an oil refinery product. This is one of the
reasons for LPG prices to align with the oil price. The
diagram is based on the US LPG prices from 2005
and 2016 and the European LPG prices between
2008 and 2015.
Today, methanol is mainly produced from natural
gas. For this reason the methanol price is typically
above the gas price. The lower price in the diagram
refers to methanol produced from gas, while the
upper price reflects methanol produced from bio-
mass. Biofuels are produced from biomass. While
dependant upon the type of biofuel and the price of
the biomass, the price is typically above that of Brent
crude oil.
The diagram demonstrates that only LNG and, to
some extend, LPG can currently compete with HFO
in terms of market price. Methanol and biofuels may
eventually be able to compete with MGO to some
extent. Hydrogen is not price-competitive.
Brent crude oil
LPG Methanol Biofuel
(USA)
0.85 0.9 1.1
0.9 1.2 1.5
12 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

3.6 FUEL AVAILABILITY

Apart from its price, a future fuel must be available to
the market in sufficient quantity. All fuel alternatives
discussed here could meet the requirements of the
shipping industry for the next ten years, assuming
only minor growth in shipping applications. The
question is what would happen if a fuel alternative
were to become so attractive that a large number
of operators would want to adopt it for their ships
within a short period of time.
Figure 7 gives an indication based on a comparison
of the energy content of the worldwide production
of specific alternative fuels with the energy need of
the shipping industry.
The energy consumption of the global fleet serves
as the 100 per cent baseline.
This comparison shows that for all alternative fuels,
with the exception of LNG, a rapid rise in demand
would require massive investments in production
capacity. In theory, a switchover of the entire global
fleet to LNG would be possible today since the
current LNG production is higher than the shipping
industry’s energy requirement, and the share of LNG
in the total gas market is only 10 per cent. Further-
more, LPG could likewise cover the energy need of
the global fleet; however, in this case no LPG would
be left for other users.

FIGURE 7: PRODUCTION OF POSSIBLE SHIP FUELS

PER YEAR (RELATIVE ENERGY CONTENT)

% of today’s ship fuel (100%= energy content ship fuel)

160

140
Approx. 10% of
natural gas market
120

100

80

60

40

20

0
HFO/MGO LPG LNG CH3OH FAME H2

Source: DNV GL internal evaluationsand vaious sources (e.g. ‘World LNG Report – 2015 Edition’, International Gas Union)
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
3.7 CONCLUDING REMARKS
Environmental and price challenges are driving the
interest in alternative ship fuels, but the number of
realistic candidates is small. DNV GL believes LNG,
LPG, methanol, biofuel and hydrogen to be the
most promising candidates. Among them, LNG has
already overcome the hurdles related to international
legislation, and methanol and biofuels will follow suit
very soon. It will be a while before LPG and hydrogen
are covered by appropriate new regulations within
the IMO IGF Code, as well.
The existing and upcoming environmental restrictions
can be met by all alternative fuels using existing
technology. However, the IMO target of 50% GHG
emissions reduction within 2050 is ambitious, and
will likely call for wide-spread uptake of zero-carbon
fuels, in addition to other energy efficiency measures.
Fuel cells can use all available alternative fuels and
achieve efficiencies comparable to, or better than
those of current propulsion systems. However, fuel
cell technology for ships is still in its infancy. The most
advanced developments to date have been achieved
by the projects running under the umbrella of the
e4ships lighthouse project in Germany, with Meyer
Werft and ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems heading
the projects for seagoing ships. Wind-assisted pro-
pulsion could potentially reduce fuel consumption,
especially when used for slow ships, but the business
case remains difficult. Batteries as a means to store
SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS
1. In particular, the decision of the International Mari-
time Organization (IMO) to limit the sulphur content
of ship fuel from 1 January 2020 to 0.5 per cent
worldwide, and the recently adopted ambition to
reduce GHG emission by 50% within 2050 have the
potential to become game changers.
2.  here is an accelerating worldwide trend towards
T
lower emissions of CO2, NOX and particles.
3.  NV GL identified LNG, LPG, methanol, biofuel
D
and hydrogen as the most promising alternative
fuels for shipping.
4.  NV GL believes battery systems, fuel cell systems
D
and wind-assisted propulsion have reasonable
potential for ship applications.
5.  s has been demonstrated by the DNV GL
A
PERFECt Ship concept study (refer to PERFECt
Ship video available on YouTube), the well-known
combined cycle gas and steam turbine technology
has good potential for ships in the power range
above 30 MW, provided that low-sulphur fuels
are widely used in shipping
DNV GL – Maritime 13
energy can be considered as an alternative fuel source
in the widest sense. They have major potential for
ships running on short distances and can be used
to boost the efficiency of the propulsion system in
any ship. However, in deep-sea shipping batteries
alone cannot substitute fuel. With low-sulphur and
alternative fuels becoming more widely available,
the well-known gas and steam turbine combined
cycle technology represents a viable alternative
for high-power ship propulsion systems.
All fuel alternatives discussed here could meet the
foreseeable volume requirements for shipping over
the coming years. A major increase in consumption
would require an appropriate increase in production
capacity; the only exception is LNG, which is available
in sufficient quantities today to meet the potential
requirement of the shipping industry for many years.
Without taxation or subsidies, renewable fuels will
find it difficult to compete with the prices of con-
ventional fossil fuels. LNG and LPG are the only
fossil fuels capable of achieving a CO2 reduction.
CO2-neutral shipping seems possible only with fuels
produced from renewable sources. If the shipping
sector resorts to synthetic fuels produced from hydro-
gen and CO2 using renewable energy, the available
alternatives will be liquefied methane (which is very
similar to LNG) and diesel-like fuels.
6.  he major challenges for alternative fuels are
T
related to environmental benefits, fuel availability
in the quantities needed for shipping, fuel costs
and the international rules within the IGF Code.
7.  f all fossil fuels, LNG produces the lowest CO2
O
emissions. However, it will not be sufficient in view
of the IMO vision to de-carbonizing shipping.
8. In a sustainable energy world where all energy
is produced by renewable CO2-neutral sources,
hydrogen and CO2 will be the basis for fuel
production.
9.  ll propulsion concepts are capable of meeting
A
the emission limits using any of the fuel
alternatives.
10.  or international shipping, it should be noted
F
that subsidies financed by taxes on fuel for
preferred fuels do not exist because there is
no taxation on ship fuels.
14 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

ALTERNATIVE FUELS

Methanol molecule Methane molecule

Biofuels Methanol LNG

Biofuels are derived from primary
biomass or biomass residues that are
converted into liquid or gaseous fuels.
A large variety of processes exist for the
production of conventional (first-gen-
eration) and advanced (second and
third-generation) biofuels, involving a
variety of feedstocks and conversions.
The most promising biofuels for ships
are biodiesel (e.g. HVO – hydrotreated
vegetable oil, BTL – biomass-to-liquids,
FAME – fatty acid methyl ester) and
LBG (liquid biogas, which primarily
consist of methane).
With its chemical structure CH3OH, Liquefied natural gas (LNG) has more
methanol is the simplest alcohol with or less the same composition as natural
the lowest carbon content and highest gas used for households and power
hydrogen content of any liquid fuel. generation, and in the industry. Its main
Methanol is a basic building block for component is methane (CH4), the hydro-
hundreds of essential chemical com- carbon fuel with the lowest carbon
modities and is also used as a fuel for content.
transport. It can be produced from a
number of different feedstock resources
like natural gas or coal, or from renew-
able resources such as biomass or
CO2 and hydrogen.

Biodiesel is most suitable for replacing

MDO/MGO, LBG for replacing fossil
LNG, and SVO (straight vegetable oil)
for replacing HFO.

Hydrogen molecule Propane molecule Butane molecule

Hydrogen LPG
Hydrogen (H2) can be produced in Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is by definition any mixture of propane and butane
several different ways, for example by in liquid form. For instance, in the USA, the term LPG is generally associated with
electrolysis of renewable matter or by propane. Mixing butane and propane enables specific saturation pressure and
reforming natural gas. The production temperature characteristics.
of hydrogen through electrolysis could
be combined with the growing renew-
able energy sector which delivers, by
its nature, intermittent power only.
Conversion to hydrogen could facilitate
storage and transport of this renewable
energy.

Hydrogen is used in a variety of indus-

trial processes and is currently being
considered as a potential fuel for land-
based transport, in particular in cars,
buses, trucks and trains.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 15

ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES

Batteries
Batteries provide the ability to directly store electrical
energy for propulsion, opening up many other oppor-
tunities to optimize the power system. Recent advance-
ments in battery technology and falling costs thanks to
the growing worldwide demand for batteries make this
technology attractive to shipping.
Battery stack

Fuel cell systems

Fuel cells convert the chemical energy contained in a
fuel directly into electrical and thermal energy through
electrochemical oxidation. This direct conversion process
enables electrical efficiencies of up to 60 per cent,
depending on the type of fuel cell and fuel used. It also
minimizes vibration and noise emissions, a major setback
of combustion engines.
Functional principle of a fuel cell

Wind-assisted propulsion
For thousands of years wind was the primary energy
source used to propel ships, apart from human muscles.
Today, wind-assisted propulsion is understood to be a
potential method of reducing the fossil energy consump-
tion of ships. Wind is an inexhaustible source of energy.

Sail propulsion
16 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
4 INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS
AND CLASS RULES
Shipping is an international industry, and international
environmental and safety standards for shipping are
developed by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO), a United Nations specialized agency. The
International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases
or other Low-Flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code) is the man-
datory IMO instrument that applies to all gaseous
and other low-flashpoint fuels in shipping, and to all
gas-powered ships other than gas carriers. The latter,
and their use of low-flashpoint fuels, are covered
by the International Code for the Construction and
Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in
Bulk (IMO IGC Code).
The IGF Code was adopted by the IMO in June 2015
(MSC.391[95]) and went into force on 1 January
2017. It is compulsory for all gaseous and other
low-flashpoint-fuel ships and currently (2017) covers
natural gas in liquid or compressed form (LNG,
CNG). Regulations for methanol and low-flashpoint
diesel fuels as well as for maritime fuel cells are
under development.
The IGF Code contains obligatory provisions for the
arrangement, installation, control and monitoring of
machinery, equipment and systems using low-flash-
point fuels, initially focusing on LNG. It addresses
all areas that need special consideration for the
usage of low-flashpoint fuels, taking a goal-based
approach, with goals and functional requirements
specified for each section to provide a basis for the
design, construction and operation of ships using
this type of fuel.
Technical provisions for other low-flashpoint fuels
and other energy arrangements such as fuel cell
systems will eventually be added to the code as
new chapters. For the time being, ships installing
fuel systems to operate on other types of low-flash-
point fuels will need to individually demonstrate that
their design meets the IGF Code’s general require-
ments. Their alternative design has to be submitted
according to IMO 1455 (guidelines for the approval
of alternatives and equivalence as provided for in
various IMO instruments) and accepted by the flag
administration of the vessel. This individual, and in
some cases complex process will likely have a slowing
effect on the introduction of alternative fuels not yet
explicitly covered by the IGF Code.
DNV GL rules addressing the requirements of the
IGF Code include:
■■ Mandatory Class Notation “GAS FUELLED”: Rules
for classification of ships, Part 6, Chapter 2, Section 5,
Gas fuelled ship installations – Gas fuelled
■■ DNV GL also developed rules for gas-ready ships
as well as for ships using low-flashpoint liquid fuels
(e.g. methanol)
■■ Voluntary Class Notation “GAS READY”: Rules for
classification of ships, Part 6, Chapter 2, Section 8,
Gas ready ships – Gas ready.
■■ Mandatory Class Notation “LFL FUELLED”´: Rules
for classification of ships, Part 6, Chapter 2, Section 6,
Low flashpoint liquid fuelled engines – LFL fuelled
■■ Mandatory Class Notation “FC(Power)” or “FC(Safety):
Rules for classification of ships, Part 6, Chapter 2,
Section 3, Fuel cell installations – FC
■■ In addition, DNV GL was the first classification
society to develop rules for lithium-ion battery
installations on board ships
■■ Mandatory Class Notation(s) “BATTERY (SAFETY)”
and “BATTERY (POWER)”: Rules for classification of
ships, Part 6, Chapter 2, Section 1, Battery power
■■ For further information regarding applicable rules
for the alternative fuels and technologies covered in
this guidance paper, please refer to the correspond-
ing subsection of chapter 5. Further details can
also be found in a recent DNV GL report for EMSA .
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5 ALTERNATIVE FUELS AND
TECHNOLOGIES – A BRIEF OVERVIEW
5.1 PRINCIPLES
To assess all fuels or technologies in a comparable
manner, the information is categorized as follows:
1. Price: Accounts for production process, raw
materials, market price and the reasoning behind it,
current/foreseeable (five years) price/expected price
(beyond five years)
2. Infrastructure: Current/future distribution
network, bunkering, availability
3. Regulation: Existing/expected regulations,
consequences
4. Availability: Current / possible future
production as related to the requirement in shipping
DNV GL – Maritime 17
5. Environmental impact: CO2, NOX, SOX,
particulate matter (PM) and others
6. Technology: Availability of current/future
technology, foreseeable changes
7. CAPEX: Engines, storage, processing, retrofitting
8. OPEX: Exhaust cleaning, scrubber, additional
costs for fuel change
Please note that the following gives a brief overview
only. For additional information, please refer to our
Web platform on alternative fuels, which will be
launched later this year.
18 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

