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LIBRARY AND INFORMATIONSCIENCE REVIEWER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 Unit 1 - Laws and Practices Related to LibrarianshipUnit


 2 - Management: Theory and Practice for Library and Information ScienceUnit
 3 - Library Management Part 1: Academic LibrariesUnit
 4 - Library Management Part 2: Special LibrariesUnit
 5 - Library Management Part 3: School LibrariesUnit
 6 - Library Management Part 4: Public LibrariesUnit
 7 - Collection DevelopmentUnit
 8 - Cataloging and Classification Part 1Unit
 9 - Cataloging and Classification Part 2Unit
 10 - Cataloging and Classification Part 3Unit
 11 - Cataloging and Classification Part 4Unit
 12 - Reference and Information: Sources and ServicesUnit
 13 - Bibliographies and the Development of Books and LibrariesUnit
 14 - IndexingUnit
 15 - AbstractingUnit
 16 - IT for LIS Part 1: Computers and Data Resource ManagementUnit
 17 - IT for LIS Part 2: Internet and Networks

UNIT 1 - LAWS AND PRACTICES RELATED TOLIBRARIANSHIP

Chapter 1 - Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) - An Overview of ItsModernization


1.1 The New PRC Law - RA 89811.2 Composition of the PRC

Chapter 2 - The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship


2.1 RA 92462.2 RA 6966 vs. RA 92462.3 Objectives of RA 92462.4 Scope of the Practice of
Librarianship2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians2.6 RA 8047

Chapter 3 - Licensure Examination and Registration


3.1 History3.3 Scope of Examination3.2 Qualification of Applicants3.4 Rating in the Board
Examination3.5 Registration without Examination3.6 Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration
or Professional IdentificationCard3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of
Registration or Professional Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary / Special Permit3.8
Roster of Librarians

Chapter 4 - Practice of Librarianship


4.1 Illegal Practice of Librarianship4.2 Penal Provisions4.3 Integrated and Accredited National
Organization of Librarians4.4 Employment of Librarians4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program
for Librarians

Chapter 5 - Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship


5.1 ALA5.2 CONSAL5.3 PCCA and NCCA5.4 NCLIS5.5 PLAI5.6 Philippine Book Development

Chapter 1 - Professional Regulations Commission (PRC) - An Overview of Its Modernization


1.1 The New PRC Law - RA 8981Republic Act (RA) No. 8981, otherwise known as the PRC
Modernization Act of2000 was approved on December 5, 2000. It expressly repealed Republic Act
No.546, Presidential Decree (PD) No. 223 (which created the PRC), Presidential Decree No. 657,
Republic Act No. 5181, and Executive Order (EO) 226 (1995).The relevant features of the new PRC law
are as follows:
•seven (7)-year term of office of the PRC Commissioner without reappointment, and
•qualifications for the chairperson or commissioner
•must be at least forty (40) years old
•must hold a valid certificate of registration
•must have at least five (5) years of experience in executive or managerial functions.

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1.2 Composition of the PRC Presently, PRC is a three (3)-person commission headed by one full-time
chairperson and two (2) full-time commissioners. PRC is under the Office of the President. One of the
commissioners must be a past chairperson, or at least a member of a Professional Regulatory Board
(PRB) office. The following are the incumbent PRC officers :Chairperson: Dr. Alcestis Guiang
Commissioners: Avelina de laRea-Tan Leonor T. Rosero PRC presently regulates the Professional
Regulatory Board (PRB) offices of forty-two (42) professions excluding law. Through Executive Order
(EO) No. 496, s. 1991,PRC implements a uniform procedure for the selection of members of any
Professional Regulatory Board office. The PRC gives an award to outstanding professionals for the year.
This year's awardee for the PRC Award is Susima Gonzales. There is an association of the different
professional regulatory board sand its members, which is the Philippine Association of Board Examiners
(PABE).

Chapter 2 - The Latest Laws in Philippine Librarianship

2.1 RA 9246The latest law in Philippine librarianship is Republic Act (RA) No. 9246, an act modernizing
the practice of librarianship in the Philippines. It repealed the old RA6966. The complete title of this law
is stated as "An act regulating the practice of
3librarianship and prescribing the qualifications of librarians, appropriating funds therefore, and other
purposes. "RA 9246 shall be implemented by rules and regulations to be promulgated by the Philippine
Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians. This is already Res. 1, s. 2004 as Implementing Rules and
Regulations (IRR) for RA 9246 which is not yet effective due to publication requirements. The Code of
Ethics for Registered Librarians or Res. No. 2, s. 1992 regulates the ethical practice of librarians. RA
9246 was approved on February 19, 2004. It has taken into effect on March 16,2004.2.2 RA 6966 vs.
RA 9246The phrase "an act modernizing the practice of librarianship" is the key difference between the
old and the new law in Philippine librarianship.
Resolution (Res.) No. 1 of the Implementing Rules and Regulations (IRR) in Section(Sec.) 3 of RA
9246 defines the phrase as referring to as:
•application of computers and information technology in the practice of theprofession
•development of computer literacy among librarians
•adoption of new techniques and innovative methodologies in the deliveryof library services and
programs to target clients
•development of professional competence of librariansThe legislative history of RA 9246 is as follows:
•House Bill (HB) No. 5351 - passed on December 2, 2003
•Senate Bill (SB) No. 2579 - passed on December 16, 2003
•Signed into law by the President (RA 9246) - February 19, 2004
•Published in Manila Times - March 1, 2004
Published in official gazette - April 12, 2004
•Effectivity Date per EO 200, s. 1986 - March 16, 20042.3 Objectives of RA 9246RA 9246 shall govern
the following:
•Admission
•National examination for licensure
•Registration of librarians
•Issuance of Certificate of Registration and Professional Identification Card
•Regulation
•Supervision, control, and regulation of the practice of librarianship
•Integration
•Integration of librarians under one national organization
•Continuing Professional Education (CPE)
•Development of professional competence of librarians2.4 Scope of the Practice of
LibrarianshipLibrarianship shall deal with the performance of the librarian's functions, whichshall
include, but not be limited to the following:
•selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information
•cataloging and classification of sources of information
•creation of local database
•development of computer-assisted/backed information system
•establishment of library systems and procedures
•dissemination of information
•rendering of information, reference and research assistance
•archiving
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•education of users
•teaching, lecturing, and reviewing of library, archives, and informationscience subjects
•rendering of services in abstracting, indexing, cataloging, and classifying
•preparation of bibliographies, subject authority lists, thesauri, and unioncatalogs•
preparation, evaluation, and appraisal of plans, programs, and projects forthe establishment of library
and information centers
•determination of library requirements for space, buildings, structures, andfacilities
•provision of professional and consultancy services and advise on anyaspect of librarianship
•organization, conservation, preservation, and restoration of historical andcultural documents and other
intellectual properties2.5 The Professional Regulatory Board (PRB) for LibrariansThe Professional
Regulatory Board (PRB) for Librarians is the office tasked topromulgate the rules and regulations to
implement RA 9246. It is a three (3)-manboard composed of a chairperson and two (2) members,
appointed by thePresident of the Philippines from among the list of recommendees by the PRCfrom
among the list of nominees submitted by the accredited integrated nationalprofessional organizations
of librarians from among the librarians of recognizedstanding who qualify under Sec. 7 of RA 9246.To
become members of PRB for librarians, appointees at the time of theirappointment should/must be:
•a natural born citizen and resident of the Philippines
•of good reputation or moral character
•active in the practice of librarianship for at least ten (10) years, five (5)years of which is in a
managerial position
•must not be a member of the faculty of a university, college, school, orinstitution conferring the
academic degree of librarianship or offeringreview classes for librarian licensure examination nor a
person who has adirect/indirect pecuniary interest in any such institution
•must not be an incumbent officer of the accredited integrated nationalprofessional organization of
librariansRetired librarians can be members of the board if they are still active in the practiceof
librarianship. Furthermore, under RA 9246, age is no longer one of thequalifications of members of the
board. Under RA 6966, a librarian must be at least40 years of age at the time of appointment.The
chairperson and members of the board shall hold office for a term of three (3)years renewable for
another term of three (3) years but in no case shall the wholeterm exceed six (6) years. The members,
like in other regulatory boards areselected though the provision in Executive Order (EO) No. 496, s.
1991, whichinstituted procedures and criteria for the selection and the recommendation ofnominees for
appointment to vacant positions in the Professional RegulatoryBoard.The PRB for Librarians embody
their decisions and actions in the exercise of itspowers and functions through Board Resolutions. The
Implementing Rules andRegulations (IRR) of RA 9246 is the first PRB for Librarians Resolution issued
in2004. Incumbent members of PRB for Librarians are:
•Perla Garcia (Chairman)
•Cora Nera
•Elizabeth Peralejo2.6 RA 8047On June 7, 1995, RA 8047, the Book Publishing Development Act was
signed intolaw. The law is geared at promoting the growth and development of bookpublishing. It
envisions the promotion of book readership among Filipinos,particularly the young through book fairs,
exhibits, or programs which enhancesliteracy and good reading habits.

Chapter 3 - Licensure Examination and Registration


3.1 HistoryThe Board for Librarians of the Professional Regulations Commission (BFL-PRC)has
conducted twelve (12) licensure examinations since 1992. The first was held inManila on December 3
and 4, 1992. The forthcoming examination on November 3-4, 2005 will be the thirteenth (13th).3.2
Qualification of Applicants Applicants for licensure examination must meet the following
qualifications at thetime of filing of application:
•citizen of the Philippines, or foreign citizens whose country has reciprocitywith the Philippines
as regards the practice of librarianship
•good health and good moral character
•graduate of a Bachelor's Degree in Library Science and InformationScience or Master's Degree in
Library and Information Science
•within five (5) years from the effectivity of the law, graduate of thefollowing courses are also
qualified:
•Bachelor of Science in Education or Elementary Education
•Bachelor of Art with Major or Specialization in Library Science
•Master of Arts in Library Science and Library and Information Science
•any masters degree with concentration in Library Science
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•In RA 6966, an age qualification of at least 20 years of age is stated.3.3 Scope of ExaminationThe
licensure examination for librarianship shall consist of the following subjects(with their corresponding
relative weights determined by PRB for Librarianspursuant to Res. 1 of the IRR):
•selection and acquisition of multimedia sources of information (15%)
•cataloging and classification (20%)
•indexing and abstracting (15%)
•reference, bibliography, and information services (20%)
•organization, management, development, and maintenance ofmultimedia-based library and
information services, laws, trends, andpractices affecting the profession (20%)
•information technology (10%)3.4 Rating in the Board ExaminationTo pass the licensure examination,
an examinee must obtain a weighted generalaverage (WGA) of 75% with no grade lower than 50% in
any subject.In RA 6966, there is no grade requirement in its provision, instead it was providedin its
IRR - WGA of 75% and a disqualifier of below 60%. Further, the new lawdeleted the provision on
repeaters under RA 6966, which was 3 to 4 times.The percentage distribution of the licensure
examination is indicated in the IRR ofRA 9246. On the other hand, the weighted general average of
passing grades forcandidates for professional librarians is indicated in RA 9246 itself.

53.5 Registration Without ExaminationSec. 19 of RA 9246 which state that "upon application and
payment of the requiredfees, certificates of registration will be issued without the necessity of
licensureexamination to qualified applicants," is a grandfather clause. A grandfather clauseis a
provision in a new law or regulation exempting those already in or part of theexisting system which is
being regulated.The Board shall issue a Certificate of Registration and Professional IdentificationCard
without examination to an applicant who, on the date of effectivity of RA6966, is:
•a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree anda librarian or supervising
librarian eligible;
•a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree,eighteen (18) units of library
science, five (5) years experience inlibrarianship, and a first grade eligible or its equivalent;
•a practicing librarian who has completed a masteral degree in LibraryScience or Library and
Information Science, and a first grade eligible or itsequivalent; or,
•a practicing librarian who has completed at least a bachelor's degree,eighteen (18) units of library
science, and seven (7) years experience inlibrarianship.Qualification must have been present on
December 5, 1990 (effectivity date of RA6966). Application to avail of this section is three years from
the effectivity of thislaw on March 16, 2004. The first three are also those qualified under RA 6966,
andthe fourth are those who were left out under RA 6966 because they are not civilservice eligible.3.6
Refusal of Issuance of Certificate of Registration or Professional IdentificationCardThe Board shall not
register any successful examinee or any applicant forregistration without examination if he/she
•has been convicted by a court of competent justification of any criminaloffense involving moral
turpitude
•has been found guilty of immoral or dishonorable conduct afterinvestigation by the Board
•has been declared to be of unsound mind.3.7 Revocation and Suspension of Issuance of Certificate of
Registration orProfessional Identification Card, or Cancellation of Temporary / Special PermitThe Board
has the power, after due notice and hearing, to revoke or suspend theCertificate of Registration, or
cancel a temporary or special permit of any librarianon any of the following grounds:
•on grounds per Sec. 22 of RA 9246 (See 3.5)
•unprofessional or dishonest conduct
•malpractice
•incompetence
•serious ignorance or negligence in the practice of librarianship
•fraud
•deceit or falsification in obtaining a Certificate of Registration,Professional Identification Card, or
Temporary or Special Permit
•abetment of illegal practice of allowing illegal use of his/her Certificate ofRegistration, Professional
Identification Card, or Temporary/SpecialPermit practice of profession during the period of suspension
•any violation of RA 9246, IRR, Code of Ethics, Code of TechnicalStandard for Librarians, or Board
policies.3.8 Roster of LibrariansThe Board and the Integrated and Accredited National Organizations of
Librariansshall maintain a roster which is
•up-to-date
•complete
•properly organized
•arranged alphabetically by surnames with addresses and license numbers
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•arranged numerically by license numbers.Copies of the roster shall be provided as permanent record
to The National Library(TNL), Civil Service Commission (CSC), and the Accredited Integrated
NationalOrganizations of Librarians. To date, there are 4,120 licensed librarians throughoutthe
Philippines.

Chapter 4 - Practice of Librarianship


4.1 Illegal Practice of LibrarianshipIllegal practice of librarianship occurs when a person practices or
offers to practicelibrarianship, or assume any position which involve performing the scope orfunction
provided in Sec. 5 of RA 9246 and does not have a valid Certificate ofRegistration, Professional
Identification Card, or Temporary/Special Permit fromthe Commission. As stated in Sec. 29 of RA
9246, librarians registered under RA6966 are automatically registered under the new law.The following
are required to be indicated in the yet to be determined document inconnection with the practice of
librarianship:
•Certificate of Registration No.
•Professional Identification Card No.
•Professional Tax Receipt No.

6Ethical practices of librarians are governed by Resolution No. 2, s. 1992 of PRCBoard for Librarians
(Code of Ethics for Registered Librarians). The Preamble of theCode gives the entire philosophy of the
library profession. However, educating thereaders is not included in the Preamble regarding the
services of librarians throughbooks to people.4.2 Penal ProvisionsIllegal practice of librarianship and
other related offences shall be penalized by
•fine not more than thirty thousand pesos (Php30,000) nor more than onehundred thousand
(Php100,000), or
•Imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than three (3)years.
•Note: In RA 6966,
•fine not more than five hundred pesos (Php500) nor more than twothousand (Php2,000), or
•imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than two (2)years.4.3 Integrated and
Accredited National Organization of Librarians All registered librarians shall be integrated under a
single organization recognizedand accredited by the Board and approved by the Commission. A
librarianregistered and duly licensed by the Board and the Commission automaticallybecomes a
member of this organization. Membership in the organization shall notbe a bar to membership in any
other association of librarians.The Philippine Federation of Professional Associations is an association
ofaccredited professional organization of PRC with its own officers. There are fourgroups of associations
of accredited professional organizations - (1) medical andhealth group, (2) engineering and technology
group, (3) business management andrelated group, and (4) maritime and seafarers group. The library
profession fallsunder the business management and related group.4.4 Employment of LibrariansOnly
registered and qualified librarians shall be employed in all governmentlibraries. This requirement must
be complied with by local government unitsbeginning February 19, 2004 until three (3)
years thereafter or February 19, 2007.Librarians employed in the government are considered to be
burdened with theirproperty accountability for books in their profession. This is not true with
librariansin the private sector.4.5 Continuing Professional Education Program for LibrariansContinuing
Professional Education Program (CPE) refers to the inculcation,assimilation, and acquisition of
knowledge, skills, proficiency, and ethical andmoral values after the initial registration of a professional
that raise and enhancethe professional's technical skills and competence.

Chapter 5 - Various Organizations and Celebrations Related to Librarianship


5.1 ALAThe American Library Association (ALA), is the oldest and largest libraryassociation in the
world, founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in 1876, andcomprising mainly librarians, library
trustees, and people and organizationsinterested in the improvement of library and information
services and theprofession of librarianship. The objectives of the association include
promotingprofessional library training, improving library service, encouraging the use ofbooks and
libraries, and protecting intellectual freedom and public access
toinformation. Activities of the ALA include conferring awards for distinguished service inlibrarianship,
administering awards for outstanding literature and other media,publishing books and periodicals
relating to the library field, and sponsoringNational Library Week in the US every year in April. The ALA
also establisheseducational standards for librarianship and accredits graduate library schools.
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Theactivities of the ALA are carried out by various divisions, each of which isconcerned with a particular
phase of library work. The Association for LibraryService to Children is one such division.The ALA has
contributed considerably to the evolution of the modern librarymovement. Throughout its early years it
advocated public access to librarycollections; circulation of books for home reading; extension of
library services torural areas; and municipal, state, and federal aid to libraries. In 1939 the
ALAadopted the Library Bill of Rights, endorsing the right of libraries and readers tofreedom of choice
in reading materials.The publications of the ALA include
•American Libraries, the association's monthly membership magazine
•Booklist, a guide to printed and non-printed materials
•Choice, a guide for college libraries
•Book Links: Connecting Books, Libraries, and Classrooms, a magazine forparents and educators of

children.The ALA has about 57,000 members worldwide; its headquarters is in Chicago,Illinois.
75.2 CONSALThe Congress of Southeast Asian Librarians (CONSAL) was formed in August1970.
CONSAL convenes a general conference at least once in three (3) years ineach member country by
rotation. In 2006, CONSAL XIII will be held in Manila.Likewise, CONSAL II and VII were held in the
Philippines.The following are the present members of CONSAL:
•Brunei
•Indonesia
•Laos
•Myanmar
•Malaysia
•Philippines
•Singapore
•Thailand
•Vietnam
•Cambodia
5.3 PCCA and NCCAThe Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts (PCCA) was created byExecutive
Order (EO) No. 118, s. 1987. It was mandated to promulgate andmaintain the national policy, support,
and dissemination of frameworks for cultureand the arts.By virtue of RA 7356, this Commission has its
successor-in-interest - the NationalCommission for Culture and Arts (NCCA). It now formulates policies
for thedevelopment of culture and arts and implements these policies in coordination withaffiliated
cultural agencies.5.4 NCLISThe National Commission on Libraries and Information Services (NCLIS) is
acommittee under the Sub-Commission on Cultural Heritage of the NCCA which istasked to formulate
policies for the development of culture and arts by libraries,librarians, and library educators.The
incumbent officers of NCLIS are the following:
•Head: Dr. Ofelia Carague
•Vice Head: Thelma Kim
•Secretary: Milagros Ong
•Asst. Secretary: Dr. Marianita Dablio
•Members:
oClaudette Albano
oArabella Ananoria
oRosemarie Ante
oCynthia Dagus
oDr. Wilma Medrano
oRebecca Napiere
oRosario Ruiz
oLourdes Soriano
oIluminada Yap
oRepresentatives from TNL and PLAI5.5 PLAIOn October 23, 1923, the Philippine Librarians'
Association, Inc. (PLAI) wasestablished. PLAI has a National Board of Trustees elected by the House
ofDelegates. Its officers may serve for not more than three terms. The PLAISecretariat on the other
hand, is responsible in providing administrative andtechnical support to the organization, headed by an
Executive Officer.There are two (2) big annual celebration of PLAI mandated:
•Proclamation No. 109, s. 1936 designated the period from November 24-30 each year as National
Book Week.
•Proclamation No. 837, s. 1931 declared the month of November 1991 andevery year thereafter as
"Library and Information Services
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Month." Agencies tasked to spearhead this celebration are The National Libraryand the National
Committee on Library and Information Services (NCLIS)of the National commission on Culture and Arts
(NCCA).5.6 Philippine Book Development MonthIn 1997 and 1998, Proclamation Nos. 1014 and 1222
respectively, were issued todeclare the month of June in 1997 and 1998 as the Philippine Book
DevelopmentMonth. But on June 25, 1999, Proclamation No. 120 was issued declaring themonth of
June 1999 and every year thereafter as the Philippine Book DevelopmentMonth.The intention of this is
to conduct an annual national celebration to focus nationalattention on the contribution of books in the
economic and social growth of thecountry. During this period, the National Book Development Board
(establishedpursuant to RA 8047) is tasked to adopt measures and implement activities.

UNIT 2 - MANAGEMENT: THEORY ANDPRACTICE FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATIONSCIENCE


Chapter 6 - Defining Management

6.1 What is Management?6.2 Management - Art or Science?


Chapter 7 - The Development of Management Thought
7.1 Introduction to Management Thought7.2 Scientific Management Movement7.3 Classical
Movement7.4 Human Relations School7.5 Systems Approach
Chapter 8 - Management - Skills and Levels
8.1 Managerial Skills8.2 Managerial Levels
Chapter 9 - The Management Functions
9.1 Planning9.2 Organizing9.3 Staffing9.4 Directing9.5 Controlling9.6 Marketing
Chapter 6 - Defining Management
6.1 What is Management?Management has several meanings depending on context and purpose.
•As a discipline, it is a learning field much like education, medicine, law,and so on.
•As a profession, it is a career pursued though a long period of study.
•As a group of people, it is the group that directs the operations of anorganization.
•As a process, it is considered as the fundamental integrating activityaimed at achieving pre-
determined goals.
•Management is basically the activity of directing the work of people in thefulfillment of organizational
goals, or simply getting things done throughothers.
•Management is a crucial tool in facilitating and directing the work of agroup of people to achieve pre-
determined organizational goals. It isessential in utilizing scarce resources to accomplish maximum
output.6.2 Management - Art or Science?Management is both an art and a science.
•As an art, it brings ends and means together. Skills are basically requiredin this sense. This can be
found in the task of communicating, leadership,and goal-setting.
•As a science, management is subject to observation, analysis, andtheoretical formulation in much the
same way as sociology, psychology,and economics. The scientific approach to management lies in
decision-making, planning, and adoption of new technology.

Chapter 7 - The Development of Management Thought


7.1 Introduction to Management ThoughtOne of the most important factors on successful fulfillment of
enterprise objectivesis an awareness of the continuing development of an accurate theory
ofmanagement and its proper application to the real world of library and informationcenter
practice.There are four major phases that can be identified in tracing how managementtheories have
evolved:
•Scientific management movement
•Classical movement
•Human relations school
•Human behavior movement
•Self-actualizing movement
•Systems approach
oDecision-theory movement
oGeneral systems theory movement
oPsychological theory movement
7.2 Scientific Management Movement
The scientific management movement is also known as the "machine model,"since it is focused on
shop operations. Its assumption is that workers areeconomically motivated. Frederick W. Taylor

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developed detailed systems intendedto gain maximum efficiency from both workers and machines in
the factory. Thesesystems relied on two studies - time study (developed by Taylor) and motion
study(developed by Frank and Lilian Gilbreth), which help determine the best methodsfor performing a
task in the least amount of time. Henry Gantt is attributed to histask-and-bonus system which he
introduced during this phase.

At the turn of the century, the most notable organizations were large andindustrialized. Often they
included ongoing, routine tasks that manufactured avariety of products. The United States highly
prized scientific and technicalmatters, including careful measurement and specification of activities and
results.Management tended to be the same. Scientific management theory espoused thiscareful
specification and measurement of all organizational tasks. Tasks werestandardized as much as
possible. This approach appeared to work well fororganizations with assembly lines and other
mechanistic, routinized activities.7.3 Classical MovementThe classical movement is also called
traditional or Universalist school. It isfocused on holistic view of the organization resulting in a body of
knowledge calledthe administrative management theory. A practical illustration of classicalmovement
in management is the assembly line in manufacturing industries.Henry Fayol is the father of classical
movement. Like Taylor, he also believed thatworkers are naturally lazy, and they can be motivated by
higher wages. Fayol andTaylor are considered as the founders of the theory of management.Max
Weber is another icon in the classical movement. He designed thebureaucratic model, as well as the
rules and procedures for a theory of structure inorganizations. Max Weber embellished the scientific
management theory andfocused on dividing organizations into hierarchies, establishing strong lines
ofauthority and control. He suggested organizations develop comprehensive anddetailed standard
operating procedures for all routinized tasks.Lyndall Urwick and Luther Gulick set the organization and
system movement whichdistinguished administration (representing ownership viewpoint) and
scientificmanagement applicable to the operational level.7.4 Human Relations SchoolUnions and
government regulations reacted to the rather dehumanizing effects ofprevious theories. More attention
was given to individuals and their uniquecapabilities in the organization. A major belief included that
the organization wouldprosper if its workers prospered as well. The behavioral sciences played a
strongrole in helping to understand the needs of workers and how the needs of theorganization and its
workers could be better aligned.The maxim in human relations school is "a happy workforce is a
productiveworkforce." Because management is getting things done through people,management study
should center on interpersonal relations, thus makingpersonnel administration prominent. Human
Resource departments were added toorganizations. Human relations school included:1. Human
behavior movementThis focused on the behavior of the individual, his/her quality of life in
theorganization, and his/her needs, aspiration, and motivations, as well as those of thegroup and the
organization. It is assumed that if management makes employeeshappy, maximum performance will
result.Elton Mayo who conducted a study in the Western Electric Hawthorne Plant arrivedat conclusions
(known as Hawthorne effect) which were opposite of Taylor's whobelieved that a worker is an
economic person. Instead, he maintained that workersare primarily motivated by togetherness and
they want individual recognition withinthe group.2. Self-actualizing movementThis is closely related to
human behavior movement. Here, the management isencouraged to let employees develop social
groups, move toward employees'participation in management, and allow democracy within the
organization.There are certain concepts that are significant in this movement. Chester Barnard'sidea of
contribution-satisfaction equilibrium is one key concept in this movement.Barnard emphasized the role
of communication as the first function of managers.Maslow's hierarchy of needs is another concept.
Abraham Maslow proposed thatpeople have a complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of
importance. That is,they do not operate at once, but are organized in successive levels, and one
needhas to be satisfied sufficiently before the next need becomes operative.Peter Drucker's
management by objective (MBO) is also accounted in thismovement.Douglas McGregor contributed
Theory X and Theory Y which advocatessubstituting a more participative approach for authoritarianism.
Theory X assumesthat employees dislike work, are lazy, and dislike responsibility, and must then
becoerced to perform. On the other hand, Theory Y assumes that employees likework, are creative,
and like responsibilities, and can exercise self-direction.7.5 System ApproachThe systems approach is
divided into three movements - decision theorymovement, general systems theory movement, and
psychological theorymovement. The term systems as used here is different from that of the
organizationand system movement. Systems approach regards the organization as a totalsystem. This
approach encompasses management science and operationsresearch.

