Chapter 4

EXTRUSION

T. M. B. SESSIONS
Wolfson Industrial Unit, University of Birmingham, UK

C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

BNF Metals Technology Centre, Wantage, UK

4.1. INTRODUCTION

Extrusion is the process in which material is forced by compression to

flow through a suitably shaped aperture in a die, usually to give a
product of a smaller but uniform cross-sectional area.
In most cases, the metal is in the form of a solid or hollow cylinder
and is moved in a containing tool in the direction in which the product
emerges from the die aperture (Fig. 4.1). However, there are some
variations on this such as indirect extrusion, backward can-extrusion,
tube extrusion and sideways (lateral, transverse) extrusion (Fig. 4.2).
The process can be carried out with the starting material at ambient
temperature, i.e. cold extrusion, or heated to a temperature which gives
optimum results for the conditions applying and the product require-
ments, i.e. hot or warm extrusion.
Generally the starting material is in the form of billets (or slugs)
which are sawn or cropped from bars, but again variations can be
encountered such as cast billets, prepressed and sintered powder metal
slugs, coils of wire such as are used in hydrostatic extrusion or Conform,
canned powder metal or particulate (granular) metals.
The shape of the extruded metal can be solid or hollow, round or
section, or solid ended cans. In the case of comparatively short lengths,
stepped shafts can be produced. Generally, the more complicated forms
require more design experience and knowledge and very often more
intricate manufacturing procedures.

113
T. Z. Blazynski (ed.), Design of Tools for Deformation Processes
© Elsevier Applied Science Publishers LTD 1986
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FIG. 4.1 Direct extrusion. FIG. 4.2 Indirect extrusion. o
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 EXTRUSION 115

The term 'impact extrusion' is often used particularly in the context

of cold extrusion. The normal use of the expression is for the can
extrusion of aluminium components under mass production con-
ditions at a high reduction of area. Although there is no true impact of
tools on workpiece, the term came about because of the high speed at
which the metal flows during contact with the moving tool.
Of all the extrusion processes, only Conform can be considered as
continuous; all the other methods result in a finite length of extruded
metal. However, these finite lengths can range from a few millimetres
up to many metres depending on the dimensions of the starting billet
and the reduction of area defined by the die aperture.
Most metals can be extruded in one way or another, but obviously
some more easily than others. The common metals tha t can be extruded
at ambient temperatures are lead, aluminium, copper, low carbon steels
and a few alloys of these metals. The softer semi-precious metals can
also be extruded cold if required.

4.2. DESIGN OF TOOLS FOR HOT EXTRUSION

Traditionally, in hot extrusion a billet of metal is forced through a

shaped hole at one end of a container by the action of a ram pressing
from the other end. The container bore is of uniform cross-section and
the ratio of its area to that of the product is known as the extrusion ratio.
In the most common form of the process, direct extrusion (Fig. 4.3( a)),
the ram moves through the bore of the container, the die being clamped
rigidly against the end of the container. The extrudate exits in the same
direction as the ram moves.
In indirect extrusion (Fig. 4.3(b)), the die is fitted on to the ram which
is forced against the billet held in a container closed at the far end. In
this case the extrudate leaves the die through the hollow ram. Although
the container bore is normally round it may also be rectangular to
permit extrusion of very wide products.
As an alternative to generating the required extrusion pressure by the
direct action of the ram against the billet end, it is possible to transmit
the pressure via a fluid medium to the billet. This is known as hydro-
static extrusion, but here 'hot' extrusion is limited to temperatures at
which a stable fluid can be found.
In direct extrusion, a dummy block is generally interposed between
the hot billet and the ram end to minimise damage to the ram - the
116 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

(h)

FIG.4.3 Hot extrusion. (a) Direct extrusion: (I) container, (2) billet, (3) dummy
block, (4) die, (5) backer, (6) bolster, (7) die holder, (8) ram. (b) Indirect extrusion:
(1) container, (2) billet, (3) gag block, (4) die, (5) hollow ram.

dummy block being a cheap, easily replaceable item. For extrusion of

hollow sections or tubes the ram carries a mandrel, which serves to form
the inner surface of a hollow extrusion and which on some presses may
be driven independently of the main ram to permit piercing of solid
billets.l
The main tooling components for the hot extrusion process are
therefore the container, the die assembly, the dummy block and the
mandrel.
The container is the most expensive component and the design of
the compound containers used today is properly left to the press or
container manufacturer. 2 In use the container has to withstand high
 EXTRUSION 117

cyclical, mechanical and thermal stresses and excessive thermal shocks.

Prolonged exposure to high temperatures such as caused by 'sticking'
billets should be avoided. Extrusion dies therefore should be designed
in such a way that the extrusion pressures required are within the
capability of the press and sticking billets do not occur.
The requirements on tools vary widely, depending on the extrusion
temperature, pressure, extruded material and type of product, and the
materials of construction of the tooling. To give an idea of this variety
Table 4.1 lists some common parameters of industrial production for
sections. This fragmentary list is clearly not definitive and is only
intended to indicate the types of problems met with in tooling design
and construction.
Two important factors emerge from the table:
- Minimum extrusion ratios less than 10 are seldom met except for
forging feedstock. The theoretical approaches to die design should
reflect this fact.
- Where industry can use a flat die it does so. Only where the tem-
perature of extrusion is so high as to create a gross instability of the
die to creep or plastic collapse, are dies bell-mouthed or entry-
profiled. Economic strictures limit what is practical.
Details of tool design and manufacture of the various components in
extrusion tooling are influenced by both economic and technical
factors, which are often dependent upon how critical the particular
component is in ensuring the production of a saleable product.

4.2.1. Mandrel
In common with the extrusion die the mandrel is subjected to the
maximum high temperature wear through contact with the material
being extruded or with hot glass lubricant. Softening of the mandrel can
readily result in its bending during extrusion with losses in productivity
and yield, due to poor extrusion shape, in the replacement tooling costs.
Tensile failure of a mandrel, which during extrusion is stationary with
respect to the die, limits productivity by limiting billet length.

4.2.2. Dummy Blocks

The economic significance of good design and operation of dummy
blocks is probably underrated. This humble component can significantly
affect the yield of good extruded metal, as instanced by the recent
developments in 'no butt' aluminium extrusion. 3 It also significantly
 00
-
TABLE 4.1
COMMON PARAMETERS OF INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION FOR SECTIONS

Metal extruded TOC Extrusion ratios Die materials Notes ~

~
Aluminium 400-500 10-400 H13 steel Flat dies, hollows using bridge, ~
(soft architectural (630 for indirect spider, porthole types; highly v.>
t"I1
alloys) extrusion) complex shapes v.>
v.>
alf3 Brass 650-750 10-400 HlOA, H21 Flat dies, hollows using mandrels; (5
Z
(600 for indirect steels, complex shapes Y'
rod extrusion) stellites and ("1
cobalt-based 0
alloys '"1:1
c:::
Copper 750-950 10-250 Nimonic 90; other Flat dies, hollows using mandrels; ~
Z
nickel-based alloys simpler shapes t"I1
t""'
t""'
Steels 1000-1300 10-25 H13, H21 steels,
cast dies used; ~
TZM molybdenum 0
Extrusion ratios apply to sections,
alloy not tubes; profiled or bell-mouthed ?:l
("1
Nickel alloys 1050-1200 7-50 Nimonic 90 dies essential for Ugine-Sejoumet "-
process; hollows using mandrels; 0
Titanium alloys 850-1150 9-100 Hot-work steels Z
simple shapes t"I1
v.>
coated with
refractory oxides
 EXTRUSION 119

affects the incidence of extrusion defect, and ranks second only to the
extrusion die itself in terms of numbers of components used.