5.2 REFERENCE FUELS – HFO AND MGO

5.2.1 General
The shipping industry currently uses heavy fuel oil
(HFO) and marine gas oil (MGO) as fuels; HFO has a
maximum sulphur limit of 3.5 per cent (mass), while
low-sulphur MGO contains 0.1 per cent (mass) or
less. Ship fuel currently contributes approximately
3 per cent to global man-made CO2 emissions. The
energy demand of the shipping sector is projected
to be approximately 314 million tonnes per year
in 2020 (base case, MEPC 70-5.3, p. 26). With the
year 2012 fuel mix, this would equate to 245 million
tonnes of HFO (78 per cent) with an average sulphur
content of 2.5 per cent (m/m; MEPC 70-5.3, Tab 5)
and 69 million tonnes of MGO (22 per cent).
When the decision of IMO MEPC 70 to limit the sulphur
content in ship fuel to 0.5 per cent takes effect in
2020, only vessels equipped with SOX scrubbers will
be allowed to consume HFO (>0.5 per cent sulphur
content). This will significantly reduce the global
demand for high-sulphur HFO.
The fuel availability study prepared by the independent
research and consultancy organization CE Delft, which
served as a basis for the IMO decision, estimates
that by 2020 around 4,000 vessels will operate with
scrubbers installed. If this assumption is correct,
only 6 per cent of the fuel mix will be HFO once
the sulphur cap takes effect. However, as per March
2018 only approx. 420 vessels with scrubbers where
known to be in operation or on order. This could
mean that the actual percentage of HFO in the fuel
mix by 2020 might be even lower than assumed by
the Delft study, unless scrubber installations increase
substantially in the meantime.
The Delft study also estimates that MGO with a
maximum sulphur content of 0.1 per cent will
account for approximately 14 per cent of the fuel
mix by 2020, and that most of the fuel (80 per cent)
will have a sulphur content between 0.1 and 0.5 per
cent. In practical terms, these fuels can be assumed
to be blends of HFO and MGO. If these predictions
turn out to be accurate, the low-sulphur blend with
up to 0.5 per cent sulphur will in essence replace the
current high-sulphur HFO.
5.2.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
For decades, the HFO price has been below the
crude oil price and the MGO price has been above
that level, as Figure 8 below shows. As global demand
for HFO will drop significantly after 2020, its price is
assumed to fall as well. However, there might be local
variations depending on the actual HFO availability
in certain geographical locations. Since the majority
of vessels will run on a sulphur-cap-compliant fuel,
some ports and bunker suppliers might actually
consider charging a premium price for continuing
to deliver HFO.
Infrastructure
At present, there is a well-developed worldwide
MGO and HFO supply infrastructure in place. Ships
are supplied by bunker barges when in port, in most
cases during cargo operations. The International
Maritime Organization (IMO) expects oil-based,
fuel-cap-compliant fuels to be available worldwide

FIGURE 8: YEARLY AVERAGE OIL AND GAS PRICES RELATIVE TO THE PRICE OF BRENT
CRUDE OIL (SAME ENERGY CONTENT)

1.4

1.2

1.0
USD/USD

0.8

0.6

0.4
IFO 380/Brent MGO/Brent
0.2 Gas: Henry Hub/Brent Gas: EU/Brent
Gas: Japan/Brent Brent/Brent
0
1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016

Source: DNV GL, BP

 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
as of 2020, a notion challenged by other parties. It is
uncertain whether and to what extent high-sulphur
HFO will still be provided by bunker suppliers at all
geographical locations beyond 2020.
Regulations
The IMO Marine Environment Protection Committee
(MEPC) limited the sulphur content of ship fuel to
0.5 per cent from 2020 onward. This regulation
applies worldwide.
Emission control areas (ECAs) for SOX were introduced
along the North American coasts as well as in the
North Sea and Baltic Sea in 2015. In these areas, the
sulphur content of fuel is limited to 0.1 per cent. In
the North and Baltic Seas, it is permissible to continue
burning HFO and use scrubbers to clean the exhaust
gas to achieve an equivalent level of sulphur emissions.
In 2016, the North American coastlines were addi-
tionally declared NOX-restricted areas. This means
that ships keel-laid after 31 December 2015 must
comply with Tier III NOX requirements. The same
restrictions will apply in the North Sea and Baltic
Sea from 2021 onward.
Notably, the sulphur limit for automotive diesel is
much lower than that for ship fuel. Across Europe, it
is at 0.001 per cent, 100 to 500 times below the 2020
limit for shipping. Therefore it is likely that the shipping
industry will continue to be under legislative pressure
regarding the sulphur content of its fuel.
Availability
While there have been different views across the
industry regarding the expected availability of
sulphur-cap-compliant fuel by 2020, the IMO based
its decision to implement the sulphur cap as of 2020
on an availability study performed by CE Delft.
However, the reality about the availability of compliant
fuels and its potential impact on prices will not be
known until the industry starts consuming compliant
fuel once the sulphur cap takes effect.
Environmental impact
Oil-based ship fuel has a greater environmental impact
than the alternative fuels discussed in this guidance
paper. The sulphur content of low-sulphur ship fuel
is much higher than that of the other fuel types. Even
low-sulphur fuel will produce higher particle emissions
than alternative fuels. Without selective catalytic
DNV GL – Maritime 19
reduction (SCR), NOX emissions will also be higher, and
CO2 emissions will be higher than those of most of
the alternative fuels discussed here. For a quantitative
comparison, please refer to chapter 3.
Technology
All ships intended to operate on high-sulphur fuel from
2020 onward will be required to clean their exhaust
gases by using scrubbers. Scrubber technology is
readily available. Even if the low expectations of IMO
MEPC 70-5.3 regarding high-sulphur HFO consumption
turn out to be true, thousands of scrubbers will have
to be installed by 2020. In ECAs, the NOX emission
limits will require SCRs or exhaust gas recirculation
(EGR) systems, in addition to scrubbers (depending
on the keel-laying date). This technology is likewise
readily available.
CAPEX
Depending on the size of the engine, the investment
costs for scrubbers range between 650 USD/kW
(5,000 kW engine) and 150 to 100 USD/kW
(40,000 kW and larger engines).
OPEX
An exhaust gas cleaning system requires energy to
operate the pumps and scrubbing units to remove the
SOX from the exhaust gas. This energy use is estimated
to be approximately 1 to 2 per cent of the power used
by the engine(s) installed on the ship. This electrical
energy is generated by auxiliary diesel generator
sets burning either MDO/MGO or HFO (IMO MEPC
70–INF.9, Sec 3.6.1). The OPEX without maintenance
and spare parts is approximately equivalent to 0.6
to 0.7 per cent of the hypothetical fuel costs without
the presence of scrubber technology (according to
MEPC 70-INF.9). The operational costs of scrubbers
are composed of the cost of maintenance and energy
consumption. According to IMO MEPC 70/5/3, these
amount to approximately 0.7 per cent of the total fuel
costs (ships with more than 25 MW of shaft power).
20 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.3 LNG
5.3.1 General
The main component of liquefied natural gas (LNG)
is methane (CH4), the hydrocarbon fuel with the lowest
carbon content and therefore with the highest poten-
tial to reduce CO2 emissions (maximum reduction:
roughly 26 per cent compared to HFO). LNG has
more or less the same composition as natural gas
used in households, for power generation and by
the industry. The production process of LNG ensures
that it is practically sulphur-free. Therefore using LNG
as fuel does not produce any SOX emissions. Since
the boiling point of LNG is approximately –163°C at
1 bar of absolute pressure, LNG must be stored in
insulated tanks.
The energy density per mass (LHV in MJ/kg) is
approximately 18 per cent higher than that of HFO,
but the volumetric density is only 43 per cent of HFO
(kg/m³). This results in roughly twice the volume
compared to the same energy stored in the form of
HFO. Factoring in the shape-related space require-
ments, cylindrical LNG tanks typically occupy three
times the volume of an equivalent amount of energy
stored in the form of fuel oil.
5.3.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
Natural gas hub prices worldwide (except in certain
parts of East Asia) have been below the price of crude
oil and HFO for the last ten years. The delivered
price of LNG fuel to ships must also account for the
liquefaction or break bulk cost, distribution cost
and applicable profit margins. Compared to other
alternative fuels, LNG seems to have reached the
most competitive feedstock price level historically
among all alternatives fuels. Currently, the price level
is competitive with MGO, but direct competition with
HFO may be difficult (refer to chapter 3, Figure 6)
and Figure 9.
FIGURE 9: FUEL PRICES
20
Fuel prices (USD/mmBTU, LHV)
17.0 Begin October 2014
Begin February 2016
15
Mid of January 2018
10 9.0 9.3
8.7 8.0
5 4.5
0
Japan gas EU gas
Source: DNV GL
From 2020, high-sulphur HFO will not be permitted
without a scrubber system installed, and the price
of the new LSFO reference fuel is expected to be
higher than HFO. Furthermore, the price of LNG is
expected to be competitive with low-sulphur HFO.
LNG also has the potential to compete with high-
sulphur HFO and scrubbers.
Infrastructure
While still limited, the dedicated LNG bunkering
infrastructure for ships is improving quite rapidly. A
large share of LNG bunkering as well as LNG distri-
bution to bunkering locations is still taking place by
road. Delivery by rail would also be possible but is
currently not practised. In 2017, several LNG bunker
vessels where delivered for operation in key locations
such as the Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Antwerp (ARA)
region, the North Sea, the Baltic Sea and at the coast
of Florida. Bunker vessels for other key locations
such as the Western Mediterranean, the Gulf of Mexico,
the Middle East, Singapore, China, South Korea and
Japan are under development and will likely materialize
in parallel with significant orders for LNG-fuelled
deep-sea ships within the next years.
For information on LNG bunkering infrastructure,
please see DNV GL’s online LNGi portal
(dnvgl.com/lngi), which gives detailed and contin-
uously updated information on all LNG bunkering
points in existence or under development. LNG is
in principle available worldwide (import and export
terminals), and investments are underway in many
places to make LNG available to ships. We expect to
see a focus on developing LNG bunker vessels for
refuelling seagoing ships in the near future. Bunker-
ing by truck and permanent local depots will also
continue to grow for certain trades and segments.
Dual-fuel engine technology may also offer some
flexibility and redundancy as the LNG bunkering
network for the deep-sea fleet evolves.
21.7
15.0 15.3
10.3
8.0
4.6 4.4
3.6
2.4
US gas IFO 380 0.1 MGO BW
(Henry Hub)
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Regulations
The IMO IGF Code for LNG and CNG came into force
on 1 January 2017, establishing an international
regulatory basis for the design and construction of
LNG-fuelled ships.
Other aspects, such as bunkering of LNG-fuelled
ships, are subject to national regulations and therefore
need to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. For
example, only a limited number of ports have estab-
lished local rules for LNG bunkering. In addition,
some LNG bunkering requirements and guidelines
have also been developed by SGMF, IACS and ISO.
Availability
For the foreseeable future, there are no principal
limitations to production capacities that could limit
the availability of LNG as ship fuel. LNG has a share
of approximately 10 per cent in the overall natural gas
market. LNG production capacity is set to increase
significantly over the next five years. In 2016, the
global LNG production capacity was approximately
320 m t/a. This figure will increase by almost 40 per
cent to about 450 m t/a by 2020 (2017 World LNG
report; International Gas Union [IGU]).
Environmental impact
Natural gas from LNG is the cleanest fossil fuel avail-
able today. There are no SOX emissions related to it,
particle emissions are very low, the NOX emissions
are lower than those of MGO or HFO, and other
emissions such as HC, CO or formaldehyde from gas
engines are low and can be mitigated by exhaust gas
after-treatment if necessary. Nevertheless, methane
release (slip) must be considered when evaluating
the CO2 reduction potential of LNG as ship fuel
(maximum value is roughly 26 per cent compared to
HFO). Low-pressure Otto-cycle gas engines burning
LNG comply with the IMO Tier III NOX limit without
requiring exhaust gas treatment.
Source: DNV GL, LNGi web portal
DNV GL – Maritime 21
Technology
Gas engines, gas turbines and LNG storage and
processing systems have been available for land
installations for decades. LNG sea transport by LNG
carrier also has a history going back to the middle
of the last century. Developments to use LNG fuel in
general shipping began early in the current century.
Today, the technology required for using LNG as ship
fuel is readily available. Piston engines and gas
turbines, several LNG storage tank types as well as
process equipment are also commercially available.
CAPEX
LNG as ship fuel is rapidly approaching the status of a
fully developed technology, with various technology
suppliers active in the market. As applications increase
and competition between suppliers heats up, we
can observe the CAPEX decreasing. CAPEX costs for
LNG systems are and will continue to be higher than
the expenditures associated with using a scrubber
system with HFO.
OPEX
The OPEX costs for LNG systems on board ships are
comparable with the operational costs of oil-fuelled
systems without scrubber technology or an SCR.
Gas-fuelled engine systems have about the same
efficiency as conventionally-fuelled systems. For this
reason, the energy consumption of an LNG-fuelled
ship is roughly the same as that of an oil-fuelled
ship. Maintenance of a gas-burning engine may be
less expensive thanks to cleaner fuel. Currently,
the maintenance intervals of conventional and
gas-fuelled engines are typically the same, but with
more operational experience to draw on, they may
be extended for gas engines. The maintenance
costs for the high-pressure gas supply system on
board ships with high-pressure engines should be
considered. A number of ports offer discounts to
LNG-fuelled ships.
FIGURE 10: LNGI HEAT
MAP, BASED ON THE
LNG-FUELLED FLEET’S
AIS POSITIONS
(FROM 15 TO 25 MAY 2017)
22 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