1. Decision theory movement -

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This is primarily concerned with the study of rationaldecision-making procedures and the way
managers actually make decisions. Thismovement introduced mathematical methods and quantitative
models to serve asthe basis for all management decisions. Major by-products of decision
theorymanagement are management information systems (MIS) and decision supportsystems (DSS).
2. General systems theory movement -
General systems theory movementintegrates knowledge from the biological, physical, and physical
sciences. Ludwigvan Bertlanffy is the father of this movement. He was the first to talk about
the"system theory of organisms." At this point, system refers to a set of elementsstanding in
interrelation among them and with the environment.
3. Psychological theory movement -
Based upon the personality theory, thismovement views the human being as a complex organism
metamorphosingthrough physiological and psychological stages to maturity.

This movementincludes contingency approach/management-situational approach.

Chapter 8 - Management - Skills and Levels


8.1 Managerial SkillsThe following are the required skills for a manager:1.

Technical - This includes understanding and being efficient in a specificactivity, such as a process,
procedure, or technique.2.
Interpersonal - This refers to the ability to work with others and to wincooperation of people in the work
group to achieve goals.3.
Conceptual - This is the ability to seethe "big picture" to envision all thefunctions involved in a given
situation or circumstance.8.2 Managerial LevelsThere are three basic managerial levels that may apply
in any organization:1.
Top managers - Top managers are concerned with long range planninginvolving subjective judgments
of the decision-maker.2.

Middle managers- Middle managers implement the goals of theorganization. Of the five management
tasks, organizing and staffing arewhat they principally deal with.3.
Supervisory-level managers- A supervisory-level manager's job is tomake operational decisions which are
predictable decisions that can bemade by following a well-defined set of routines.

Chapter 9 - Management Functions


9.1 PlanningPlanning involves setting up objectives (both long and short term) and
developingstrategies for achieving them. It is done in order to
•offset uncertainty and the unexpected
•have flexibility in face of change
•bring organizations forward
•focus on the organization's future
•keep a tight rein on financial resources
•have better control and management.In planning, several factors must be considered. These include
•time
•data collection and analysis
•level of planning
•flexibility, and
•accountabilityThere are various types of plans.1.

Purpose or mission
- This identifies the business the organization is into.2.

Objectives or goals
- They end toward which activities are aimed.Objectives and goals are refinements aimed to
concretize abstractmission statements.3.

Strategies
- These are long-term objectives, state course/courses ofaction adopted, and allocation of resources
needed. They serve asframework that will guide thinking and action.4.

9
Policies
- They are general statements to guide thinking in makingdecisions. They ensure the consistency of
decisions in relation toobjectives. Policies come in several forms.a.

Originated policy
- This type of policy is developed to guide thegeneral operations of the organization. They flow mainly
from theobjectives and are the main source of policy making in anorganization.b.

Appealed policy
- This forces a decision or policy. They are madeup of snap decisions.c.

Implied policy
- This type of policy is unwritten and is developedfrom actions that people see about them and believe
toconstitute policy.d.

External imposed policy


- This type of policy come throughseveral channels. They dictate the working in an institution.5.

Procedures
- This is a set of required methods of handling activities.Specifically, these are chronological sequence
of steps to guide action.6.

Rules
- They are meant to regulate personal and professional behavior forthe common good. Rules are
flexible and specific, leaving no room fordoubt.

117.

Programs
- These are mini plans in themselves, as they include practicallyall the other plans mentioned above
with the necessary resources to carryout a course of action.8.

Budgets
- These are plans that are rendered in numerical or financialterms.There are several techniques that
must be considered in planning.
•Standards
- They mean being able to set any measure by which one judges a thing as authentic, good, or
adequate.
•Forecasting
- This designates a process of projection or prediction.
•Projections
- are based on some type of analysis or qualitative judgments.
•Predictions
are opinions about facts.
•Forecasts
are predictions based on assumption about the future. A very crucial part in the process of planning
is decision making -the process ofmaking a choice between alternatives. Decision making process has
four phases.1.
Intelligence gathering
- This is the search for conditions requiring adecision.2.
Design
- In this phase, available courses of action are determined andanalyzed to ascertain their relative
values as solutions to the decision.3.

Choice
- At this point, available courses of action are determined toconvert present less desirable situation
into a favorable one.4.

Review

10
- This is a review of past choices in order to adjust new directions.In most organizations, group
decision-making is a common practice. It involvesgroup dynamics, delegation or responsibility,
channels of communication fordecision-making, and specializations for decision-making
purposes.Group decision-making has its advantages:
•Group judgment
- The deliberation of a group over a certain matter isimportant in identifying alternatives that must be
considered.
•Group authority
- Group decisions prevent the fear of allowing one personto have too much authority. The role of
leadership in the organization isnot diminished but altered.
•Communication
- Group decision-making permits wide participation in theprocess and has influence on employee
motivation.On the contrary, group decision-making has also its disadvantages.
•Cost
- Much time, energy, and money is needed in making groupdecisions.
•Compromise
- There is forced compliance to uniformity and majority rule.
•Indecision
- It is inevitable that there are delays in reaching a final decisionbecause of lengthy deliberations.
•Power
- It is possible for one individual to emerge as a leader who caninfluence the whole or majority or of
the process.
• Authority
- Groups are frequently used to make decisions beyond theirauthority and this can cause delay if the
decision is rejected by themanagement.9.2 OrganizingOrganizing determines the specific activities
necessary to accomplish the plannedgoals. It is aimed to group the activities into a logical framework
of structure,assigning authority and responsibilities to people for their accomplishment.Certain
principles are employed in organizing.
•Departmentation
- This is the basis on which work and individuals aregrouped into manageable units.
•Scalar principle of hierarchy
- This determines the chain of authorityranging from the ultimate to the lowest ranks.
•Delegation
- This is the downward transfer of formal authority from oneperson to another within prescribed limits.
•Centralization
- This indicate that authority is concentrated at the topmostlevel of the hierarchy and that most
decisions are made by those at thetop.
•Decentralization
- Contrast to centralization, authority to make decisions ispushed down in the organizational structure.
•Line and staff positions
- Line positions are responsible and accountablefor the organization's primary objectives. Staff
positions provide adviceand support to the line position.
•Span of control
- This refers to the number of people and/or activities amanager can efficiently manage.
•Unity of command
- The main idea here is that every person within theorganization should orders from and report to only
one person.9.3 StaffingStaffing is the function that involves recruitment, selection, hiring, placement,
anddevelopment of human resources required by the organization.
•Recruitment
- This is a process of attracting the appropriate number ofqualified individuals to apply for vacant
positions in an organization. Thereare three fundamental factors that need to be considered in this
process:
ojob analysis
ojob description
osource of applicants
 Selection
- This process follows after recruitment. In this process,information gathering about the applicants is
executed upon the objectiveof arriving at a decision to hire personnel. Selection has its very
essentialelements:
oapplication forms
11
oexaminations
ointerviews
ohiring/placementThe staff should be provided with knowledge and skills that are directly related
totheir responsibilities in the organization. Training and staff development is a broadrange of activities
that may include any of the following:
•orientation
•on-the-job training
•counseling
•seminars
•workshops on topics as diverse as the techniques of supervision,performance evaluation,
communication, and so on.9.4 DirectingDirecting is the managerial function that enables managers to
communicate withand influence subordinate towards the achievement of organizational goals.
Animportant ingredient of this function is motivation - the willingness to exert highlevels of effort
towards organizational goals, conditioned by the effort's ability tosatisfy some individual needs.There
are several approaches through various theories in motivation.1.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs


- Abraham Maslow proposed that peoplehave a complex set of needs arranged in a hierarchy of
importance. Thatis, they do not operate at once, but are organized in successive levels,and one need
has to be satisfied sufficiently before the need becomesoperative.2.

Hertzberg's two-factor theory


- Frederick Hertzberg and his associatesexamined the relationships between job satisfaction and
productivityamong a group of accountants and engineers. Findings showed thatdissatisfaction was
caused by extrinsic factors such as pay, supervision,working conditions, and company policies so-called
hygiene factors.Satisfaction and motivation on the other hand came from a different set offactors
called satisfiers or motivators which include recognition,achievement, responsibility, and personal
growth.3.

McGregor's Theory X and Y


- Theory X assumes that workers are lazy,dislike work and responsibility, and must be coerced to
perform. Theory Yassumes that workers are creative and like work and responsibility andthey can
exercise self-direction.4.

ERG Theory
- Clayton Adlerfer reworked Maslow's hierarchy of needstheoty. He argued that there are three groups
of core needs: existence,relatedness, and growth. In contrast to Maslow, ERG theory assumes that
•more than one need may be operative at the same time, and
•if gratification of a higher-level need is hushed, the desire tosatisfy a lower-level need increases.5.

Achievement-power-affiliation theory
- This was developed by DavidMcClelland. It is focused on three (3) crucial needs:
•need to achieve - the need to do something better or moreeffectively than before.
•need to power - a concern for influencing people
•need for affiliation - need to be liked/to be friendly with others.Leadership is an essential tool for
directing. An effective leader has the ability toinfluence others in a desired direction and thus is able to
determine the extent towhich both individual employees and organizations as a whole reach
their goals.The leadership grid is a measure that involves two primary concerns in theorganization:
concern for production and concern for people.James McGregor Burns identified two types of leadership
styles:
•Transactional leader
- This is a leader who sees job performance as aseries of transactions with subordinates. The
transactions consist ofexchanging rewards for services rendered or punishments for
inadequateperformance.
•Transformational leader
- This type of leader is skilled at gettingsubordinates transform their own self-interest into the interest
of thelargest group. They bring out the best in their subordinates. According to Fred Fiedler,
three situational variables determine how favorable anyparticular situation is for a leader. These three
constitute the Fiedler's LeadershipContingency Model.1.
Leader-member situation
12
- the degree to which members like and trust aleader and are willing to follow him/her2.

Task structure
- the clarity and structure of the elements of the tasks to beaccomplished

Power position
- the power and authority that are associated with theleader's positionCommunication provides
cohesiveness and direction in an organization. Thetypical elements of this process include
the following.1.
Source
- This is the sender of the message. The source has somethought, need, or information to
communicate.2.
Message
- The source has to encode the information in some form thatcan be understood by both sender and
receiver.3.
Channel
- This is the link between the source and the receiver.4.
Receiver
- This is none other than the recipient of the message.5.
Feedback
- This is the receiver's response and the nature of action carriedout by the receiver.Communication
comes in various forms.
•Written communication
- This form of communication provides a lastingrecord and ensures uniformity in matters like policy.
•Oral/verbal communication
- In this form of communication, there isinstant feedback through which clarifications can be
accomplished.
•Non-verbal communication
- Unwritten or unspoken, this can providemany clues to an observer. Body language is a particular
type.Communication flows in any of three directions.
•Downward
- This is the most common type of communication within anorganization. It flows from superiors
to subordinates.
•Upward
- This consists of messages that flow from subordinates tosuperiors. Most of these messages ask
questions, provide feedback, ormake suggestions.
•Horizontal
- This is the lateral exchange of information within anorganization. In competitive organizations,
information is not alwaysshared because the employee who possesses the information wants toretain a
competitive advantage over the others.9.5 ControllingControlling is the function of monitoring
performance and undertaking correctiveaction(s) to assure the attainment of pre-determined goals and
objectives of theorganization.There are several techniques employed in controlling.1.

Evaluation
- This identifies areas needing improvement with an aim towardcorrective action.2.
Cost-benefit analysis
- This is a systematic approach which seeks to
•determine whether or not a particular program or proposal is justified,
•rank various alternatives appropriate to a given set ofalternatives, and
•ascertain the course of action needed top attain these objectives.3.

Management information system (MIS)


- This is a technical tool to gatherdata, summarize it, and present it as an information to be used in
thecontrol process and for decision-making.4.
Decision support system (DSS)
- As an extension of MIS, it takesadvantage of the continuous development in the database
managementand modeling arena to offer software that support computerized decision-making.5.
Operations research
- This is an experimental and applied sciencedevoted to observing, understanding, and predicting the
behavior ofpurposeful systems. Operations researchers are actively engaged inapplying the knowledge
to practical problems.6.
13
Program evaluation and research technique (PERT)
- PERT is a method ofplanning and scheduling work which involves identifying all the keyactivities in a
particular project, devising the sequence of activities, andarranging duration of time for the
performance of each phase of the workto be
done. A special part of the controlling function is budgetary control - the method ofrationalization
whereby estimates covering different periods of time are, by thestudy of statistical records and
analytical research of all kinds, established for all,and everything that affects the life of a business
concern can be expressed infigures.There are various techniques in budgeting that an organization can
consider. Hereare some of them.1.

Line-item budgeting
- This is the most common technique. In thistechnique, the budget is divided into broad input classes
or categories(such as salaries or wages, materials and supplies, equipment, capitalsand expenditures,
and miscellaneous), with further subdivisions withinthese categories. It can be inflexible, unless the
system allows thereallocation in cases where there is need to do so. This budget is easy toprepare.
Most of the allocations are done by simply projecting currentexpenditures to next year, taking cost
increases into account. However,this technique has almost no direct correlation with the
organization'sobjectives.
Lump sum
- In this technique, there is a certain allocation given by theparent institution to its sub-units and it is
up to the manager of each sub-unit to decide how the sum will be broken into categories.3.
Formula budgeting
- This uses pre-determined standards for allocation offinancial resources. It is expressed in terms of a
percentage of the totalinstitutional budget.4.
Program budgeting
- Here, the budget is concerned with a particularprogram with its set of activities and not with the
individual items orexpenditures. It maintains that it is possible to relate to the programs
toaccomplishments to time/action objectives or activities that are stated inoutput terms in the
strategic planning process.5.
Performance budgeting
- In this technique, expenditures are based on theperformance of activities and the efficiency of
operations. Therefore, itweighs more on quality over quantity of service. It is based on cost-benefit
analysis.6.
Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS)
- This was developed inthe US by Rand Corporation and was introduced to the Department ofDefense
by Robert McNamara in 1961. At that time, President Lyndon B.Johnson directed all government
agencies including government-ranuniversities and colleges to implement it. By 1965, it was used by
allagencies. The technique combines the best of both program budgetingand performance budgeting.
The emphasis is on planning and evaluation.It begins with the establishment of goals and objectives
and introducescontrolling measures. PPBS has the following specific steps:
•Identifying the objectives of the organization
•Presenting alternative ways to achieve objectives with cost-benefit ratios presented for each
•Identifying activities that are necessary for each program
•Evaluating the result so that action can be takenIt combines the function of planning (stating
objectives), translating into aprogram, and stating requirements in budgetary terms (financing). The
keyto success is the selection of criteria for evaluating each alternativeagainst relevant objectives.7.

Zero-based budgeting
- This focuses on two basic questions:
•Are the current activities efficient and effective?
•Should current activities be eliminated or reduced to fund higherpriority new programs or to reduce
current budget?It requires organizations to review and evaluate each of their serviceprograms and
activities on the basis of both output measures as well ascosts.9.6 MarketingMarketing is the analysis,
planning, implementation, and control of carefullyformulated programs designed to bring about
voluntary exchange of values withtarget markets for the purpose of achieving the organization's
objectives. Themarketing mix consists of the following:1.

Product
- This is the tangible commodity, or the intangible service that anorganization offers to its
customers/clients.2.

14
Price
- This refers to the amount of money customers/clients are willing topart with to avail or use a product
or service being offered.3.
Promotion
- This is the provision of relevant information to perspectivecustomers/clients to persuade them
to patronize a product/service.4.
Place
- This determines the availability in the right direction of anorganization's product/service and the
accessibility of channels ofdistribution.Not all library managers probably appreciate the significance of
marketing, but thatdoes not invalidate the premise that this function is central to the library as
anorganization. If the library is to be a responsive organization, one whose primarygoals relates to
satisfying the information needs and wants of its real and potentialclients, then librarians would do well
to consider the contribution of a marketingprogram to the achievement of that goal.

UNIT 3 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 1: ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

Chapter 10 - An Overview of Academic Library Management


10.1 The Academic Library10.2 The Academic Librarian10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic
Environment10.4 Problems Faced by Academic Librarians
Chapter 11 - Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Descriptionof Management
Functions
11.1 Management for Academic Libraries Defined11.2 Planning11.3 Organizing11.4 Staffing11.5
Directing, Controlling, and Coordinating11.6 Budgeting11.7 Communicating and Reporting
Chapter 12 - Administration of Academic Libraries
12.1 Management Issues12.2 Functions and Objectives12.3 Collection12.4 Services and Use12.5
Cooperation12.6 Staffing and Personnel12.7 Evaluation12.8 Finance and Budget12.9 Facilities and
Library Automation12.10 Marketing and Public Relations
Chapter 10 - An Overview of Academic Library Management
10.1 The Academic LibraryThe academic library is an institution within an academic parent institution -
thecollege or the university. Its primary purpose is to support the teaching, research,and extension
services functions of the university.In managing the academic library, the approach is dictated by
many factors like
•size of the user population (faculty, students, researchers, administration,and staff)
•thrust of the parent institution (college or university)
•funding
•presence of a library committee
•position of the librarian in the organization and the duties andresponsibilities given to him/her, and
so on.The academic library should have a vision, as well as clear and concise objectivesthat are in line
with the mission and vision of the parent institution. It must becustomer/client-based. Also, it must
have concern for its staff. The academiclibrary must be efficient. The imaginative use of information
and communicationstechnology (ICT) must be possessed. The academic library must also have
goodpublic relations and should market its services. The academic library must not behesitant to
implement necessary changes. It must be designed for continualflexibility. First class service must be
provided by these institutions.10.2 The Academic
Librarian An academic librarian's success is determined by his/her control of the library'sresources and
services. The job of a college or university librarian is highly politicalin nature because there is a need
to be in touch with the members of thecommunity to promote library service and obtain support from
the faculty.However, she must never try to influence academic decisions in areas outside thelibrary so
that she is never perceived as a threat.10.3 Organization Culture in an Academic EnvironmentThe
parent institution of an academic library may be a small college or a largeuniversity. These can be
single site or multi-site, and can either be government orprivate.It is important for the library to keep
in constant touch with its parent institution anddetermine its objectives based on the parent
institution's mission, vision, andgoals. For example, large university libraries are usually more oriented
to researchthan teaching. The library therefore provides information service to supportresearch
activities. Undergraduate universities on the other hand are focused onteaching; thus, the library
functions as a book resource.Today, academic libraries have no monopoly on information resources
andservices and must compete with other sources of information for funds andservices. Academic
libraries, especially university libraries operate in a politicalenvironment. Academic support is crucial
for their success. The librarian must beseen to be exercising legitimate authority within the framework
15
of governancewithin the university.In most academic settings, the library committee forms the central
matrix for thisrelationship. Library committees however, must not be controlling bodies, butadvisory
bodies. There is need for a good relationship between the librarian and

16the chair of the committee. The committee is a legitimizing body for policies, rules,and regulations,
but the librarian must see to it that she has control over theminutes. It is very important for the
librarian to secure the minutes by any means.In academic settings, certain questions are asked, such
as:
•to whom is the librarian directly responsible?
•Who chooses library staff?
•Who controls the budget?
•Who represents the staff outside the institution?The librarian needs control over all of these areas for
effective management.Threats in relationships with the academic community include
influencingacademic decisions in areas outside the library, and indifference of the faculty, inaction of
the chief librarian. The chief librarian must act as leader for his/her staffand library matters. It is
crucial for him/her to be identified with the library. He/Shemust display good judgment over
organizational and professional matters, andmust take risks when necessary. In most academic
settings, the chief librarianmust be able to relate well with the board of trustees, the president, the
librarycommittee, the dean, the faculty, the students, and the finance officer. Ifrelationship with these
people is not good, the librarian will find himself/herselfmembers of groups such as the school forum,
the administrative council, or thecurriculum committee among others, and will be appointed to
represent the libraryoutside the institution.10.4 Problems Faced by Academic LibrariansThe main
problem facing academic libraries is their inability to maintain theiracquisitions and services at previous
levels due to:
•budget cuts and inflation
•staff cuts and competencies
•more resource allocations for ICT than acquisitions
•inadequate space
•absence of a strategic development plan
•low image of librarians as compared with the faculty, which might be thereason for lack of cooperation
of faculty
•administration's lack of knowledge and appreciation about the importanceof the library to education

]Chapter 11 - Management in Academic Libraries: Definition and Descriptionof Management


Functions

11.1 Management for Academic Libraries DefinedIn general, management is the act or skill of
transforming resources (collection,staff, finances, etc.) into output to accomplish desired result or
objective. Thisimplies that head librarians and/or section heads must be able to influence
theachievement of objectives by means of a number of management functions suchas planning,
organizing, staffing, controlling or directing, coordinating, reporting,budgeting, and
communicating.11.2 PlanningPlanning establishes goals, and develops policies, procedures, and
programs toachieve them. It is the process of getting an organization to where it is to where itwants to
be in a given period of time by setting it on a pre-determined course ofaction.Planning is working out
in the broad outline of things that must be done and themethods of doing them in order to accomplish
the organizational purposes.The construction of a strategic development plan with a long term vision
and ashort-term plan is also involved. The plan will set out the aims and objectives of theorganization
and decide where the library would want to be in certain time andindicate how to get there through
various activities. Targets and performancemeasure for each activity must be set.11.3
OrganizingOrganizing is grouping activities and establishing organizational structures andprocedures to
ensure that activities are performed. It is the process by which themanager brings order out of chaos,
removes conflicts between people over work orresponsibility, and establishes an environment suitable
for teamwork.Organizing ensures the establishment of the formal structure of authority throughwhich
work subdivisions are arranged, defined, and coordinated for the definedobjectives. Organically
oriented systems/organizations are where authority andpower are delegated and dispersed.
Collaboration and consultation areemphasized, and the organizational chart features a wide span
of control.11.4 StaffingStaffing is the process of obtaining and training personnel to work in
theorganization in order to achieve goals and objectives. This is the whole personnelfunction of
bringing in and training the staff and maintaining favorable conditions ofwork.11.5 Directing,
16
Controlling, and CoordinatingControlling and directing are functions that measure performance against
goalsand objectives, and developing procedures for adjusting goals, procedures, or

17activities. They involve the use of measurements or controls like establishedstandards, performance
measures, and corrections for deviations.The control of an undertaking consists of seeing that
everything is being carriedout in accordance with the plan that has been adopted, the orders which
havebeen given, and the principles which have been laid down. The primal object is topoint out
mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from occurringagain.In academic libraries,
control is exercised by such regulatory groups like the boardof trustees, chancellor, president, dean,
faculty, library committee, and students.Internal control rests with management/administration and
line supervisors withinthe library. Outside groups are also included in control such as
accreditingassociations who set library standards and certification of libraries and librarians,friends of
the library group, and certain laws that regulate the practice oflibrarianship.Coordinating is the all-
important duty of interrelating the various parts of thesystem. The central key to this process is
communication.11.6 BudgetingBudgeting is what encompasses fiscal planning, accounting, and control.
It is theprimary means by which formulated plans can be carried out.Several techniques can be
considered in budgeting. However, academic librariesmust follow the budget cycle and the budgeting
scheme of the parent institution.Finances must not only be based on the allotment of the parent
institution alone,but the library must find other ways of securing funds and securing them in anaccount
that will be used for library operations.The final outcome of budgeting is accounting and reporting.
Outputs includemonthly income statement or balance sheet and formal written reports.11.7
Communicating and ReportingCommunication is basically the transfer of information on goals,
objectives, andperformance to personnel throughout the organization and the
environment.Communication may be horizontal, diagonal, as well as vertical. It consists more ofadvice,
information, and suggestion than direct orders.Reporting keeps the executives informed through
records, research, andinspection. It can be formal (written with detailed statistical reports) or
informal(through staff meetings, memos, and so on). The report is a means of selling thelibrary to the
officials of the university and to the students to gain support andmaintain the level of activity and
funding or develop new programs.

Chapter 12 - Administration of Academic Libraries

12.1 Management IssuesEfficient and effective management of academic libraries is affected by


severalfactors like
•administration of the library - functions and objectives
•collections
•services and use
•cooperation
•staffing and personnel
•evaluation
•finance and budget
•physical facilities
•automation and information technology
•marketing and public relations12.2 Functions and ObjectivesSeveral factors affect functions and
objectives in managing academic libraries.These include:
•size and configuration of the parent institution (small, medium, large,single site, multi-site, etc.)
•policies on staff selection, retention, termination, training, and so on
•funding (source of funds, procedures for payment, budget transfer,policies for money earned by the
library, etc.)
•policies on selection on content
•role of the librarian and authority to which he/she reports
•attitude of officials, faculty, and students toward the library
•presence of a library board/committee or any other similar group and itsrole
•relationship with administration
•technical services versus direct service to users12.3 CollectionSince financial resource is finite in
academic libraries, academic librarians have tomake decisions regarding the collection. The collection
must be guided by thenature of the academic library and the mission and vision of the parent
institution.Some issues related to content are:
17
•collection versus services
•librarian or faculty selection
•print or online
•balance between books and journals (60:40 or 40:60)
•balance between acquisition and preservation (should binding be lessthan twenty percent (20%) of
combined acquisition and preservationexpenditures?)
•preservation or weeding
•completeness versus resource sharing
•security
•collection development policies
•involvement of the faculty and the students in the selection of material12.4 Services and UseThe idea
of service is essential to identify the right objectives. The academic libraryideally is customer/client-
based, concerned with and for its staff, efficient in its useof resources, imaginative in its use of
technology, well managed, and visibly anddemonstrably a first class service. Services in an academic
library includecataloging and classification, circulation and reserve, serials management, andreference
service to external users.Several issues concerning different areas in library use and services must be
takenonto account.1.