4.2.3. Die Stack

In addition to the die plate which forms the extruded shape, other
components of a die assembly include the backing die, which gives
support to the die plate to allow clear passage of the extrusion, but has a
less detailed cross-section than the die plate. In the case of heavy metal
extrusion there may be economy in holding only a limited range of
backing dies, each applicable to more than one extrusion die, for simple
shapes. For aluminium extrusion, however, and for more complex
heavy metal extruded shapes, the close support needed by the die
probably necessitates a backing die for each extrusion die.
The backing die is usually supported by a yet more massive bolster.
The orifice to this is again less detailed and economies in numbers of
such components can be effected.
The most critical area economically is in the die construction itself,
bearing in mind that an extrusion plant may well hold a die store of
some tens of thousands of dies for different sections.
In aluminium extrusion, for example, many of the necessary machin-
ing operations can be carried out conventionally, by turning or milling,
but these operations are best done on a soft die blank. Cutting of the
prismatic orifice defining the extrusion shape should, however, only be
done on the die blank after hardening and tempering, to avoid distor-
tion of the die orifice during quenching. It is thus not surprising that
non-conventional machining such as electro-discharge machining
(EDM) has found its way to a central position in die-making.
For heavy metal extrusion performed at higher temperatures a more
refractory die insert is often used. These materials are often difficult to
machine conventionally and it was in this area that the CNC controlled
continuous wire EDM machine was first used for the routine machining
of die orifices (c. 1970). The positional accuracy of this technique
(presently < 2 .um possible), and the lack of the shape problems
inherent in the wear of the male electrode in die-sinking with a solid
electrode, were initially offset by the low cutting rates (< 20 mm2 min -I).
However, by 1977-8 the introduction of more sophisticated pulse
generators (e.g. Charmilles Isopulse) had raised the cutting speeds
significantly to make wire EDM economic for the production of extru-
sion dies for complex aluminium alloy profiles. Further developments,
e.g. the introduction of 'fast-cut' wire,4 5-axis control of taper angles of
120 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

up to 30°, and increase in cutting speeds (up to 140 mm2 min-I) now
make wire EDM indispensible.
These improvements in the precision to which dies can be manu-
factured have led to the production of increasingly complex extrusion
profiles, with more emphasis now being given to proper die design
practices. This subject forms the bulk of the following sections.

4.3. INDUSTRIAL PRACTICE IN TOOL DESIGN

4.3.1. Mandrels
Mandrel design and usage is influenced by the capability of the par-
ticular extrusion press. This may variously have limited or no movement
of the mandrel independent of the main ram, free movement of the
mandrel imposing loads of 2-3% of the total press capability or, for
piercing of solid billets, free movement of the mandrel with loads of up
to 20% of press capability.
Since bridge or porthole dies are readily usable for aluminium alloys,
mandrels are used only for high integrity seamless tubular products. s
Where the mandrel moves forward with the extrusion ram the tensile
loads on it are low, permitting the use of small cross-sections. The
stationary mandrel, however, sees much higher stresses, related to the
billet length, and restricting usage to large diameters. Mandrels for
aluminium alloys are not normally cooled, because of the low working
temperatures, but the possibilities for cooling tubes in strong alloys have
been explored. 6
In the case of brass extrusion, for sections with small hollows it is
obviously advantageous to have the mandrel move with the ram, but in
such cases cooling of the mandrel is not possible. When using small
mandrels, which are easily deflected, for example in the extrusion of
sections with asymmetric hollows, the brass extruder may allow a
follower section to be extruded simultaneously with the aim ofbalanc-
ing metal flow.7 For larger hollows and for controlling the variation in
their size, in the extruded product, an internally water-cooled stationary
mandrel may be used. Cooling is least effective at the nib end and inter-
changeable mandrel tips in the heat resisting alloy, e.g. stellite, find
common use.
The various functions of a mandrel are best highlighted for copper
tube extrusion. In one examples the mandrel:
 EXTRUSION 121

(1) Pierces the billet using a detachable oversize nose which, being a
slide fit into the extrusion die, corrects piercing eccentricity;
(2) Is water-cooled during extrusion at a rate and for a duration in
each cycle to control temperature without excessively chilling the
billet;
(3) Severs the extrusion at the end of the press stroke by shearing
at the die orifice.

4.3.2. Dummy Blocks

In common with the die, the container, and mandrel when used, the
dummy block sees the highest temperatures through its contact with
extruded metal. For heavy metal extrusion the members of this com-
ponent rank second only to the dies, because of plastic deformation of
the blocks above the softening temperature of the steel used.
Most dummy blocks are turned from plain cylinders with a thickness
of 0'5-0·75 of their diameter. The overall diameter of the dummy block
depends on whether extrusion is intended with or without a skull. In
aluminium extrusion the dummy block leading edge diameter may be
0·5 mm smaller than that of the container, whereas to obtain a good
complete skull in brass extrusion the difference between container and
dummy block diameters would not be less than 1 mm.
In heavy metal extrusion the dummy block is usually ejected from the
press with the extrusion discard at the end of each cycle to permit
cooling and to avoid wasting press time. Any skull is then cleared by
passing a larger diameter cleaning pad through the container.
In aluminium extrusion the dummy block may be of the 'combina-
tion' type, one block simultaneously pushing the billet but with a
sligh tly larger diameter trailing edge cleaning the detritus left behind on
the container bore. 9 A desire to increase productivity by billet-to-billet
extrusion has led to the use of dummy blocks fixed to the ram, and
having some means of preventing air entrapment between the back end
of the extruded billet and the front end of the next one. lO. II
Various attempts have been made in heavy metal extrusion to vary
the shape of the front face of the dummy block, to increase yield by
reducing the discard volume, and at the same time to influence the flow
pattern in the billet. In some cases these attempts have been combined
with shaping the extrusion die. 8 In one significant case I2 the use of
spherical dummy blocks was seen to reduce extrusion defect and
increase yield when compared with conventional dummy blocks. In
122 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

addition, the technique gave explanation of a particular type of defect

(waviness) seen during the latter part of extrusion of very wide thin
sections, by the way in which dummy blocks act on the dead metal zone.

4.3.3. Dies
Of all the tooling components the extrusion die is of paramount impor-
tance to the extrusion process, since its design defines the extruded
product as regards accuracy and consistency of shape and dimension of
the cross-section, and linearity and freedom from twisting of the
extruded length. The design must also take account of any tendency for
a part of the section not to 'fill' the die orifice, and also the variations
in dimensions implicit between front and back of one extruded length
and between successive extrusions. Thin ends oflimbs and thin parts of
a section adjacent to thicker parts will not 'fill' even at relatively slow
extrusion speeds unless the die design corrects this tendency.
Only for copper sections, which are subsequently heavily cold drawn,
is detailed consideration of this problem not so important. For all other
extruded metals the control of 'differential flow' is vital.
In general, solutions to the above problems have been developed
empirically, by trial-and-error methods, over decades, for basically flat
plate dies. Dies based on flat plates but with profiled or bell-mouthed
entry to the shape defining die orifice are only widely used for high
temperature shape extrusion, e.g. steel, nickel or titanium alloy.u

4.3.3.1. Die layout and container size

Experience gained by commercial extruders has, to a large extent,
defined which sections can be extruded under given conditions of
temperature and available press power.
Of the various expressions formulated to relate minimum extrudable
area to available press power, the following empirical form seems easily
usable
PIA = k (bIn (A/a) + c) (4.1)
where P is the press force, A is the cross-sectional area of the billet, a is
the extruded cross-sectional area and k, b, c are constants.
This form ignores the billet/container friction losses and any effect of
conicity of die entry. For relatively high extrusion ratios the expected
minimum in extrusion pressure for a flat die is confirmed,14 and except
for very large values of billet length to diameter ratio, in direct .extrusion
the above equation is adequate 15 for simple copper and brass sections. •
 EXTRUSION 123