5.4 LPG

5.4.1 General Infrastructure

Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is by definition any Figure 12 shows the extensive network of LPG import
mixture of propane and butane in liquid form. In and export terminals in Europe. It is relatively easy
the USA, the term LPG is generally associated with to develop bunkering infrastructure at existing LPG
propane. Specific mixtures of butane and propane storage locations or terminals by simply adding
are used to achieve desired saturation, pressure and distribution installations. Distribution to ships can
temperature characteristics. occur either from dedicated facilities or from special
bunker vessels.
Propane is gaseous under ambient conditions, with a
boiling point of –42°C. It can be handled as a liquid FIGURE 12: OVERVIEW OF EUROPEAN IMPORT
by applying moderate pressure (8.4 bar at 20°C). AND EXPORT LPG TERMINALS
Butane can be found in two forms: n-butane or
iso-butane, which have a boiling point of –0.5°C and
–12°C, respectively. Since both isomers have higher
boiling points than propane, they can be liquefied at
lower pressure. Regarding land-based storage, pro-
pane tanks are equipped with safety valves to keep
the pressure below 25 bar. LPG fuel tanks are larger
than oil tanks due to the lower density of LPG.

There are two main sources of LPG: it occurs as

a by-product of oil and gas production or as a
by-product of oil refinery. It is also possible to pro-
duce LPG from renewable sources, for example as
a by-product of renewable diesel production. Source: DNV GL

5.4.2 Details on specific subjects

Price
Up until 2010, propane prices in the USA were very
close to those of Brent crude oil, as shown in Figure
11. Since 2011, prices have decoupled due to
increased LPG production as a by-product of shale
oil and shale gas. The USA became a net exporter of
LPG in 2012. Currently, LPG is more expensive than
LNG but cheaper than low-sulphur oil.
Regulations
The IMO IGF Code is mandatory for all gas and other
low-flashpoint-fuel ships (see above). LPG is currently
not included and is not on the agenda for the near
future.
Technical provisions will be needed to cover particular
aspects of LPG fuel. The main safety concern that must
be covered is related to the density of LPG vapours,

FIGURE 11: PROPANE PRICES

25

20
Fuel price (USD/GJ, LHV)

15

10

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Time (year)
Brent oil Propane price (Mont Belvieu) Natural gas (Henry Hub)

Source: DNV GL
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
which are heavier than air. Therefore leak detectors
and special ventilation systems should be used.
The transport of LPG by sea is covered by the IMO
IGC Code, which also permits the use of LPG as fuel
for gas carriers.
 