Cataloging and classification


•manual versus automated
•use of online facilities
•usability
•in-house creation
•quality control
•access
• presentation2.

Reference and information services


•limitation to own stock versus resource sharing
•document delivery service (DDS)
•inter-library loan (ILL)
•level of service3.

Circulation and reserve


•ending policy (category of use, lending time, number of maximumloans)
•retention of stock
•manual versus automated
•user interface4.

Services to external users


•size of stock
•existence of a memorandum of agreement (MOA)
•size of the library12.5 CooperationBecause of the increase in the availability of publications, libraries
cannot purchaseeverything in the market. Instead, they must have policies on which materials mustbe
available from the stock and which ones may be borrowed from other libraries ifthey are members of
consortia.Certain issues exist in cooperation of libraries. They include
•cooperative versus decentralized acquisition
•electronic transmission
•ILL versus DSS
•cost
•nature an specifications in the MOA
•gift and exchange policies12.6 Staffing and PersonnelManagement of staff is a function of
management style adopted by the chieflibrarian. In times of austerity measures, management styles
become more andmore autocratic because of the need for control of resources. One type
ofauthoritative style of management is benevolent management. This is characterizedby a tall and
narrow organization with centralized decision-making but withacknowledgement of the experience of
senior professionals who participate inforward planning. Other styles are consultative and
participative.It is important for an academic librarian to have obtained in an academic
disciplinefollowed by a postgraduate degree in librarianship.Issues concerning staffing and personnel
management include:
18
•management style
•functional structure
•recruitment
•promotion
•performance evaluation
•job rotation
•job and management training
•stress
•implications of automation
•impacts of laws regulating the practice of librarianship12.7 EvaluationThe concept of a good academic
library is often difficult to define and describe.There is no absolute perception of goodness but there
are standards of goodnesssuch as those established by accrediting associations and organizations (e.g.

PAASCU, PACOCOA, Phi Kappa Phi, ISO, and others).The rule of thumb is beoriented to actual and
potential user needs with actual users given high priority.Performance is measured in terms of user
satisfaction. Performance measurementis defined as the systematic measurement of the extent to
which a library hasachieved its objectives in a certain period of time. It is necessary for internal
andexternal reasons.The two aspects of goodness - quality and value can be differentiated by
thefollowing questions:
•How good is it?
•How much good does it do?Goodness is also differentiated in terms of effectiveness (doing the right
thing well)and benefit.Evaluation process is coupled with some issues such as:
•objectives and plan
•collection
•services
•staff
•environment
•reporting
•quantitative versus qualitative
•cost-effectiveness (doing the rught bthing well within a given budget)
•level of information (top and middle management, and operational level)
•inputs, process, and outputs12.8 Finance and BudgetFinancial management means controlling the
amount of money spent and ensuringthat it does not exceed the amount of money available. Several
techniques inbudgeting are used by academic libraries. These are:
•line-item budgeting
•lump sum budgeting
•formula budgeting
•program budgeting
•performance budgeting
•planning programming budgeting system
(PPBS) Academic libraries should initiate projects that earn extra income for the library.The extra
income provides greater flexibility and financial independence.Resources which can be income-
generating are special collections which cannotbe found in other libraries and therefore will be of great
interest to external userswho are willing to pay a fee for access. The exposure to external users will
alsoprovide contacts and can expand fee-based services. Examples of actual andpotential sources of
income include:
•charges to library users (fines, research fees, etc.)
•sales to library users (photocopies, DDS, microfilm copies, withdrawnbooks, serials, furniture, and
equipment)
•retail selling to library users (bookselling in book fairs or bookstores,stationary, refreshments, library
publications, etc.)
•services to users (bibliographies, information retrieval searches,photocopying, binding, computer
repair, consultancy, research, rentals,seminars and workshops, short courses, etc.)
•other investments (donations, endowments and bequests, sponsorship,friends of the library,
etc.)When embarking on an income-generating project, be aware of expenses that willbe encountered.
The parent institution must be aware of the project and theincome it will generate. Be aware also of
pricing charges and account where theincome will be deposited. These depend on expenditures.
Expenditure will include
•staff salaries
•consumables
19
•communication
•travel
•training
•marketing and publicity
•rentals and other charges
•taxes (if there are any)
•overheads12.9 Facilities and Library AutomationFacilities are the next essential properties
to collections in any library. Facilities canbe grouped into the following categories
•furniture
•lighting
•temperature control
•space
•information and communications technologyThe common trend in many libraries at present is
automation because it offersmany benefits and conveniences. Here are some important pointers to
consider inlibrary automation.1.

Use good quality yet reasonably-priced software applications.2.

Copy catalog materials from online databases from other libraries.3.

Acquire electronic and online reference materials.

204
Design a web site for the library. The home page of the web site mustdisplay hyperlinks to every online
resource available from the library.5.

Train library staff and library users in using ICT equipment, facilities, andresources in the library.6.

Consider the latest developments in ICT like wireless technology.12.10 Marketing and Public
RelationsMarketing can be defined as the management process responsible for identifying,anticipating,
and satisfying customer requirements profitably. Marketing is a termused to cover those activities of
firms associated with the sales and distribution ofproducts. Broadly speaking, it covers such activities
as sales promotion,advertising, and market
research. A library needs to market itself so that its activities will be fully utilized. It is theresponsibility
of the librarian to review its services and project them as
•relevant
•good value
•high quality
•in the forefront of change
•adaptableThe marketing plan is divided into several stages. These stages are
•defining the service or product
•studying the users' needs and demands
•analysis of the present position
•establishing detailed objectives
•producing the marketing plan
•allocating resources
•review and evaluation

21
UNIT 4 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 2:SPECIAL LIBRARIES

Chapter 13 - An Overview of Special Library Management


13.1 The Special Library: Its Definition, Purpose, and Objective13.2 Persons and Events Behind the
Development of Special Libraries13.3 Types of Special Libraries13.4 Distinguishing Characteristics
Chapter 14 - Administration of Special Libraries

20
14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational Unit14.2 Functions in the Special Library14.3 Personnel
in the Special Library14.4 Space and Equipment14.5 Budget and Finance14.6 Evaluation and
Measurement
Chapter 15 - Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries
15.1 Networking and Cooperation15.2 e-Libraries15.3 Flexible Library Services
Chapter 13 - An Overview of Special Library Management
13.1 The Special Library: Definition, Purpose and Objectives A special library is a library that
is established, supported, and administered by abusiness firm, private corporation, association,
government agency, or otherspecial-interest groups or agency to meet the information needs of the
members orstaff of the parent institution in pursuing organizational goals. It provides focused,working
information to a special clientele on an on-going basis to further themission and goals of the parent
organization. It makes whatever knowledge orwhatever experience that may further the activities
of the organization.The special library deals with a specialized clientele, or with specialized materials,or
a combination of both. According to Polly Beam of Rutgers University SpecialLibraries Association
(RUSLA), special libraries are hard to define. There is no clearcut line for what is or what not a special
library is. So, they tend to be in private,non-profit, and government organizations which serve the
information needs ofthose organizations rather than the information needs of the general public.The
special library collects books, magazines, and other library materials related tocertain fields of
subjects. They cater to specific professional or academic groupswhose information needs are defined
by a particular subject or activity. Speciallibraries, sometimes referred to as information centers, are
located to a multitudeof settings, including large corporations, government agencies, health
institutions,print and electronic media organizations, law firms, not-for-profit organizations,and college
campuses. According to Wolfrodurf Laux of the Federal Biological Research Center inGermany, special
libraries are impossible to define by means of its collection alone.The origins must be considered. As a
result of the rapid development of scienceand technology and the realization of their results within
industrial research andmanufacture, new information requirements arose since the end of the last
centurywhich was not served sufficiently by the mainly humane oriented large libraries.13.2
Development of Special LibrariesOn July 2, 1909, twenty six (26) librarians congregated at Bretton
Woods in NewHampshire. This marked the birth of the Special Libraries Association (SLA). JohnCotton
Dana is the founder of the association. The motto of the SLA was quotedby John A. Lapp, which is
"putting knowledge to work." In 1910, there werealready approximately 100 special libraries. In 1920,
it grew to 1,000; and in 1935,the number reached 1.500. In the 1950's, the number increased up to
5,000.Fifteen years later, (1965), the number was more than twice (10,500). The presentnumber is
approximately 19,000 and still counting.In the Philippines, Rufo Buenviaje is considered as the father
of speciallibrarianship. Juan C. Buenrostro, Jr. was the writer of the first book published inthe
Philippines in 1995 entitled "The management of Special Libraries andInformation Centers."The growth
of special libraries is owed to three basic factors:
•information explosion
•advances in computer and information technologies
•the existence of an information societyThe flourishing of special libraries and information centers us a
reflection of theirsuccess in responding to the recent trends and the needs of their parentorganizations
for efficient and effective information handling and management.There are many associations of
special libraries throughout the different parts ofthe world. In the United States, The Special Libraries
Association (SLA) is the mostprominent. The SLA publishes a directory of special libraries and
informationcenters.

22 Also, there are locally-established special libraries associations in the Philippines.The Association of
Special Libraries in the Philippines (ASLP) may be the mostpopular. Angelina Cabanero was the first
ASLP president. ASALP has its ownpublication - the ASLP Bulletin. Other local special libraries
associations are theMedical and Health Librarians' Association of the Philippines (MAHLAP) and
the Agricultural Librarians' Association of the Philippines (ALAP).The following are the well-known
special libraries or parent institutions of speciallibraries in the Philippines.
•Asian Development Bank (ADB)
•Asian Institute of Management (AIM)
•Energy Research and Development Center (ERDC) under the PhilippineNational Oil Company (PNOC).
•International Center for Living and Aquatic Resources (ICLAR)
•International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) Library and DocumentationCenter
•MERALCO
•Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research (PCARR)
21
•Population Center Foundation (PCF)
•Philippine Nuclear Research Institute (PNRI)
•San Miguel Corporation Human Resource Library Division
•Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC)
•Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Center forEducation Innovation and
Technology Resource Center (SEAMEO-INNOTECH)13.3 Types of Special LibrariesSpecial libraries have
different types. They may be
•research
•corporate or industrial
•government
•institutionalMost of the time, names of special libraries assume the form name of the parentinstitution
+ "_______ Library"to indicate the subject scope or clientele (e.g.Technical Library, Business Library,
Corporate Library, and so forth). A special library is sometimes called
•information center (IC)
•learning resource center (LRC)
•corporate information center
•business information center, and so on which signifies a broader scopeand higher level of service.13.4
Distinguishing CharacteristicsSpecial libraries are distinguished from other types of libraries by their1.

Information function
- The main goal of most special libraries is to providefocused working information for their clientele on
a continuing basis topromote and support the mission and goals of the parent institution. Thismission,
which is "information service tailored to fit the needs of theorganization) is the reason why they
exist.2.

Location
- Special libraries are usually found in private and businessorganizations while others serve the state
and its government, or in non-profit organizations, and so on. They are considered as units of
largerorganizations.3.

Client
- Special libraries serve a well-defined group of users.4.

Subject scope/orientation
- Special libraries are oriented to a singlesubject or related subjects. This is determined by the field of
activity orinterests of the parent organization.5.

Size (smallness)
- Usually, special libraries consist of lean personnel, smallspace, and small collection.6.

Presence of a professional librarian and the variety of his/her responsibilities


- It is the expertise of the librarian which distinguishes theactive special library. Responsibilities
include reference service,cataloging, selection and acquisition, management, subject expertise, andso
on.7.

Salary
- Typically, the salary and compensation offered to the speciallibrary staff are higher than other types
of libraries. There are opportunitiesfor career advancement in a short span of time, and other benefits
arefringed like busying stocks, holiday cash bonuses, educational support,payment of expenses for
professional conferences, travel, and more.

Chapter 14 - Administration of Special Libraries

14.1 The Special Library as an Organizational


Unit A special library's place in the organization depends on the size of theorganization. The logical
position is one which ensures the visibility of the servicesand facilitates direct communication with its
main clients.The decision where to put the library in an organization is based on:1.

service sphere
•How many departments will the library serve?
22
•If single department, the library is within that unit.
•If entire organization, the library is positioned from which it can buildand maintain effective
communication with all the departments it willserve. It is sometimes placed in the administrative
services division,management division, or may stand independently.2.
immediate future plans
•The organizational position of the library should be determinedaccording to the ultimate goal
of service.3.

communication patterns
•the library's position should ensure that it is an integral part of theorganization's communication
system. It must be perceived as part ofthe network by which information is relayed through the
organization.With these, it can serve more effectively and efficiently.4.

reporting relationships

Here are some examples:
oCorporations - Reports are directly toward a high rankingofficer, to head of division, or to director of
research anddevelopment.
oAcademic libraries - Reports are toward the library director.
oSchool library - Reports are toward the principal or schooldirector.
oInstitutions or associations - Reports are toward the chiefadministrator, the executive secretary or
director, or thepresident.14.2 Functions in the Special LibraryThe three (3) functions that are most
central to the operations of special libraries, oreven other types of libraries are:1.

Acquisition
•Published information (print or non-print; electronic; informationsources that are publicly available like
books, journals, and verticalfile materials; CD-ROM; microforms; maps; and so on)
•Internal information (information or materials produced or generatedinternally like research reports,
technical memoranda, workingpapers, correspondences, newsletters, etc.)
•Outside resources2.

Organization
•Cataloging and classification
•Indexing
•Abstracting3.

Dissemination
•Readers' services
•Reference and research service
•Current awareness service (CAS) - routing, acquisition bulletin, librarydisplay, newsletters, selective
dissemination of information (SDI)The following table features the various functions in a special library
(or in any otherlibrary) according to certain degree.14.3 Personnel in the Special LibraryPeople who
will man the special library will include professional and clerical staffswho are usually employees in
the organization.In hiring professional staff in the library, the following should be considered:
•Education - Appropriate education and experience in professionallibrarianship and subject knowledge
are important.
•Personal qualifications - The person must be able to deal and interact withdiverse clients and
personalities. He must have good communication skillsand must be able to establish priorities for
competing demands. Othercharacteristics include perseverance, a sense of intellectual sympathywith
other persons and their work while retaining objectivity, and a sinceredesire to work with and assist
others in furthering the organization's goals.
•Professional specialties - Is he/she a technical specialist (good cataloger,indexer, database expert,
records manager, archivist, system analyst)? Ora subject specialist (reference librarian, database
searcher, bibliographer,translator, abstractor, etc.)?Since the daily functions of the library require
clerical and routine work (receipt androuting of publications, typing, filing, data entry, clipping, etc.),
the organizationmay hire a clerk to do all these tasks.Good information service begins with a
professional librarian planning andsupervising clerical and support work to be able to achieve the
library's moreextensive goals.14.4 Space and EquipmentThere must be a clear understanding of the
role of the library in the organization,how it achieves its aims, how it is used by clients (degree and
nature of use), thekind of collection, how its staff operates, and its future plans.In the planning process
23
for space and equipment, the participants are the librarian,architect and/or space planner or interior
designer, and the management. Here arethings that must be taken into account.1.

Location - The library must be visible and convenient to access.

Area use - Library space should be allocated and organized by functionalactivities like
•library user space ((service and information area, lounge area, studycarrels, group seating, etc.),
•professional and clerical staff work areas
•administrative function areas3.

Area requirements - Open rectangular area is most desirable. Odd spacescan be not as efficient but
can be designed to accommodate needs.Communication needs (e.g. cabling connectivity) should be
carefullyplanned too. Examples of some typical area requirements are thefollowing.
•small libraries - 185.8 m2
•Large libraries - at least 929 m2
•For each library worker - 13.9 m2, but the typical is 9.3 m2 for eachoffice worker
•Ratio of chairs to number of potential users - 1 : 25 or 10% of thetotal clientele population4.

Environment - Temperature and humidity should be suitable for humancomfort. Rare books and
archival papers require lower temperature andrelative humidity. Microforms need protection
from excessive dryness anddust. Adequate filtration is also needed. The library should also
considerclients with disabilities.5.

Lighting - High level of illumination is needed, usually 753 lux. Glare,reflection, absorption, and
shadowing must be addressed.6.

Work stations - This combines both furniture and equipment. Differentfunctions will certainly have
different needs.7.

Software - Appropriate software should be present in the library (wordprocessing, desktop publishing,
graphics, library system, etc.).8.

Equipment - Library equipment is a combination of standard officefurnishings and specialized


equipment. Various equipment are needed forvarious needs.14.5 Budget and FinanceBudget is
considered as the library's primary planning and control device. Thelibrarian prepares the annual
budget and usually exercises full control over itsallocation and implementation.The budget process,
structure and planning, will depend upon the type of budgetthe organization or institution employs.
There are several variations in budgetpreparation.
•Lump sum budget - budget is part of a larger budgetary unit, withoutfurther breakdown
•Open end budget - no definite budget is given
•Line item budget - divided into operating expenses (salaries/wages,materials and supplies, etc.) and
capital outlay (for long term investmentslike equipments, renovation, etc.)
•Others - user estimates, comparison with other organizations, hire ofconsultants, budget ratiosBudget
categories may include the following:
•salaries
•print and non-print materials
•membership in professional associations
•electronic resources
•cataloging tools
•facilities
•photocopying equipment
•supplies
•services
•travel and continuing education
•equipment
•furnishingPotential sources of funds for the library are:
•parent organization
•grants and donations
•fee-based services
•projects
24
14.6 Evaluation and MeasurementEvaluating the library's collection and services are needed to be able
to monitorhow far the library has gone in fulfilling its objectives. Therefore, evaluation shouldbe related
to objectives.There are several methods that can be considered in performing evaluation.1.

User surveys (formal or informal) - Formal user surveys can be conductedby the management or
outside groups. Informal user surveys can bebased on daily interaction with clients.2.

Statistics - This is accomplished by recording all library usage like typesof materials borrowed,
frequency of use of a certain material, number ofreference questions answered, etc.

Objectives - Evaluation must be qualitative rather than quantitative, andmust be against accepted
guidelines.4.

Annual reports - This compares the library's performance from theprevious year in terms of projects
accomplished, objective achievements,etc.5.
Valuing library services - This is defining the economic value ofinformation and information services
and the value added by theinformation professionals.

Chapter 15 - Recent Trends and Issues Concerning Special Libraries

15.1 Networking and CooperationLibraries can congregate to form a group of independent and
autonomous librariesbanded together by formal or informal arrangement for the shared purpose.
Thegroup can ether be known as
•library network
•library council
•library consortia
•library cooperativeThe goal in forming library networks it to
•share resources
•exchange information
•have efficient use of computers and information and communicationstechnologies
•creation of joint projects to reduce needless duplication of effort andresourcesThere are different types
of library networks.
•subject
•type of library
•multi-type
•geographicLibrary networks perform various activities. These include
•interlibrary loan (ILL)
•cooperative indexing and/or abstracting
•translation of materials
•document delivery
•cooperative acquisition
•cooperative storage facilities
•shared cataloging
•creation of records
•staff training
•sharing management informationThere are also problems or disadvantages in forming library
networks. Some ofthem are
•confidentiality
•need for standardization
•governance and structure
•need for legal identity
•turf (area of expertise) production
•financingHere are some known library networks in the Philippines.
•Academic Libraries Acquisition Services Association, Inc. (ALBASA) - Thisis composed of libraries in
colleges and universities in Visayas andMindanao.
•Association of Academic and Research Library Information Network(ARALIN) - This network provides
access to online union catalogs ofFilipiniana materials in private tertiary schools.
•Department of Science and Technology Engineering and ScienceEducation Program (DOST-ESEP)

25
•Inter-Institutional Consortium (IIC) - This was formed by academicinstitutions located along Taft Ave,
Manila for cooperative cataloging andindexing union list of serials. The head institution is De La Salle
University(DLSU) in this consortium.
•Mendiola Consortium - This is composed of four (4) institutions alongMendiola St. in Manila with
activities like union cataloging of books ofmember institutions, and annual publication of Index to
SelectedPhilippine Periodicals (ISPP).
•Ortigas Center Group - This is composed of special libraries within OrtigasCenter Complex in Pasig
City. It has activities like interlibrary loan andcooperative indexing of periodical subscriptions on
Philippine business,industry, and trade.15.2 e-LibrariesWith the gaining popularity and usage of
information and communicationstechnologies, libraries or learning resource centers have been greatly
affected.While others may have already adopted the concept of an e-library, others are stillleft on the
crossroad: will they espouse on the idea of an electronic environment, orwill they gear away from this
and continue doing what they have been traditionallyaccustomed to? There is indeed a big question
between traditional and electronicresources.

26While the concept of an e-library amazes almost everyone with its advantages ofmaking available to
users or clients the information they need whenever andwherever, it has some management issues
that need to be considered.
•Expensiveness (hardware, software, and peopleware)
•Challenge in the library collection development (challenge to the librarianand to the integrity and
quality of the whole collection)
•Requirement of good marketing strategies (price versus usage) Automation in libraries is worthy
of implementation, probably not in totality. Thereshould be a balance of the traditional resources and
the new ones. In this age,there has been a shift from collection to the needs of the users. The
informationneed of the client is what matters most. If the need requires an electronic resourcethat
cannot be provided by the traditional print ones, then so be it. However, thecreation of e-libraries
should be a unified decision of both the library and the parentinstitution. Thus, management and
financial support are of utmost importance.15.3 Flexible Library ServicesFlexible library service refers
to the kind of service that the library offers to itsclients, which is adoptable and very accommodating to
the needs of the clients.This covers maintaining both traditional and electronic resources, getting
digitaland virtual, more access to databases and electronic document delivery, use ofmobile text
messages, referrals, and more use of the internet.However, there are some challenges that need to be
addressed.
•competencies and capabilities of library and information professionals
•confusion on the roles of librarians and information professionals
•budget, policies and standards, and structural set-ups
•ethical and intellectual property concerns like privacy, confidentiality,copyright, protocols, etc.Going
into this service needs an earnest study of the user needs of theorganization. It must be pondered
whether it is really needed and how will theorganization as a whole be affected.

UNIT 5 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 3:SCHOOL LIBRARIES

Chapter 16 - An Overview of School Library Management


16.1 The School Library16.2 The School Librarian16.3 Historical Development of School Libraries
Chapter 17 - Administration of School Libraries
17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education17.2 Physical Facilities17.3 School Library Personnel and
Their Tasks17.4 School Library Collection17.5 Programs and Services17.6 Budget and Funding
Chapter 18 - Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues
18.1 Evaluating School Libraries18.2 Status of School Libraries in the Philippines
Chapter 16 - An Overview of School Library Management
16.1 The School LibraryThe school library is a vital instrument is a vital instrument for quality
education. Itis not just a room full of books or a static inanimate object, but is more akin to aliving
organism which is full of life activities. On one hand, it deals withal changingforms of recorded
knowledge - books, magazines, maps, charts, pictures, and alsofilms, filmstrips, tapes, microforms,
teaching machines, radio, television, and so on.On the other hand, it serves a whole range of patrons

26
at varying intellectual andemotional levels with changing and expanding needs.The school library,
along with the school librarian, is the key that will open the doorto functional, service-oriented program
that will enrich, support, vitalize, andimplement the educational program as it strives to meet the
needs of each studentand teacher. The school library is a service agency and an agent for change.
Ithelps students and teachers find information they need to carry out classroomlearning activities and
to satisfy their own personal interests.16.2 The School LibrarianThe school librarian is responsible in
working with teachers to enrich the programof instruction through supplementary materials of every
description, provide thenecessary materials, and organize them for efficient use, teach the students
whatthe materials are and how they are used. Ideally, there should be one librarian forevery 500
students (in the DCS, the proportion is 1:100). The librarian should beaware of their responsibilities in
order that each student will be able to achieve theoptimum of his potential as a learner, as a citizen,
and as a human being.In order that the function of the school library is executed and its purpose
berealized, there is a need for a competent, effective librarian to administer thelibrary. The librarian
should not be only educationally qualified but must alsopossess
•leadership skills
•initiative
•ability to manage
•enthusiasm
•friendliness
•cooperative attitude
•mental alertness
•creativity
•tact
•love for books
•passion for children and adults as well, and
•variety to interests
16.3 Historical Development of School LibrariesThe development of school libraries can be traced to the
beginning of the publiclibrary movement in the last half of the nineteenth century in the United
States.Public libraries served the needs of public schools which were sometimes built inclose proximity
to a public library. It was in New York where librarians were firstrecognized as teachers rather than
clerks. The period after World War II was an eraof growth in the development of school libraries, the
development of technologyand the application of technology in education.John Newberry is considered
the "Father of Children's Literature." He was the firstto conceive the idea of publishing books
for children.The modern concept of a school library was introduced in the Philippines by LoisOsborn.
The first school library established in the Philippines is Pampanga HighSchool Library.