For the more complex sections extruded in aluminium alloys, often

through multihole dies, the necessary pressure is clearly a function of
both section complexity, and the division of metal flows caused by a
multihole. 16
A combination of experience and the availability of these equations
permits the definition of the maximum extrusion ratio which is practic-
able for a given type of section extruded on a given press.
The circumscribing circle diameter (CCD) of a section is an important
parameter in deciding on the diameter of the die plate and of the extru-
sion container to be used. Too large a value of CCD causes problems due
to slow metal flow towards the periphery of the billet, and can also cause
a die fracture under load (Ref. 2, p. 323; Ref. 7, p. 162).
For a single hole die the circumscribing circle centre would normally
be placed at the die centre, although highly asymmetric sections are
sometimes displaced with a thick part of the shape out towards the edge
of the die. In extreme cases the extruder may even extrude with a
follower section (e.g. a round) on the other side of the die to balance
flowY
The orifices in multihole dies should be positioned so as to minimise
flow control problems. Where possible, sections should be positioned'
with their centres of gravity on the same diameter to equalise the exit
speeds of separate strands (compare Figs. 4.4(a) and (b».
Where a section includes a large tongue it can be of value to position
the orifices with their centres of gravity furthest from the die centre, to
overcome a tendency for the metal to extrude faster over the tops of
tongues. Thus the layout in Fig. 4.4(e) is preferred to that in Fig. 4.4(c).
The requirement for aluminium extrusions that one surface of the
product shows the best possible surface finish may, however, alter the
design to ensure that this surface does not touch the runout table during
extrusion (Fig. 4.4(d».

4.3.3.2. Design of the die orifice

4.3.3.2.1. Dimensional control. An extrusion dimension can be up to
3% smaller than the die orifice for reasons including effects of thermal
expansion and deflections of the die under load. Even for simple shapes
the differences between die orifice and the extrusion dimensions are
not totally accounted for by thermal expansion, and a 'shrinkage
allowance' must be determined for each extruded alloy, the form of
which is best decided for each alloy and extrusion temperature from
measurements on a wide variety of extruded sections and their dies,
124 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

a. W b. C

c. \~ d. C

e. C

FIG.4.4 Examples of die layout (w - wrong, c - correct).

taking into account elastic deflection and/or plastic collapse of the die
orifice and variations during extrusion of a series of billets.
In addition, parts of the die cross-section surrounded by the die
aperture on all but one side (die tongues or pegs), deflect or cantilever
under load with a closure of the orifice above the tongue (Fig. 4.5). The
product extrudes undersize and an allowance must be made for this
effect. The shapes of tongues can be quite complex, and the allowances
made will vary around the section. 18
The ratio of major to minor axis of a rectangle enclosing the extrusion
profile may be referred to as 'aspect ratio'. For wide sections of high
aspect ratio there is a further dimensional effect in that parts of the
sections towards the centre extrude thin due to a 'limb-cave' or 'die-
dishing' effect - another result of the deflection of the die plate under
load. Again, the die orifice must be corrected for this effect to produce an
 EXTRUSION 125

FIG. 4.5 Closure of die orifice caused by tongue deflection.

in-tolerance extrusion and, once again, the allowance must be varied

with position in the section. This latter effect, as with tongue deflection,
and for temperatures at which plastic collapse of the die is unimportant,
can be partly understood in terms of classical elasticity theory and,
inter alia. is a function of the ratio of die plate diameter to thickness.
However, with the relative dimensions of die plates varying not only
between factories but also on one press, it is best determined for com-
monly used die/toolstack configurations.
With increasing extrusion temperatures above (say) 500°C, the
plastic deformation or creep of the die orifice becomes important to die
design, since the orifice closes, particularly during the first extrusion
with a new die. At temperatures for extrusion of cupronickel, steel or
nickel based alloys, profiling or belling of the die entry is used to reduce
this effect, but extrusion of sections in copper and its alloys is commonly
done with flat faced dies.
The choice open to the die-maker is then to either design the orifice
so that the first billet extrudes oversize, with subsequent extrusions
being of approximately correct dimension, or to conduct ongoing
correction of the die back to size throughout its life.
The plastic collapse seems to occur more on thickness dimensions
than on widths, and, as might possibly be expected, the degree of
collapse varies with position in a shape. This plastic collapse puts a
lower limit on the extruded thickness, so that copper extrusions with
thickness less than 3 mm are not commonly produced.
At steel extrusion temperatures even a combination of glass lubricated
high velocity extrusion through belled or profiled tools cannot prevent
the hot work steel dies going out of tolerance even after one or two
extrusions. 19 The extensive correction work needed and the high rate of
usage of dies in this case creates a severe squeeze on die costs not seen in
other extrusion industries.
126 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

4.3.3.2.2. Flow control. The efficacy of flow control measures is judged

by the shape of the extrusion as it exits on to the runout table (Fig. 4.6).
More can be learned about the flow balance by looking at the extreme
front end of the extrusion than at any other part. An inherent part of
the production process is the trial of new dies, and the aims of die
designers should be to reduce any correction of a new die to the
minimum and to minimise the number of expensive and disruptive die
trials.

Aluminium alloys:
(1) Solid sections. The shape defining orifice of an extrusion die for
aluminium alloys is usually cut with a parallel land or bearing, and
control of metal flow is most simply achieved by variation of the length
of the bearing around the profile to allow for varying section thickness
and position in the die plate.
The lengths of bearings commonly vary between 2 and 10 mm, the
longest bearings being used for thick limbs of extrusions sited close to
the die centre. Occasionally the degree of flow control available by
varying the bearing length is insufficient, particularly at the ends of thin
limbs in a shape where the bearings have already been reduced to a
minimum. An additional technique of filing or grinding a shallow taper
on to the front face of the die around such regions can be used to assist
metal flow. However, this technique, like the 'speeding or checking'
techniques used by a die corrector,18 is not readily amenable to a

FIG.4.6 Examples of poor extrusion shape caused by flow imbalance.

 EXTRUSION 127

mathematical description, and additionally the removal of metal from

within the bearings can result in removal of the nitrided surface of the
tool with the attendant risk of premature wear of the die.
An alternative approach to flow control is made possible by numeri-
cally controlled taper cutting by wire erosion. The die corrector's
checking technique of slightly tapering the bearings can be incor-
porated into the original design. Variation in the angle included by the
die bearings (the cone angle) need only be of the order of 1-20 to
influence flow; however, qualitative experience of this technique is not
yet widespread. Inclined bearings can also be used to generate spiral
profiles?O
The degree of difficulty of producing an extruded aluminium section
is influenced by the geometry of its tongues. 21 As the ratio of tongue
length to tongue base (LID) increases, deflections also increase and
there is a tendency to specify the use of a prechamber die to reduce the
effect. This type of die has a milled chamber recessed into the die plate
in front of the die bearings, the shape of the chamber being an enlarged
and much simplified envelope of the extruded shape.
The milled prechamber die is most useful in reducing tongue deflec-
tion, both for small slender tongues and for very large angle sections.
For sections of widely varying thickness, such an approach permits the
use of a relatively conventional treatment of bearing length allocation,
where excessive deflections might otherwise render bearings ineffective.
In a variant of this type of die a separate feeder plate is used in front of
the main die plate, in which the enlarged envelope is milled completely
through the thickness. This type is particularly useful for sections wider
than the container diameter, since the feeder plate orifice, tapered at the
periphery, can be used to divert metal flow to the extremities of the
profile.
(2) Hollow sections. The introduction of welding chambers and
fixed mandrels in front of the shape defining orifice, as typified by
bridge, spider, and porthole dies, causes new control problems. In many
cases visual appearance of the extrusion, e.g. after anodising, is
important, and a common cause of rejects is coarse grain at the extru-
sion surface. The positioning of the weld lines around the section, the
bearing lengths (including the mandrel surface) and the formation of
large dead-metal zones in the ports and welding chamber all have an
effect. Attention to this problem is evidenced by the blending and
profiling of commercial dies in the weld chamber, but only recently
have techniques to identify regions of dead metal been attempted. 22
128 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