Availability
According to the World LPG Association, global
LPG production in 2015 was 284 million tonnes, or
310 million tonnes of oil equivalent. This is slightly
higher than the global demand for marine fuel.
Production has been increasing by approximately
2 per cent annually over the last decade.
The production increase has been most profound
in North America and the Middle East. Only 9 per
cent of LPG is used as transportation fuel for road
vehicles, half of it in South Korea. Other uses of LPG
include homes (cooking and heating), the chemical
and other industries, and refineries.
In regional terms, Asia accounts for the largest share
of LPG consumption. It is expected that at the current
production level, the demand for shipping can be
safely covered until 2030, provided that demand for
LPG as ship fuel will grow slowly initially and remain
at a moderate level.
Environmental impact
LPG combustion results in CO2 emissions that are
approximately 16 per cent lower than those of
HFO. When accounting for the complete life cycle,
including fuel production, the CO2 savings amount
to roughly 17 per cent.
The global warming potential of propane and butane
as greenhouse gases is three to four times higher than
that of CO2. This has to be taken into consideration
when addressing the issue of unburned LPG poten-
tially escaping into the atmosphere (LPG slip). At the
same time, using LPG virtually eliminates sulphur
emissions. LPG is also expected to reduce particulate
matter (PM) emissions significantly. The reduction of
NOX emissions depends on the technology applied.
For a two-stroke diesel engine, the NOX emissions
can be expected to be reduced by 10 to 20 per cent
compared to HFO, whereas for a four-stroke Otto-cycle
engine, the expected reduction is more significant
and may be below Tier III NOX limits. To comply
with these standards, a two-stroke diesel-cycle
DNV GL – Maritime 23
engine would have to be equipped with EGR or
SCR systems. Both solutions are commercially
available.
Technology
There are three main options for using LPG as
ship fuel: in a two-stroke diesel-cycle engine; in an
four-stroke, lean-burn Otto-cycle engine; or in a gas
turbine. Currently, only a single two-stroke diesel
engine model is commercially available, the MAN
ME-LGI series. In 2017, a Wärtsilä four-stroke engine
was commissioned for stationary power generation
(34SG series). This engine had to be derated to main-
tain a safe knock margin. An alternative technology
offered by Wärtsilä consists in the installation of a
gas reformer to turn LPG and steam into methane by
mixing them with CO2 and hydrogen. This mixture
can then be used in a regular gas or dual-fuel engine
without derating.
LPG can be stored under pressure or refrigerated. It
will not always be available in the temperature and
pressure range a ship can handle. Therefore the
bunkering vessel and the ship to be bunkered must
carry the necessary equipment and installations for
safe bunkering. A pressurized LPG fuel tank is the
preferred solution due to its simplicity, and because
the vessel can bunker more easily using either
pressurized tanks or semi-refrigerated tanks without
major modifications.
CAPEX
The cost of installing LPG systems on board a vessel
(e.g. internal combustion engine, fuel tanks, process
system) is roughly half that of an LNG system if
pressurized type C tanks are used in both cases. This
is because there is no need for special materials that
are able to handle cryogenic temperatures.
On large ships, the cost difference between LNG
and LPG systems is lower if the LPG is stored in
pressurized type C tanks, which are more expensive
than large prismatic tanks. Alternatively, LPG can be
stored at low temperatures in low-pressure tanks,
which require thermal insulation.
OPEX
The operational costs for LPG systems are expected
to be comparable with those of oil-fuelled vessels
without a scrubber system. Practical experiences are
currently not available.
24 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.5 METHANOL
5.5.1 General
Methanol, with the chemical structure CH3OH, is the
simplest alcohol with the lowest carbon content and
highest hydrogen content of any liquid fuel. Methanol
is a liquid between 176 and 338 Kelvin (–93°C to
+65°C) at atmospheric pressure.
It is a basic building block for hundreds of essential
chemical commodities that contribute to our daily
lives, such as building materials, plastic packaging,
paints and coatings. It is also a transport fuel and a
hydrogen carrier for fuel cells.
Methanol can be produced from several different
feedstock resources, mainly natural gas or coal, but
also from renewable resources like black liquor from
pulp and paper mills, forest thinning or agricultural
waste, and even directly from CO2 that is captured
from power plants.
When produced from natural gas, a combination
of steam reforming and partial oxidation is typically
applied, with an energy efficiency up to about
70 per cent (defined as energy stored in the methanol
versus energy provided by natural gas).
Methanol produced from gasification of coal relies
on a cheap, widely available resource, but the
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are about twice as
high as from natural gas. Due to its density and lower
heating value (19.5 MJ/kg), methanol fuel tanks have
a size approximately 2.5 larger than oil tanks for the
same energy content. Methanol has a flashpoint of
11°C to 12°C and is considered a low-flashpoint fuel.
It can also be converted to dimethyl ether (DME),
which can be used as a fuel for diesel engines.
5.5.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
From 2010 to 2013, methanol prices per unit of energy
content were between European HFO and MGO
prices. Since then, methanol prices have slightly
increased (and are now back to 2013 levels) and,
at the same time, the drop in oil prices has made
methanol more expensive than distillate marine fuels.
Since methanol is typically produced from natural gas,
its price per mass unit is usually coupled to natural
gas prices and is higher in relation to energy content.
Producing methanol from coal may bring the price
down, but it increases GHG emissions drastically.
Methanol is easy to produce from hydrogen and
CO2. Therefore the production of methanol from
renewable energy makes it a green ship fuel. The
costs are currently higher than the costs of methanol
synthesis from methane.
Infrastructure
Distribution to ships can be accomplished either by
truck or by bunker vessel. In the port of Gothenburg,
Stena Lines has created a dedicated area for bunker-
ing the vessel Stena Germanica, which includes a
few simple safety barriers to avoid problems in case
of a leak.
In Germany, the first methanol infrastructure chain,
from production using renewable energy to trucking
and ship bunkering through to consumption in a fuel
cell system on board the inland passenger vessel
MS Innogy, was launched in August 2017.
Regulations
For shipping, the main applicable guideline is the
IGF Code, which is compulsory for all gas and other
low-flashpoint-fuel ships. The chapter for methanol
is currently under development. However, the IGF
Code provides a means to approve a methanol fuel
system by following the alternative-design approach.
In addition, DNV GL has published rules for low-
flashpoint fuels that address methanol.
Availability
The global methanol demand was approximately
80 million tonnes in 2016, twice the 2006 amount.
The production capacity is more than 110 million
tonnes. The energy content of these 110 million
tonnes is equal to approximately 55 million tonnes
of oil. Most of the methanol is currently consumed
in Asia (more than 60 per cent of global demand),
where demand has been increasing for the last few
years.
Approximately 30 per cent is used in North America,
Western Europe and the Middle East, and this figure
has been largely stable over the past decade. It is
expected that the current production can safely
cover the demand for shipping until 2030, assuming
that the demand for methanol as ship fuel will grow
slowly initially and remain at a moderate level.
Environmental impact
Methanol combustion in an internal combustion
engine reduces CO2 emissions (tank-to-propeller [TTP]
value) by approximately 10 per cent compared to oil.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
The exact value may differ depending on whether
methanol is compared with HFO or distillate fuel.
When considering the complete life cycle (well-
to-tank [WTT] and TTP) including the production
of the fuel from natural gas, the total CO2 emissions
are equivalent to or slightly higher (in the order of
5 per cent) than the corresponding emissions of
oil-based fuels.
The WTT emissions of methanol from renewable
sources (biomass) are significantly lower compared
to production from natural gas. Using methanol
virtually eliminates sulphur emissions and meets the
sulphur emission cap.
It is also expected that particulate matter (PM) emis-
sions will be significantly lower. The reduction of NOX
emissions depends on the technology used. In the
case of a two-stroke diesel engine, the NOX emissions
can be expected to be approximately 30 per cent lower
than those of HFO, whereas in the case of a four-stroke
Otto-cycle engine, the expected reduction is in the
order of 60 per cent, but not below Tier III NOX limits.
To comply with these standards, EGR or SCR systems
should be used. Both solutions are commercially
available.
Technology
There are two main options for using methanol as
fuel in conventional ship engines: in a two-stroke
diesel-cycle engine or in a four-stroke, lean-burn
Otto-cycle engine.
Methanol tanker Lindanger
DNV GL – Maritime 25
Similar to LPG, only a single two-stroke diesel engine
is currently commercially available, the MAN ME-LGI
series, which is now in operation on methanol tankers.
Wärtsilä four-stroke engines are in operation on
board the passenger ferry Stena Germanica. Another
possibility would be to use methanol in fuel cells (see
section 5.10 on fuel cells). A test installation has been
running on the Viking Line ferry MS Mariella since 2017.
Methanol is a liquid fuel and can be stored in standard
fuel tanks for liquid fuels, with certain modifications
to accommodate its low-flashpoint properties and
the requirements currently under development for
the IGF Code at the IMO. Fuel tanks should be pro-
vided with an arrangement for safe inert gas purging
and gas freeing.
CAPEX
The additional costs of installing methanol systems on
board a vessel (e.g. internal combustion engine, fuel
tanks, piping) is roughly one third that of the additional
costs associated with LNG systems. This is because
there is no need for special materials able to handle
cryogenic temperatures or for pressurized fuel tanks.
OPEX
The operational costs for methanol systems are
expected to be comparable with those for oil-fuelled
vessels without scrubber technology. Due to the
small number of ships running on methanol, practical
experiences are limited.
Source: Westfal-Larsen Management AS
26 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.6 BIOFUELS
5.6.1 General
Biofuels are derived from primary biomass or
biomass residues that are converted into liquid or
gaseous fuels. A large variety of processes exist for
the production of conventional (first-generation) and
advanced (second and third-generation) biofuels,
involving a variety of feedstocks and conversions.
The production of biofuel is commonly categorized
based on the carbon source:
1. First-generation biofuels: sources include sugar,
starch or lipid directly extracted from plants
2. S econd-generation biofuels: derived from
woody crops, purpose-grown non-food
feedstock, and wastes/residues
3. Third-generation biofuels: derived from aquatic
autotrophic organisms (e.g. algae)
The competition with food production is frequently
cited as an obstacle for biofuels. This is only an
issue in the case of first-generation fuels. Advanced
biofuels are considered more sustainable since they
do not compete with food crops.
The characteristics of biofuels vary and cannot be
summarized in brief. However, conventional biofuels
typically have lower energy content and lower
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than conventional
marine fuels. NOX emissions may be higher.
The most promising biofuels for ships are biodiesel
(e.g. hydrotreated vegetable oil [HVO], biomass-
to-liquids [BTL], fatty acid methyl ester [FAME]) and
liquefied biogas (LBG). Biodiesel is most suitable for
replacing MDO/MGO, LBG is the best replacement
of fossil LNG, and straight vegetable oil (SVO) can
substitute HFO.
Since 2006, several demonstration projects have
tested the technical feasibility of various FAME
biodiesel blends in shipping. Challenges reported
for FAME biofuels include fuel instability, corrosion,
susceptibility to microbial growth, and poor cold-flow
properties. Recently, ferries operating in Norway
have started to use HVO biodiesel.
Renewable HVO biodiesel is a high-quality fuel in
which the oxygen has been removed using hydrogen,
which results in long-term stability. It is compatible
with existing infrastructure and can be used in existing
engines, subject to approval by the manufacturer.
The GHG emissions from a life-cycle perspective are
about 50 per cent lower than for diesel, and the NOX
and particulate matter (PM) emissions are likewise
lower. There are no sulphur emissions. Third-generation
algae-based biofuels are still at the research and
development stage but were tested in 2011 on the
container ship Maersk Kalmar. The US navy has also
carried out some testing.
5.6.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
In most cases advanced biofuels will be more
expensive than fossil fuels. The potential for reduc-
ing production costs is expected to be higher for
second-generation biofuels compared to the first
generation where a major portion of the potential
is already being realized. Prices and production
volumes are the main barriers to widespread use
in shipping.
Infrastructure
There is a lack of global infrastructure and bunkering
facilities. Biodiesel could potentially be used as a
drop-in fuel. If biofuel is available, it can be distributed
using the existing distribution systems for MGO and
HFO.
Liquefied methane produced from biomass (LBG)
uses the same infrastructure as LNG, which is
expanding. Biofuel is available in certain ports, for
example in the Netherlands or Norway. Algae-based
fuel production could occur close to ports and coastal
areas in future.
Regulations
Annex A of the ISO 8217:2017 fuel standard addresses
bio-derived products, EN 14214 and ASTM D6751
provide biodiesel standards, while the EN 590 diesel
standard is relevant for high-quality diesel for auto-
motive use.
The International Council on Combustion Engines
(CIMAC) provides a guideline for ship owners and
operators on managing marine distillate fuels
containing up to 7 per cent v/v of FAME (biodiesel).
Biofuels may eventually be covered by the IGF
Code’s new chapter on low-flashpoint diesel fuels,
which is on the current agenda.
Looking at the sustainability of biofuels, the EU
Renewable Energy Directive includes sustainability
criteria for biofuels. ISO 13065 specifies principles,
criteria and indicators for the bioenergy supply chain
to facilitate the assessment of environmental, social
and economic sustainability aspects.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
The Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels (RSB)
addressed the many sustainability questions associ-
ated with growing crops for liquid fuel production.
The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP) defines
sustainability indicators for bioenergy, specifying
three pillars: environmental, social and economic.
Overall, there is a lack of globally accepted,
maritime-specific standards for biofuels.
Availability
Global production data indicate that 32 million
tonnes of biodiesel and 170 million tonnes of
straight vegetable oil (SVO) are produced per year.
Environmental impact
The emission reduction potential of biofuels varies
widely, depending on the specific feedstock, the
biofuel generation, the engine type/model, and the
supply chain. CO2 reductions of up to 80 to 90 per
cent for certain types of biofuels are possible, based
on life-cycle assessments. The highest reduction
potential is reported for advanced biofuels.
In general, biofuels have very low SOX emissions, but
there are concerns about the overall sustainability
of biofuels. These include both environmental and
socio-economic issues. It is also debated to what extent
biofuels lead to greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction.
Several standards and initiatives address these aspects.
A number of studies point to sustainable biofuels
as one of only a few options available for deep-sea
shipping to achieve CO2 emission levels consistent
with the 2°C climate goal.
DNV GL – Maritime 27
Technology
Biofuels are used as drop-in fuels substituting
conventional fossil fuels and are compatible with
existing infrastructure and engine systems. In some
cases, they require modification of infrastructure
and engine systems.
Liquefied biogas (LBG) consists mainly of methane
and can utilize the same technology as conventional
LNG.
CAPEX
Additional costs related to modifications of ship
engines and infrastructure for running on conven-
tional biofuel are estimated by engine manufacturers
to be less than 5 per cent of engine cost. There is no
additional cost reported when running on advanced
HVO.
Overall, the CAPEX for LBG would be the same as for
LNG.
OPEX
The operational costs for biofuel systems are expected
to be comparable with those for oil-fuelled vessels
without scrubber technology. However, since biofuels
and especially advanced biofuels will be more
expensive than fossil fuels, the associated OPEX
costs are expected to be higher. Additional costs
may be caused by monitoring, operational practice,
and staff training. This needs to be investigated
further and will depend on the generation and type
of biofuel.
28 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.7 HYDROGEN
5.7.1 General
Hydrogen (H2) is a colourless, odourless and non-toxic
gas. For use on ships, it can either be stored as a
cryogenic liquid, as compressed gas, or chemically
bound.
The boiling point of hydrogen is very low: 20 Kelvin
(–253°C) at 1 bar. It is possible to liquefy hydrogen at
temperatures up to 33 Kelvin (–240°C) by increasing
the pressure towards the “critical pressure” for
hydrogen, which is 13 bar. The energy density per
mass (LHV of 120 MJ/kg) is approximately three times
the energy density of HFO. The volumetric density of
liquefied H2 (LH2) (71 kg/m3) is only 7 per cent that of
HFO. This results in approximately five times the volume
compared to the same energy stored in the form of
HFO. When stored as a compressed gas, it’s volume
is roughly ten to 15 times (depending on the pressure
[700 to 300 bar]) the volume of the same amount of
energy when stored as HFO.
Hydrogen is an energy carrier and a widely used
chemical commodity. It can be produced from various
energy sources, such as by electrolysis of renewables,
or by reforming natural gas. Today, nearly all hydrogen
is produced from natural gas.
For applications in the transport sector, production
by reforming from natural gas is currently the most
common method. If the resulting CO2 would be
captured, this could result in a zero-emission value
chain for shipping.
Together with CO2, hydrogen can be used to produce
methane, which can be used similar to LNG or synthetic
liquid fuels which can be used as substitutes for diesel
or gasoline. Production of hydrogen by electrolysis is
viewed as an opportunity to store and transport surplus
renewable energy, thereby stabilizing the energy
output of solar or wind power plants.
FIGURE 13: EXAMPLE OF HYDROGEN COST AT REFUELLING NOZZLE AS A FUNCTION OF THE
ELECTRICITY PRICE FOR A HYDROGEN REFUELLING STATION WITH A CAPACITY OF 6,000 KG H2 / D
Hydrogen cost (at nozzle) (EUR/kg H2)
14
CAPEX HRS
12 OPEX maintenance
OPEX electricity for electrolysis and compression
10
0
0 2 4 6
Electricity price (EUR cents/kWh)
Source: EC “Guidance document on large scale hydrogen bus refuelling”, March 2017
When used in combination with marine fuel cells, the
emissions associated with other marine fuels could be
minimized or eliminated entirely. If H2 is generated
using renewable energy, nuclear power or natural
gas with carbon capture and storage, zero-emission
ships are possible.
5.7.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
The cost of H2 depends to a large extent on the price
of electricity (in the case of electrolysis) or gas (in the
case of reformation), as well as on the scale of the
production plant.
Cost estimates from relevant literature for H2 pro-
duced from electrolysis as reviewed by DNV GL
range between 3.5 and 8.3 USD/kg (1,170 to
2,770 USD/t crude oil equivalent), averaging around
5.3 USD/kg (1,770 USD/t crude oil equivalent).
The cost of hydrogen produced through natural gas
or biogas reformation ranges from 2.4 to 6.5 USD/kg,
(800 to 2,170 USD/t fuel oil equivalent), averaging
around 4.1 USD/kg (1,370 USD/t crude oil equivalent).
These cost estimates include production, compression,
storage and transport.
As a reference: a price of 70 USD per Barrel is
approximately 510 USD/t fuel oil equivalent.
According to forecasts, the price of electrolysers
will fall in the near future, reducing the CAPEX and
consequently the production cost of hydrogen. The
location of production facilities may also play a role
in the cost of H2. For example, electrolysis in areas in
Norway with low electricity prices has the potential to
drive the production costs down to between 3.5 and
4.1 USD/kg by 2020 (1,170 to 1,370 USD/t crude oil
equivalent).
8 10 12 14 16 18 20
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Infrastructure
Today, most hydrogen is produced from natural gas
using a related, mainly industrial, land-based
infrastructure. Since there is currently no demand
for H2 fuel, there is no distribution or bunkering
infrastructure for ships. Liquefied hydrogen (LH)
could be distributed in a similar manner as LNG.
Standard 40-foot containers for LH with a typical tank
capacity of around 3,600 kg of hydrogen per tank are
available in the market, and a liquid tank can be filled
up to approximately 94 per cent of its total volume.
Due to the very low boiling point of hydrogen, super-
insulated pressure vessels are used for storage in
liquid (cryogenic) form. Boil-off is unavoidable, and
the boil-off rate, which depends on the relationship
between tank surface area and volume, can be 0.3 to
0.5 per cent per day depending on technology and
conditions. For stationary use, the capacity range of
current LH tanks is about 400 to 6,700 kg.
Once LH storage technology for liquid hydrogen
tankers (under development at Kawasaki12) is available,
it will be possible to store up to 88,500 kg of hydro-
gen per tank. A demonstration tank system will be
commissioned in 2020.
Hydrogen production from electrolysis is a known
and available technology that can be applied locally
in port as long as an adequate supply of electrical
power is available for the production process, which
would eliminate the need for a long-distance distri-
bution infrastructure. In future, LH might be trans-
ported to ports from storage sites where hydrogen is
produced using surplus renewable energy, such as
wind power, whenever energy production exceeds
grid demand. The hydrogen produced could be
stored in compressed – not liquefied – form in salt
caverns and at other suitable sites. Transport would
occur by road and/or pipeline depending on volume
and distance.
Regulations
Hydrogen is a low-flashpoint fuel subject to the
International Code for Safety of Ships using Gases or
Other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code). The current
edition of the IGF Code does not cover hydrogen
storage. Rules for the use of hydrogen in fuel cells
are under development and will be included in a
future amendment to the IGF Code. For the time
being, hydrogen storage and use must follow the
alternative design approach in accordance with
SOLAS Regulation II-1/55 to demonstrate an equivalent
level of safety.
DNV GL – Maritime 29
Other regulations, such as the DNV GL class rules for
fuel cell (FC) installations (DNV GL Rules for classifica-
tion of ships Part 6, Chapter 2, Section 3), cover design
principles, material requirements, arrangement and
system design, safety systems and other aspects.
Regarding the use of hydrogen, the ISO/TR 15961
“Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen
systems” provide an overview of safety-relevant
considerations for H2.
The IGC and IGF Codes cover the storage of lique-
fied gas on board ships, and the C-tank rules will in
principle cover liquid hydrogen, but additional con-
siderations will be necessary due to the properties of
hydrogen and its very low storage temperature.
Bunkering of hydrogen-fuelled ships is subject
to national regulations and therefore needs to be
evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Bunkering and
port regulations for bunkering H2 fuel do not exist at
this time. However, several ports do have LNG rules,
and bunkering is subject to SGMF guidelines and
ISO/TS 18683. It is assumed that there will be a sig-
nificant overlap with future standards for hydrogen.
Availability
More than 50 million tonnes of H2 are produced
per year globally. This is about equal to the energy
content of 150 million tonnes of ship fuel. Nearly all
hydrogen is produced from natural gas. As hydrogen
can be produced from water using electrolysis, there
are no principal limitations to production capacity
that could restrict the amount of available H2 to the
shipping industry.
Environmental impact
There are energy losses associated with H2 production
and possible compression or liquefaction. When H2
is generated from renewable or nuclear power using
an efficient supply chain, it can be a low-emission
alternative fuel for shipping. Current development
initiatives explore hydrogen production from natural
gas while safely capturing and storing the resulting
CO2 (CCS).
Hydrogen used in fuel cells as energy converters does
not produce any CO2 emissions and could eliminate
NOX, SOX and particulate matter (PM) emissions from
ships. Hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines
for marine applications could also minimize green-
house gas (GHG) emissions, while NOX emissions
cannot be avoided when using combustion engines.
30 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Technology
Power generation systems based on H2 may even-
tually be an alternative to today’s fossil-fuel-based
systems. While fuel cells are considered the key
technology for hydrogen, other applications are also
under consideration, including gas turbines or internal
combustion engines in stand-alone operation or in
arrangements incorporating fuel cells.
Hydrogen-fuelled internal combustion engines for
marine applications are said to be less efficient than
diesel engines. Hydrogen fuelled piston engines for
ships are not available in the market. On land devel-
opment is ongoing*. Possibly larger-scale industrial
and maritime applications combined with waste
heat recovery solutions might be better suited for
high-temperature technologies such as solid oxide
fuel cells (SOFC) or even industrial systems using
molten carbonate fuel cells.
Fuel cells combined with batteries (and possibly
super capacitors) adding peak-shaving effects are a
promising option. Even proton exchange membrane
fuel cells (PEMFC), thanks to their flexible materials,
could improve fuel cell lifetime significantly when pro-
tected against the harshest load gradients. SOFC must
be applied in a hybrid environment using peak-shaving
technology to be a realistic alternative for shipping.
* Compare e.g. www.governmenteuropa.eu/hydrogen-powered-zero-emission-combustion-engine/86777/
CAPEX
Conventional energy converters like piston engines
will have similar added CAPEX costs as LNG-fuelled
engines. Storage tanks for LH2 will be significantly
more expensive due to lower storage temperatures,
higher insulation quality and fewer maritime appli-
cations than LNG. All other equipment (e.g. piping,
ventilation, heat exchangers, pumps) will have similar
costs as in LNG systems.
OPEX
Conventional systems like piston engines or turbines
running on hydrogen will have comparable OPEX to
those for oil-fuelled systems. The price of H2 varies
because the current market for hydrogen is part of the
industrial gases market where individual contracts
apply.
Fuel prices might depend on energy prices for H2
production and logistics costs (see above). Logistics
costs might be considerably higher than for LNG
or other gases. This might change when hydrogen
production using surplus intermittent renewable
energy is stepped up.
When hydrogen is produced locally by electrolysis,
the distribution costs are marginal. The lifetime of
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
energy converters (e.g. fuel cells) is shorter than that
of piston engines or turbines and depends on fuel
quality and system operation management. The
expected crew training requirements could be
comparable to those of LNG/CNG.
Others
One thing batteries and hydrogen have in common
is that they represent potential game changers that
become increasingly relevant when the cost of pollu-
tion (GHG or local pollutants) rises significantly and/
or where strict emission limits apply.
In such a situation, the key parameters for fuel com-
parison might change. This has been experienced
in the case of battery-powered ferries in Norway,
for example, which can be very price competitive
(OPEX) with conventional fuels. At the same time,
they require a very different infrastructure, which is
typically associated with innovative, fast-charging
technology at every stop and conventional charging
when the ferry is not in use (e.g. overnight).
DNV GL – Maritime 31
The energy chain perspective is important. Two main
production paths can be assumed for hydrogen:
■■ Hydrogen produced from natural gas, the most
common production method today (in future
possibly combined with CCS)
■■ Hydrogen produced by electrolysis using
renewable energy
In both cases, conversion of the original energy
source to hydrogen will mean that some energy
is lost.
In an energy environment marked by a growing
renewable energy sector, hydrogen and batteries
complement each other. Batteries are a suitable
means to store relatively small amounts of energy
for a shorter duration, whereas energy conversion
to hydrogen is better for long-term (e.g. seasonal)
storage of larger volumes of energy (e.g. using
underground caverns).
 