Chapter 17 - Administration of School Libraries

17.1 The Role of School Libraries in Education As mentioned in the previous chapter, the school
library is a vital instrument is avital instrument for quality education which helps students and teachers
find

28information they need to carry out classroom learning activities and to satisfy theirown personal
interests. A school library is an information center, audio-visual center, and instructionalmaterials
center whose functions include the following:
•systematically collect, classify, store, and retrieve information, and
•assist in adopting these information to suit their intended use.The following table emphasizes the role
of the school library as an informationcenter, audio-visual center, and instructional materials
center.School libraries should have a collection of instructional materials that conform toexpressed and
anticipated requirements of the teaching-learning process and thespecial mission/foal of the school.
The collection should include materials withcultural and recreational value to stimulate teachers' and
pupils' interest anddevelop reading and inquiry as natural habits of life. Reading is an
indispensableintellectual tool that does not only help children learn to read but learn
andcomprehend.17.2 Physical FacilitiesThe school library must be designed for service to users. The
library mustaccommodate at least 10% of the total school population. Work area must beprovided for
among many types of materials and for library services. The spaceallowance for each reader must be
at least 25 sq. ft.The library must be located as central as possible and in a relatively quiet
area. According to DECS Order 6, s. 1998, there must be a separate building or roomproperly
constructed for a school library which is well lighted, ventilated, free fromnoise, centrally located to be
27
accessible to teachers and pupils, with modifiedopen-shelf system, and can accommodate at least fifty
(50) pupils for librarylessons once a week.The following are specifications for school library physical
facilities.1. Physical set up
•Room area allotment for an enrolment of 500 must be 72 sq. m and anadditional 1.2 m. per place for
8% of enrollment in excess of 500 (that is40).The library must preferably be rectangular. Two thirds
(2/3) of thelibrary space must be allotted for library users and the remaining one third(1/3) for library
collection.2. Furniture and equipment
•Practicality is the key word to library equipment acquisition. If the library issmall and operates in a
constrained budget, only the necessaryequipment must be acquired.
oTables and chairs are to be preferred over arm chair and desks.
oTables that can accommodate 4 to 6 students are preferred toavoid too much talking from
the students.
oShelves should be placed along the walls for students to havefree access to library materials.
oThe circulation desk must be large enough to be able to chargebooks to be loaned out. No charging
must be needed formaterials to be used within the library.
oCard catalog is very necessary for it is the index of what iscontained in the library.
oFiling cabinets for vertical files and pictures 85 must be provided.
oCarrels for individual study and research may also beconsidered.
oA bulletin board that and display information should be providedin order to inform users of recent
library developments.
oEquipment such as book stand for atlas and dictionary,newspaper rack, magazine stand, and book
truck or book trolleymust also be acquired.
oProper lighting and ventilation is very important to facilitatecomfort for library users. Curtains may be
installed to ward offthe glare of the sun.17.3 School Library Personnel and Their TasksThe school
library must employ teacher-librarians and school librarians whosenumber depends on the school
enrollment population. The ideal ratio is one (1)librarian for every 500 students. The teacher-librarian
has a teaching load, whichmakes him/her different from the school librarian. It is advisable to prepare
aschedule that will indicate the work assignment of each library staff.The library can organize a Book
Lovers' Club among students. Students who aremembers of the club can serve as student assistants
who will perform librarychores that can be assigned to them such as cleaning and shelving of
librarymaterials.Typically, the school librarian is expected to perform the following tasks.1.

Organization of materials for library use - This will include procurement,processing, classifying, and
cataloging of materials. This applies also tonon-book materials.2.

Instructing library users - An orientation for new students and teachers asto the location of the library,
services offered, and library rules andregulations must be conducted. The school librarian must also
educatethe users on classification of materials, using card catalog, bibliographies,reference books, and
library equipment.

293.

Provide reading guidance - This can be done through book talks, bulletinand book displays, reading
lists, discussion groups, conference withteachers and students, assistance in the selection of teaching
materials,maintaining a reader interest file and records for library users.4.

Preparation and dissemination of library handbooks to students5.

Organizing library tours - The school librarian can organize library tours toother school libraries or
public libraries.6.

Encouraging observance of special events - The National Book Week andbook fair are among special
events that the library can spearhead.7.

Consulting other school libraries - The school librarian can consult otherschool libraries on the
availability of books. Cooperation between theschool library and other libraries can also be considered
to maximizelibrary resources.17.4 School Library CollectionSelection and acquisition of books and other
library materials is a cooperativeendeavor of the librarian, faculty, and head of school. This should be
based on alist of approved textbooks, teacher's manuals, and supplementary materials.Teachers may

28
recommend books and other instructional materials needed in theclassroom.Supplementary materials
are also intended to be present in school librarycollections. These are materials other than textbooks
and teachers manuals whichaid in the teaching and/or learning of certain concepts and skills for
reinforcement,enrichment, and mastery. They can either be print or non-print materials.The school
library must contain the following materials in its collection:1.

General reference - These materials provide a variety of information ontopics of general interest. These
include
oEncyclopedia
oDictionary
oAtlas
oGlobe
oMap(s)
oAlmanac Additional general reference materials for grade school:
•Supplementary readers in English and Filipino which may be utilizedfor remediation, reinforcement,
and enrichment of skills developedusing the basic textbooks Additional general reference materials for
high school:
•Book of knowledge
•Philippine yearbook
•Book of facts
•Thesaurus
•Handbooks
•Manuals
•Literary classics
•Book of etiquette
•Book of world records
•Fiction books2.

General collection (subject area specific references) - This comprises ofreferences to support the
different subject areas, including professionalbooks for teachers and other employees, recreational
hobby books, etc.They provide information on selective topics which are useful to specificsubject areas.
These include
•Books on history
•Books on special sciences
•Skillbooks
•Workbooks
•Reviewers
•Illustrations that deal with specific topics.3.

Reference for basic learning areas4.

Magazines
•Local or national and foreign5.

Newspapers
•Both local and national6.

Important projects of teachers and students7.

Librarians tools and supplies


•Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
•Anglo-American Cataloging Tools (AACR2)
•Sears list of Subject Headings
•Stamp of ownership, cards, etc.
•Other supplies and AV materials17.5 Programs and ServicesThere are several programs and services
that the school library can offer to itsusers. The following are some examples.
•library orientation during opening of classes
•library programs included in the curriculum - library lessons conducted bythe librarian once or twice a
month

29
•National Book Week celebration
•photocopy services
•information services for the school and parents
•organizing student library organizations like Book Lovers' Cub17.6 Budget and FundingIn private
schools, library funding may be different from libraries in governmentschools. In government schools,
funds to maintain and sustain the operations ofthe school library have been one of the primary
problems of school officials. Libraryfunds in government schools must be 5-10% of the school funds
(basedproportionately) as released by the Schools Division Office.Donations and solicitations from civic
associations, alumni, parents and othermembers of the community, "friends of the library", and other
groups are somepossible alternative sources of income. The school administration or the libraryitself
may also organize income-generating activities which will contribute to thefinancial resources of the
library. The school librarian is the responsible person toallocate the funds for library operations and
services.The DECS "Adopt a School" program was organized to encourage corporations,institutions,
and other organizations to give donations. School libraries can alsobenefit under Republic Act 8525
known as Adopt-A-School Act of 1998, thegovernment encourages private initiative to support
education. The program allowsprivate entities to assist a government school whether elementary,
secondary, ortertiary preferably located in any of the 20 poorest provinces.

Chapter 18 - Evaluation of School Libraries and Other Issues

18.1 Evaluating School


Libraries As mentioned in the previous sections, the school library should provide for theeducational,
informational, cultural, and recreational needs of its users. Itscollections should be able to fulfill these
needs in order that students and teacherswill find fulfillment in their desire to learn and be well
informed.The following questions can serve as guidelines in evaluating the school libraryservices.
•Are the materials in the collection appropriate for the ages, abilities, andbackground of their users?
•Are the materials accurate and up-to-date?
•Does the library catch and hold the interest of the users?
•Are the materials in the library organized and balanced in content?
•Are the services of the library cost justified?Concerning educational materials, there are certain offices
under the Departmentof Education (DepEd) which are responsible for evaluating and
approvinginstructional and supplementary materials.1.

Instructional Materials Council (IMC)


- This office is responsible for theapproval of all instructional materials used in government schools.
Forprinted supplementary materials, the IMC Secretariat (IMCS) shall beresponsible for content
evaluation of all submitted materials. Evaluation ofprices for these materials is under the jurisdiction of
the Price Committeeunder the DepEd Office of the Undersecretary for Administration andFinance. The
IMC gives the approval on the procedures followed by thePrice Committee and CET in evaluating prices
of materials submitted IMCfinalizes the decision on all evaluated materials by the IMCS,
PriceCommittee, and CET.2.

Center for Education and Technology (CET)


- This separate office isresponsible for content and price evaluation of non-profit
supplementarymaterials.18.2 Status of School Libraries in the PhilippinesRecent emphasis on reading,
mastery of subject matter, individualized instruction,independent learning, and other practices that
lead to the development of eachstudent to the maximum of his/her potentials have brought about an
increase inawareness of the need for adequate school library services. This is evidenced bythe
frequency with which the school library has been equated with high pupilperformance. These emphases
in education have certainly addressed theresponsibilities of the school library.The Department of
Education for its part has continuously implemented variousprograms for the establishment and
enhancement of school libraries in thegovernment schools. One very important program for the
improvement of theschool library is the establishment of Learning Resource Centers (LRC's) in the70's.
In most cases, they started as a library, where old and new instructionalmaterials were stored. With
the introduction of new technologies like slides, filmstrips, transparencies, and audio-visual materials,
the LRD has expanded toinclude media services.It is very unfortunate that many of the LRC's
established in the 80's and early 90'sdo no longer exist due to lack of funds. With the issuance of Order
No. 6, s. 1998of the Department of Education (Department of Education, Culture, and Sports orDECS

30
at that time) entitled "Policies and Programs for School LibraryDevelopment", it is hoped that every
school will strive to have a functional schoollibrary.
31

UNIT 6 - LIBRARY MANAGEMENT PART 4:PUBLIC LIBRARIES

Chapter 19 - The Philippine Public Library System


19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and Mission19.2 Historical Development of Philippine
Public Libraries19.3 Public Libraries Categorized19.4 Legislations Relevant to Public Librarianship
Chapter 20 - Standards for Philippine Public Libraries
20.1 Operation and Management20.2 Personnel and Compensation20.3 Budget and Finance20.4
Collection20.5 Physical Facilities20.6 Library Services20.7 Reports and Inventory20.8 Networks
Chapter 21 - The National Library of the Philippines
21.1 An Overview of National Libraries21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the
Philippines21.3 Mission, Vision, and Objectives
Chapter 22 - Issues, Trends, and Developments in The National Library
22.1 PHILIN22.2 The Philippine e-Library Project22.3 Other Significant Developments
Chapter 19 - The Philippine Public Library System
19.1 The Public Library: Its Objectives and MissionThe Public library, the local gateway to knowledge,
provides a basic condition forlifelong learning, independent decision-making, and cultural development
of theindividual and social groups. Public library service shall aim to:
•facilitate informal education
•support and complement research in all fields of endeavors
•provide bibliographic access to the country's information resources
•provide wholesome recreational and beneficial use of leisure timeThe UNESCO Public Library
Manifesto, first issued in 1949, revised in cooperationwith International Federation of Library
Associations (IFLA) and adopted inNovember 1994 has the following key missions of the public library.
The Manifestois included in the Guidelines for Public Libraries published in 1986 by IFLA whichreplaced
the Standards for Public Libraries published in 1977. These missionsrelate to information, literacy,
education, and culture and should be the core ofpublic library services. The Manifesto proclaims
UNESCO's belief in the publiclibrary as a living force for education, culture, and information, and as an
externalagent for the fostering of peace and spiritual welfare through the minds of men andwomen.
UNESCO therefore encourages national and local governments to supportand actively engage in the
development of public libraries.The public library is the local center for information, making all kinds of
knowledgeand information readily available to its users. The services of a public library areprovided on
the basis of equality of access for all, regardless of social and culturalbackground. Specific services and
materials must be provided for those users whocannot use the regular services and materials for
reasons like linguistic minorities,people with disabilities, people in hospitals and prisons, and other
relevantreasons. All age groups must find materials relevant to their needs. Collections and
serviceshave to include all types of appropriate media and modern technologies as well astraditional
materials. High quality and relevance to local needs and conditions arefundamental. Materials must
reflect current trends and evolution of society, as wellas the memory of human endeavor and
imagination. Collections and servicesshould not be subject to any form of ideological, political, or
religious censorship,nor commercial pressures.The Public Research Group of London and Home
Counties Branch of the
Library Association of United Kingdom set out in 1971 the following objectives for thepublic library
services.
•Education - to foster and provide means for the self-development of theindividual/group at whatever
stage4 of education, closing the gapbetween the individual and the recorded knowledge.
•Information - to bring the individual/group accurate information quicklyand in-depth particularly on
topics of current concern.
•Culture - be one of the principal centers of cultural life, and promote akeener participation,
enjoyment, and appreciation of the arts.
•Leisure - to play a part in encouraging a positive use of leisure andproviding materials for change and
relaxation.In 1977, The Public Library Association of the American Library Association (ALA)issued the
Mission Statement for Public Libraries in the United States. In 1987, ALApublished Planning and Role
Setting in Public Libraries, a manual devised by thePublic Library Association to help public libraries
identify their priority roles and plan, measure, and evaluate services to suit these roles. These public
librariesinclude the Community Activities Center, Formal Education Support Center,Independent
31
Learning Center, Popular Materials Library, Preschoolers' Door toLearning, Reference Library, and
Research Center.IFLA Publications No. 27 entitled The Public Library Service: IFLA/UNESCOGuidelines
for Development prepared by a working group chaired by Mr. Philip Gillon behalf of the Section of
Public Libraries and which came out in 2001, is primarilyaimed at librarians, for them to use in fighting
for improved library services. Thepublication is not only confined to standards but also
recommendations to providepublic librarians the assistance in any situation to develop an effective
public libraryservice related to the requirements of their local community.19.2 Historical Development
of Philippine Public LibrariesPublic librarianship in this country started when the American Circulating
Library,established on March 9, 1900 by Charles Greenleaf, with Nellie Young Egbert as itsfirst
librarian, was turned over to the Insular Government through Act No. 96 onMarch 5, 1901 and was
placed under a Board of Trustees. Through Act No. 222which was passed on September 6, 1901, it
became the American CirculatingLibrary Division of the Bureau of Education. Henceforth, several laws
were enactedrelevant to the development of public libraries and The National Library.The first effort to
establish a public library outside Manila was made on June 21,1904 with the enactment of Act No.
1175, AN Act Authorizing the Establishment ofa Circulating Library in the Province of Albay. No
provision was given for theimplementation of the Act, thus the library did not materialize. It was in
1955 when Albay Provincial Library was organized. Iloilo Provincial Library was the first to earnthe
distinction of being the first regular provincial library established in thePhilippines; it was organized on
October 29, 1916.March 2000 marked the centennial celebration of the public library system in
thePhilippines. A nationwide search for Outstanding Public Libraries was conducted.Fifteen (15) public
libraries (three provincial libraries, six city libraries, five municipallibraries, and one regional library)
were awarded.19.3 Public Libraries CategorizedThere are more than one thousand (1,000) public
libraries in the country. However,only about 50% of this number is operational. Public libraries are
categorized asfollows: national, regional, congressional district, provincial, city, municipal,
andbarangay reading
centers. At present, the only regional library established in the Philippines is the regionallibrary in
Autonomous Region for Muslim Mindanao (ARMM). Out of more than 200congressional districts, the
only congressional district library so far since theenactment of RA 7743 is the congressional district
library in Mandaluyong City.Forty nine (49) provincial libraries out of 79 provinces have already
beenestablished. Out of ninety nine (99) cities, 79 were able to establish city libraries.One hundred five
(105) out of 1510 municipalities have their municipal libraries. Ofmore than 41,000 barangays, around
three hundred were able to put up barangayreading centers. Forty one (41) bookmobile units were also
established under thesupervision of selected provincial or city libraries.19.4 Legislations Relevant to
Public LibrarianshipPublic libraries in this country are social institutions set up to develop effective
andmature individuals. Their main function is to cater people of all ages and from allwalks of life. This
function makes public libraries totally different from other typesof libraries.The following is a summary
of legislations related to public librarianship.
•Act No. 1849 - passed on June 3, 1908, this provided for theestablishment of a public library to be
known as The Philippine PublicLibrary, making suitable appropriations, and for other purposes.
•RA 411 - enacted in 1949 and authored by the late Senator GeronimaPecson. It is considered the first
legislation supporting the public librarymovement of the country, calling for the establishment of 1,000
municipallibraries in the country for a five-year period. Due to lack of provision forfunding, the law was
not implemented.
•RA 7743 - another important legislation which was recently enacted intolaw on June 17, 1994. It is
known as An Act Establishing CongressionalDistrict, City, and Municipal Libraries and Barangay Reading
Centersthroughout the country. Similar to RA 411, RA 7743 also had noprovisions for funding.
Although it lacks this very vital provision, there hadbeen a growing interest among local officials to
establish public librariesthrough information dissemination done by The National Library.
•RA 3873 - this effected the change of the name of Bureau of PublicLibraries to The National Library.
Passed on June 18, 1964.
•Minimum Standards for Public Libraries - formulated by a Committeecreated by the Public Libraries
Association of the Philippines in 1988, asrequested by the Philippine Library Association. The standards
have gonerevisions to make it relevant with the time. At present, the Board forLibrarians has created a
committee coming from the different types oflibraries to formulate minimum standards for each type of
library.
•RA 7356 - enacted in April 1992, this established the NationalCommission for the Culture and the Arts
(NCCA) which was mandated todevelop, promote, and preserve Filipino culture and arts through the

33coordination of policies in coordination with affiliated private and publiccultural agencies.

32
•RA 8047 - known as the Book Publishing Act. Passed on 1996, the Actresulted to a considerable
increase in the total book production in thecountry (from 1,500 titles in 1995 to 5,083 in 2000).
•Executive Order No. 119 - known as the adoption of the National Bookpolicy, this was signed on July
4, 1999 in relation to passage of RA 8047.
•RA 7160 - otherwise known as the Local Government Code. One of theprovisions of the law is the
establishment of public libraries in themunicipalities. The law also puts the administrative supervision
of publiclibraries under the legislative branch of the local government, or itsSangguniang Panlalawigan,
Panlungsod, or Bayan.
•Civil Service Office Memorandum No. 99, s. 2001 - issued on July 18,2001, this strictly implements
the provisions of RA 6966 specificallySections 11 and 12 about Inhibition Against the Practice of
Librarianship.The memorandum signed by CSC Chairperson Karina Constantino-Davidrequires
appointees to librarian positions eligibility, pursuant to RA 1080,in addition to meeting other
requirements for the position in terms ofeducation, training, and experience.
•Other relevant laws - these include:
oRA 6966 and RA 9246 - laws that regulate the practice oflibrarianship in the Philippines.
oRA 8293 - known as the Intellectual Property Code. Book IV ofthe Code is about Copyright and
Neighboring Rights which isimplemented by The National Library.

Chapter 20 - Standards for Philippine Public Libraries

20.1 Operation and ManagementIn the Philippines, public library service is discharged jointly by
respective localgovernment units (LGUs) under the technical supervision of The National Library.Even
before the enactment of the Local Government Code or RA 7160, the lawwhich called for the devolution
of powers, duties, and responsibilities from nationalto local government, appointment of public
librarians was the responsibility of localofficials. This started when Decentralization Law took effect in
early 1960s. Mostpublic libraries at present are under the legislative branch of the local
government,the Sangguniang Panlalawigan, Panlungsod, or Bayan, as the case may be. Aslocal
government entities, they shall have, as their immediate superior, the localchief executive or any
legally designated local official in accordance with RA 7160(Local Government Code).To monitor
affiliated public libraries, the Public Libraries Division of The NationalLibrary requires them to submit a
monthly report of activities andaccomplishments. Also expected from them are annual inventory report
ofcollections and annual report of activities. These are required because of theProperty Accountability
set by the
government. A clear policy must be formulated defining objectives, priorities, and services inrelation to
the local community needs. The public library has to be organizedeffectively and professional standards
of operation must be maintained. Accordingto the Minimum Standards for Public Libraries, public
library services in thePhilippines are aimed to

•provide library and information service responsive to the need of thecommunity


•build within each library an information center about the library'srespective community - its resources,
history, customs, traditions, etc.
•develop a national network and linkage among public libraries with TheNational Library as the center
in order to facilitate research and referenceneeds of patrons.
•Cooperation with relevant partners - for example user groups and otherprofessionals at local, regional,
national, as well as international - has tobe ensured.Services have to be physically accessible to all
members of the community. Thisrequires well suited library buildings, good reading and study facilities,
as well asrelevant technologies and sufficient opening hours convenient to users. It equallyimplies
outreach services for those unable to visit the library.The library must be adapted to the different
needs of communities in urban andrural areas. The librarian is an active intermediary between users
and resources.Professional and continuing education of the librarian is indispensable to ensureadequate
services. Outreach and user education programs have to be provided tohelp users benefit from all the
resources.Formulation of public library standards reflects the fresh concept of public libraryservice and
organizational goals to stimulate new developments and focusattention in the field. Standards are used
as guides when implementing goals fordevelopment and setting directions for the future. The UNESCO
Public LibraryManifesto is a broad charter of public library goals. It states that public libraries arelocal
centers of information, making all kinds of information readily available to itsusers. It does not cover
the full variety of purposes and activities that a publiclibrary can serve, but it does identify the most
fundamental and common. Theseare
•to contribute to lifelong education
33
•to facilitate appreciation of the achievement of human knowledge andculture
•to be the principal means whereby the record of man's thought and ideas,and the expression of his
creative imagination, are made freely availableto all
•to refresh the human spirit by the provision of books and other media forrelaxation and pleasure
•to assist students
•to provide technical, scientific, and sociological informationWith the development of new public library
standards, the tendency towardsqualitative measure became noticeable. Traditionally, standards are
measured andexpressed in numerical terms such as number of staff, books, etc. Modernstandards start
with the proposition that the public library system shouldthemselves determine what is appropriate in
their particular circumstances. A goodexample of a traditional form of library standards is the
Standards for publiclibraries issued by IFLA in 1973. Modern library standards include Staffing forPublic
Libraries, A Planning Process for Public Libraries, and Output Measure forPublic Libraries.The Standards
for Public Libraries was issued in 1988 and had its revisions in2001. The revised edition was submitted
to the PRC Board for Librarians forreview, evaluation, integration, and implementation in its project -
Standards forPhilippine Libraries.20.2 Personnel and CompensationPublic libraries must be managed by
professionally trained, competent, andlicensed librarians. They must be supported by competent
support services staffs.Sufficient number of personnel must be hired to attain quality service.Majority
of provincial and city librarians are licensed librarians. Each public libraryis headed by a chief librarian
with a salary grade depending on the class of theprovince, city, or municipality. Most provincial and
city librarians are given a salarygrade of 22 although a few in the ranks of Librarian I have a salary
grade of 10.The size of staff in a public library depends on the population served and the sizeof the
collection. For every increase of 50,000 people, a corresponding addition ofone professional and one
support staff is suggested. Regional, congressionaldistrict, provincial and city libraries must have at
least four (4) professionallibrarians and three (3) members of the support services staff, (excluding
thoseholding non-classified positions like utility workers, etc.). Public libraries of firstclass
municipalities must employ two (2) professional librarians and adequatesupport/non-professional staff
as needed; while lower class municipalitiesincluding barangay reading centers, there should be at least
one (1) full time librarystaff and if the fund allows, two (2) support personnel that includes one (1)
clerkand one (1) utility worker.Librarians should be appointed to any of the following position titles,
withcorresponding salary grades (SG) in the plantilla of positions provided for civilservice servants in
the local government units, depending on their qualificationsand educational attainment and in
accordance with the Salary StandardizationScheme for Government Workers.
•Librarian I - SG 10
•Librarian II - SG 14
•Librarian III - SG 18
•Librarian IV - SG 22
•Librarian V - SG 24The National Library is also responsible in training public librarians.20.3 Budget and
FinanceIn principle, the library shall be free of charge. The public library is the responsibilityof local and
national authorities. It must be supported by specific legislation andfinanced by local and national
government. It has to be an essential component ofany long term strategy for culture, information
provision, literacy, and education.The public library must be provided with adequate and reasonable
budgetaryappropriations to carry out effectively its plans and programs. Aside from
nationalgovernment support, the local government units also provide for budget for
librarypurchases.Budget in public libraries shall cover the following items:
•personal services - to include salaries and wages and other commonbenefits common and due to
all civil service servants
•maintenance and other operating expenses - to include among othersfunds for travel expenses,
attendance to seminars, trainings, conferences,etc.; and also subscription to publications lije serials,
newspapers, andperiodicals.
•capital outlay - to include funds to purchase library equipment,information technology equipment and
materials, furniture, and books
•The library budget shall be adjusted annually to make it relevant with thetime.20.4
CollectionCollection development in public libraries, which is mainly selection and acquisitionof books
and other library materials, is rested on the librarian with the assistance ofprofessional staff. The
clientele can also recommend materials that can beconsidered. The collection must reflect the library's
objectives and the needs of the community served. The collection must include books, ephemeral
materials, non-print material in various formats like electronic databases and computer
softwareapplication, audiovisual materials and the like, and non-book materials likeperiodicals, maps,
pamphlets, etc. It is also their responsibility to have collection ofmaterials on local history.The size of
the library collection is directly influenced by the allocation from TheNational Library and annual
34
appropriations from the local government units. Everyyear, The National Library allocates books and
other forms of library materials tooperational public libraries. To be entitled with the allocation, the
local governmentunit has to signify through formal communication its intention to register its
publiclibrary. A Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) to be executed by the abovementioned offices
serves as the binding document which defines theirresponsibilities and/or obligations. Regardless of
population, a minimum of 3,000volumes of books is deemed as initial collection for public libraries in
the regions,provinces, cities, and first class municipalities. For public libraries in lower
classmunicipalities, an initial collection of 2,000 volumes is recommended while 500 inbarangay
reading centers. In any public library, a provision of at least 10% increasein the collection must be
regarded. Aside from books and other library materialsallocated by The National Library, collections in
public libraries also come fromtheir local government units.20.5 Physical FacilitiesPublic libraries must
be centrally located within the community they serve. Thelibrary must be accessible to all users by all
means of transportation. The librarybuilding must provide access to physically disabled individuals.
They must haveprovisions for future growth and expansion. The library must be a component of
anintegrated cultural complex in the development plan of the local government unit.The size of any
public library building must consider the following:
•community population
•growing library collection
•size of staff
•services to be offeredPublic libraries must provide adequate space for reading areas, stack areas,
workrooms, multimedia rooms, storage rooms, staff lounges, toilets for the library staffand the public,
and for other facilities. A minimum seating capacity of 48-60 peopleat any one time is recommended
for regional, congressional district, provincial,city, and first class municipality libraries; at least 36-48
for lower classmunicipalities; and 12-24 for barangay reading centers. Functional equipment
andfurniture must be adequate to generate an environment conducive for pleasant andeffective use of
materials and services, and help in the efficient operation of thelibrary to keep abreast with the time.
Layout of equipment and furniture mustpermit smooth mobility of users, library personnel, and the
materials.20.6 Library ServicesLibrary services must be provided with the highest degree of efficiency
andintegrity, keeping in mind that the public library is a service agency of thegovernment. The library
must reflect and answer the information needs of thecommunity. Library hours must be for the
maximum benefit of the community itserves.The library's collection must be classified and cataloged
and must be organizedaccording to internationally accepted standards for easy access and
retrieval.Open shelves system must be promoted to give users free access to librarymaterials. The
library should provide materials for the wholesome development ofthe community regardless of age,
creed, religion, and cultural affiliations. Materialson local history and culture must be maintained,
preserved, and conserved. Publiclibraries may consider the following services to promote the library to
the generalpublic:
•reference and research services
•circulation of books for home use
•organization and maintenance of a children's section
•reading guidance for children and out-of-school youth
•outreach programs and services especially to depressed areas of thecommunity

organization of Friends' Group to act as a support to the
library Activities like storytelling and book talks for children, book discussions, exhibits,poetry reading
and interpretation, plays, demonstrations, shows, and many otherscan also be organized in public
libraries.20.7 Reports and Inventory An annual inventory of the whole collection is required in order
to determine lossesand the quality and serviceability of the library collection. Annual narratives
andstatistical; reports must be prepared for comparative studies and evaluation of thelibrary's
programs and activities. The library should also render monthly statisticaland narrative reports to
determine monthly activities and accomplishments. A localmonitoring system of library operations and
procedures must be developed toassess and evaluate from time to time the library's efficiency and
efficacy as a frontline service agency of the government.Public libraries are requires to submit reports
of inventory to proper governingauthorities such as The National Library.20.8 Networks

36To ensure nationwide library coordination and cooperation, legislation and strategicplans must also
be defined and promote. A library network must be promotedbased on agreed standard of service. The
public library network must be designedin relation to national, regional, research, and special libraries
as well as libraries inschools, colleges, and universities.In order to efficiently maximize the services of
public libraries to their clientele,public libraries are encouraged to organize the Friends Group. This is
35
anorganization of volunteer workers in the community whose activities and projectssupplement and
augment the library's activities. They also raise funds for thepublic library. Membership comes from
retired professionals and also from othercommunity members who love to assist in library work
including those from civicorganizations.The library may as well initiate the organization of groups or
volunteers to handlefund raising to financially support the library and handle activities in line with
libraryprograms and services.