Die-makers currently make tools with little recourse to any formal

theory of metal flow. Successful practice is based on an empirical
approach but at the cost of many die trials with consequent loss of
productivity and yield.

a/{3 brass: Sections in brass tend to be of similar CCD but less com-
plexity than for aluminium alloys. Many high volume sections do,
however, contain large variations in metal thickness. The control of
differential flow is, for this reason, and also because of the variation of
extrusion speed with distance from the die centre, made more difficult
because of the higher extrusion temperature.
In the hot work die steels (H21, HlOA) as well as in stellites, the die
orifice is unstable, and control of flow by varying bearing length, whilst
practised, is unreliable, without continual correction of the die. The flow
of the first billet through a new die may be balanced, but the plastic
collapse ('wash in') renders control, by differential bearing length,
ineffective. Partly to minimise the effects of wash-in and partly to assist
flow, the front edges of the die orifice are lightly chamfered or radiused
(r ~ I mm) in contrast to the sharp edges of the aluminium die.
A technique for flow control which is less susceptible to plastic
collapse is that of a wedged entry (choke) oflarge cone angle (15-120°)
cut into the die front face around thick parts of a section. This is used
particularly for asymmetric 'block and blade' sections, where the choke
is cut into the block part of the section. Used on its own a choke may not
be the optimum solution, since flow is also controlled by the bearings, at
least during extrusion of the first billet with a new die. Once the die
bearings have 'washed-in', however, a choke is most effective in con-
trolling flow for successive billets. Moreover the technique offers the
advantage available by bearing control, that is that the choke geometry
can be defined merely from a knowledge of the shape and size of the
extrusion. 23
A combination of chokes, together with bearings varying in a rather
simpler fashion than for aluminium extrusion, can be used to solve
almost all flow control problems in brass extrusion, although occasion-
ally more expensive bell-mouthed dies may have to be used with sections
very wide compared to the container diameter, or because the extruded
section is the finished product and needs to be of accurate dimension.
Perhaps surprisingly, the tolerances expected on brass extrusions are
not much greater than for aluminium alloys, and a large proportion
of brass sections are given a final 'sizing' cold draw.
The extrusion of hollow sections in brass has generally involved the
 EXTRUSION 129

use of a mandrel attached to the main ram. Porthole dies seem to have
been little used to date.

Copper: Even when die inserts of Nimonic alloy are used the plastic
collapse problem is more severe than with brass extrusion. In addition
there is a reluctance to use flow control measures which involve any-
thing other than a sharp entry profile because of the possibility of oxide
entrapment leading to a 'double skin' defect on the extrusion.
Immediately after use dies are coated with a thick layer of copper oxide,
clearly showing the path of metal flow across the face of the die, often
involving rotational components about axes parallel to the billet axis.
The only real measure of controlling flow for copper section is
displacement of the orifice in the die plate so that tongues and thick
parts of the shape are positioned towards the 'slow flow' region.
Most copper sections are extensively cold drawn, the extrusion itself
being reduced almost to the status of a preform.

4.4. THEORETICAL APPROACHES AND LIMITATIONS

Early work,24 generally involved means of referencing the positions of

elements within the deforming billet using model materials, inert plugs
or indicators, or billets split longitudinally and marked by grids or
etched to reveal metal flow. These methods demonstrated different
categories of extrusion behaviour, varying according to the non-
uniformity of flow.
The flow was recognised to be related to friction conditions at the
interfaces between billet and tooling. A 'dead-metal zone' was seen to
form under almost all large reduction conditions (possibly with the
exception of hydrostatic extrusion and glass lubricated steel extrusion),
this zone being bounded by a zone of intense shearing, the extent of
which can vary from a small region immediately in front of the die
orifice to a diffuse zone running right from the back of the billet to the
die orifice, formed in the case of materials showing highly inhomo-
geneous flow.
Much attention has centred on the interpretation of the loads
required in extrusion as functions of reduction ratio and die cone
angle,25 the ratio of the billet length to diameter in terms of billet/
container friction,26 and temperature changes during the course of
extrusion.27
More recent theoretical approaches have attempted to address the
130 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

power or stress balances iri"steady-state extrusion using concepts of the

slipline field or the approximation of the upper bound?8 The difficulties
implicit in curvilinear elements have restricted application of the slip-
line field largely to plane strain situations though the axisymmetrical
case has been treated. 29 The intuitive prediction of streamlines isa
weakness of the upper bound approach.
It should be made clear that these approaches assume:
(i) Rigid, perfectly plastic, incompressible materials;
(ii) Materials unaffected by temperature increase due to adiabatic
deformation.
Tool boundaries are considered as frictionless or as having a constant
friction factor limited by the yield in shear. Any dead-metal zone is
treated as being of constant shape, the reduction ratios dealt with are
generally small and the initiation of extrusion (non-steady state) is
not treated. Nonetheless the treatment of Chen and Linto is very
instructive in indicating useful types of die profile and the interplay
between extrusion ratio and die length. AvitzUf has examined the case
of conical dies in some detai1.3!. 32 33
Visioplasticity techniques34 used to determine the ratios of homo-
geneous to total strains along flowlines in the extrusion oflongitudinally
gridded billets have allowed further insight into useful die profiles.
Essentially these techniques afforded a means of recognising a boundary
surface with a minimum velocity differential related to the billet
centreline. However, the work was limited to lubricated axisymmetric
extrusion through conical dies at low extrusion ratios.
An interesting approach, because it deals with the effects of die
profile on die stresses, and included results concerned with the initial
upset of a billet into the die orifice, was essayed by Unksov and Safarov.35
This approach, involving photoelasticity, seems to offer possibilities
of further development.
Blazynski36 has considered design concepts based on:
(a) Constant ratios of homogeneous strains of successive transverse
sections throughout a working pass;
(b) A constancy of the mean strain-rate referred to the pass physical
bounds. 36,37
All the above approaches have been restricted to the extrusion of
round rods or plane strain extrusion.
One approach that was used at the Battelle Institute stands out in
that it attempts to deal with the extrusion of sections.38.39 The basic
 EXTRUSION 131

assumptions in design of dies for T' sections seem to be:

(1) Plane sections perpendicular to the extrusion axis remain plane
throughout the extrusion.
(2) Redundant shear strain is ignored.
(3) Friction is assessed by assuming a friction shear factor m ( ~ 0,4).
(4) The shape change is accommodated for by assuming a neutral
axis in addition to a symmetry axis for the T' section, such that
sector elements of the billet about this axis can be uniquely
related by the overall extrusion ratio to segment elements of the
extrusion about the same neutral axis.
(5) The junctions between sectors and segments lie in planes
parallel to the extrusion axis.
(6) Their forms along the extrusion axis are represented by smooth
polynomial functions, fitted either to a desired die length or to
the minimisation of extrusion pressure.
This work produced straight extruded lengths of steel, titanium alloy
and 7075 aluminium alloy, although in the latter case it was clear that
deformation was nowhere near homogeneous. The same value for m
was used for all three extruded metals. The die friction contributed
about a third of the total extrusion load in lubricated extrusion of AISI
4340 steel at an extrusion ratio of 7: 1, with the predicted load being
only just smaller than that measured.
The machining of the dies was achieved by NC milling of EDM
electrodes, which would be costly in terms of dies for steel extrusion.