32 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.8 WIND-ASSISTED PROPULSION
5.8.1 General
Wind-assisted propulsion is today considered a means
to reduce a ship’s consumption of fossil energy.
From the time man began travelling across large
bodies of water until the advent of fossil fuels, sails
were the primary means of ship propulsion. Today,
the entire worldwide maritime trade relies on fossil
fuels. As efforts to curb pollution and climate change
intensify, the commercial shipping world is looking
at wind as an inexhaustible power source, at least in
a supporting role, with renewed interest.
Some of the sail technologies available today are the
result of long-term development, driven in part by
competitive racing such as the America’s Cup (rigid
wing sails), or by the need for short-handed automated
sailing (DynaRig). Other, older developments were
all but forgotten until rediscovered by the merchant
shipping industry recently (Flettner rotor). Innovative
approaches have been developed specifically for
modern commercial ships (kites).
Practical experience exists with two of these methods,
which are currently in use: kites, and the Flettner rotor.
The DynaRig principle is being used by some large
sailing yachts.
Flettner rotor
ECOLINER, design Dykstra Naval Architects
DynaRig
5.8.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
There are obviously no direct fuel costs involved
in using wind to propel a ship. Most wind-assisted
propulsion systems require a secondary source of
energy to be operated:
■■ Flettner rotors need to be started up by motors to
develop their aerodynamic thrust forces.
■■ Soft and solid sail systems require a certain amount
of energy for hoisting and dropping as well as
for position adjustments to achieve the optimum
angle of attack.
■■ Kites need to be launched, inflated, controlled and
retracted by external means.
In all of these cases, the amount of energy required
for operation is very small in relation to the propulsion
power these devices generate.
For calculating the business case, the availability of
wind and therefore the operation area of wind-assisted
vessels is the most relevant factor (see “Availability”
to the right).
Wing sails
Kites
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Infrastructure
There is no infrastructure required to make use of wind
as an energy source. Specialized knowledge may be
required for maintenance and repair work, most of
which may not be possible on board. Depending on
the size of an installed wind propulsion system, there
may be restrictions for passing under bridges.
In addition, certain types of wind assistance systems
may impede ship loading and unloading.
Regulations
The SOLAS Convention does not exclude the use of
wind as a power source, provided a ship does not
solely rely on it. In today’s economic environment,
cross-oceanic trade must adhere to strict schedules.
Exclusive dependence on wind would not be feasible.
Therefore a propulsion engine is required to compen-
sate for or buffer time losses when wind conditions
are inadequate.
Any evaluation of a potential wind application must
account for the implications regarding the safety of
seafarers and compliance with current international
standards. Current energy efficiency regulations are
not prescriptive.
The way the EEDI Index is determined leaves room
for new technology developments and for the choice
of means to achieve specific targets or objectives.
This includes the potential use of wind as a power
source, either in the form of wind propulsion systems
or in hybrid systems.
There is no international rule for the design and
construction of sail propulsion systems. However,
DNV GL has issued Design Guidelines for Certification
and Classification Procedures associated with:
■■ Flettner rotors (document MCADE0452-001)
■■ Wing rigs (document MCADE0452-003)
installed on seagoing ships
A similar guideline for DynaRig systems is currently
under development.
These technical standards may additionally serve as
a means to satisfy statutory regulations and require-
ments, which may not necessarily in all aspects be
prepared for wind-assisted propulsion.
DNV GL class notations for sail assistance systems on
seagoing ships are in preparation.
DNV GL – Maritime 33
Availability
The availability of wind as a power source is unlimited.
However, the quantity and quality of this energy
source is not constant. As a meteorological phenom-
enon, the strength and direction of wind is subject to
frequent change. Global trade routes with relatively
constant, high wind conditions are best suited for
profitable use of this energy source, especially when
combined with weather routing based on global
weather patterns and local forecasts.
FIGURE 14: HEATMAP OF VESSEL VOYAGES
AUGUST 2015–2016 AND TRADE WINDS
Source: DNV GL
Environmental impact
A wind propulsion system can reduce fuel consump-
tion. The energy savings achieved are directly pro-
portionate to the reduction of fuel-related CO2, NOX,
SOX, particulate matter (PM) and other emissions.
Technology
After an absence of about 100 years, the rediscovery
of wind propulsion for seagoing ships is tantamount
to a relaunch of a forgotten technology.
Various technologies are currently in some kind of
project or trial stage; some solutions are commercially
available and can even be retrofitted. The following
choice of technologies does not intend to exclude
other, innovative or further developed approaches
and does not claim to be comprehensive.
■■ The Flettner rotor, also called Flettner sail or rotor
sail, is named after its German inventor Anton
Flettner who developed the concept in the 1920s.
34 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Its physical principle consists in the generation of
aerodynamic thrust using a rotating cylinder
(Magnus effect). The technology is well developed,
and Flettner rotors have been installed on eight
ships since the time of their invention.
■■ Based on a design concept by German engineer
Wilhelm Prölls in the 1960s, the DynaRig employs
automated soft sails. It can serve as a ship’s primary
propulsion system when weather conditions allow,
provided that the purpose and design of the ship
are optimized accordingly. DynaRigs are currently
commercially available for mega sailing yachts
(Maltese Falcon, Oceanco Y172), and there are
projects to develop a DynaRig for seagoing ships.
■■ The rigid wing sail technology is based on the con-
cept of using vertically-arranged, fixed symmetrical
aerofoils on a ship to generate aerodynamic thrust.
There have been numerous initiatives pursuing
this concept but no full-scale installation on a
commercial vessel.
■■ Kites use aerodynamic forces generated by pro-
ducing an apparent wind speed higher than that
experienced at a stationary position on board a
sailing vessel, by causing the kite to enter a state of
dynamic movement. Employment and deployment
of a kite can be automated. The technology has
been commercially available since the early 2010s.
CAPEX
Wind propulsion systems utilize renewable energy
to assist primary propulsion units and save fossil
fuel. The multitude of technologies and their varying
dominance in connection with the drive to reduce
energy consumption is too varied for this paper
to provide detailed guidance regarding the costs
involved, or a comparison thereof.
When conceptualizing a particular system, including
all its parameters, ideally geared towards a pre-
selected choice of trade routes, it is possible to
estimate or determine investment expenditures as
well as operational costs in addition to the fuel-
saving potential.
OPEX
OPEX are related to the maintenance of the wind-
assisted propulsion system and the replacement of
components at the end of their lifetime. Energy costs
related to operation are small but need to be figured
in nevertheless.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.9 BATTERIES
5.9.1 General
Batteries and hybrid power plants represent a trans-
formation in the way energy is used and distributed on
board vessels. Electric power systems using batteries
are more controllable, and easier to optimize in terms
of performance, safety and fuel efficiency. As ship
power systems become increasingly electrified, and
as battery technology improves and becomes more
affordable, new opportunities emerge.
Fully electric ships represent a leap forward in power
system design, but at present they are only feasible
in limited applications such as ferries and short-sea
shipping. The feasibility of all-electric operation for
other vessels is typically limited either by the size of
the required battery system or its cost. Unsurprisingly,
the same limitations apply to many other uses of
battery systems, as well. Further research and develop-
ment work is urgently needed to achieve significant
improvements to this technology.
5.9.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
Battery prices are decreasing rapidly – almost too
fast for accurate characterization – while significant
performance improvements can be observed at
least in some market areas. These cost reductions
are primarily driven by demand in the automotive
and consumer electronics industries. Prices of market-
leading lithium-ion battery cells have dropped by
more than 50 per cent over the course of 2016, but
prices continue to range widely, dependent upon
performance, technology and application. Total
battery system prices for large installations, such as
in shipping, comprise both the lithium-ion battery
cells themselves and the cost of system integration,
including module construction, battery control
hardware and software, power electronics, thermal
management, and testing. The figure below indicates
trends in battery cell pricing as well as potential
FIGURE 15: BATTERY PRICES
1600
1400
Battery price (USD/kWh)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2005 2010 2015
Source: DNV GL
DNV GL – Maritime 35
trajectories for full maritime systems (AC, including
power electronics).
Carmakers have set a price goal of 100 USD/kWh
for lithium-ion cells by 2020, and based on market
predictions this goal might be achieved. This develop-
ment may correlate to maritime system costs as low as
200 USD/kWh, although additional cost margins may
remain in place in this market segment. One primary
objective for battery storage systems will be to further
increase energy density for new applications, followed by
a continued downward trend of prices, if at a lower rate.
Lithium-ion will likely remain the leading technology
for many years. Other technologies may reach market
maturity and supersede lithium-ion technology if they
prove to be price competitive.
In terms of future price development, a closer look at
the raw materials is instructive:
■■ Graphite is a widely-used material, with 70 to 80 per
cent currently coming from China. Facing stricter
environmental regulation, this may result in a price
increase and the development of new mines.
■■ The cobalt market was previously small but is now
growing rapidly. Over 50 per cent of the global
cobalt supply currently comes from the Congo in
Africa, with companies seeking more humanely-
acquired alternatives.
■■ For lithium, large amounts exist but only one-third
is considered economically accessible, primarily
from salty, briny lakes, and the evaporation process
can be lengthy. Still, based on total availability and
underutilized sources in Chile, China and Australia,
lithium supplies appear reliable for the long term.
■■ Nickel is a relatively expensive component in
lithium-ion manufacture. It is a valuable metal used
widely as a component of stainless steel. New
demand from innovative technologies can cause
price spikes, while an oversupply will cause prices
to drop. Overall, the market is well-developed.
Cell cost – auto market leaders 2016
Cell cost – previous auto market predictions
Cell cost – new market predictions
Cell cost – automotive segment leaders
System cost – marinized battery system
System cost – marinized battery cost predictions
2020 2025 2030
36 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Infrastructure
Given the absence of consumption costs, batteries
do not face the same type of supply or infrastructure
requirements as other, more traditional energy sources.
The infrastructure required for battery systems on
board ships mainly consists in providing an adequate
charging grid. Depending on the application, the
battery size and required charging times can increase
power demand. For instance, charging 1,000 kWh
(approximately equivalent to 100 litres of oil-based
fuel) in 30 minutes requires 2,000 kW of power;
charging the same amount of energy in 10 minutes
requires 6,000 kW of shore power. This often puts a
considerable load on the local electrical network and
may require additional resources.
In general, the existing on-shore power supply infra-
structure can be used to supply electricity to ships.
Another key aspect is that a battery system is essentially
a device that stores DC electricity and interfaces to the
power grid with standardized power electronics hard-
ware. This means that once the electrical system has
been established for a given installation, it is nominally
a straightforward process to replace the batteries with
a new, updated or replacement technology. Therefore
the electrical infrastructure for battery systems is easily
reused and the nature of the technology enables a
high degree of interchangeability.
Regulations
The primary focus of relevant regulations is the safety
of battery systems and installations. DNV GL was the
first classification society to develop such rules and is
actively engaged in research programmes to continue
refining and developing these requirements. Other
classification societies have since developed rules
of their own, but nothing noteworthy has been
achieved at the IMO level so far. The year 2016 saw a
significant increase in maritime-specific regulations.
These requirements have resulted in higher develop-
ment (testing, approval) costs, which have significantly
increased system safety levels. It is likely that more
economical ways of producing the same capabilities
may be available in the future. Shore connections for
charging are predominantly governed by regulations
and requirements established for the electric grid.
Availability
The automotive industry is driving battery manufacture
and cell development. As a result, the infrastructure
catering to these demands is improving and can
be regarded as ready to meet a significant demand
increase from the maritime sector, as well. The
existence of many companies specifically serving
the maritime sector additionally points to a more
than adequate manufacturing infrastructure.
Environmental impact
Batteries produce zero emissions during operation,
but as with every production process, the manufacture
of batteries is energy-intensive. Several studies have
investigated the CO2-equivalent emissions of both
conventional and battery system life cycles. For the
maritime case, as summarized below, the environ-
mental benefit of batteries is overwhelming. In a
study for the Norwegian NOX fund, the environmental
payback period compared to a traditional drive
configuration was calculated for a hybrid platform
supply vessel (PSV) and an electric ferry.
For the hybrid PSV, the environmental payback period
for global warming potential (GWP) and NOX is
1.5 and 0.3 months, respectively. For the fully electric
ferry, the environmental payback period for GWP and
NOX is 1.4 and 0.3 months, respectively, when using
the Norwegian electricity mix. For the EU electricity
mix, the GWP payback time increased to 2.5 months,
and for a global electricity mix to just under one
year.
In addition, lithium-ion battery recycling has proven
to be feasible, with several companies providing this
service. The current focus is on aluminium and copper
recovery, as this provides the greatest revenue
stream, with the low price of mined lithium proving
to be highly competitive. The full potential of such
processes is limited primarily by the current low
inflow of recycled, used or decommissioned batteries
– refurbishment is presently a more common end-of-
life service resulting in an even better environmental
footprint.
Technology
Developments during the past five years have
occurred primarily as a result of improved manu-
facturing processes and quality control, as well as
incremental improvements in existing (cathode)
chemistries and combinations. Iron phosphate (LFP)
and nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) have proven
to lead the market. These developments have been
paralleled with continually improving knowledge
regarding the complex electrochemical processes of
batteries, leading to optimized design and utilization.
Additionally, new developments have now entered
the market representing developments on the anode
side – the use of silicon or titanium – representing