Chapter 21 - The National Library of the Philippines

21.1 An Overview of National LibrariesHistory of national libraries dates back from as early as the 15th
and 16thcenturies. The Biblioteca Marciana in Venice (established in 1468) and theBibliotheque
Nationale in France (1537) have been recognized as pioneers of thistype of public library. Bibliotheque
Nationale was first named the Royal Library andwas declared by the national convention of France
to be their national library.During the 19th century, there were twenty (20) national libraries in the
world.Though access to collection was limited at first, the scenario changed drastically inthe 1950s.
Missions of national libraries were associated with social needs.Presently, the two largest national
libraries are the Library of Congress in theUnited States and the Russian State Library. A library is
distinguished as a national library when it is
•the repository of printed works
•a general access library
•an information-bibliographical center, and
•a center for coordination, planning, and stimulation of the entire librarysystem of the nation.In 1955,
Library trends issued a special topic - Current Trends in National Libraries.Twenty three (23) national
library directors participated in the survey whichevaluated the functions and activities of national
libraries. The following functionsare viewed as characteristics of national libraries.1.

National libraries are designated as depositories of their countries'records.2.

The collection of national libraries is encyclopedic in scope. They shouldacquire substantial portions of
national and international literature andrecords through legal deposits and international exchanges.3.

National libraries produce card catalogs and make them available to thewhole country's libraries. They
also construct union catalogs and currentbibliographies.4.

National libraries act as clearing houses for interlibrary loans.5.

A national library is libraries' library which provides technical standards,establishes professional code
of practice, etc.6.

National libraries shall be kept with up-to-date innovative techniques,such as microfilming, photo
duplication, etc.7.

Some national libraries have "no longer sheen publicity or disdainpopularity"; they are increasing in
public awareness by sponsoringexhibits and seminars.8.

Some national libraries conduct schools of library science and providequarters and secretarial
assistance for the professional associations.21.2 Historical Background of the National Library of the
PhilippinesThe National Library of the Philippines is one of the cultural agencies of thegovernment. At
present through Executive Order No. 8, issued on March 1999 andfor purposes of program and policy
coordination, it is under the NationalCommission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA). It has two functions
- as a nationallibrary and as a public library. As a national library, it is the repository of the writtenand
printed cultural heritage of the country, and has continuously directed itsefforts towards the
development and preservation of its library resources. As apublic library, it acts as the central node of
the public library system in the country.This function is discharged by the Public Libraries Division.
Headed by a directorand an assistant director who are appointed by the President of the Republic of
thePhilippines, it has a staff complement of a little less than 200.The nucleus of The National Library is
the Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas which wasestablished in 1887 with Don Pedro Paterno as the first
director. It has a measlycollection of books. Paterno was responsible in publishing the first
libraryperiodical in the Philippines, Boletin del Museo Biblioteca de Filipinas.During the American period,
36
Charles O. Greenleaf established the AmericanCirculating Library on March 9, 1900 in memory of the
American soldiers who diedin the Philippines. Nellie Young Egbert was the first librarian. This was
turned overto the insular government in 1901. In 1909, it was made a division of the Philippinelibrary
with Dr. James Robertson as the director, a bibliographer and a well-knownhistorian. With Emma Helen
Blair, James Robertson co-edited the fifty five-volume

37The Philippine islands. The Philippine Library was later named The National Library.It was organized
to unify all activities of government libraries.When Dr. Robertson resigned in 1915, his successors in
the position were eitherFilipino scholars or trained librarians. Dr. Trinidad H. Pardo de Tavera was
thedirector when the Philippine Library Association was organized in October 1923,and eventually
became the president of the association. Since then, The NationalLibrary already had fifteen (15)
directors, among of them were Teodoro M. Kalaw,Epifanio de los Santos, Luis Montilla, and Eulogio B.
Rodriguez, the firstprofessionally trained library director. The present director as the 16th,
Mrs.Prudenciana
Cruz. After transferring from one location to another, The National library found itspermanent home at
T. M. Kalaw Street in Manila. The National Library building wasconstructed out of public contributions
during the centennial celebration of Dr.Jose P. Rizal's birth in 1961. The National library has eleven
(11) divisions atpresent. These are:
•Filipiniana
•Government Publications
•Reference
•Asia and Oceana
•Library for the Blind
•Bibliographic Services
•Collection Development and Catalog
•Public libraries
•Publication and Special Services
•Administrative
•Support Services
The library has an aggregate collection of more than one million volumes excludingnon-book materials,
rare books, and manuscripts.The National Library and the Philippine Library Association worked out for
theissuance of Proclamation No. 109 designating November 24-30 each year asNational Book Week.
This was signed by President Manuel L. Quezon onNovember 19, 1936.In 1991, with the support of the
National Commission for Culture and the Arts, TheNational Library was able to work for the passage of
Proclamation No. 837 signedby President Corazon C. Aquino declaring November 1991 and every
Novemberthereafter as Library and Information Sciences Month. Various international andregional
conferences, as well as other activities related to educational and culturalconcerns held in the
Philippines were co-sponsored by The National Library andthe Philippine Library Association.21.3
Mission, Vision, and ObjectivesThe National Library of the Philippines as the repository of the printed
andrecorded cultural heritage of the country and other intellectual, literary, andinformation sources
shall provide access and services to these resources for thepeople's intellectual growth, citizenship
building, lifelong learning andenlightenment; and shall ensure the preservation and conservation of
thesematerials for the future Filipino generations. The National Library envisions thefulfillment of its
leadership role among the nation's libraries by continuouslyspearheading projects and programs
directed to the development of library andinformation services in the country.The National Library aims
to
•acquire and preserve all Filipino materials
•provide national bibliographic services
•develop, in cooperation with local government units, a system of publiclibraries and information
centers throughout the country

provide information, reference, and research resources to the public


•to promote, establish, and maintain national and international standards inlibrary and information
services As a service-oriented institution, The National Library performs dual functions - thatof a
national library and that of a public library.

Chapter 23 - Issues, Trends, and Developments in The National Library

37
22.1 PHILIN The Philippine Library Information Network (PHILIN is the fill implementation of
theIntegrated Library Computerization project of The National Library. The InformationTechnology
Center of The National Library handles all activities related to libraryautomation. Online Public Access
Catalog (OPAC) is currently installed at theFilipiniana Division, hopefully will also be available in the
Reference Division
and Asia and Oceania Division soon. The National Library deems the necessity ofissuing bar-coded
readers identification cards.On May 27, 1998, The National Library launched its project for the public
librarysystem in the country, the Public Libraries' Information Center (PUBLIN), a part ofPHILIN. The
project aims to facilitate a way to having access to all types of librarymaterials nationwide through the
public library system. It aims to establishnetworking and resource sharing among public libraries.

38The National Library also distributed computer units and upgraded computersystems among 65
public libraries. The computers were installed with
TINLIB. Another software used by The National Library and other public libraries in thecomputerization
of programs and activities is the Libraries Solution. The respectivelocal government units of the
recipient public libraries were required to sign aMemorandum of Agreement between them and The
National Library, whereresponsibilities of both parties were stipulated. The computers and
softwareprograms were distributed and upgraded on March 15, 2001, along with thelaunching of the
website of The National Library and the inauguration of theInternet Room in The National Library.22.2
The Philippine e-Library ProjectThe Philippine e-Library Project is a collaborative project of the national
library andfour other institutions - Department of Science and Technology (DOST),Department of
Agriculture (DA), Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and theUniversity of the Philippines System
(UP System). This was approved by theCommission on Information and Communications Technology
(CICT) underChairperson Virgilio Pe
!
a.The project is a portal to a union database of the holdings of the five institutions,containing over one
million bibliographic records. Selected Filipiniana materials areavailable in full text (about 22,000
pages) were also uploaded in the database toserve researchers and other users. The project also
serves an on-line database ofover 29,000 titles of serials and periodicals. The project was officially
launched on April 19, 2005. Access points or kiosks were put up in public libraries, zonalresearch
centers, regional government offices, and research institutes ofparticipating agencies all over the
country. Users can access through the link. TheData Center of this project is at The National Library,
while the mirror site is at theUniversity of the Philippines Main Library.22.3 Other Significant
DevelopmentsThe National Library is presently conducting other significant projects. Theseprograms
include the continuing activity of preserving and conserving the preciouscultural heritage of the country
found at the Filipiniana Rare Books andManuscripts Section and at the Special Collections Section. This
activity includesmicrofilming and scanning of picture collections. Rare books of Filipiniana rarebooks,
special collections, and manuscripts are undergoing digitization. TheNational Library also producing
guides to the different collections in the differentdivisions to facilitate users in retrieving materials.
Installation of an Electronic AlarmSystem to entirely eliminate theft in the library's collection has
already been done inthe Filipiniana Division. Hopefully, other reading rooms will avail of this facility.The
National Library continuously acquires books and other library materials for thecollection development
of the reading areas of the central library and for allocationto the public library system. In addition, it
also houses books and materialsappraised with permanent cultural and historical value. These include
De MoluccisInsulis, known as the first book printed book about the Philippines. The FilipinianaDivision
keeps an extant copy about Magellan's expedition which was written inSpain in 1522 and was
published in France the following year. The 30-paged copymeasured 7.5 by 15 cm. Also kept in The
National Library is a facsimile of DoctrinaChristiana, the first book printed in the Philippines. Original
copies of the work arekept in the Library of Congress in the United States and in few libraries
in Spain.Continuous acquisition of government publications is also done since The NationalLibrary is
also mandated to collect, organize, and preserve all governmentpublications of the different
government branches and agencies. In organizingthese collections, The National Library and other
libraries employs a tool incollecting and organizing Philippine government documents - The
ClassificationScheme for Government Publications. This was revised in 1994 and was preparedby the
Special Committee on the revision of PHILDOC Classification Scheme. Aside from government
publications and documents, The National Library keeps incustody the collection of Presidential Papers,
which was initiated by PresidentManuel L. Quezon when he donated his official and personal papers.
This wasfollowed by Presidents Sergio Osme
!

38
a, Manuel Roxas, and Carlos Garcia.The National Library launched the Library for the Blind Division
which aims to caterto special clientele who are blind or visually handicapped. The collectionscontained
in this division are Braille materials, large print materials, and talkingbooks (audio books). With
support from Resources for the Blind Foundation, acomplete set of computers equipped with necessary
software and accessories forvisually-impaired and blind individuals, like synthesizer and machine for
enlargingfine printed materials.The National Library employs staff development and continuous
professionaleducation. Members of its staff are encouraged to take up further studies forprofessional
growth.The National Library is responsible in implementing laws related to librarianshippractices such
as RA 7743 and RA 8293 (otherwise known as the IntellectualProperty Code under which is the
Copyright Law). It implements Book IV of theCopyright Law (under RA 8293), which took effect in
1999. Safeguards and safetymeasures on copyright were formulated.

39
UNIT 7 - COLLECTION DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 23 - Principles of Collection Development


23.1 Definition and General Principles23.2 Information Needs Assessment23.3 Collection Development
Policies23.4 Trends and Issues
Chapter 24 - Selection Process
24.1 The Selection Process and Its Variations24.2 Good Selection Practice24.3 Selection Criteria in
General24.4 Selection Criteria for Books24.5 Selection Criteria for Serials24.6 Selection Criteria for
Multimedia Materials24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio Materials24.8 Selection Criteria for Video
Materials24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materials24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic
Resources24.11 Selection Criteria for Internet Resources24.12 Selection Criteria for Microforms
Chapter 25 - Selection Tools
25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library Materials25.1 Selection Tools for Books25.2
Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials25.4 Selection Tools
for Microforms25.5 Selection Tools for Serials
Chapter 26 - Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of Publishing26.2 Types of Publishing Firms26.3 Standard Publication
Numbers
Chapter 27 - Acquisition of Library Materials
27.1 Principles of Acquisition Process27.2 Selecting Dealers and Suppliers and Placing Orders27.3
Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering, and Receiving27.4 Understanding Invoices27.5 Other Means of
Acquisition - Gifts and Exchange27.6 Records and Files in the Acquisition Department
Chapter 28 - De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials
28.1 Principles of De-selection28.2 Evaluating the Library Collection28.3 Evaluation Methods
and Techniques
Chapter 23 - Principles of Collection Development
23.1 Definition and General PrinciplesCollection development is the process that builds the library's
collection for theuser community. It is a library task that entails planning, selecting,
acquiring,budgeting, and processing of materials to be circulated for use of library clienteleand for
evaluation as well.The aspect of planning in collection development is not simply to cater for
theimmediate needs of the community, but to build a coherent and reliable collectionover some time to
meet the objectives of library service. Using informationresources produced within and outside the
organization, collection developmentmakes certain the information needs of people using the collection
are met in atimely and economic manner.Collection development also identifies the strengths and
weaknesses of thelibrary's holdings in terms of patron needs and community resources andattempting
to correct existing weaknesses. The following is a summary of thegeneral principles of
collection development.1.

Collection development should be geared primarily to identified needsrather than abstract standards of
quality.2.

To be effective, collection development must be responsive to the totalcommunity needs, not confined
to those of current or active users.3.

39
Collection development should be carried out with complete knowledgeand participation of cooperative
programs at the local, regional, national,and international levels.4.

Collection development should consider all formats of informationresources in the collection.5.

Collection development was, is, and will always be a subjective, biasedwork. The intervention of the
selector's personal values into the processcan never be avoided.6.

Collection development is not something that one learns entirely in theclassroom or from reading. Only
through practice and the encounter ofmistakes will a person become proficient of developing a
collection.There are certain rules that govern collection development in relation to the size ofa library's
service community.

40
•The size of the service community is directly proportional to the degree ofdivergence in individual
information needs.
•The degree of divergence in individual information needs is directlyproportional to the need
for cooperative programs of information materialssharing.
•It will never be possible to completely satisfy all the information needs ofany individual or class of
clientele in the service community.23.2 Information Needs AssessmentInformation needs assessment
entails the process of knowing or identifying thecommunity the library serves, gathering data on the
type of information it needs.This is a valuable mechanism for patron input.Information needs
assessment considers the wants, needs, use, and demandsfrom the community. In any setting, needs
assessment basically seeks thefollowing information:
•why the patron community does or does not use a particular product orservice
•how the patron community uses the product or service
•where the patron community acquires and use the product
•what is good and bad about the product or service
•what new products or services would be of interest
•how much would the patron community be willing to expend, in terms oftime, money, and effort, for a
product or service. An information needs assessment project will include the following elements.
•Aims and objectives - the importance of the project to be conducted
•Personnel - defines who will perform the project (committee constituted ofpaid or unpaid workers
within the organization, or outside consultants)
•Main subject of the study - this includes
ohistorical data
ogeographic information
otransportation availability data
olegal research
opolitical information
odemographic data
oeconomic data
ocommunication systems
osocial and educational organizations
ocultural and recreational organizations
ocommunity information services
•Data sources - can be from key informants and social indicators
•Data collection methods - can be through community forums and fieldsurveys
•Data interpretation - interpreting in terms of social needs (normative orcomparative; felt or
expressed)23.3 Collection Development PoliciesThe phrase collection development policies are termed
interchangeably withselection policies or acquisition policies. This is a written statement of the plan
todevelop the library collection. It provides detailed guidelines intended mainly forthe library staff,
representing the plan of action to guide the staff's thinking anddecision making. It as well serves as
the mechanism for communication with thelibrary patrons, and also for those who provide for library
funding. The collectiondevelopment policy has the following uses:
•informs everyone about the nature and scope of the collection
•informs everyone of collection priorities
•forces thinking about organizational priorities about the collection
•generates some degree of commitment to meeting organizational goals
40
•sets standards for inclusion and exclusion
•reduces the influence of a single selector and personal biases
•provides an orientation and training tool for the new staff
•helps ensure a degree of consistency over time, regardless of staff turn-over
•guides staff in handling complaints
•aids in weeding and evaluating the collection
•aids in rationalizing budget allocations
•provides a public relations document
•provides a means for assessing overall performance of the collectiondevelopment program
•provides outsiders with information about the purpose of collectiondevelopment (an accountability
tool)Collection development policies have the following integral elements:1.

Overview - This is a clear statement of overall institutional objectives. Itgives a brief description about
the community and identifies the libraryclientele.2.

Details of subject area and formats collected - This is a general statementabout the parameters of the
collection. It describes in detail the type ofprograms and the patrons' information needs the collection
must meet. Italso identifies where the responsibility for collection development lies(who shall select
and how shall they select).3.

Miscellaneous issues - This part deals with issues regarding gifts andexchanges, de-selection and
discards, evaluation, complaints andcensorship, and issues concerning electronic materials.

4123.4 Trends and Issues There are some other matters of concern regarding collection development
practices. These include
•increasing demand for provision of end-user access to computer-basedinformation resources
•access versus ownership
•leases and contracts
•perpetual licensing
•paper versus cloth binding
•lack of trade bibliographies and tools for selection and acquisition
•increased costs of serials subscriptions and foreign published titles
•limited availability of published foreign titles from local book stores anddealers
•tax requirements, foreign currency conversions, and customs clearances
•preservation

Chapter 24 - Selection Process

24.1 The Selection Process and Its VariationsSelection is the heart of collection development process.
It is the process ofdeciding which materials are to be acquired for the library collection. It may
involvedeciding between items that provide information about the same subject,determining quality
and value.Selectors must identify collection needs in terms of subject and specific types ofmaterials.
They must also consider the availability of funds. Selectors shoulddevelop a plan for identifying
potentially useful materials to acquire. After this,searching for the desired materials
is conducted.Selection process varies on different types of libraries.1.

Academic library - The collection focuses on academic programs sincethe main objective of academic
libraries is to support the
curriculum. Academic libraries are also inclined in the growing trend of dependingheavily on standing
and blanket ordering.2.

Public library – The primary characteristic of the public library's collectionis diversity, because the
dominant factor in its operations is the prevailingcommunity need. There is usually a minimal growth in
the collection ofpublic libraries. There is an emphasis on collecting children's literature.Public libraries
also tend to build strong collection in the fiction genre.3.

School library media centers - They, like academic libraries, are intendedto serve as curriculum
support. School media center libraries have anacute need for a collection development policy. Their
collectiondevelopment is always being closely monitored.4.
41
Special libraries - Libraries under this type have diverse environmentsettings. Many special libraries'
collections are characterized by theobserved scarcity of space, despite of the need for acquiring very
currentcollection. Special libraries consider needs assessment activities asregular part of the
program.24.2 Good Selection Practice A good selector must keep himself abreast of what is going
on in the publishingtrade. This can be accomplished by doing the following:
•reading reviews by a variety of reputable reviewers
•being aware of which publishers have the best or worst reputations
•previewing materials whenever possible
•consulting trade and national bibliographiesThe selector must really get to know well of the
community the library serves. Hemust keep an eye on the following factors.
•different reading levels represented in the community
•main occupational groups, hobbies, recreational activities, andbusinesses in the community
•mean age of people in the community
•educational level of the community
•ethnic groups (for language considerations) represented in the communityIt is critical to be aware of
what is going on in the world. Selectors must keepthemselves informed of current events and popular
culture trends. Readingnewspapers is one good way. Some current issues that may influence the
selectionprocess are:
•popular TV shows
•topics discussed in talk shows and radio broadcasts
•current best sellers
•visiting authors in the area24.3 Selection Criteria in GeneralGeneral criteria to consider when you are
involved in making selection decisionsinclude:1. Subject matter
•What subjects do you need to collect in to build the library collection?
•How suitable is the subject, style, and reading level of the material for thecommunity?
•How accurate is the information?2. Construction quality
•Is the item well made and durable?
•For books and periodicals, does the material have good print quality? Isthe paper of appropriate
quality?
•For audio-visual materials, will the material stand up to multiple uses?3. Potential use
•What will the demand for the material be?
•What level of use justifies the acquisition?
•How relevant is the material to the community?4. Relation to the collection
•How will the material strengthen the library collection? Will it fill a gap,complement something that is
already present, or provide an alternativeopinion to what is already covered?
•Are the materials available elsewhere in the community?
•Is there fair coverage of disposing viewpoints?5. Bibliographic considerations
•What is the reputation of the publisher?
•Is the type of publication and the format appropriate for your library?
•What is the reputation and/or significance of the author?
•What do the book reviews say about the material?6. Cost
• Almost all libraries have limited budgets and have to make very carefuldecisions about how to
allocate their funds during the selection process.One approach to the selection process is to rank the
materials desired forselection. More expensive materials that are ranked highly must still bepurchased,
but then the library would be unable to purchase as manyitems. These decisions can be difficult to
make, but prioritizing patronneeds is always a good way to start.24.4 Selection Criteria for
BooksEvaluation of non-fiction, particularly reference materials is typically based on thefollowing
criteria:1. Authority
•Who is the author (and the publisher)?
•What expertise does the author have in the subject matter?2. Currency
•How current is the material?
•Are there other sources that are more current?
•Would the item duplicate information in another source already owned?3. Scope
•What subject areas are covered? Is it a broad o specific treatment of thesubject?4. Interest
•How interesting is the source?
•Does the source have the potential for being heavily used in the library?5. Organization
•How is the book laid out?
•Can the user easily find the information needed in the book? Are thereappropriate access points,
indexes, and cross references?6. Format
42
•What is the quality of the binding and the paper (acid free is preferred)?
•How readable is the print?7. Special features
•Does the book include important illustrations or other features that wouldmake it valuable?8. Cost
•How much does it cost?
• Are there other comparable sources that are less expensive?9. Accuracy
•Is the information contained accurate?
•Would experts in the subject agree that the item is a good source?10. Impartiality•

Is the source a balanced treatment of the subject matter?


•It the book does not have a balanced treatment, does you book collectionin the subject address
differing viewpoints?24.5 Selection Criteria for SerialsThe term serials is used to represent the broad
spectrum of publications issued insuccessive parts, usually in regular intervals, and as a rule, intended
to becontinued indefinitely. Aside from periodicals, journals, and magazines, also
43included in the genre are annuals (examples are reports and yearbooks), memoirs,proceedings,
etc.The most popular type of serials are:
•Periodicals are publications with a distinctive title intended to appear insuccessive (usually unbound)
numbers as parts at stated or regularintervals, and as a rule, for an indefinite time. Each part generally
containsarticles by several contributors. Newspapers whose chief function is todisseminate news, and
the memoirs, proceedings, journals, etc. ofsocieties are not considered periodicals.
•Journals are periodic publications especially dealing with matters ofcurrent interest. They are often
used for official or semi-officialpublications of special groups.
•Magazines are distinctive type of periodical that usually contains amiscellaneous collection of articles,
stories, poems, and pictures. They aregenerally directed at the general reading public.
•Memoirs are a biography or an account of historical events, especially onewritten from personal
knowledge. A memoir can be a short essay, article,or report on a scholarly subject, usually one in
which the writer is arecognized specialist.
•Proceedings are published records of the business and discussions of alearned society.
•Reports are detailed periodic account of a company's activities, financialcondition, and prospects that
is made available to shareholders andinvestors
•Annuals are a book or magazine published yearly. Reports can also beconsidered as annuals if they
are yearly published.Just like any other information resource material, several selection criteria
alsoapply for serials.1. Purpose, scope, and audience - This can be determined by examining the
tableof contents, the range of writers, authors, and editors, as well as the vocabularyused in the
article.
•What is the purpose of the periodical?