4.5. FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS

A great deal of work has been directed at the overall billet-to-extrusion

deformation process with useful indications as to longitudinal die
profile, extrusion limits40 and pressures. The fact remains, however, that
for the foreseeable future the bulk of hot extrusion of sections will
involve ram driven direct extrusion involving dead-metal zones. For
such extrusion conditions the theoretical approaches have little to say
concerning the other main extrusion problem, the control of exit speed
between different parts of a section. In this, experience suggests that if
the extreme front end of an extrusion exits correctly then the rest of the
extrusion will do so, with one notable exceptionY This latter effect is
probably related to a variation in the shape of the dead-metal zone
towards the end of extrusion.
132 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

Although visioplasticity techniques can be used to define a die profile

shaped for homogeneous extrusion, the question remains as to whether
material extruded through such a die would actually deform even
approximately homogeneously.
It is clear that rotational components of movement both perpen-
dicular and parallel to the extrusion axis occur in extrusions involving
dead-metal zones. 16.41 The establishment of a dead-metal zone resembles
cooperative phenomena (e.g. order/disorder reactions) in some aspects.
A dead-metal zone boundary being a region highly sheared under
relatively adiabatic conditions, a consequent reduction locally in shear
stress might favour its persistence even into the die bearing, and might
go some way to explaining the obstinately high m values found even
under so-called lubricated conditions. Such an interpretation might
assist in separating friction and deformation contributions to extrusion
load at the die,42 and hence permit a simpler means of modelling the
problem of flow control.
In this context, the overall extrusion pressure is relatively insensitive
to varying the exit speeds. 42.43 Thus this parameter seems oflittle value in
addressing the flow control problem. However, an examination of the
conditions (in terms of die geometry, and metal flow parameters)
leading to balanced extrusion of adjacent thick and thin parts of a
section could lead to a better understanding of the types of mathematical
models required and of the metal flow parameters in the vicinity of the
die orifice.
In the case of dies that must evidently be profiled or 'bell-mouthed'
the problem seems to be not so much one of defining the 'correct'
geometry (intuition figures even in upper bound treatments) but of
enabling the construction of such dies at low cost. The importance of
a versatile die construction method has been demonstrated in the extru-
sion of beryllium channel sections44 where die modifications were
facilitated by the Shaw casting process. Even this method would be
excessively expensive for dies for hot extrusion of steel. Processes
involving NC milling of EDM electrodes are probably too expensive
and are impeded by the need to generate polynomial cutting paths, on
machines designed to work on circular or linear paths.
Although the many theoretical treatments relating to flow during
extrusions have given valuable pointers to improvements in the design
of extrusion tooling and control of the process, the design of industrial
dies from theoretical bases is far from being a practical proposition.
The highly complex profiles now being produced, and the variation of
 EXTRUSION 133

temperatures and pressure across the die plate and through the course
of the extrusion, create major problems.
There is however increasing use of rational 'design rules' based
almost wholly on empirical principles. Improved computer graphics
routines and standard CAD/CAM packages enable profiles to be input
simply into a computer. Dimensional allowances can be applied
'automatically' and bearing lengths calculated in accordance with
empirical rules based on observation of the industrial process.45 . 46
Intelligent use of such design programs allows continued improvement
to the design routines and most importantly a consistency of design
practice. Design packages developed at BNF Metals Technology
Centre, and shown schematically in Fig. 4.;, exist which will output
instructions to operate CNC wire spark erosion machines such that a
properly dimensioned die is cut based on an input of the required extru-
sion size.
Bearing lengths and other flow control measures, although calculable,
cannot be cut automatically in quite the same way. Developments
here can be expected in the near future.

Die design
package

Punched
paper tape

Conventional
spark erosion
machine
Finished
die

FIG.4.7 Computer-aided design of extrusion dies.

134 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

4.6. CONFORM

Conform, as has been stated in the introduction, is the only commer-

cially available extrusion process which can claim to have the potential
for truly continuous extrusion. Other similar techniques have been
explored but none exploited to any worthwhile extent.47.48.49.50 The
process depends on the friction which naturally exists between a poorly
lubricated or unlubricated billet and its container during the movement
towards a stationary die. The frictional forces are large enough to
extrude the ingoing material through a die aperture. The effectiveness
of the grip is ensured by the fact that the stresses in the workpiece in
front of the die cause yielding and flow into intimate contact with the
contaminant parts over a certain length. This must be continuously
renewed, as otherwise extrusion will stop (Fig. 4.8).
Unlike conventional extrusion, the product can emerge either axially
or radially, the latter being useful when extruding complex sections or
products of high aspect ratio, or for practical reasons such as having the
product emerging in a horizontal plane when otherwise it would have
emerged vertically (Fig. 4.9). This latter occasion occurs when feeding
powder or granular material. The main components in the tooling are
the rotating wheel with a circumferential groove, a shoe which overlaps
a portion of the wheel surface and incorporates a grip segment, and an
abutment in which the die aperture may be situated, although it may be
in a separate segment between the two.
Very high extrusion ratios are possible (e.g. 250: 1), although the
normal ratio lies well below this figure, but in any case high pressures,
temperatures and compression stresses arise in the region of the die.
These could be as high as 1000 N mm- 2 and up to 500°C. This leads to
the requirement for high strength die materials with good wear and
temperature resistance, and good support and guidance for the feed-
stock.
Solid and tubular sections are possible and there are a number of
variations for die configurations, particularly for tubular products.
Using the special conditions of pressure at the abutment, the cross-
sectional area of the feedstock can be enlarged to produce an extruded
section which may have at least one dimension larger than the groove in
the wheel. Bridge or port-hole type dies can be used for tubular sections
without too many problems, although there is a need to ensure that the
pressure distribution at the die orifice has been equalised (Fig. 4.l0).
As the wheel groove surface undergoes both cyclic mechanical and
 Die

Alternative Shoe
prodlJct
outlets Grip segment

Shoe
Mi nill1Ul1i
opera t i ng
e 1 ea ranee

en
~
Contact ~
Vii dth 'x'
Wheel

Section X-X

Grooved
Vlheel
Feedstock

FIG. 4.8 Diagrammatic arrangement of conform extrusion machine. ...-

w
Vl
136 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

Particulate
feed

J!E~==~::1I Product

Groove root

Whee 1 face

FIG. 4.9 Conform machine arrangements.

FIG.4.10 Twin port tube die.

thermal stressing as it rotates through the extrusion zone, fatigue must

be a consideration. Generally, for normal aluminium and copper
extrusions and some of their alloys, high strength hot working tool steels
are employed, and the wheels are designed in two or three pieces, axially
prestressed by a hydraulic nut (Fig. 4.11).
To help overcome the heat build-up in the tooling because of the con-
tinuous nature of the process, a water cooling system must be employed.
In fact, heat is built up in the wheel, the shoe abutment and die, and also
in the product, so all three will normally require cooling.sl.s2.s3.s4
 EXTRUSION 137

Preload Preload

3 piece wheel 2 piece wheel

(fully radiused groove)

Rubber tube
Fluid
pressure

Shilll Hydraul ic
ga p nut

FIG. 4.11 Typical Conform shaft and wheel assembly.

4.7. COLD EXTRUSION OF STEEL

4.7.1. Nomenclature and Tool Assembly Drawings

There are four basic extrusion operations (shown in Fig. 4.12), namely,
forward rod-extrusion, can-extrusion, forward tube-extrusion and
open-die extrusion. The complete tool for can-extrusion is shown in Fig.
4.13; this can be used also for the other types, although a separate special
tool can be used for forward rod-extrusion (Fig. 4.14).55
138 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

4.7.2. Punches
The punch is the portion of the tool that forms the internal surface of the
workpiece in a can-extrusion, or that pushes the workpiece through a
die in rod, tube or open die extrusion.
In can extrusion the punch is highly stressed by compressive and
bending loading, and the same time subject to heavy wear and increases
in temperature at the punch nose. Compressive stresses of over
2200 N mm- 2 can occur and on the return stroke, tensile stresses are
encountered due to the stripping action.
In forward rod- and tube-extrusion the punch does not suffer much
from wear but the compressive stresses are similar to can extrusion
punches.
In open die-extrusion where the extrusion ratio is less than 15%,
the punch loads are of necessity comparatively low and there are no
wear and stress problems.