the opposing objectives of more affordable energy
density and high performance, respectively.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
The stringent requirements of the maritime industry
have greatly advanced the level of safety that lithium-
ion battery systems can provide, particularly with
regard to propagation and off-gas handling. Solid
electrolyte technologies are among the most promis-
ing, pending advancements, and may present signif-
icant advantages with regard to safety. Although this
advancement will need to prove capable of living up
to the tough maritime performance requirements,
the improved level of safety they may provide would
certainly be an asset to the maritime industry.
Maritime applications are often much more demanding
on lithium-ion battery performance than other indus-
tries such as consumer electronics or stationary/grid
support. These needs depend on the application, but
many maritime systems require much higher power
levels and much longer life cycles than may be
acceptable for other lithium-ion battery systems. These
requirements represent a need in maritime systems
that is a diversion from the pressure to improve cost
and energy density, which drives much of the current
technology development.
New technologies which may represent a large or
disruptive change in the market may be as much as
ten years away. The most evident technological
advancements are expected to be the result of
continued incremental improvements in terms of
cost and performance of existing battery types.
Furthermore, many of the technologies that appear
to be on the horizon are likely to struggle with the
maritime environment and application requirements,
pushing their penetration of this market back further
than others.
FIGURE 16: LIFETIME OF BATTERIES DEPENDS
ON THE DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
200
NCM high
180
NCM low
Titanate LTO
160
Cycles to 80% capacity (thousands)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 consideration of the redundancy requirements and
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Cycle size (depth of discharge, %)
Source: DNV GL
DNV GL – Maritime 37
CAPEX
System integration costs for battery systems are often
significant and should be taken into account at an
early stage of adoption. Beyond the storage system
purchase price (including power electronics), the total
cost includes: purchase changes (PMS/IAS/DP), instal-
lation at yard (including electrical), FMEA, switchboard
modification, commissioning and testing. All these
collateral aspects combined can sum up to equal the
cost of the full battery system itself. The lifetime of bat-
teries is highly dependent on the duty cycle for which
they are used, relative to the size of the battery.
For instance, a smaller battery will have reduced
CAPEX but for a given application, will not last as long
as a larger battery. Thus, sizing is a key aspect of battery
system procurement. DNV GL has performed testing
and modelling using a verification tool called Battery
XT to assess these complex interrelated aspects. The
life cycle additionally depends on battery chemistry –
there are many different types of lithium-ion batteries –
and also varies significantly based on manufacturer
or vendor. Systems are most typically engineered
and warrantied for ten years of operational life.
OPEX
Beyond efficiency, the OPEX costs are driven by
electricity prices, which vary significantly from region
to region. Norway prices are typically around
0.12 USD/kWh, while EU prices range from
0.09 to 0.30 USD/kWh. Compared to marine diesel,
assuming 11,800 kWh/t, and an average of
600 USD/t, the cost is 0.05 USD/kWh. However, the
efficiency of using this energy in a battery-driven ship
is significantly higher than that of a conventionally-
propelled ship, causing lower energy consumption
and cost. As a result, the OPEX of an electric ship can
be lower than its conventionally-powered equivalent.
The efficiency of an electrical propulsion system will
be approximately 76 to 85 per cent of the electrical
energy provided from shore. A typical diesel generator
set will have a fuel efficiency of 40 to 45 per cent,
so the battery system is about twice as efficient as a
diesel generator.
The efficiency of battery systems ranges from 85
to 95 per cent (round trip), while power electronics
often have a 95 per cent efficiency. Power taken from
the shore will likely see losses of 15 to 24 per cent by
the time it reaches the propulsion motors, depending
on the associated components and operation. By
comparison, diesel propulsion systems rarely have
an efficiency exceeding 50 per cent, especially in
100 low loading.
38 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
5.10 FUEL CELLS
5.10.1 General
Fuel cells offer high electrical efficiencies of up to
60 per cent, as well as lower noise and vibration
emissions than conventional engines. The main
components of a fuel cell power system are the fuel
cells which convert the chemical energy stored in
the fuel directly into electrical and thermal energy
by electrochemical oxidation. This direct conversion
enables electrical efficiencies of up to 60 per cent,
depending on the fuel cell type and fuel used.
There are several different fuel cell technologies,
including alkaline fuel cells (AFC), proton exchange
membrane fuel cells (PEMFC), high-temperature
PEMFCs (HT-PEMFC), direct methanol fuel cells
(DMFC), phosphoric acid fuel cells (PAFC), molten
carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) and solid oxide fuel
cells (SOFC). The three most promising fuel cell
technologies for maritime use are SOFC, PEMFC
and HT-PEMFC.
Fuel reformers convert the original fuel into hydrogen-
rich fuel for use in the fuel cells. In addition to pure
hydrogen, fuel reformers enable the use of fuels such
as natural gas, methanol and low-flashpoint diesel.
The fuel cell is working in a combustion-free electro-
chemical process. Only a reforming process might in-
volve a small amount of fuel combustion. Consequently,
cell technology can reduce emissions to air dramatically.
5.10.2 Details on specific subjects
Price
Mass production, which is expected to occur beyond
2022, should allow production costs to reach a com-
petitive level, as shown in Figure 17 below. Develop-
ment projects are underway, and the most promising
project for maritime fuel cells, e4ships, is aiming for
a market launch in 2022. With increased production,
the impact of material costs will become a dominant
factor in fuel cell prices. Maintenance and operational
FIGURE 17: POTENTIAL SCALE EFFECTS OF MASS PRODUCTION ON FUEL CELL STACK COSTS
100
Percentage of cost decrease (%)
90
80
70
60
50
40
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Today’s status Factor on today’s margin of produced cells
Source: Proton Motors
costs will reach a competitive level after fuel cell
durability reaches the same level as the longevity of
combustion engines.
Infrastructure
Currently, relevant services are provided by the fuel
cell manufacturers. With the exception of fuel cell
systems for military submarines, all present fuel cell
systems in shipping are non-commercial prototype
installations. The most advanced projects regarding
future commercial application are those of the
e4ships lighthouse project. Commercialization will
include guarantee and lifetime technical support. A
service network similar to that for diesel engines has
yet to be established, but infrastructure development
is expected to start at the time of the prospective
market launch beyond 2022.
Regulations
The international rule base for the design and con-
struction of maritime fuel cell applications is currently
under development at the IMO as part of the Inter-
national Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or
other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGF Code). Existing class
rules form the basis of special permits. The current
international regulatory framework is geared towards
combustion engines. Apart from some class rules,
there is no binding international regulatory frame-
work for maritime fuel cell applications.
The requirements for fuel cell installations which are
under development at the IMO might be integrated
into the IGF Code within the scope of its first revision
in 2020 at the earliest. Fuel storage and fuel supply
systems must comply with the related chapters of the
IGF Code, which currently covers LNG and com-
pressed natural gas (CNG). Regulations for methanol
and low-flashpoint diesel are likewise under develop-
ment and may be included in the 2020 revision of
the IGF Code, as well.
Source: Proton Motors (2014)
Long-term marginal costs (projection)
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Availability
Fuel cell systems are currently available in small
numbers from several manufacturers.
While the availability situation for materials for fuel
cells themselves is not critical, the availability of
suitable fuels in larger amounts will be essential for
the technology to be adopted widely.
Environmental impact
The fuels typically used in fuel cells eliminate NOX,
SOX and particulate matter (PM) emissions nearly
to zero. Due to the high efficiency of fuel cells, a
reduction of CO2 emissions by 30 per cent is possible.
An example is shown in Figure 18. When using pure
hydrogen as a fuel, tank-to-propeller (TTP) emissions
of CO2, NOX, SOX and PM are zero.
Technology
Only small maritime fuel cell applications with an
electrical power output of up to 100 kW are currently
in operation. Current research and development work
aims to make maritime fuel cell systems marketable
and scalable from 2022. It should be noted that the
lifetime of fuel cell systems and reformer units has not
yet been shown to be satisfactory. Since 2016, a meth-
anol fuel cell system has been in operation on board
the passenger ferry MS Mariella which is operated by
Viking Line between Helsinki and Stockholm.
Another methanol fuel cell system is installed on
board MS Innogy, an inland passenger vessels oper-
ated by the White Fleet Baldeneysee and Innogy.
Proton exchange membrane (PEM) technology in
particular has reached a development level compa-
rable with the dimension of automotive engines and
capable of handling ship load changes well.
FIGURE 18: ENERGY AND EMISSION
REDUCTION POTENTIAL OF A TYPICAL
CRUISE SHIP USING FUEL CELLS
Assumption: HT-PEMFC with methanol as fuel; exhaust gas
energy of fuel cell used for processes on board
100%
75%
50%
25%
0%
Energy CO2 SOX NOX PM
Source: 4ships lighthouse project
DNV GL – Maritime 39
Fuel cells combined with batteries (and possibly
super capacitors) adding peak-shaving effects are a
promising option. Even proton exchange membrane
fuel cells (PEMFC), thanks to their flexible materials,
could improve fuel cell lifetime significantly when
protected against the harshest load gradients. Solid
oxide fuel cells (SOFC) must be applied in a hybrid
environment using peak-shaving technology to be
a realistic alternative for shipping.
CAPEX
Fuel cell technology is still under development.
Current installation costs are between 3,000 and
4,500 USD/kW of installed electrical power. Ongoing
developments are aiming to reduce installation costs
by up to 1,000 USD/kW of installed electrical power
by 2022 to be competitive with modern diesel engine
installations. The reason PEM cells are dramatically
cheaper than other fuel cell types is the automotive
industry’s massive investments in this technology over
the past 15 to 20 years. While still too expensive for
the car market, the cost of PEM fuel cells has dropped
to a level that is attractive for ship applications.
The expected cost of automotive PEM fuel cell sys-
tems based on current technology is approximately
280 USD/kW when manufactured at a volume of
20,000 units/year. This number reflects the cost of
the complete fuel cell system. To build a complete
ship system that meets regulatory requirements it
will be necessary to integrate additional safety and
interface components. Similar strategic goals are
being pursued in Europe: in its 2016 annual work
plan and budget, the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint
Undertaking (FCH JU) aims to achieve a fuel cell
system production cost of 100 USD/kW at an annual
production output of 50,000 units.
OPEX
The overall efficiency from fuel to propeller will be
slightly higher for fuel cells than for combustion
engines. The operational costs will be competitive
when:
■■ fuel cells reach about the same durability as com-
bustion engines until requiring a general overhaul,
■■ the cost and time of a fuel cell exchange is equal to
those of a general engine overhaul, and
■■ the primary fuel prices will be competitive with MGO.
It should be noted that fuel cells may require less
maintenance than conventional combustion engines
and turbines.
40 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
6 WE SUPPORT YOU TO MAKE THE RIGHT
ADVISORY SERVICES
DNV GL Advisory can support customers in a
variety of services of services for assisting with the
upcoming the upcoming fuel shift. For optimized
compliance, we provide low sulphur decision-making
support tailored to your specific conditions, operation
and requirements.
To comply with stricter environmental regulations
and limit costs, shipowners need to evaluate alterna-
tives to traditional fuels and technologies. But which
option is best for a ship’s actual operational setting?
As marine and industrial engineers, economists and
environmental specialists, DNV GL has the deep
knowledge across multiple disciplines to offer reliable
solutions.
We advise the maritime sector on environmental
regulations and compliance options, we measure
and benchmark your environmental performance,
Our services in environmental technology and alternative fuels include:
Fuel changeover calculator (FCO)
DNV GL’s ship-specific FCO plots a complex numerical
simulation of the fuel changeover process from
conventional HFO to ultra-low sulphur fuel oil, which
is typically marine gas oil (MGO). It promises a very
accurate calculation and potential cost savings com-
pared to a linear model, and also takes into account
recommended maximum temperature change per
minute. The FCO also offers a comprehensive package
to account for documentation requirements. Receive
more information at: www.dnvgl.com/maritime/
advisory/Fuel-change-over-calculator.html
ECA support
We offer strategic advice on solutions for ECA
compliance, including assistance in choosing and im-
plementing technologies for reducing emissions and
remaining in compliance in a cost-effective manner.
Emission analyses and assessments
We conduct tailor-made studies on fuels, technologies,
regulations, emissions and environmental accounting,
policy instruments and activity-based ship data (AIS).
LNG intelligence portal (LNGi)
Through our LNG intelligence portal, we offer com-
prehensive insights into worldwide LNG bunkering
availability and market data on LNG as fuel for ships.
support you in making the best business decisions
on environmental technology, and help turn environ-
mental performance into a marketing advantage.
As a designated technical advisor for various gov-
ernmental initiatives to reduce ship emissions, we
have deep knowledge of the regulatory policies and
technical solutions.
If incidents damage the fuel systems and other related
systems, we can help alleviate the problem.
We have a wide range of experience with trouble-
shooting, both on a design level and on board the
ship. DNV GL engineers can help customers to find
root causes for the problem and recommend mod-
ifications to reduce future damage in terms of costs
and/or even off-hire.
For more information, please contact
environmentadvisory@dnvgl.com
Feasibility studies
The evaluation of the technical feasibility and financial
attractiveness of environmental technologies or fuels,
such as LNG (LNG Ready), scrubbers, biofuel, battery
systems, hydrogen, ballast water, VOC management,
waste and waste water technologies.
Technology qualification
Determination of whether a solution is fit for its given
purpose. Risk identification and risk reduction through
failure mode, effect and criticality study (FMECA),
hazard identification study (HAZID) or hazard and
operability study (HAZOP).
Triple-E
Triple-E is an environmental and energy efficiency
rating scheme for ships. As an independent verification
tool, it measures a vessel’s environmental performance,
covering management, operation and design.
Control system software testing
The verification and testing of control system software
using Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) technology will
result in safer and more reliable automation systems
and shorter commissioning times due to less software
issues. Any control system can be tested, e.g. EGCS/
scrubber, SCR, LNG as fuel, energy management
system, ballast water treatment system.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 41