What does the periodical actually include?


•Who is the intended audience?2. Accuracy - Content should be factually correct and relatively
objective. This canbe determined by evaluating the writers, the publisher, and the subject matter.
Formore technical periodicals, an expert opinion is a good aid.
•How accurate is the material in the periodical?3. Local interest
•Does the title have some interest to the local community?4. Format issues
•What is the quality of the printing and the paper?
•Are illustrations of good quality?
•Does there seem to be more ads than text?5. Indexing
•Is the title indexed in a service to which the library subscribes?6. Cost
•How much does the subscription cost?
•Will back issues be needed? If so, how much will be expended for bindingor transferring to
microforms?7. Demand
•Will a title be used enough to justify subscription?8. Availability
•Is the title readily available through interlibrary loan of from a library whichyou have a resource
sharing agreement?24.6 Selection Criteria for Multimedia MaterialsMultimedia materials come in
several; formats. They include
•audio recordings (single track and multiple tracks; CDs and audio books)
•CD-ROM interactive/multimedia products
•computer programs
•films (8 mm. and 16 mm.)
•filmstrips (with or without sound)
•flat pictures (photographs, illustrations, artworks, posters, etc.)
43
•games (recreational and educational)
•globes (terrestrial and celestial)
•maps (flat and relief)
•microforms
•mixed media packages or kits
•printed music (performance and study scores)
•slides (35 mm. and 4 x 4)
•video formats (including games)The following are points to consider in selecting multimedia materials.
•the amount in the budget allocated for audiovisual materials (the cost peraudiovisual item is greater
than for print materials)
•the durability of the item (how well is it manufactured)
•the visual and audio quality of the item
•the ease of repairing the item in case of damage and the procedures inhandling damages caused by
patrons
•the type of equipment required for hearing or viewing the contents of thematerial
•the likeliness that the audiovisual technology is long lastingThe following presents general evaluation
criteria for multimedia materials.1. Programming factors
•Will the medium be used in formal instructional situations?
•Is it only for recreational use?
•Who is the primary audience: adults, children, or all ages?
•Will the item circulate, or will the item be available only for in-house use?
•Will the library be a member of resource sharing networks? If so, will thematerial become part of the
shared materials pool?2. Content factors
•What is the primary purpose of the item?
• Is the length of the program appropriate?
•Is the topic a fad, or is it likely to be a long-term interest?
•Is the material well organized?
•If the item is of relatively short duration and is an attempt to popularize asubject, does it do
with sufficient accuracy?3. Technical factors
•Are the visuals (assuming that there are) necessary?
•Are the visuals in proper focus, the compositions effective, and the shotsappropriate?
•Is the material edited with skill?
•Does the background audio contribute to the overall impact of thematerial?
•Is there a good synchronization of visuals and audio?
•How may the format be used - can it be viewed by small or large groupsor by both?
•Can the material be viewed in darkened, semi-lighted, or fully lightedroom?4. Format factors
•Is the format the best one for the stated purposes of the producer?
•Is the format the least expensive of those that are appropriate for thecontent?
•Will the carrier medium stand up to the amount and type of use that librarypatrons would give it?
•If damage occurs, can it be repaired, or must one buy a replacementcopy, or does it
require maintenance?
•What equipment is needed to access the material?24.7 Selection Criteria for Audio
Materials Audio materials have been an important commodity for library collectionsthroughout most of
this century and include musical productions, books on tape,and language learning, as well as lectures,
instructions, and inspirational messages. They are distributed in various formats, although the most
common today are cassette tapes and compact discs (CDs).The most popular audio materials in
libraries are spoken books on tape (talkingbooks), which may also be available in CDs. Language
learning cassette tapes areof importance if the community includes many bilingual or multi-lingual
people tofacilitate language learning of foreign languages and other languages of localinterest.Pointers
to consider in selecting audio materials are the following.
•How will the audio collection support your library's goals?
•Will the audio collection focus on all or only certain groups?
•Will you collect complete works or abridged versions? Does abridging thework affect the story?
•How well does the reader project his/her voice?
•How durable is the product?
•What is the overall quality of the recording?24.8 Selection Criteria for Video MaterialsVideo materials
are extremely popular with library patrons. Not only do theyprovide entertainment but can also serve
as educational, cultural, and informationalaids. They are available in different formats like VHS, VCD,
and DVD. VCD and DVDtechnology is starting to become more prevalent and maybe important

44
toaudiovisual collections in the future.Video materials are expensive to acquire and require appropriate
equipment forviewing. In addition, they have a relatively short life span. They are easily damagedand
their popularity is only for short periods of time. It is crucial that librarians areaware of copyright and
censorship issues related to video materials.The following are pointers to consider in selecting video
materials.
•How well are the sound and pictures/views organized?
•How accurately does the video depict real life events? What messagedoes the video intend to convey?
•Did the movie flap at the box office?
•How does your library's video collection complement the selection ofcommercial video store present in
the area?24.9 Selection Criteria for Graphic Materialsitems such as sheet music and prints that the
library may collect). Because of theirdiversity of form graphic materials present special difficulties.
First, there is little bibliographic control, so you have to acquaint yourself with the various producers.
Second, there is a need to decide whether graphic materials will be circulated or just require them to
be only used in the library.The following summarizes points to consider in selecting graphic materials.
•scale
•type of projection
•information represented
•amount of detail and accuracy
•use of color and symbols
•use and placement of nomenclature24.10 Selection Criteria for Electronic ResourcesElectronic
resources is an all encompassing term to include sources in digitalformat - e-serials, e-journals, e-
newsletters, digital serials, e-books, and manymore. The prefix "e" for any type of publication stands
for electronic.Electronic serials may be defined very broadly as any type of periodical or
serialpublication in electronic format. They are commonly available through the Internet.These are
either directly supplied by the publishers themselves or via aggregatorservices. Aggregator services
or e-journal management services where suppliers like OCLCand EBSCO provide access to and manage
a large selection of e-serials on thelibrary's behalf. This kind of service can be more convenient for
a library because itremoves the need to negotiate a set of individual licenses and prices with a
numberof different journal publishers. It also means that these journals can be accessedfrom one site
instead of multiple sites. However, because an aggregator serviceprovider must get copyright
permission from each publisher, breadth of coverageand pricing may make it unattractive, if not an
expensive option. Availing aggregator services has accompanying issues to consider.
•Which serials are available in full text?

What back issue are available (if there are any)?

How are additions and deletions notified to the customer?


What is the mode of Payment? Is it an annual subscription to thedatabase, or is access contingent


upon a subscription to the print orelectronic serial?

Should the titles in the database be added in the library's catalog entries,in the OPAC in particular?

Should links be established where the service and OPAC are web-based?Many of the criteria applied to
printed resources (such as authority, currency,intended audience, ease of use, and accuracy are also
appropriate for electronicresources. However, there are unique selection criteria to consider for
electronicresources.1. Content

Does the electronic version have retrospective data? Most electronicsources do not include data prior
to 1970s or 1980s.

How complete is the electronic database, especially when compared to itsprinted counterpart? Some
electronic resources do not includeinformation on the same extent that print resources do. For
example,graphical information may not be included on CD-ROMs due to spaceconsiderations.

45
Does the electronic resource offer any special features that are notavailable in the print version? For
example, most electronic resourcesoffer multiple access points to the data that are not possible with
printresources, and some electronic sources can provide full text contents.

How often is the information updated? While it is generally assumed thatelectronic resources are more
up-to-date than print resources, this is notalways the case (especially with CD-ROMs). This may be
true for onlineresources.2. Access

How will these resources be accessed and what will be the implication forother library services? For
example, it is common for libraries that acquirea CD-ROM version of a particular index to experience
an increase innumber of interlibrary loan for periodical titles they do not have.

How many users will the electronic resource accommodate at one tome?

Will the resource be available to an individual on a single computerterminal, or to multiple users in a


local area network (LAN), and/or toremote users from their home or offices? Your decision on what
kind ofaccess to provide will depend on the amount of demand expected for theresource.

How can the content of the electronic database be accessed? What typeof search options does the
resource provide? The user interface andsearch strategies vary widely from one product to another.3.
Technical support

How much training will library personnel need to feel comfortable usingthe product and how much time
will it take to train users?

How detailed are the instructions that come with the product? Are thereonline help screens?

How reliable is the producer? Do new systems mean reconfiguration ofthe system or network?

Will library employees and users be retrained to use the latest version of aproduct?

Is the system prone to technical problems?


Is the product compatible with existing hardware? Is the publisher'stechnical support helpful and easily
accessible when needed?4. Cost

How much do acquisitions and updates to the product cost?


What type of licensing agreement will be made?


Will there be an extra pay in installing/placing the product multiplecomputer terminals or within a local
area network? Pricing structures varysignificantly depending on the type of license arranged. A license
forsingle computer terminal installation will be considerably less expensivethan a license for multiple or
network access.

46
What kind of charges can the library expect for initial connections or fromtelecommunications
providers?

What are the expected printing costs? Will patrons be charged for printingto help compensate for these
expenses?5. Legal considerations

The library should carefully review licensing terms before purchasing aproduct, since it is responsible
for meeting all the terms of a signedagreement. Different companies and products may have
significantvariations in licensing agreements, which all library staffs should
know. Agreements often include provisions for payment and delivery of theproduct, warranties and
limits, termination of the agreement, customerservice information, and responsibility of the license for
the security of theproduct. The library should post signs to remind users of copyrightrestrictions.24.11
Selection Criteria for Internet ResourcesInternet and World Wide Web resources have been the
subjects of debates in thelibrary world today. The basic issue is how to incorporate a vast,
constantlychanging, unstructured, and unregulated conglomeration of information into
ourunderstanding of library services.There are three basic criteria in evaluating or selecting internet
resources.1. Content

Authority
o

is the page signed?


o

Are the credentials of the author given? If so, are they sufficientto convince you that the author is a
reliable source of informationon this subject?

Publishing body
o

Is the author of the page affiliated with the organization thatpublished the page?
o

Is the organization a recognized source of reliable information?


o

Verifiability/accuracy
o

Are there any obvious inaccuracies and/or grammar or spellingerrors?


o

Is it possible to verify non-published information by contactingthe source?


o

Can the information be verified in other published, reliablesources?


Currency
o

Is there a publication date? If so, is the information too old to beuseful?


o

Can it be determined when and how often the page is revised?


47
Balance
o

Is bias hidden by not identifying the author, organization, orpublishing body?


o

Does the page present an authoritative position, whetherconventionally accepted, controversial, or


politically influenced?

Appropriateness of format
o

Would the material be better if presented in a different format?


Audience
o

What is the intended audience for the web site?


Purpose
o

Is the web site intended to be educational, informational, orentertaining?


o

Is the material successful in serving its purpose?


o

How does it compare with other internet and print resourcescovering the same information?
472. Access

Searching
o

If appropriate, does the site provide a mechanism for searchingthe content of the site? How ell does it
work?

Organization
o

How clear or confusing is the site? Is it well organized?


o

Is the information needed easily reached by minimum navigationbetween pages or links?


Download time
o

How long does it take to load the site?


o

Is it worth the wait?


Stability
o
48
Does the URL change frequently? If changes are made, is thenew address made easily available?

Links
o

Are appropriate, working links provided?


o

Are the links annotated?3. Design


Construction
o

Is the page easily navigated, or are you forced to scroll throughpages of text?
o

Are there sections which are "under construction" or otherwisenot working?


Instructions
o

Are essential instructions available and easily understood?


Graphics
o

Do graphic elements add to the page or distract from itscontents?


o

Are the graphics relevant and/or useful?24.12 Selection Criteria for MicroformsMicroform is a generic
term that includes microfilm and microfiche. This is a formatnot favored by many people because the
perception that they are difficult to use.However, this is the format many libraries resort to in order to
save storage space.It is also a suitable format for materials seldom used. It is also a good
alternativeformat for rare and archival materials.Several considerations must be taken in selecting
microforms.

image magnification*currently there are five different sizes available from15x to over 200x)

format (microfilm, reel, and fiche are the well known)


finish (silver halide, diazo, or vesicular) which affects price and durability

polarity (negative versus positive exposure)


•readability, freeness from foreign objects, and reproducibility.

Chapter 25 - Selection Tools

25.1 Basic Texts in Selection and Acquisition of Library MaterialsThere are many sources that provide
assistance for librarians to select materials foracquisitions. Some of these selection tools provide
evaluative information and areselective in nature, while other tools are more comprehensive lists

49
of titles availablefor purchase.The following is a list of basic texts that can be consulted in selecting
andacquiring library materials.

Theory of Book selection for Public Libraries (1925) by Lionel R. McColvin


Book Selection (1930) by Francis Drury


A Manual of Practical Book Selection for Public Libraries (1939) by HaroldV. Bonny

Library Book Selection (1952) by S. R. Ranganathan


Building Library Collection (6th ed., 1985 by Mary D. Carter, et. al.

Selecting Materials for Libraries (2nd ed., 1981) by Robert Broadus


Living With Books (1950) by Helen Haines25.2 Selection Tools for BooksSelection tools for books may
either be selective or comprehensive.1. Selective resources only list s fraction of the available titles
based on somecriteria. They provide critical evaluation for the books. They are especially helpful
inmaking title selection decisions. Included in this category are:a. Book reviews - These resources
provide descriptive and evaluative informationthat can be used instead of physically examining the
actual book. They makecomparisons to similar works to help the librarian determine whether the
bookbeing reviewed should be added to the library collection. Examples of titles ofsome of these
printed book reviews include:

School Library Journal


Library Journal

Booklist

Choice

American Reference Books AnnualBook reviews are also available from the internet. Some of the web
sites thatcontain book reviews include:

Bookwire at

New York Times Book Reviews at


AcqWeb's Directory of Book Reviews on the Web atb. "Best of" books and recommended lists - These
materials are intended for non-current reviews. They can be used as checklists to see to it that no
good book hasbeen missed. If the selectors know that the library community's reading choicesare
influenced by recommendations, they may want to consider recommended listsin the book selection
process. Examples of web sites that contain such lists are

50
Literary Lists at

Oprah's Recommended Books atc. Subject lists2. Comprehensive resources include such listings as all
of the books published inthe United States, in a bookstore inventory, by a particular publisher, and so
on.They can be useful for verifying the bibliographic and purchasing information for abook, for
identifying new book publications, for facilitating the purchasing andordering process, and for keeping
up with publishing trends. Included in thecategory are:a. Publisher sources - These resources include
catalog, flyers, and announcementsto libraries from publishers to publicize their publications. They may
also be websites of publishers that contain the most current information about their
publication.Examples of these web links are:

AcqWeb's Directory of Publishers and Vendors at


Publishers' Catalogues Home Page at


Bookwire atb. Online bookstores - Online bookstores allow the selector to search andpurchase print
books over the internet. They can provide a quick and easy way tofind publication information for a
wide range of books. Online bookstores facilitatea convenient method for purchasing books urgently
needed. Examples are:

Amazon.com at , the largest online bookstore in the world. It is a full-service online bookstore
providing lists of book sellers, award-winners,and excerpts from review sources.

Barnes and Noble at , which offers over one million books that can besearched for and purchased over
the internet.

Alt.bookstore at , which claims two million books in its inventory andallows searching of books by
title.c. Directories of in-print and out-of-print books - These are resources for findingbibliographic and
purchasing information of books that are available for purchase,are about to be published, or are no
longer being printed. Examples of titlesincluded in this category are

Forthcoming Books

Weekly Records

Books in Printd. National bibliographies - National bibliographies can be useful for checking whatlibrary
owns a particular work in a particular country. Such resources are usuallypublished by national libraries
or state libraries. Examples of titles in this categoryinclude

British National Bibliography


National Union Catalog


Bibloiographie Nationale Française


Deutsche Nationalbibliographie25.2 Selection Tools for Audiovisual Materials Audiovisual materials fall
under the genre of non-book library materials. It may befurther broken down into two narrower
51
categories - audio and video materials. Theterm audiovisual relates to sound and vision, especially
when combined, forexample in a presentation using both film and sound recordings.In aid the librarian
in selecting audio materials, there are printed publications thatcontain reviews of audio materials which
may help. Some of these titles include

Publisher's Weekly

AudioFile

Wilson Library Bulletin


Library Journal

Audiobook Review

Parent's ChoiceThe internet is also a good source of audio reviews. Examples are

Book Aloud from Simon and Schuster at


The Best Book Review Audio atThere are numerous printed and online sources that offer reviews of
videos. Amazon.com is the most popular among the online sources. Printed materials thatcan help in
selecting video materials include:

Choice

Library Journal

Video Librarian

Video Review

Video Source Book


Film and Video Finder25.3 Selection Tools for Graphic Materials


49Maps, globes, photographs, illustrations, and some kinds of games fall under thegraphic materials
genre. Reviews of graphic materials can be found in professionalsources such as the Cartography and
Geographic Information Systems (formerly American Cartographer).The following web sites also
provide reviews of graphic materials.

Cartographic Journal at

US Geological Association at

52
Maps and References at25.5 Selection Tools for MicroformsMicroform selection will also be more
effective if reviews on these materials areconsidered. Published printed guides to microform selection
include

Guide to Microforms in Print


National Register of Microform Masters


Microform ReviewSeveral publishing companies offer microform versions of their publications. Theyalso
provide some useful information in microform selection in their web sites.Examples are

UMI at

Chadwyck-Healey at

Norman Ross at25.6 Selection Tools for SerialsFor information that will aid the librarian in selecting
serials, some library magazinesand journals that provide reviews on periodical titles. Examples are

Library Journal

New Magazine ReviewIf the main concern is the addition of established serial titles (instead of new
ones)to the serials collection, Magazines for Libraries by William Katz is a nice tool. Itselectively lists
and annotates approximately 7,000 'best' magazines for libraries. Itcan be used to build periodicals
subscriptions in a particular subject area. This ispublished in an interval of several years, so it is not a
useful tool for new periodicalsor for everyday collection development.Directories of periodicals and
newspapers are standard reference sources useful infinding subscription information. They provide
brief descriptions of periodicals andnewspapers. These sources aim at being comprehensive rather than
selective andare published on an annual basis. Popular titles of these sources are

Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory by R. R. Bowker


Serial's Directory by EBSCO


The International Directory of Little Magazines and Small Presses


Gale Directory of Publications and Broadcast Media Another group of sources of information useful in
the selection of serials are serialslists. Here are some titles.

Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature by H. W. Wilson (This selection isnot meant to be a selection
tool but many libraries rely on it on the basisof whether a periodical is indexed in this source. Because
it indexesgeneral periodicals, it is used in many public libraries.)

New Serials Titles (This publication indicates which libraries subscribe tothe periodical titles listed. This
information can be useful if the selector ifthe basis for selection of serials is comparison with other
libraries' serialcollections with similar size and scope in order to identify possible gaps inthe collection.)

53
Chapter 26 - Publishing
26.1 A General Perspective of PublishingPublishing is the heart of book trade, the manufacture,
publication, and distributionof published materials. The origins of the book trade can be traced to the
gravenclay and stone tablets and the polygonal cylinders of the ancient Assyrian andBabylonian
kingdoms, or the bound bamboo strips of the earliest Chinese scribes,but most authorities consider the
papyrus scrolls of antiquity the true progenitorsof the book.The following summarizes the procedures
accomplished by publishers in the booktrade.

Publishers tap sources of materials (manuscripts).


Publishers raise and supply the capital to make publications.


Publishers aid in the development of the manuscript.


Publishers contract for the manufacture of the publications (printing andbinding of the materials).

Publishers market their finished products (distribution, promotion, andadvertising).


Publishers maintain records relating to the production and sales ofpublications (records of
sales, contracts, and correspondences).26.2 Types of Publishing FirmsThe following are brief
descriptions of different types of publishing firms.1. Trade publishers produce a wide variety of titles,
both fiction and non-fiction,that have wide sales potentials. Many of these publishers have many
divisions that

50produce specialty titles. They have three major markets - bookstores, libraries, andwholesalers.
Examples: HarperCollins, Alfred A. Knopf, Doubleday, Macmillan2. Specialty publishers have outputs
restricted to a few areas of subjects.Compared to trade publishers, their audiences are smaller and
more critical. Theseareas include reference, paperback, children's, and music. Example:
GaleResearch3. Textbooks publishers target the primary and secondary schools. They develop aline of
textbooks for several grades. They are in one of the highest-risk areas inpublishing. Examples: Ginn or
Scott, Foresman & Company4. Subject specialty publishers focus their marketing efforts on a limited
number ofbuyers. They require expensive graphic preparation or presswork. Examples: HarryN.
Abrams, E. C. Schimer, Academic Press5. Vanity presses receive most of their operating funds from
authors whose worksthey publish. They offer editing assistance for free and can arrange to print
asmany copies as the author can afford. Example: Exposition Press6. Private presses, basically, are not
for profit ventures. In many instances, they aremore on an avocation rather than vocation for the
owners. The3 owners do not selltheir products, but give them away. Most of these presses are owned
byindividuals who enjoy fine printing and experimenting with different fonts anddesigns. Examples:
Henry Morris, Bird, Poull Press7. Scholarly publishers are mostly non-profit organizations and receive
subsidiesfrom usually, the academic institution, research institution, or learned society theyare part of.
These presses are established by scholars to produce scholarly booksthat would not be acceptable for
many for-profit publishers since scholarly bookshave limited sales appeal. Example: University of
California Press, AmericanPhilosophical Society8. Government presses are the world's
greatest publishers. Their publishing activitynow goes beyond the printing of legislative hearings and
executive materials. Theyalso publish essential and inexpensive materials on nutrition, farming,
buildingtrades, travel, etc.9. Paperback publishers produce two types of work - quality trade
paperbacks andmass-market paperbacks. Usually, they are a division of trade publishers that
issuepaperbound versions of books previously issued in hardbound editions. Theirdistribution price is
usually lower and is based on the concept of mass sales.10. Newspapers and periodicals publishers
retain reporters or writers as membersof their staffs. Supplying current information is their primary
objective.11. Reprint publishers focus their efforts on reprinting titles no longer in print.Libraries and
scholars are their sales targets. Many of the titles they reprint are nolonger in the public domain; that
is, no longer covered by copyrights.12. Small presses print a limited quantity of titles. They are
thought as literarypresses by some. These presses are usually operated by one person doingsidelines

54
in publishing.26.3 Standard Publication NumbersStandard publication numbers are numbers that serve
to identify every book atevery library or bookshop in the world. The two standard publication numbers
arethe International Standard Book Number (ISBN), the International Standard SerialNumber (ISSN),
and the International Standard Music Number (ISMN). In order toensure that each number issued is
unique, standard publication numbers areadministered by a central agency, based in Berlin, with
national bodies (such as theUnited Kingdom's Standard Book Numbering Agency based in London)
taking careof specific regions.1. ISBNISBN is a unique 10-digit standard number assigned to identify a
specific edition ofa book or other monographic publication issued by a given publisher, under asystem
recommended for international use by the International Organization forStandardization (ISO) in 1969.
In the ISBN system, media such as audiorecordings,videorecordings, microfiche, and computer
software are considered monographicpublications, but serials, music sound recordings, and printed
music are excludedbecause other identification systems have been developed to cover them. TheISBN
is usually printed on the verso of the title page and on the back of the
dust jacket of a book published in hardcover, or at the foot of the back cover inpaperback editions. In
AACR2, the ISBN is entered in the standard number andterms of availability area of the bibliographic
description.The ISBN is divided into four parts separated by a space or hyphen: a groupnumber
identifier one to five digits in length identifying the national, language,geographic, or other area in
which the edition is published; a publisher prefix oneto seven digits in length uniquely identifying the
publisher; a title number one to sixdigits in length identifying the title, volume, or edition of the work;
and a check digitthat allows any transcription errors in the preceding sequence to be detected by
acomputer. For example, in the ISBN 0-8389-0847-0, the 0 at the beginningidentifies the United
States as the country of publication, the second element

51(8389) identifies the American Library Association as the publisher, the thirdelement (0847)
identifies the 2003 edition of the book Metadata Fundamentals for All Librarians by Priscilla Caplan, and
the 0 at the end is the check digit. When acalculated check digit is the number 10, the letter X is used,
but in the other partsof the ISBN only the arabic numerals 0-9 are used.The 10-digit ISBN system has
a theoretical numbering capacity of 1 billion. Overthe past 35 years, numbers have been assigned in
over 150 countries and the rateof depletion has accelerated with the proliferation of new publishing
formats. Toincrease numbering capacity, ISO has announced a transition to a 13-digit ISBN, tobe
implemented worldwide on January 1, 2007. The 13-digit number will beidentical to the Bookland EAN
barcoded version of the current 10-digit ISBN, whichhas an added 3-digit prefix and a recalculated
check digit. In the United States,allocation of publisher prefixes and assignment of ISBNs is managed
by R. R.Bowker. ISBN codes for publishers are listed in the Publishers' International ISBNDirectory
available from Bowker.2. ISSNISSN is a unique eight-digit standard number assigned by the
International SerialsData System (ISDS) to identify a specific serial title. For example, ISSN 0363-
0277,identifies the publication Library Journal. In 2001, the scope of the ISSN wasextended to cover
continuing resources in general. The ISSN is usually given in themasthead of each issue or on the
copyright page of each volume or part of aseries. When a continuing resource undergoes a title
change, a new ISSN isassigned. The ISSN International Centre located in Paris, France, maintains a
Website at: .3. ISMNThis is an alphanumeric code assigned to identify printed music available for
sale,hire, or free of charge. Used in music publishing, the music trade, and libraries, theISMN uniquely
identifies a title issued by a given publisher in a particular edition.The ISMN is not used for sound
recordings (audiotapes, CDs, etc.),videorecordings, or books about music. Music publications issued in
series canhave both an International Standard Serial Number and an ISMN, the ISSNidentifying the
ongoing serial and the ISMN an individual title in the series. Whenboth are assigned, the two numbers
are printed clearly on the copyright page.Composed of the letter M followed by nine digits, the ISMN is
divided into fourparts (two of which are of variable length) separated by the hyphen. In the exampleM-
2306-7118-7, the letter M distinguishes the code from standard numbers usedto identify other types of
material, the second part (2306) is a unique publisheridentifier assigned by an ISMN agency
coordinated by the international
ISMN Agency in Berlin, the third part (7118) is an item identifier assigned by thepublisher, and the
fourth part (7) is a computer-generated check digit that allowsany errors in the preceding sequence to
be detected. R .R. Bowker is also theindependent agent for the ISMN system in the United States.