(a) (b) (l)

(d)

FIG.4.12 Basic extrusion operations: (a) backward can-extrusion, (b) forward

tube-extrusion, (c) forward rod-extrusion, (d) open die-extrusion.
 EXTRUSION 139

Pressure Pad
Punch
Stripping Plates
Product
Die Insert

Pressure Pad

Ejector

FIG. 4.13 Tool set for can-extrusion.

FIG.4.14 Tool set for forward rod-extrusion.

140 T. M. B. SESSIONS. C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

4.7.2.1. Punch stresses

The stress on the punch is equal to the punch load FE divided by the
cross-sectional area Ao. Due to buckling caused by eccentricity, the
allowable stress that can be used is reduced as the punch length to
diameter ratio increases (Fig. 4.15). In practical terms this means that
the higher the extrusion stresses, the more important it is to reduce
eccentricity and to keep the length/diameter ratio of the punch to a
minimum. When all else fails with normal tool steels, solid carbide
punches should be considered.

4.7.2.2. Design
Fig. 4.16 shows the various possible designs of punches and punch/
mandrel configurations for tube extrusion.
A point that needs great attention is that for can-extrusion punches
the axiom 'attention to detail' is all important, in that every aspect of
design, manufacture, assembly and treatment in service must be
considered, and methodically and carefully acted upon.
Fig. 4.17 shows the design details for a can-extrusion punch with
variations for the method of fixing and stripping. Stripping is necessary
for many automatic presses where an occasional workpiece sticks to the
punch rather than in the die with consequential damage to the
immediate and subsequent tooling.
The design of punches for rod-extrusion is comparatively simple
because punch pressures are lower than with can extrusion (normally
less than 2000 N mm- 2). The essential features are the close clearance
between punch and die bore to avoid burrs on the upper side of the
0
NZ)rm'
3000

2500 e/dp=O.Ol Forward Extrusion

2000 e/dp=O.O e = eccentricity

dp = punch diameter
1500 e/dp=O.l

Backwa rd Ex trus i on
1000
o = 3,000 N/mm'
500 EC = 225,000 N/mm'

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 l/d
FIG.4.15 Buckling limitations of steel punches.
 EXTRUSION 141

FiG.4.l6 Punch and punch/mandrel configurations: (I) punch nose, (2) stem,
(3) shank, (4) shoulder, (5) shankhead, (6) mandrel.

workpiece, and the necessity to avoid seizure between punch and die
because of the elastic radial expansion of the punch, for which a com-
promise must be made between the two features.
In tube-extrusion, there are three main types of punch/mandrel. The
first is an integral punch which is mainly used for thin-wall extrusions
or for short extrusions where the length/diameter ratio of the mandrel is
less than 1· 5: 1 (Fig. 4.16).
Fig. 4.18 shows the details, of which it is worth noting the slight taper
from d 1 (at the nose) to d of an included angle ofless than 10. This helps
to extract the tool from the workpiece. This is important because there
is no possibility of a stripper being used.
It is also important to ensure that the radius between the mandrel and
punch should be free from scratches or score marks as the stress concen-
trations are dangerous at this point.
The punch with inserted mandrels is shown in Fig. 4.19 with the fixed
mandrel details shown on the right hand side and the movable one on
the left. As with the integral mandrel, the working portion of the mandrel
should be slightly tapered to facilitate stripping, although it is possible
to design a special arrangement of stripper in conjunction with an
in-built subsidiary motion of the press.
142 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

The movable mandrel allows it to move in the direction of the

extruded tube, thus reducing the tensile stress in the mandrel. Inserted
Belleville type washers can be used to reduce the shock on the return
stroke.

4.7.2.3. Materials and manufacture

Materials are mainly considered in Chapter 7, but it is necessary to
stress the extreme importance of correct selection of materials and their
control, initial machining, heat treatment and finish machining.

Flatness important and TIR

d, 0.005 11111

d2 = d-(O.l to 0.2)11111
d, = 1. 3 d I =d ~

d, = 1.3 d to 1.5 d
L =0.3dtoO.7d Long type punch
L, = 3 d
L, = ~ d
L, = ! did, ~

2a = 170' to 160'
s = 4° to 5'
y = 15' to 30'

Short type punch

R = 0.05 to 0.10 d
R, = 0.3 (d, - d,)

Eccentricity TIR d d,
to d, < 0.01 11111 "

FIG. 4.17 Punch details for can-extrusion.

 EXTRUSION 143
flatness important
o j / a n d TJR < 0.005 mm

~ I ./
DESIGN DATA

-lI'
dj • d2 according to the
I preformed cup or tube
I
djmax = d - 0.01 Lj
\ I d 3 = d, + 0.5 mm
d4 = 1.2 d, to 1.4 d,
;; 11 hj ~ 1. 5 d
1--' h > penetration depth in die
I
d,
h3 = d 3
h4 ~ 0.5 d4
-------;-- Rj = 0.5 (d, - d)
;;
I R2 = according to final shape
y = 15' to 30'
~ I
Eccentricity T1R d j d2 d3 to
d3 < 0.01 mm
- Rl
~L
IF Without scratches transition
radll as large as posslble.

FIG.4.l8 Integral punch and mandrel.

flatness important
/ and TIR < 0.005 mm

Should ideally permit

mandrel to float
freely during extrusion
Transition radii as large as
possible without scratches

DESIGN DATA
and dj according to the
fina1 sha e of com onent
d accord i ng to the die bore
d. 1.3 d

hs <8 d
5' to 10'
~ = 15' to 30 0

6 = 5' to 15 0

FIG.4.19 Punch with inserted mandrel.

144 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

A few points worth noting are:

(a) Select only those suppliers who can guarantee the quality and
consistency of their material supply.
(b) Do not hardness-test highly stressed regions of the tool.
(c) Avoid heavy roughing cuts and deep sharp cuts.
(d) Allow for decarburisation and distortion from heat treatment.
(e) Use EDM only when grinding is very difficult or impossible.
(f) Avoid centre holes, so use extensions which can be subsequently
ground off.
(g) Blends at changes of section should be polished.

4.7.2.4. Operational aspects

It cannot be stressed too much that what happens to a tool in service is
important to the tool designer as well as the production staff and
operators. The immediate feedback to the designer of this information
means that modifications can be made and recorded, thereby prevent-
ing re-occurrence of the problems.
However well the tools are designed, it is always possible to improve
them, or reduce costs, as the performance of tools is dependent on so
many variables that it cannot be predicted entirely from the drawing
board.

4.7.2.5. The failure of punches and their causes

In general, trouble may occur in any or all of three forms, as follows:
Pickup and wear. Pickup (i.e. the welding together of slug material
and tool) will usually occur as a result of shortcomings in the surface
coating and lubrication of the slug, but may also arise if the tools have
an unsuitable geometry, a poor surface finish or too Iowa hardness. The
surface quality of the product will then deteriorate rapidly owing to the
appearance of scratches and score lines and the tool will soon become
so damaged that it cannot be reclaimed. Repolishing of tools is at best
usually only a temporary remedy, however, and the trouble should
therefore be corrected at source - for example, by attention to the
original surface condition of untreated slugs as influenced by the
annealing and cleaning procedure, prior to surface coating.
Some overall wear of tools is bound to occur, to a degree which is
mainly influenced by the number of components produced. Since the
extent to which wear can be tolerated depends on the length of run and
the dimensional accuracy and finish required in the components, the
 EXTRUSION 145

decision whether remedial action should be taken is dictated by the

economics of the situation. If a significant reduction in the rate of wear
is in fact sought, then the solution rests primarily with the tool material
and its heat treatment condition, or possibly with the use of hard-
surfacing procedures such as nitriding or other methods (Ref. 55,
Section 5, ICFG Document 4/82).