DECISION

Advisory services provided by DNV GL

INITIATION OPERATION

Business case Contract Basic Detailed Installation Inspection Commission- Operation

concept design design sign-off ing
development

Emission
compliance HAZID for Automation
option installation testing (HIL)

Technology Special risk

qualification workshops

DNV GL ACADEMY

The DNV GL Academy offers a training course Gas as ship fuel

designed to help overcome the challenges the The course will give participants an overview about
challenges of fuel switching in ECAs by discussing the current developments in the field of gas as ship
the issues related to the change-over in detail. fuel.

Air pollution from ships in practice
The course objective is to gain advanced knowledge
about exhaust emission legislation, abatement tech-
nology and alternative fuels.
Low sulphur fuel – basics and experience
Participants will gain detailed knowledge for managing
the international requirements regarding sulphur
reduction for ship newbuildings and ships in service.
SOx Exhaust Gas Cleaning (EGCS) – in practice
Become familiar with different SOx EGCs technologies
available on the market, and understand applicable
requirements regarding SOx EGCs according to
MARPOL Annex VI & MEPC.259(68).
For more information, please visit our training web
page: www.dnvgl.com/maritime-academy
42 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
7 DNV GL CLASS SERVICES
Based on years of experience, DNV GL has devel-
oped several class notations to support the switch
to low sulphur fuels, preparing shipowners for lower
sulphur limits and more. The notations are briefly
described below.
Gas Ready notation
LNG as ship fuel is spreading rapidly through the
maritime world. To be more flexible and competitive,
you need to ensure your newbuilding is ready for
future LNG conversions. Based on the experience we
have gained from our LNG Ready Service, as well as
the 50 LNG-fuelled vessels we already have in class
with our Gas fuelled notation, we have developed
the new Gas Ready notation. This notation enables
you to ensure that a future LNG-fuelled version of
your vessel complies with the relevant safety and
operational requirements. It also helps you specify
and quantify the level of investment you are making
at the newbuilding stage.
The basic notation – with nominators D and MEc –
GAS READY (D, MEc) – verifies that the vessel is in
compliance with the relevant rules in terms of its
overall design for future LNG fuel operations, and
that the main engine can be converted or operate
on gas fuel.
You can also choose to add extra optional levels to
the newbuilding under the notation – putting the
vessel further along the LNG track and thereby
speeding up and simplifying a later conversion.
Scrubber Ready
DNV GL has created a class notation to help ship-
owners prepare their newbuildings for the instal-
lation of a scrubber. It ensures that the necessary
preparations are in place for a smooth and cost-
efficient scrubber retrofit at a later stage. The nota-
tion can be awarded to ships that have planned and
partly prepared for the installation of an exhaust
gas cleaning system (EGCS) for the removal of SOx
at a later date. The notation identifies the general
type and category of scrubber systems that can be
installed on the vessel. It also details the level of
scrubber readiness, with the minimum scope attest-
ing that the space available and future installation
arrangement meet class and statutory requirements.
This can be expanded to include more extensive
preparations, through to a complete review of the
scrubber documentation according to main class
rules, including the certification and installation of
piping and subsystems. For shipyards, working with
the Scrubber ready standard gives an easy frame-
work within which to offer future-ready ship designs
to the market.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
Gas Fuelled notation
The Gas Fuelled notation’s requirements cover all
aspects of the gas-fuel installation, from the ship’s
gas-fuel bunkering connection all the way up to and
including all gas consumers. The rules are applica-
ble to installations where natural gas is used as fuel.
Other gases are subject to special consideration.
The class notation is mandatory for any newbuilding
being built with gas as fuel, either with gas-only or
dual-fuel concepts.
DNV GL – Maritime 43
© Cody Williams
Low Flashpoint Liquid (LFL) fuelled
Methanol is a low flashpoint liquid (LFL) fuel that is
gaining interest in the market because it does not
contain sulphur and is therefore suitable for meet-
ing the existing 0.1% SOx Emission Control Area
requirements. Methanol has a flashpoint of about 12
degrees Celsius, and vessels will be assigned the
additional notation LFL FUELLED to demonstrate
their compliance with the safety requirements set
out in the industry-first rules published by DNV GL
in June 2013.
DNV GL was the first classification society to publish
LFL rules and sees methanol as part of the future
energy mix for shipping. As well as having low SOx
and NOx emissions, a methanol fuel system is easy to
retrofit on a ship.
DNV GL has been involved in newbuilding projects
from the early design stage, working together with
the shipowner, engine maker and yard to ensure an
equivalent level of safety to that of a conventional
fuel oil system. DNV GL has made use of its long
experience with LFL cargo handling on chemical
tankers and offshore supply vessels designed to
transport low flashpoint cargo and its experience
with alternative fuels from 15 years of working with
gas-fuelled ship installations. This is a mandatory
class notation for ships using methyl alcohol or
ethyl alcohol as fuel.
44 Annex
DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

Text: Gerd-Michael Wuersig, Jan Sell and Dag Harald Williksen

Gerd.Wuersig@dnvgl.com, Jan.Sell@dnvgl.com and Dag.Harald.Williksen@dnvgl.com

ENGINES FOR GAS-

FUELLED SHIPS
The engine technology to use natural gas as ship fuel is available today. A wide range of engines
in all power ranges are on the market. This article highlights the basic working principles of
the different engine types and indicates the positive effects on emissions to air gained through
switching from oil based fuel to natural gas.

Engines for gas-fuelled ships

The use of gas as a ship fuel outside of the LNG carrier busi-
ness is a young technology, as are gas/dual-fuel engines. While
gas engines have been used in industry for decades, the first
non-LNG carrier vessel, the LNG-fuelled ferry GLUTRA with gas
engines and storage, came into service in the year 2000. The
engines of this vessel are pure gas Otto cycle engines. The
Mitsubishi GS12R-PTK ultra lean burn natural gas engines in
V12 configuration attain a power output of 675 kW at 1500 rpm.
The engine room configuration of the GLUTRA is an ESD engine
room configuration, as currently defined in the IMO IGF-Code.
Since GLUTRA’s first sailing, some 50 more LNG-fuelled vessels
have come into service - 35 since 2010.
It should be noted that until 2013 all vessels operated in Nor-
wegian waters. In 2013, the Fjordline Cruise ship-like ferry Sta-
vangerfjord started operating between Denmark and Norway.
The Viking Grace, which is a similar ferry, operated by Viking
Line came into service between Stockholm and Turku and the
fast ferry Francisco, operated by Buquebus started operating
between Buenos Aires and Montevideo. Today, the orderbook
for the next four years contains approximately 70 vessels, with
14 containerships among them.

The Stavangerfjord uses Rolls Royce gas engines, while the

Four-stroke gas engines on board the MS GLUTRA.
Viking Grace uses Wärtsilä dual-fuel engines. Both engine types
are four-stroke Otto Cycle engines, fulfilling the IGF-Code
requirements for the so-called “inherently safe” engine room.
Wärtsilä was the first manufacturer to introduce four-stroke dual-
fuel engines in 2005. Today Wärtsilä, MAN, Caterpillar and
HiMSEN are the most prominent manufacturers of dual-fuel
engines.
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 45

Diesel and Otto Processes: volume-pressure diagram

2 3 3
p2=p3 p3
Pressure in Pa

Pressure in Pa
2
p2
p4 4

p4 4
p1 1 p1 1

v2 v3 v1=v4 v2=v3 v1=v4

Specific volume in m3/kg Specific Volumen in m3/kg

Figure 1: Diesel-Process: const. pressure during combustion (2à3) Figure 2: Otto-Process: const. volume during combustion (2à3)

The workhorse of shipping is the two-stroke engine. Two-
stroke natural gas-fuelled engines have been available for the
market since late 2012 when MAN presented their ME GI
engine at HHI on 9th of November 2012. Wärtsilä as the second
big player in this market sold their first dual-fuel two-stroke
engines in 2014 (RT-flex50, X62DF). The two-stroke technology
for gas as a ship fuel has been on the market for less than two
years. This short availability of this core technology has to be
considered when looking to the relatively small number of
ships already running on LNG.
Low pressure engine
All of the four-stroke engines available today are low pressure
engines. The fuel/air mixture formation takes place outside
of the cylinder behind the turbocharger. This means that the
fuel gas pressure is approximately 5 to 6 bar because it must
be higher than the charge air pressure after the turbocharger.
Nevertheless, the pressure is low and therefore the gas can
be provided either directly from a pressurised storage tank or
by use of a compressor. If a compressor is used, the specific
energy consumption of the compressor is below 1% of the lower
heating value of the gas (Hu), even if 10 bar pressure is required
as needed for the two-stroke low pressure engines from Wärtsilä.
If the gas has to be compressed to a high pressure of 300 bar, the
compressor’s specific energy consumption will be much higher,
approx. 4% of Hu (Figure 4). This is the reason the two-stroke
MAN engines use pumps to increase the pressure to 300 bar in
the liquid phase and not in the gaseous phase of the fuel.
Engine operating principles
An overview of piston engine principles for gas-fuelled ships is
given in Figure 1. The self-ignition temperature of natural gas
stored as LNG is too high to be reached by the compression
cycle in the cylinder. Thus, the combustion must be initiated

Overview of piston engine principles for gas-fuelled ships

Dual-fuel Gas-only nnFour-stroke, two-stroke

nnLow speed, medium speed, high speed
nnEmergency Shutdown, Gas Safe concept
High pressure gas Low pressure gas
nnMachinery plant concept

Direct injection Port injection Mixture system

Pilot fuel Spark ignition

Direct Pre-chamber Direct Pre-chamber

Figure 3
46 Annex
DNV GL1 – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies

Gas supply to engine

5 bar
engine
W approx 0.5 % of Hu
Approx. 1 bar g

W approx. 4 % of Hu Two-stroke
A Heat exchanger high pressure
300 bar engine

Bottom line from tank (exclude loss of tank content in case of pipe failure)

In-tank pump (redundancy required, Boil Off must be handled separately)

Hu= lower heating value

Figure 4

by an ignition source. Engines running only on gas use a spark
plug to initiate the combustion process. The dual-fuel engines
use so-called pilot fuel to start the combustion process. A
small amount of pilot fuel is injected into the cylinder, where it
is ignited by the high temperature of the gas air mixture at the
end of the compression cycle. Typically, the amount of pilot
fuel oil is below 1% of the energy used by the engine.
DF engines run on gas or on diesel fuel. In gas mode, the en-
gines run on the Otto-Cycle and in diesel mode they run on the
Diesel-Cycle (Figures 1 and 2). The main manufacturers of du-
al-fuel four-stroke engines are Wärtsilä, MAN and Caterpillar.
It is also possible to run diesel engines partly on gas. In such
engines, up to approx. 70% of the energy is provided by gas
and 30% by diesel fuel. This option can, in particular, be a refit
option for engines which cannot be converted to DF engines.
MAN and Wärtsilä also offer two-stroke engines for ship
propulsion. The MAN engines compress the air, start the
combustion process by injecting fuel oil and inject the gas into
the burning air/oil fuel mixture. This also enables the operation
according to the diesel cycle in gas mode as well and is the
reason that the gas pressure must be high (300 bar for natural
gas). The Wärtsilä engines inject the gas at the beginning of
the compression after the air has entered the cylinder. At the
low pressure at the beginning of compression, only a low gas
pressure is required. The gas/air mixture is ignited at the end
of the compression stroke by the pilot oil. The engine thus
works as an Otto-Cycle engine.
Emissions
Compared to HFO, LNG greatly reduces emissions to air (Table
1 Environmental Emissions). In terms of NOX emissions, the
four-stroke and two-stroke low pressure engines reduce these
emissions by 85% compared to HFO. While the high pressure
two-stroke engines still reduce NOX by 40% without exhaust
gas treatment. Particle emissions are reduced by 95% and
more. Because LNG does not contain sulphur, these emissions
 Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies DNV GL – Maritime 47

ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
Emission component Emission reduction with LNG as fuel Comments
SOX 100% Complies with ECA and global sulphur cap
NOx, Low pressure engines (Otto cycle) 85% Complies ECA 2016 Tier III regulations
NOx, High pressure engines (Diesel cycle) 40% Need EGR/SCR to comply with ECA 2016 Tier III regulations
CO2 25-30% Benefit for the EEDI requirement, no other regulations (yet)
Particulate matter 95-100% No regulations (yet)
Table 1

COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS FROM DIFFERENT FUELS

CO2 equivalent [g/MJ] (Tab 3, DNV-2012-0719) % CO2 (HFO=100 %)
Data from DNV No 2011-1449, Tank To Propeller
Well To Tank CO2 Total CO2 % Tank To
rev 1 (Tab 16 mainly); DNV NO CO2 emissions % Total
emissions (WTT) emissions Propeller (TTP)
2012-0719 (TTP)
Oil fuel (HFO) 9.80 77.70 87.50 100.00 100.00
Oil fuel (MGO) 12.70 74.40 87.10 99.54 95.75
LNG (from Qatar used in Europe) 10.70 69.50 80.20 91.66 89.45
LNG (from Qatar used in Qatar) 7.70 69.50 77.20 88.23 89.45

Table 2

are eliminated completely. All emissions to the atmosphere rel-
evant for human health and the so-called “black carbon” effect
on global warming are reduced significantly by burning natural
gas instead of HFO or MGO. As explained below, the effect on
CO2 emissions is also positive.
DNV GL evaluated the greenhouse gas emissions from produc-
tion to the tank of the ship (Well To Tank; WTT) and the emis-
sions from the combustion of the fuel (Tank To Propeller; TTP)
in two studies in 2012. Methane has a much higher greenhouse
warming potential than CO2. The Kyoto protocol gives Methane
a value that is 21 times the global warming potential (GWP) of
CO2. This means that an unburned methane molecule has 21
times the GWP of one molecule of CO2.
engine process, methane is mainly released as blow-by of the
cylinders into the crankcase, valve overlapping effects and
from incomplete combustion.
The DNV GL study assumed the methane slip for four-stroke
engines at 1.5% of the fuel. Taking this into account, the GWP
is still reduced by 8 to 12%, as can be seen in Table 2. The
greatest reduction in greenhouse emissions is reached by the
high pressure engines, which reduce the CO2 effect by 26%
compared to HFO. 

A comparison of emissions from different fuels indicates that

the WTT emissions for HFO, MGO and LNG are similar and
small compared to the TTP emissions (Table 2). For LNG, the
methane slip has been considered for WTT and TTP. In the
48 DNV GL – Maritime Assessment of selected alternative fuels and technologies
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