Chapter 27 - Acquisition of Library Materials

27.1 Principles of Acquisition

55
Process Acquisition is the process of acquiring materials for the library collection. It isaccomplished
either through purchases, gifts, or exchange programs. Its primaryconcern is the ordering, claiming,
and receipt of materials for the library.The acquisition process is accomplished by three major steps.1.
Request processing is basically the processing of incoming requests.2. Pre-ordering/bibliographic
verification establishes the existence of an item,which includes determining the exact name of the
author, title, publisher, date ofpublication, price, and where can the items be acquired. It
also determines whetherthe library wants copies of the items (as replacement of lost or damaged
copies,additional new title, or as duplicate copies).3. Ordering is the process of giving instructions to
dealers of library materials tobring or supply the selected library materials needed for the
collection.Before placing an order, it is important to decide which acquisition method will beused, what
vendor to transact with, and where will funding come from.27.2 Selecting Dealers and SuppliersDealers
and suppliers of library materials may be classified as any of the following.

wholesalers or jobbers

retailers (local bookstores, local dealers, book clubs, foreign vendors)


publishers

out-of-print, antiquarian, and rare book dealersEconomy and efficiency are the two basic
considerations in selecting dealers andsuppliers. These two broad categories are further subdivided as
follows.

service (representatives, contact numbers, websites, etc.)


quality of service

speed of fulfillment

discounts and pricing


financial viability of the company


ability to work with the library's automation system


.
•special services availableSome dealers and vendors may have any of the following added services
which thelibrarian may also consider.

acquisition assistance (searching and verification)


automated selection assistance programs


book rental plans


cataloging and shelf-ready processing


56
customized management data

economic financial transactions


alternative information formats


provision of electronic table of contents, indexes, or machine readabledata


give away items (library furniture and supplies)27.3 Placing Orders, Methods of Ordering,
and ReceivingThere are several means by which ordering of library materials is done.1. Firm order is
the usual method for acquiring materials that the library knows itneeds. This method is used when
ordering items requested on a title basis. This isdone by ordering from dealers specializing in handling
materials which are difficultto obtain.2. Standing order is an order sent to the library by the supplier
for library materialsfor purchase as it is published unless otherwise notified. This is typical for
materialspublished in series.3. Approval plan is a formal arrangement in which a publisher or
wholesaler agreesto select and supply publications exactly as issued which fit a library's pre-
established collection development profile. Specified in advance, the librarymaterials are subject to
return privileges. This method involves the creation ofapproval profiles usually specifying subject
areas, levels of specialization orreading difficulty, series, formats, price ranges, languages, and
otherconsiderations. There are times dealers provide plans in advance throughnotification slips instead
of sending the actual physical items.4. Blanket order is an agreement in which a publisher or dealer
supplies to a libraryor library system one copy of each publication as issued, on the basis of a
profileestablished in advance by the purchaser. This method is mainly used in largeacademic and public
libraries to reduce the amount of time required for selectionand acquisition, and to speed up the
process of getting new titles into circulation.Unlike approval plans, most blanket order plans do not
allow returns. TheGreenway plan in the United States is one of the best-known examples.5.
Subscription is an agreement between the library and the publisher or vendor tosupply a serial title
(e.g. an annual, a quarterly, etc.) to be renewed and prepaidannually or on other intervals
until cancelled.The following summarizes the procedures in placing orders up to receiving ofordered
library materials.

assigning an order number and deciding which fund to use


unpacking and checking of shipments


collating acquired items


placing property markings


accessioning the new materials


payment processing27.4 Understanding Invoices An invoice is a written record sent to the library by
the publisher or vendor aboutlibrary materials provided and the amount charged for them. This is sent
to thelibrary as a request for payment. It may also stand for the shipment of goods that isrecorded on
an invoiceLibrarians must familiarize and acquaint themselves on several symbols andabbreviations
used in invoices. Some commonly used are the following.

BO - back order

57
CWO - cash required with order

NEP or NE - new edition, pending


NOP - not our publication


NR - non-refundable (no returns allowed)


NYP - not yet published


OC - order cancelled

OP - out of print

OPP - out of print at present


OS - out of stock

OSC - out of stock, cancelled


OSI - out of stock, indefinitely


TOP - temporarily out of print


TOS - temporarily out of stock


XR - non-refundable27.5 Other Means of Acquisition - Gifts and ExchangeGifts are materials given to
the library from various local and foreign sources(individuals, institutions, foundations, Friends of the
Library, alumni, etc.). Selectionand acceptance criteria for gifts should be the same with those for
purchasedmaterials. Unwanted items must as well be disposed.

53The library may also compromise with other libraries or organizations to exchangeunwanted or
duplicate materials in the collection. This may also deal withexchange of own publications or materials
between libraries/institutions.27.6 Records and Files in the Acquisition DepartmentThe following is a
list of records and files maintained by acquisitions departmentsof libraries.

outstanding order file


standing order file


desiderata or want file


claims file

58
requisitions and vouchers file

invoices

letter orders/purchase orders


serials check-in file


accession record

dealer's payment card


financial reports

short reports

statements of account

credit memos

gifts/exchanges partners file


delivery receipts for on-approval titles

Chapter 28 - De-selection and Evaluation of Library Materials

28.1 Principles of De-selectionDe-selection, also termed as weeding, is the removal of items in the
library activecollection for the purpose of either discarding or sending to storage. This isperformed in
order to

keep the library collection in best possible condition


alleviate space problems, especially for small libraries


improve accessibility of the collection (removal of old or seldom usedmaterials)Materials in the library
are de-selected in consideration of the following criteria.

appearance and general condition


suspended editions

duplication of titles

59
inappropriateness, obsolescence, or incorrectness of information sources

obsolescence of technology

dilapidation (materials that are infested, dirty, shabby, worn-out, withmissing pages, etc.)

sub-standard materials (materials with small prints, brittle pages, etc.)De-selection of materials from
library collections is not usually a regular libraryroutine because of some problems. These include

lack of time (if performed, it takes time from the regular routine)

lack of staff to do evaluation of materials for de-selection


cost involved and property accountability of librarians


seldom practice of the process because some think that a biggercollection is better.28.2 Evaluating the
Library CollectionEvaluating the library collection is very important in order to measure how good it
isand how effective and/or efficient it is in fulfilling the community's informationneeds. The bases for
evaluation are as follows, coupled with evaluative questions.1. Collection development needs

What is the true scope of the collection?


What is the depth of the collection?


How does the service community use the collection?


What is the collection's momentary value?


What are the strong and weak areas of the collection?


What problems exist in the collection development policy/program?


How well do members of the collection development staff carry out theirduties?

What data must be provided


o

for possible cooperative collection development programs?


o

for de-selection/weeding?
o

to determine the need for a full inventory?2. Financial/budgetary needs


What value of allocation is needed to:


60
o

strengthen weak areas in the collection?


o

maintain areas of strength?


o

do retrospective collection development?


What should be the overall allocation for collection development?3. Local institutional needs

Is the library's performance marginal, adequate, or above average?


Is the budget request for materials reasonable?


Does the budget provide appropriate level of support?


Is the library comparable to others serving similar communities?


Are there alternatives for space expansion?


Is the collection outdated or up to date?

•Is there sufficient coordination in the collection development program?


Is the level of duplication appropriate?


Is the cost/benefit ration reasonable?4. Extra-organizational needs


What data must be provided for:


o

accreditation groups?
o

funding agencies?
o

various networks, consortia, and other cooperative programs?


o

donors?28.3 Evaluation Methods and TechniquesEvaluation of library collection can either be collection
centered or use centered.1. Collection centered - This can be done by

checking lists, bibliographies, and catalogs


seeking expert opinion


61
obtaining comparative use statistics

reviewing collection standards2. Use centered - This approach is accomplished through


circulation studies

user opinion studies


analysis of inter-library loan statistics


in-house use studies


determining shelf availability


simulated use studies


document delivery testThere are certain instruments developed for evaluating library collections.1.
Clapp-Jordan formula - This is a quantitative method, developed be Verner W.Clapp and Robert T.
Jordan. This formula calculates the total number of volumesrequired for minimum-level collection
adequacy in an academic library.2. Conspectus - This is a comprehensive survey instrument. It was
first developedby Research Library Group to record current collection strengths collectionintensities,
and intended future intensities. It is sometimes called collectionmapping or inventory profiling.

UNIT 8 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATIONPART 1

Chapter 29 - Bibliographic Control: Basic Concepts and History


29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic Control29.2 Cataloging Principles and
Operations29.3 A Brief History of Cataloging29.4 Modern Cataloging29.5 Machine Readable Cataloging
Chapter 30 - Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description
30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic Information30.2 Title and Statement of Responsibility Area
(Rule * 1)30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2)30.4 Material (or Type of Publication) Specific Details Area (Rule
* 3)30.5 Publication, Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4)30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5)30.7
Series Area (Rule * 6)30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7)30.9 Standard Number and Terms of Availability Area
(Rule * 8)
Chapter 31 - Choice of Access Points
31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies31.2 Entry Under Authorship31.3 Entry Under
Corporate Body31.4 Entry Under Title31.5 Works of Shared Responsibility31.6 Works of Mixed
Responsibility31.7 Forms of Headings
Chapter 29 - Bibliographic Control and Cataloging: Basic Concepts andHistory
29.1 Definition and General Principles of Bibliographic ControlBibliographic control is basically the
organization of recorded informationaccording to established standards to make them easily
identifiable andretrievable. In other words, it is the organization of the "bibliographic universe" tomake
its constituents known to those who need them. Bibliographic control usesretrieval devices for books,
periodicals, and other library materials. These tools arecalled bibliographic files or if automated,
bibliographic databases. Examples ofthese are bibliographies, catalogs, and, indexes.The most
prominent bibliographic files present in libraries are library catalogs.These contain records of items
contained or found in a single library or group oflibraries, in which case it is called the union catalog.
Library catalogs may either bein physical card stacks or books, or can be accessed via computers
through CD-ROMS or the online public access catalog (OPAC). Bibliographic files consist ofbibliographic
records. These represent information entities by providing descriptionof particular items and access

62
points. The set of bibliographic information of aparticular item in the library recorded in the catalogs
represents a singlebibliographic record.One very influential statement on the objectives of bibliographic
control is Cutter'sobjectives. Cutter's objectives are still a powerful influence on the structure
andpurpose of catalogs, attributed to Charles Ammi Cutter (1837-1903) who publishedhis Rules for a
Dictionary Catalog in 1876, wherein his objectives are contained.His objectives are

To enable a person to find a book of which either the author, the title, orthe subject is known

To show what the library has by a given author, on a given subject, in agiven kind of literature, and

To assist a reader on the choice of a book as to its edition(bibliographically), or as to its character


(bibliographic or topical).29.2 Cataloging Principles and OperationsCataloging is the practice of
systematically organizing bibliographic information oflibrary materials. The obvious end products of this
process are library catalogswhich are arranged by author, by title, and by subject of the materials.
Catalogingfiles in the library can be grouped as follows:

Bibliographic files or library catalogs - These are responsible for makingthe library holdings accessible
to the user through author, title, andsubject. They contain bibliographic records of each item in the
library.They also allow cross referencing which directs users to related subjectsor items.

Shelflist
"
- This represents the library holdings in the way they arearranged in the shelves. They are same
records as those in thebibliographic files but are filed by call number.

Authority file - These are the result of "authority work," where "officialterms" are adopted and
recorded by cataloging agencies for futurereferences.There are three basic operations or procedures
entailed in cataloging.1.

Descriptive cataloging is the part of the library cataloging processconcerned with bibliographic
description (identifying and describing thephysical and bibliographic characteristics of the item), choice
of access

56points (choosing "approach terms" which are more likely to be used bythe user in locating specific
library materials), and name authority work(determining the name(s) and title(s) to be used as access
points in thecatalog),2.

Subject cataloging includes subject analysis and translation (theexamination of a bibliographic item
to determine the most specific subjectheadings or descriptors that fully describe the content of library
materials,to serve in the bibliographic record as access points in a subject search ofa library catalog,
index, abstracting service, or bibliographic database).3.

MARC tagging is the processing of cataloging records to allow computersto read and process them.
MARC stands for machine readable cataloging.Cataloging operations in libraries can be classified as

Copy cataloging is the process of copying bibliographic data and otherdata in either
o

a book's cataloging-in-publication (CIP) data


o

union catalogs (such as the Library of Congress Bibliofile)


o

63
library and information networks (such as the OCLC)

Adaptation cataloging is adapting or revising an existing record if a similarwork or item.


Original cataloging is performed when no record exists or no record isaccessible to the library or
cataloging agency. The cataloger supplies allthe bibliographic and other data needed to describe the
materials.29.3 A Brief History of CatalogingCataloging has already been a practice since the ancient
period. Greeks werealready applying the principle of author entry then. The most famous library at
thattime which practiced cataloging is the Alexandrian library under the librarianship ofCallimachus, a
scholar of Alexandria who reputedly wrote more than 800 books. Ofhis learned works in prose one of
the most important was the Pinakes, a hugecatalogue of the works contained in the Alexandrian
library.The medieval period was marked with significant developments. Inventories andlists for
librarians' use gained more importance. Union lists for English librariescame during the 13th century.
The use of location codes similar to the call numberswe use today marked the 14th century. The
periods from 15th to 18th centuriesbequeathed further progress in cataloging. Librarians began to use
crossreferences. Johann Tritheim introduced his concept of bibliography inchronological order. Konrad
Genser, considered as the "father of bibliography"advocated the compilation of a bibliography by
author with a subject index. Anearly scheme of classification and call numbers as well as the use of
multipleentries was introduced by Florian Trefler. Andrew Maunsell, an English bookseller,advocated
that entry for personal name be made under surname. He also set upuniform entries for the Bible. Sir
Thomas Bodley did an inverse of Genser's work.He advocated the classified arrangement of a catalog
with an alphabetical index ofauthors by surname. Gabriel Naude recommended the compilation of a
dividedcatalog. He also promoted the use of catalogs as retrieval device and an expansiveshelf
arrangement. The French were the pioneer in using catalogs in the library. As the modern period came,
more significant developments in cataloging arrived.More libraries realized the importance of Library
catalogs. Sir Anthony Panizziformulated the British Museum Cataloging Rules in 1939 for the British
Museum.Later in the United States (1853), Charles C. Jewett developed a code for thecatalog of the
Smithsonian Institution. This code, known as the Jewett's Rulesoriginated the principle of corporate
author and "US" as the author of publicdocuments. In 1908, American and British libraries started to
adapt author and titleentries in their cataloging rules (through AA 1908). In Europe two
catalogingsystems became popular - the Prussian Instructions and the Vatican Code. ThePrussian
Instructions was originally developed as a standardized system ofcataloging for Prussian libraries. It
was adopted by many libraries in Germanic andScandinavian countries. The Vatican Code, on the other
hand, were developed forthe purpose of compiling a general catalog of printed books in the Vatican
Libraryafter its reorganization in the 1920s. It has been called an "international code with adefinite
American bias".The American Library Association (ALA) issued in 1941 the ALA draft of ALACatalog
Rules: Author and Title Entries. It was in 1949 when ALA adopted theRules for Descriptive Cataloging
on the Library of Congress. Later, ALA released ALA Catalog Rules which was edited by Clara Beetle.In
1961, the International Conference on Cataloging Principles was held. The majorproduct of this event
was the Paris Principles, a set of statements drew heavilyfrom Lubetzky's 1960 draft code. This made a
major influence in AACR's principleson entry and headings.In 1969, the International Meeting
of Cataloging Experts took place in Copenhagen,Denmark. The event gave birth to the International
Standard BibliographicDescription (ISBD), a document that advocated the use of special
punctuationmarks to distinguish bibliographic elements. The document was adopted in 1971by the
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA).29.4 Modern CatalogingIn line with modern
cataloging rules and codes, there is nothing more popular thanthe Anglo-American Cataloging Rules
(AACR), a detailed set of standardized rulesfor cataloging various types of library materials that had its
origin in Catalog Rules: Author and Title Entries, published in 1908 under the auspices of the American

57Library Association and the Library Association (UK), and the A.L.A. CatalogingRules for Author and
Title Entries (1949), with its companion volume Rules forDescriptive Cataloging in the Library
of Congress.Cooperation between the ALA, the Library Association, and the Canadian
Library Association resumed with the joint publication in 1967 of Anglo-AmericanCataloging Rules,
which is divided into two parts: rules for creating thebibliographic description of an item of any type
and rules governing the choice andform of entry of headings (access points) in the catalog. This was
based on twoprevious works - Seymour Lubetzky's Code for Cataloging Rules, Author and TitleEntry:
an Unfinished Draft and the Paris Statement. Lubetzky was the first editor of AACR 1967, and was
succeeded by C. Summer
64
Spalding. A second edition (AACR2) was published in 1978. This edition was edited byMichael Gorman
and Paul W. Winkler. This was published under the auspices
of ALA, British Library, Canadian Committee on Cataloging, and the Library Association
(UK). AACR2 was revised by the same editors in 1988 (AACR2R) to reflect changes ininformation
formats. The 1998 revision includes changes and correctionsauthorized since 1988 by the Joint
Steering Committee for Revision of AACR (JSC),including amendments authorized through 1997.
Member organizations in the JSCare the same as those in the 1978, with the addition of Australian
Committee onCataloging, Additional amendments were issued in 1999 and 2001. The current version,
Anglo- American Cataloguing Rules, Second edition, 2002 Revision (AACR2 2002),includes extensive
revisions to chapter 12 on continuing resources (formerly knownas serials). AACR2-e is a hypertext
version published by ALA Editions that includesall amendments through 2001.In addition to AACR is
the International Standard Bibliographic Description (ISBD),a set of standards adopted in 1971 by the
International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA), governing the bibliographic
description of items collected bylibraries. The general standard ISBD(G) serves as a guide for
describing all types oflibrary materials. Standards have also been developed for specific
formats:ISBD(CM) for cartographic materials, ISBD(PM) for printed music, ISBD(S) forserials, etc.
ISBDs have been integrated into several catalog codes around theworld, including AACR2.29.5 Machine
Readable CatalogingMachine Readable Cataloging (MARC) is an international standard digital format
forthe description of bibliographic items developed by the Library of Congress duringthe 1960s to
facilitate the creation and dissemination of computerized catalogingfrom library to library within the
same country and between countries. By 1971, theMARC format had become the national standard for
dissemination of bibliographicdata and by 1973, an international standard.There are several versions of
MARC in use in the world, the most predominantbeing MARC21, created in 1999 as a result of the
harmonization of U.S. andCanadian MARC formats; UKMARC, used primarily in the United Kingdom;
andUNIMARC, widely used in Europe. The MARC21 family of standards now includesformats for
authority records, holdings records, classification schedules, andcommunity information, in addition to
formats for the bibliographic record.Widespread use of the MARC standard has helped libraries acquire
predictableand reliable cataloging data, make use of commercially available library automationsystems,
share bibliographic resources, avoid duplication of effort, and ensure thatbibliographic data will be
compatible when one automation system is replaced byanother.The MARC record has three
components:1.

Record structure - an implementation of national and internationalstandards, such as the Information


Interchange Format ANSI Z39.2 andFormat for Information Exchange ISO 27092.

Content designation - codes and conventions that explicitly identify andcharacterize the data elements
within a record to facilitate themanipulation of data, defined in the MARC21 Format for
BibliographicData and other MARC21 formats maintained by the Library of Congress3.

Data content - defined by external standards such as AACR2, Library ofCongress Subject Headings
(LCSH), etc.The MARC record is divided into fields, each containing one or more relatedelements of
bibliographic description. A field is identified by a three-digit tagdesignating the nature of its
content.Tags are organized as follows in hundreds, indicating a group of tags, with XX inthe range of
00-99:0XX fields - Control information, numbers, codes1XX fields - Main entry2XX fields - Titles,
edition, imprint3XX fields - Physical description, etc.4XX fields - Series statements (as shown in
item)5XX fields - Notes6XX fields - Subject added entries

587XX fields - Added entries other than subject or series 8XX fields - Series addedentries (other
authoritative forms)
Chapter 30 - Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description
30.1 Prescribed Sources of Bibliographic InformationBibliographic information can be obtained either
from the material itself or fromoutside sources. In bibliographic description, priority is given to
informationobtained from prescribed sources within the materials themselves.In the case of printed
materials, especially books, the following are the prescribedsources of bibliographic information.1.

Title page

65
- This is the most important preliminary page. It actually is themost authoritative source of
information containing the title, subtitle,authors, publication information, and other significant data.
The title givenin the first page of the text, other than the title page is known as thecaption title.2.

Copyright page
- This is also known as the verso of the title page. Thispreliminary page contains other pertinent data
on publication, copyright,and catalog-in-print (CIP) data.3.

Table of contents
- This gives the outline of the text and is an indication ofthe content of the publication.4.

Other parts of the publication


- These parts include the cover (back andfront), spine, or the body of the text itself which may contain
substantialinformation. These parts are the least prioritized sources.30.2 Title and Statement of
Responsibility Area (Rule * 1)The title and statement of responsibility area is the area of bibliographic
descriptionin which the title proper of a work and information concerning authorship(statement of
responsibility) are recorded. It contains the following elements.1.

Title proper
- The title proper is the chief name of an item, including anyalternative title but excluding parallel
titles and other title information. Analternative title is the second part of the title proper that is
consisted oftwo parts, joined by the word or. The title may also appear repeatedly, infull or
abbreviated form, at the head or foot of each page or leaf. This isknown as the running title. Example:
Crushed violet, or A servant girl'stale2.

General material designation (GMD)


- This indicates the broad class ofmaterial to which the item belongs. This element is enclosed in
squarebrackets. Example: [text]3.

Parallel title
- This is the title proper in another language. This element ispreceded by the equals sign (=).4.

Other title information


- This is a borne by an item other than the titleproper, parallel title, or series title. This is any phrase
appearing inconjunction with the title proper, indicative of the character, contents, etc.of the item, or
the motives for or occasion of its production or publication.This element is preceded by a space-colon-
space (" : "). Example: ThePhilippine islands : a history5.

Statement of responsibility
- This is a statement transcribed from the itembeing described, relating to persons responsible for the
intellectual orartistic content of the item, to corporate bodies from which the contentemanates, or to
persons and corporate bodies responsible for theperformance of the content of the item. This element
is preceded by aspace-slash-space (" / "). If there are subsequent statements ofresponsibilities, each is
preceded by a space-semicolon-space (" ; ")..30.3 Edition Area (Rule * 2)The edition area is the area
of bibliographic description in which informationpertaining to the edition is entered, usually by ordinal
number (e.g. 15th ed.) and/ordescription (Rev. ed.), including the edition statement and statements
ofresponsibility relating to the edition. This area may contain the following elements.1.

Edition statement
- An edition is all copies of a book, pamphlet, fascicle,single sheet, etc., printed from the same
typographic image and issued bythe same entity in the same format at one time or at intervals
withoutalteration. It may consist of several impressions (all copies of an edition ofa material printed at
one time) in which the text and other matter are notsubstantially changed. In older publications, the
terms impression andedition are virtually synonymous since type was broken up for reuse afterthe first
printing. The issue of a particular material is also an indicant ofedition. Issue is all copies of an edition
forming a distinct group that aredistinguished from other copies of that edition by minor but well
definedvariations. Another term is reprint, a new printing of an item made fromthe original type image,
commonly by photographic methods; it may be animpression of an issue. For some books, the content
of the original editionmay be revised and the text republished under the same or an alteredtitle. Unless
the publisher states that a work is a revised edition orexpanded edition, the first revision is known as
the second edition.Subsequent revisions are numbered in the order in which they arepublished.
66
59This also applies to one of the formats in which a literary work orcollection of works is published,
usually for a specific purpose or market,for example, a book club edition, deluxe edition, export
edition, libraryedition, limited edition, paperback edition, trade edition, or special edition.In cataloging,
the edition is indicated by ordinal number and/ordescription in the edition area of the bibliographic
description, Edition isabbreviated as "ed". If an item lacks an edition statement but is known toinclude
important changes from previous editions, a brief statement in thelanguage and script of the title
proper is provided by the cataloger insquare brackets.Since this is on the next area, this is preceded by
period-space-longdash-space (". - "). Same is true for indicating first elements in succeedingareas of
description.2.

Statement of responsibility relating to the edition


- This element ispreceded by a space-dash-space (" / ").30.4 Material (or Type of Publication) Specific
Details Area (Rule * 3)The material (or type of publication) specific details area is reserved for
elements ofbibliographic description specific to certain types of material like any of thefollowing.1.

Musical presentation
- This, obviously, is for music materials. It indicateswhether the material is a miniature score, playing
score, part score, fullscore, etc.2.

Mathematical and other specific data


- This applies for cartographicmaterials (maps, atlases, globes, etc.). It indicates data like statements
ofscale, projection, coordinates, and equinoxes.3.

File characteristics
- This is for computer files. In AACR2 R1998, thisindicates information about computer data, computer
program, or bothcomputer data and program; in AACR2 R2002, it indicates informationelectronic data,
electronic programs, or both electronic data andprograms.4.

Numeric and/or alphabetic, chronological or other designation, or numbering area


- This applies for continuing resources like serials andintegrating resources.30.5 Publication,
Distribution, etc. Area (Rule * 4)The publication, distribution, etc. area is the area of description in a
bibliographicrecord reserved for information about the act of publishing, distributing, releasing,and
issuing the bibliographic item, including place of publication, name ofpublisher, and date of publication
or release. This place of publication and name ofpublisher is not recorded for unpublished materials,
like naturally occurring objects.This area of description contains the following elements.1.