Plastic deformation. The problems arising under this heading consist

of permanent bending of punches or mandrels, and swelling of punches
or necking of mandrels.
Bending arises mostly from eccentricity in preformed slugs or poor
guidance of the tools in the press, and less frequently from non-uniform
lubrication.
Swelling and necking are basically the result of stresses in the tool
which are too high for the material to sustain elastically. These may
occur if the extrusion loading is too great (for example, from excessive
friction, deficiencies in slug material and slug preparation, or too high
an extrusion reduction) or because the tool material is unsuitable
(incorrect choice of material or heat treatment).
A point of interest is that new punches for can-extrusion are often
found to have upset by a few hundredths of a millimetre after some tens
of products have been made, and it is known that if the punch is then
re-ground to its original size the subsequent performance is enhanced.

Fracture. Since punches are usually made from materials which, in

the heat-treated condition, are of intrinsically low ductility, the amount
of plastic deformation that they can tolerate is severely limited. For
the same reason any features which have a local stress raising effect are
highly undesirable, whether arising from tool design, manufacturing
imperfections (for example, excessive grain size, grinding marks,
scratches, etc) or from the quality of the tool material (for example, poor
carbide distribution). A further point is that cold extrusion tools are
subjected to cyclic stressing, that is, they are in a fatigue situation, which
may intensify the bad effects of stress raisers and low ductility.
Fracture (usually most common in can-extrusion punches) is there-
fore always of a brittle rather than of a ductile nature, and manifests
itself in different ways and in different areas, according to the factors
giving rise to it:
(a) Chipping or flaking around the punch nose is probably due to
146 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

excessive brittleness arising from the wrong choice of material or

bad manufacturing procedure, but may also be attributable to an
unsuitable nose shape. If the product dimensions permit, an
increase in the nose radius and/or the included face angle may be
helpful; otherwise a lower punch hardness may be tried.
(b) Transverse fracture at the junction between shank and stem is
probably due to stress concentration at the change of section
arising from bad design or poor manufacture, and intensified by
fatigue conditions and sometimes by bending.
(c) Transverse fracture behind the punch nose may be caused in
some cases by local heating occurring in operation and by
improper blending between one diameter and another. There is
no clear indication of the best remedy, but better cooling and
lubrication during service in order to lower the temperature
level are worth considering.
(d) Longitudinal cracks terminating at the punch face can arise from
material defects such as carbide stringers or non-metallic
inclusions but may also be caused by poor grinding technique on
the face.
(e) Complete shattering, which is not often encountered, can have a
variety of causes, including incorrect heat treatment and gross
overloading arising from design shortcomings or mechanical
faults in the slug feeding arrangements. Negligence in tool setting
and in operation may also be responsible. Special attention
should be given to the training and motivation of operators, and
to the need to use rigid press machinery, especially when cemen-
ted carbide tools are being used. Adequate means of protecting
personnel against fragments arising from fracture should be
provided.
(f) Fracture of mandrels is usually caused by high frictional forces
which give rise to an excessive tensile stress in the mandrel. If the
choice of tool material and the manufacturing procedure are
thought to be satisfactory, attention must be directed towards
matters associated with lubrication technique. Fracture may also
result from bending caused by eccentric preforms.

4.7.2.6. Monitoring systems

Measurement and analysis of loading conditions in single and multi-
station machines is possible on a continuous basis and can be used to
prevent overloading of the tools.
 EXTRUSION 147

4.7.3. Dies
The die is the item of tooling that contains the workpiece and forms the
external shape of the product. Fig. 4.20 shows typical dies for rod-, tube-
and can-extrusions and the nomenclature.
Normally dies have to have at least one support (or stress) ring as the
internal pressures are high enough to cause axial or transverse cracking
due to tangential or triaxial stresses respectively. If the insert is carbide,
then another stress ring is probably required depending on the ratio of
Ld. (inside diameter) to overall o.d. (outside diameter).
The operating extrusion pressures depend mainly on:
(a) The flow stress of the workpiece material, which is affected by
strain, temperature and strain-rate;
(b) The type of process;
(c) The geometry of the die and slug or preform;
(d) Friction and lubrication.
Extrusion pressure cannot be exactly predicted due to the possibility of
variations in some of the above factors, particularly (a) and (d).

4.7.3.1. Design
Although there are analytical and numerical methods of solution, most

NOMENCLATURE
1 DIE
2 UPPER DIE
3 LOWER DIE
4 COUNTER PUNCH
5 STRESS RING
6 DIE BORE
7 DIE LEAD-IN RADIUS
8 DIE LEAD-IN ANGLE
9 SEALING TAPER
10 DIE SHOULDER ENTRY RADIUS
11 DIE SHOULDER
12 INCLUDED DIE ANGLE (2a)
13 DIE RADIUS
14 DIE LAND
15 DIE THROAT
16 DIE RELIEF RADIUS
17 DIE RELIEF
18 DIE RELIEF TAPER

FIG.4.20 Dies for: (a) rod and tube, (b) can.

148 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

of which are now capable of being put on microcomputers, many

designs use empirical methods especially where they are using standard
outside dimensions. Table 4.2 gives guiding values for dies with one and
two stress rings.
However, the analytical methods are important for the cases where
difficult extrusions are expected or known to produce failures. These
might arise from harder workpiece materials, complex shapes or restric-
tions on overall die dimensions.
The use of the ICFG nomograms in Document 5/82 55 helps with these
more detailed calculations and, if a computer is not available with a
relevant program, they are accurate enough for most occasions.
To obtain the pressures in backward and forward extrusion, the use of
the nomograms in ICFG Data Sheets55 1/70 and 2/70 is recommended
for normal conditions and Data Sheet 9/82 can be used for warm forg-
ing pressures.
Generally for both backward extrusion of can and forward extrusion
of rod, the bore of the die has a step. It is this step which causes many
dies to fail prematurely because of the high stress concentration where
the bigger diameter reduces to the smaller one. Some of the designs are
shown in Figs. 4.14 and 4.20.

4.7.3.2. Materials and manufacture

For high quantity production, especially on multi-stage machines,
carbides for dies and inserts are commonly used and, if properly
designed and not used for intricate (non-axisymmetric) shapes or for
too large a component, their performance can be predictable. It is
important to realise that the larger the volume of carbide used, the
greater the probability of failure. This is due to the fact that almost any
fault in a carbide tool, when it is stressed above a certain level in tension,
will give rise to a crack, no matter whether the volume of carbide is
TABLE 4.2
GUIDING VALUES FOR DIES WITH ONE OR TWO STRESS RINGS

Internal pressure Number of Required ratio Intennediate

Nmm- 2 stress rings of o.d. to i.d. diameter

Up to 1600 4:6 0·9 o.d. X i.d.

1600-2000 2 4:6 i.d. :d 1 d 2 : o.d.
1: 1·6-1,8:
2·5-3·2:4-6
 EXTRUSION 149

large or small. As a large volume of carbide will, statistically, have a

greater chance of a fault, the larger volume piece will fail more fre-
quently or at a low stress level. It is therefore important to design the die
assembly so that the carbide die or insert is always in compression.
During manufacture, the dies and stress rings must be assembled so
that the required interference fit is obtained. Because of the elastic con-
struction due to this interference, the bore of the die will become
smaller, so generally some more metal has to be ground or polished out.
One of the difficulties in designing cold extrusion dies for very close
tolerance work is combating the effects of die bore shrinkage due to the
interference fits, the dynamic nature of the die bore pressures during
extrusion and the elastic shrinkage of the product after ejection from the
tooling. If there is any doubt, it is worth remembering to make the bores
of the die too small, as taking metal out is always possible.
The remarks about materials and machining for punches are very
much the same for dies, with an additional point about the assembly of
the dies and stress rings. This should be done working from the outside
to the inside if more than one stress ring is used, remembering to correct,
if necessary, the bore of the inner stress ring to compensate for contrac-
tion after being forced into the outer ring. The most common way to
assemble the rings and dies is by pressing, using tapers of about 1 0 _20
included angles, but heating may also be advisable for the rings if the
interferences are over 4%. It is possible to assemble the parts just by
heating the outer ring only but in order to ensure that it does not stick
during this task, it is very easy to overheat, thereby tempering back the
metal to a lower hardness and a strength below that used in the design.

4.7.3.3. Operational aspects

It is possible to reuse the stress rings if the die or inserts become broken
or worn out, but some precautions are necessary. If, as often happens,
the bore of the inner stress ring has been subjected to a load which has
caused it to deform plastically by even a small amount, the diameter will
not only be different but is likely to be distorted. It will therefore have to
be reground, and the o.d. of the die made to fit this new dimension.
The important fact to remember is that it is difficult to standardise
dimensions prior to assembly if stress rings are reused and the matter
tends to be outside the control of the designer.

Strip wound dies. There are a number of occasions when die assem-
blies designed and made in a conventional manner are either not strong
150 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

enough to avoid premature fracture or are too large to manhandle in

and out of presses. 56
Strip wound dies can overcome these two problems and although
there are only a few commercial facilities available, the system is likely
to become more widespread when its advantages are realised and
exploited.
The strip winding principle and a typical configuration are shown in
Figs. 4.21 and 4.22. Because there is a constant equivalent stress
throughout the coil, much higher internal pressures can be tolerated,
compared to a shrink or press fit system where the equivalent stress is
maximum and probably plastic at the inside and only half the elastic
limit on the outside.
Internal pressures of over 3000 N mm -2 can be permitted at no extra
size increase than for a conventional die designed with an internal
pressure of 2000 N mm -2; or for an internal pressure of 2000 N mm -2,
the o.d. of the die assembly can be significantly reduced, resulting in a
much lower weight of die.
The strip coil can be unwound and reused several times so that in the
long term a number of savings are possible, notably fewer stress rings in
stock and less toolroom work due from the machining and assembly of
conventional dies and stress rings.

4.7.4. Other Tools

Once the die assemblies and punches have been designed there is little
else that needs special attention.
The counterpunch which forms the base of a can-extrusion is subject
to high compressive stresses and also has to eject the component.
However, it is not normally loaded quite as high as a punch and is only
subject to cracking if it has a complex form on its end face.
Ejectors for forward rod-extrusion can provide some problems if the

FIG. 4.21 The strip winding principle. FIG. 4.22 Strip wound die for back-
ward extrusion.
 EXTRUSION 151

extrusion is over 10: 1 (length to diameter) because it will be longer than

the extrusion by the amount of the die length and ifthe slenderness ratio
is too large, buckling can occur. In this event, a telescopic-type device
can be incorporated.
All pressure pads which support punches, dies and counter punches
need to have adequate thickness and hardness in order to spread the
load onto the softer platen material of the main ram or press
bolsters.

4.8. COLD EXTRUSION OF NON-FERROUS COMPONENTS

4.8.1. Introduction
Cold extruded non-ferrous components of comparatively short lengths
are characterised by good definition of shape, close dimensional
tolerances, excellent surface finish, low material wastage and finishing
costs, and superior mechanical properties.
Many shapes can be produced, ranging from round, cylindrical,
tubular or shaft like components, through to rectangular, oval and more
complex cross-sections, together with such longitudinal features as
splines, fins and spigots. In some cases it may be necessary or more
advantageous to have further forming operations on the primary extru-
sion, either because oflimitations orthe amount of deformation achiev-
able in one operation, to improve dimensional accuracy by reducing
tool loads or to carry out a bulging, necking or piercing operation.

4.8.2. Materials
In principle, the range of non-ferrous metals and alloys amenable to
cold extrusion is very large, but the number that are produced in com-
mercially significant quantities is, in fact, quite small.
Tin, lead and magnesium are easily extrudable, but show no benefits
from work hardening, and their products are little used.
A zinc/lead alloy is used in the production of dry battery cases but is
not so easy to extrude, and only has this one outlet.
The two most important metals and their alloys are aluminium and
copper, the former being by far the most important.
Aluminium can be divided into two main categories, non heat- .
treatable and heat-treatable alloys, the former including the non- :
alloyed grades. Copper and many of its alloys are readily amenable to
cold extrusion, but the loads tend to be generally higher than for
152 T. M. B. SESSIONS, C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

aluminium, and its use tends to be confined to applications where

superior thermal or electrical properties are paramount.

4.8.3. Tool Design

The design of tooling for most aluminium alloys and for copper and its
alloys follows very closely that for the cold extrusion of steel. However,
because of the lower flow stresses of these metals compared to steel,
higher reductions of area are possible and/or more intricate shapes can
be produced.
One point to be considered when designing the dies, particularly
for pure copper or aluminium when the punch loading is high and of
the same order as for steel extrusion, is that the internal pressure, Pb
used in the calculations for die assemblies, is equal to the punch pressure
Pp - (j fo (where (j fo is the flow stress) (Ref. 57, eqn. (3)), and is therefore
higher than for steel. Care must then be taken in ensuring that adequate
containment of the inner die is adopted. However, for internal pressures
below about 1000 N mm -2, no stress rings will be required providing the
ratio o.d. to i.d. is greater than 5 to 1.
For pure aluminium extrusions, the punch nose and die shoulder
entry radii can be much smaller than for other materials.

4.9. HYDROSTATIC, HERF AND OTHER

EXTRUSION TECHNIQUES

During the 1950s and 1960s, much effort was expended internationally
on both hydrostatic forming and high speed (high energy rate) forming,
HERF - most of it on extrusion. The research work gradually
diminished and by the early 1980s very little commercialisation had
occurred, especially in HERF.
In hydrostatic extrusion, the main emphasis on tool design is with the
container/die assembly (Fig. 4.23), where the container is basically a
pressure vessel which may have to withstand pressures of up to
3000 N mm- 2, although the more usual pressure would be under
1500 N mm- 2• In Pugh's Bulleid Memorial Lectures,57 various designs
of containers, dies and sealing devices are discussed, and the main con-
sideration is how the containers are constructed. These vary from
monobloc construction, to two or three piece stress ring assemblies and
to a liner with a segmented ring outside contained within another ring
which is supported by multiple layers of pre-tensioned wire wound
 EXTRUSION 153

round its periphery. Segmental rings are also used in another version of
the stressed ring construction, the segments being of a very high hard-
ness which if not segmented would break in the bore due to tensile
hoop stresses.
In HERF and other extrusion methods, in particular orbital type
forming where extrusion can be obtained, the tools will be similar to
ones for normal cold extrusion, with the exception of the punches in
orbital forming which are special to that technique (Fig. 4.24). One of
the major problems with the punch, particularly when warm/hot
working, is that the centre of the punch never leaves the workpiece and
therefore has a high rate of wear.

Pl unger

High pressure
conta iner

High pressure
f1 ui d

Bi llet

Die

Extrusion

FIG. 4.23 Hydrostatic extrusion container/die assembly.

Punch

Upset

Die

Extrusion

Ejector

FIG.4.24 Typical tooling arrangement for orbital forming.

154 T. M. B. SESSIONS. C. G. PURNELL AND R. C. JONES

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