Place of publisher
- There are instances in which more than one place ofpublication is given in a material. In such cases,
the first in the list is theone recorded. If no place or probable place of publication can be given,"S. l "
(sine loco) is recorded.2.

Name of publisher
- This is preceded by a space-colon-space (" : ").Usually, the full name of the publishing company is
not entirely given (e.g.McGraw Hill). If the name of the publisher cannot be ascertained,
theabbreviation "s. n." (sine nominee) is applied.3.

Date of publication, distribution, etc.


- This element is preceded by acomma-space (", "). No space before the comma is required.
Thecommonly given date relating to the publication of the item is thecopyright date. This is transcribed
as "c" immediately followed by thegiven date (e.g. c1998). If both publication and copyright dates are
given,both are transcribed if the interval between them is substantially long. Insuch case, the
publication date is transcribed first before the copyrightdate, each separated by a comma (e.g.
1996, c1998).If the date of publication is not available, it is advisable to
approximate. Approximated dates of publication are illustrated in the followingexamples.

[1971 or 1972] - one year or the other


67
[1969?] - probable date

[between 1906-1912] - used only for dates fewer than 20 yearsapart


[ca. 1960] - approximate date


[197-] - decade certain


[197-?] - probable decade


[18--] - century certain


[18--?] - probable century4.

Place of manufacture, name of manufacturer, and date of manufacture.This is an alternative in case of


missing data about the publisher.30.6 Physical Description Area (Rule * 5)The physical description area
of the bibliographic record is the area in which theextent of an item is recorded. For books, extent of
item includes the number ofvolumes, leaves or pages, columns, and plates, and the presence of
illustrations,maps, and/or accompanying material. The physical description also gives thedimensions
and format of the item. In most cases, the physical description of a

60book (e.g. xiv, 508 p. : ill. ; 22 cm.) is shorter than that of a non-print item (e.g. 3filmstrips : col. ;
35 mm. + 3 sound cassettes + 3 guides). Physical description issynonymous with collation.Usually, this
area starts a new paragraph in the bibliographic description, insteadof being preceded by a full stop-
space-long dash-space.The following constitutes the physical description area for book materials.1.

Extent of item
- This indicates the number of physical units or parts (e.g. 3x 3), or pagination (e.g. 150 p.).2.

Other physical detail


- This gives information about illustrative matter inthe materials (transcribed as "ill." or "col. ill/" for
colored illustrativematter). This element is preceded by a space-colon-space (" ; ").3.

Dimension
- This is the height of the book given in centimeters roundedoff to the next whole centimeter if not an
exact value (e.g. 24.3 cm. istranscribed as 24 cm.). This element is preceded by a space semicolon-
space (" ; ").4.

Accompanying material
- This is a material issued with and intended to beused with the item. Accompanying materials are
usually in a differentmedium such as electronic formats. This element is preceded by a space-plus sign-
space (" + ").30.7 Series Area (Rule * 6)The series area, also known as series statement is reserved
for informationconcerning the group of which a work issued as one of two or more separatelypublished
items is a member, including the title proper of the series, statements ofresponsibility concerning the
series, ISSN (for serials), and number within the series(if the items are numbered). This area is
enclosed in parenthesis [( )]. The seriesarea uses the same punctuations applied in the main
description (similarparticularly with the title and statement of responsibility area). It contains
thefollowing elements.1.

Title proper of series2.

Parallel title of series3.

Other title information of series4.

68
Statements of responsibility relating to series5.

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN6.

numbering within series - preceded by a semicolon7.

Sub-series8.

Other series statements30.8 Notes Area (Rule * 7)The notes area, usually following the physical
description in a bibliographic record,gives important details about the item (found in the chief source of
information) thathave no place in the other areas of bibliographic description, or other details to
beindicated as prescribed in standard formats for description such as AACR. Itusually relays the
contents of the work, its relationship to other works, and anyother characteristics not included in the
preceding areas of bibliographicdescription. Each note is given a separate paragraphThe notes area
may be formal (derived from the item itself), or informal (supplied bythe cataloger. The notes must be
as brief as possible and easily understood. Notesvary from one type of material to another. The may
contain information on any ofthe following.

frequency

system requirements

nature of the item


language

adaptation

title taken from outside the chief source of information


credits

change in serial title


physical details

accompanying material

audience

other formats

summary

contents

69
library's holdings

"with" notes30.9 Standard Numbers and Terms of Availability Area (Rule * 8)The standard number and
terms of availability area is the area of bibliographicdescription in which the standard number (unique
identification number assignedto an edition at the time of first publication, in accordance with an
internationallystandardized identification system, usually appearing somewhere on the item likeISBN,
ISMN, ISSN, etc.), list price, and any other terms under which the item isavailable are entered. This
area is always transcribed as a new paragraph after thenotes area. Standard numbers that appear in
this area include1.

International Standard Book Number (ISBN)2.

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)3.

International Standard Music Number (ISMN)

61
Chapter 31 - Choice of Access Points

31.1 Access Points and Other Basic Terminologies Access points are names, terms, or codes,
under which a bibliographic record issearched, identified, entered, or filed in a catalog. It is a key for
retrieval and at thesame time, a key for filing or display. These are the "approach terms" which
aremost likely the terms used by searchers in looking for library materials they need.In a more general
sense, an entry is any point of access to a file of bibliographicrecords or other data (name of author,
title of work, series title, assigned subjectheading or descriptor) under which a record representing a
specific item may besearched and identified, manually or electronically. The main entry is entry in
thelibrary catalog that provides the fullest description of a bibliographic item, by whichthe work is to be
uniformly identified and cited. In AACR2, the main entry is theprimary access point. In the card
catalog, it includes all the added entries underwhich the item is cataloged. An added entry is a
secondary entry, additional to themain entry, usually under a heading for a joint author, illustrator,
translator, series,or subject, by which an item is represented in a library catalog. For most items,main
entry is under name of author. When there is no author, main entry is undertitle.The heading is the
name of a person, corporate body, or geographic location; thetitle proper of a work; or an authorized
content descriptor (subject heading), placedat the head of a catalog entry or listed in an index, to
provide an access point.The entry word is the word under which a record in a catalog, index,
orbibliography is filed and searched, usually the first word of the heading, initialarticles excluded. In
retrieving information from an online catalog or bibliographicdatabase, the order of terms typed as
input may determine the success or failureof a search by author, title, subject heading, or descriptor,
but in a keywordssearch, word order should not affect results if Boolean logic is correctly
used.Synonymous with filing word.Basically, the activity of choosing access points has two aspects:

determining the main and added entries


determining the proper term for the heading whether it is personal name,corporate name, or
geographic heading31.2 Entry Under Personal Author Authorship pertains to the origin of the
intellectual or artistic content of the work. Authorship can pertain either to an individual, a certain
number of individuals, or acorporate body.The personal author is the person chiefly responsible for the
creation of theintellectual or artistic content of a material. These include

writers of books

composers of music

artists such as painters and sculptors



70
compilers of bibliographies

cartographers1.

General rule (Rule 21.1A2)


- Enter a work by one or more persons underthe heading for the personal author, the principal
personal author, or theprobable personal author. In some cases of shared and mixed
personalauthorship, the work is entered under the heading for the person namedfirst.2.

Works for single personal authorship ((Rule 21.4A)


- Enter a work,collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one personalauthor (or any
reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading forthat person whether named in the
item being cataloged or not.31.3 Entry Under Corporate
Body A corporate body is an organization of group of persons that is identified by aname or the acts
and may function as an entity like any of the following.

business firms

local and national governments and their agencies


churches

associations (clubs and societies)


institutions *museums and libraries(


international agencies

conferences (meetings of individuals or representatives of various bodiesfor the purpose of discussing


and/or acting on topics of common interest,or meetings of representatives of a corporate body that
constitutes itslegislative or governing body)

exhibitions

expeditions and festivals


performing groupsThe following are chosen sections from AACR in name authority control forcorporate
bodies.1.
General rule (Rule 21.1B2)
- Enter a work emanating from one or more corporatebodies under the heading for the appropriate
corporate body, if it falls in one ormore of the following categories.

those of an administrative nature dealing with the corporate body itself,


o

or its internal policies, procedures, finances, and/or operations


o

71
or its officers, staff, and/or membership (e.g. directories)
o

or its resources (e.g. catalogs, inventories)


some legal, government, or religious works of the following types


o

laws
o

decrees of the chief executives that have the force of law


o

administrative regulations
o

constitutions
o

court rules
o

treaties, etc.
o

court discussions
o

legislative headings
o

religious laws (e.g. canon laws)


o

liturgical works

those that record the collective thought of the body (e.g. reports ofcommissions, committees, etc.;
official statements of positions onexternal policies)

those that report the collective activity of a conference (e.g. proceedings,collected papers), of an
expeditions ( e.g. results of exploration,investigations) , or an event (e.g. exhibitions, fairs, festivals)
falling withinthe definition of a corporate body, provided that the conference,expedition, or event is
named in the item being cataloged

those that result from the collective activity of a performing group as awhole where the responsibility
of the group goes beyond that of mereperformance, execution, etc. (publications resulting from such
activitiesinclude sound recordings, films, video recordings, and written records ofperformances)

cartographic materials emanating from a corporate body other than abody that is merely responsible
for their publication or distribution2.
Works emanating from a single corporate body (Rule 21.4B)
- Enter a work,collection of works, or selection from a work or works by one corporate body (orany
reprint, reissue, etc. of such a work) under the heading for the body if the workor collection falls
into the categories mentioned.31.4 Entry Under TitleRule 21.1C of the AACR states that a work must
be entered under the title when

72
the author is unknown and no corporate body is responsible

the work has more than three authors and none of them is the principalauthor, and no corporate body
is responsible (this rule appears in AACR2R1988 and absent in AACR2 R1998 and AACR2 R2002)

the item is a collection, or a work produced under editorial collection andhas a collective title

the item is not by a person or persons, and is issued by a corporate bodybut is not one of the types of
publications listed previously

it is a sacred scripture (such as the Bible, the Koran, or the Talmud), or anancient anonymous work
(such as Beowulf, or the Arabian Nights)31.5 Works of Shared ResponsibilityWorks of shared
responsibility are works produced by the collaboration of two ormore persons or corporate bodies who
performed the same kind of activity.The following AACR rules apply for works of shared
responsibility.1.

If principal responsibility is indicated (Rule 21.6B)


- If, in a work of sharedresponsibility, principal responsibility is attributed (by the wording or thelayout
of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged) toone person or corporate body, enter
under the heading for that person orbody. Make added entries under the headings for other persons
or bodiesinvolved if there are not more than one.2.

If principal responsibility is not indicated (Rule 21.6C)


- If responsibility isshared between two or more persons or corporate bodies and
principalresponsibility is not attributed to any of them by wotrding or layout, enterunder the heading
for the one named first. Make added entries under theheadings for the others.31.6 Works of Mixed
ResponsibilityWorks of mixed responsibility are works resulting from the collaboration of two ormore
persons or corporate bodies performing different kinds of activity. Previouslyexisting works that had
been modified are included in this category.The following AACR rules apply for works of mixed
responsibility.1. Works that are modifications of other works (Rule 21.9) - Enter a work that is
amodification of another under a heading appropriate to the new work if themodification has
substantially changed the nature and content of the original or ifthe medium of expression has been
changed. If the modification is anabridgement, rearrangement, etc., enter under the heading
appropriate to theoriginal.For adaptations: Enter a paraphrase, rewriting, adaptation for children, or
version ina different literary from (e.g. novelization, dramatization) under the heading for theadapter
and make a name-title added entry for the original.For illustrated texts: Enter a work that consists of a
text for which an artist hasprovided illustrations under the heading appropriate for the text.

63For revisions of texts: Enter an edition of a work that has been revised, enlarged,updated, etc.
under the heading of the original author if:

the original author is named in a statement of responsibility in theitem being cataloged, or


the original author is named in the title proper and no other person isnamed in a statement of
responsibility or other title information.Enter a work under the heading for the reviser, etc. or under
title, as appropriate, ifthe wording of the chief source of information of the item being cataloged
indicatesthat the person or body responsible for the original is no longer consideredresponsible for the
work. Make a name-title added entry under the heading for theoriginal author. Also, make a title added
entry if the title begins with the name ofthe original author and the main entry is under the name of
the reviser, etc.For texts published with commentary (text by one author and a
commentary,interpretation, or exegesis): If the chief source of information of the item beingcataloged
presents the item as a commentary, enter it as such and make an addedentry under the heading
appropriate for the text, unless the chief source ofinformation presents the item as an edition of the
73
original work.For translations: Enter a translation under the heading appropriate to the originaland an
added entry under the heading of the translator.For items published with biographical/critical material:
If a work or works by awriter accompanied by (or interwoven with) biographical or critical material
byanother person is presented in the chief source of information of the item beingcataloged as a
biographical or critical work, enter it as such with an added entryappropriate to the work or
works included.2. Mixed responsibility in new works (Rule 21.24) - For collaborations between anartist
and a writer: Enter a work that is a work of collaboration between an artistand a writer under the one
who is named first under the chief source of informationof the item being cataloged unless the other's
name is given greater prominenceby the wording or layout, and make an added entry under the
heading for the otherone.For reports of interviews ort exchanges: If a work is essentially the work of
theperson(s) interviewed or of the participants in an exchange (other than reporter),enter under the
principal participant, participant named first in the chief source ofinformation of the item being
cataloged, or title, and make an added entry underthe heading for the reporter if he or she is named
prominently in the item.31.7 Forms of HeadingsHeadings are terms placed at the head of a catalog
entry or listed in an index, toprovide an access point. They can be name of a person, corporate body,
orgeographic location; the title proper of a work; or an authorized content descriptor(subject
heading).The following is a differentiation among types of headings and the corresponding AACR
provisions for each.1. Headings for persons

Choice of name (Rule 22.1) - In general, choose as the basis of theheading for a person, the name by
which he or she is commonly known.This can be the person's real name, pseudonym, title of
nobility,nickname, initials, or other appellations. Determine the name by which aperson is commonly
known from the chief source of information or worksby that person issued in his/ her language.

Entry element (Rule 22.4) - If a person's name consists of several parts,select the entry element that
part of the name under which the personwould normally be listed in authoritative alphabetic list in
his/her languageor country of residence or activity.

Here are specific rules for the order of elements.


o

If the entry element is the first element of the name, enter thename in direct order. Example: Ram
Gopal
o

If the first element is a surname, follow it by a comma (,).Example: Chiang, Kai-shek


o

If the entry element is not the first element in the name,transpose the elements of the name preceding
the entry elementand follow the entry element by a comma (,). Example: Cassat,Mary
o
If the entry element is the proper name in a title of nobility, followit by the personal name and the part
of the title denoting rank bycommas (,). Example: Caradon, Hugh Foot, Baron2. Geographic names
•General rule (Rule 23.2) - Use the English form of the name of a place ifthere is one in general use
(determine this form gazetteers and otherreference sources published in English-speaking countries).
Use the formin the official language in the country if there is no English form in generaluse.3. Headings
for corporate bodies
•General rule (Rule 24.1) - Enter the corporate body directly under thename by which it is commonly
identified, except when under the name of
64a higher or related body or under the name of a government (specific rulesapply for such cases).4.
Uniform titles - A uniform title is a title that brings together entries for differentpublications of the
same work, when those publications have different titles proper.If the entry is under a name heading,
place the uniform title between the nameheading and the title proper, and enclose the uniform title in
square brackets. Ifthere is no name heading, give the uniform title as the heading.Use uniform titles
when:

74
you have two or more publications of the same work in your library andthose publications have
different titles

the publication that you are cataloging has a title that is unlikely to belooked for by the users of the
catalog

you are cataloging an ancient work or a sacred scripture

you are cataloging a collection of, or selections from the works of apersonDo not use uniform titles for
revisions of works, even when those revisions havedifferent titles. If you use a uniform title, choose
the title by which the work is bestknown (decide this by consulting upon reference sources and other
publications ofthe same work but if in doubt, choose the earliest titles). Choose a title in theoriginal
language.

65
UNIT 9 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATIONPART 2

Chapter 32 -Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging


32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its Purpose32.2 General Principles of Subject Cataloging32.3 Types of
Catalogs32.4 Subject Cataloging Systems
Chapter 33 - Working with Subject Headings
33.1 Types of Main Subject Headings33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject Headings33.3 Subdivisions of
Main Headings33.4 Cross References
Chapter 34 - Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings
34.1 General Guidelines34.2 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Electronic Resourcesand Related
Materials34.3 Subject Headings for Special Materials - Children's Materials34.4 Subject Headings for
Special Materials - Biographies34.5 The Subject Cataloging Process
Chapter 32 - Basic Concepts in Subject Cataloging
32.1 Subject Cataloging and Its PurposeSubject cataloging is the process of providing subject access
points tobibliographic records. It originates from subject analysis, the process of identifyingthe
intellectual content of a work. The results of this activity may be displayed in acatalog or bibliography
by means of notational symbols (as in classificationsystems) or by verbal terms (such as the subject
headings or indexing terms).Subject access points in bibliographic records are in the form of subject
headings,each of which may consist either of a single element elements that designate whata work is
or what is
it about. Authority records are very significant in subject cataloging, not only that theycontain the
established form of a name heading, a subject heading or asubdivision, but also provide lists of cross
references made to the heading orsubdivisions from alternative or related forms, and a list of sources
that justify theestablished and alternative forms. The authority record for a name heading is aname
authority record, whereas a record of subject headings that shows theirestablished forms is a subject
authority record. Subject authority records also citethe authorities consulted in determining the choice
and form of the heading, andindicate the cross references made to and from the heading. Individual
authorityrecords for established name headings or subject headings and subdivisions arecontained in
authority files.Subject cataloging aims to:

provide access by subject to all relevant materials


bring together all references to material on the same subject


show affiliations to all subject fields


provide a formal description of the subject content.32.2 General Principles of Subject CatalogingThe
following is a summary of general principles employed in subject cataloging.1.
The user and the usage

75
- This is based on Cutter's Rules for a DictionaryCatalog. This is centered on the principle that
convenience of the public is alwaysto be set before the ease of the cataloger. This principle is also
known as "thereader as the focus".2.
Literary warrant
- This is the bottom up approach in building a controlled-vocabulary subject access system, that
looking what is written and selecting termsand inter-connectors based on what is found in the
literature. A catalog thatemploys this principle reflects the nature and size of the collection it was
designedto serve.3.
Uniform heading
- Each subject should be represented in the catalog under onlyone name and under one form of that
name. The purpose of this principle is toavoid scattering of terms. The subject cataloger has to make
choice among thefollowing instances.

Synonymous termsExample: Oral medicationDrugs by mouthMedicine by mouthPer oral medication


Variant spellingsExample: AestheticsEsthetics


English or foreign terms


- If possible, the heading to be used should be inEnglish, but a foreign word may be used when no
equivalent English termis available. This rule is also true for the following specific instances.

66
o

when the concept is foreign to Anglo-American experience andno satisfactory term for it exists (e.g.
Reallast, Precieuses)
o

when, especially in the case of scientific names, the foreign termis precise while the English term is not
(e.g. Pityrosporum ovalerather than Bottle bacillus)
o

when there is no English term for the concept and the concept isnormally expressed in foreign terms
even in English languageworks and reference sources (e.g. Bonsai, Coups d' etat)

Technical/scientific or popular terms


- Choice of terms must be differentbetween libraries serving the general public and libraries
servingspecialists.
o

Example: Lizards instead of Lacertilia


Obsolete or current terms - In establishing a new heading, a current termmust be chosen over an
obsolete term.
o

Example: Computers instead of Electronic-calculating machines4.


Unique heading
- Each heading should represent only one subject and thisconcerns the presence of homographs.

Example: Rings (Jewelry)Rings (Geometry)Rings (Gymnastics)5.


Specific entry and co-extensivity
- The principle of specific entry means that theitem is entered under its subject heading0, not under
the heading of the classwhich includes the subject.

76
Example: "The Cat"Subject headings: Cats (specific direct entry)Zoology - Vertebrates - Mammals -
Domestic animals - Cats(specific indirect entry)

There are several factors considered in defining "specificity".


o

hierarchical structure of a particular indexing language


o

collection being indexed (literary warrant)


o

document being indexed


o

depth of indexing6.
Pre-coordination and post-coordination
- In pre-coordinate systems, multipleterms representing a topic and its aspects are pre-combined in
the sourcevocabulary or by the cataloger or by the indexer as the time of cataloging orindexing using
prepositions or other devices to show how the terms areinterrelated.On the other hand, in post-
coordinate systems, terms for the main subject and itsaspects are simply listed separately and the
searchers combine the terms at thepoint of retrieval.32.3 Types of CatalogsBasically, there are five (5)
basic types of catalogs - classed/classified catalog,alphabetical specific catalog, dictionary catalog,
divided catalog, and onlinecatalog.1.
Classed/classified catalog
- In this type of catalog, a classed entry begins withthe term at the top of the hierarchy to which the
subject being representedbelongs, with each level in the hierarchy included in the subject heading.
Suchcatalogs usually use symbols, letters, and/or numbers so that closely relatedclasses are brought
together in sequence. This type is also known as class catalog,classified subject catalog, or systematic
catalog.

Example: Plants - Trees - Evergreens - Pines - Southern pines2.


Alphabetical specific catalog
- Entries in catalogs of this kind follow the principleof specific and direct entry. The entries are
arranged alphabetically without regardto their subject relationships or hierarchical status. This type is
also known asalphabetical subject catalog.

Example: (Based from the previous example) Southern pines3.


Dictionary catalog
- In a dictionary catalog, entries (for author, title, subject,series, etc.) and the cross references are
interfiled in one alphabetical sequence.4.
Divided catalog
- In a divided catalog, entries are divided into separate filesaccording to some criteria (i.e. author
entries form one distinct file and subjectentries as another file).5.
Online catalog
- This catalog is based on MARC records accessible in aninteractive mode. Arrangement of subject
entries is of no concern to users, sincethey cannot actually see how they are arranged in the computer
memory. Thesecatalogs offer improved subject access through more flexible means like
keywordsearching, selective search combination through Boolean operators, and automaticswitching
from lead-in terms to controlled terms.32.4 Subject Cataloging SystemsThe following enumerates
popular subject cataloging systems used in the past andat present.

671.
The List of Subject Headings for Use in Dictionary Catalogs (1895)
- This wasused by the American Library Association and is based on Cutter's principles. Itwent through
three editions - 1895, 1898, and 1911.2.
Subject Headings Used in the Dictionary Catalogs of the Library of Congress(1910-1914)
77
- This became a standard tool for subject cataloging in Americanlibraries.3
. Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)
- The LCSH system was originallydesigned as a controlled vocabulary for representing the subjects
and form of thebooks and serials in the Library of Congress collection, as well as for the purposeof
providing subject access points to the bibliographic records contained in theLibrary of Congress
catalogs. Presently, this is the widely used subject catalogingand indexing tool by many libraries across
the globe.4.
List of Subject Headings for Small Libraries (1923)
- This was compiled by MinnieEarl Sears. It was intended for medium-sized or small collections.5.
Sears List of Subject Headings (6th ed.)
- This is the evolution of the List ofSubject Headings for Small Libraries. This is very much less
comprehensivecompared to LCSH, and is also popular in many libraries at present.6.
Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
- MeSH is the system designed and used bythe National Library of Medicine for assigning subject
headings to books and journal articles in the medical sciences.

Chapter 33 - Working With Subject Headings


33.1 Types of Main Subject HeadingsMain subject headings are differentiated into several types.1.
Topical heading
- A topical heading represents the subject content of a work.2.
Form headings
- This kind of heading indicates the form of substance containedin the material being described -
whether it is bibliographic, artistic, or literary.

Examples: AlmanacsYearbooksShort stories3.


Name headings
a.
Personal names
- Personal names are used as subject headings for biographies,eulogies, festschriften, criticisms,
bibliographies, and literary works in which theperson is the center figure. (e.g. Aristotle, Columbus,
Christopher) Personal namesare treated differently, depending on some considerations.

Names of families, dynasties, royal houses, etc. usually appear in themanner


o

[Name] family e.g. Bush family


o

[Name} dynasty (for non-European royal houses) e.g. Hoysaladynasty, ca. 1006-ca. 1346
o

[Name], House of (for European royal houses) e.g. Habsburg,House of


Headings for individually named houses of dukes, counts, and earls areestablished in the form of
o

[Name], [Title of rank in English] e.g. Derby, Earls of; Leinster,Dukes of


Names of mythological, legendary, or fictitious characters


o

Mythological characters that are not gods are established in theform of [Name of character] ([Ethnic
adjective] mythology) e.g.Lilith (Semitic mythology)
o

78
The qualifier (Legendary character) is used with headings forlegendary characters. e.g. Robin Hood
(Legendary character);Hamlet (Legendary character)
o

The qualifier (Fictitious character) is used with names ofcharacters of literary or artistic invention, as
opposed tolegendary characters originating from myths, legends, or folklore.(e.g. Bond, James
(Fictitious character); Tarzan (Fictitiouscharacter)
o

Names of comic characters are also established n the form of[Name of character] (Fictitious character)
e.g. Snoopy (Fictitiouscharacter; Spider man (Fictitious character)
o

Biblical figures are established with appropriate qualifiers. e.g.Moses (Biblical leader); Abraham
(Biblical patriarch)

Names of gods and goddesses are established in the form of [Name ofgod or goddess] ([Ethnic
adjective] deity) e.g. Apollo (Greek deity);Minerva (Roman deity)b.
Corporate Bodies
- Works related to origin, development, activities, andfunctions of individual corporate bodies are
assigned subject entries under theirnames. These headings include public and private organizations,
societies,institutions, associations, government agencies, commercial firms, churches, andother groups
identified by a name, such as conferences and exploring expeditions.e.g. Rand Corporation; Philippine
Heart Center
68c.
Geographic names
- There are two basic types of geographic names - jurisdictional and non-jurisdictional geographic
names.

Jurisdictional geographic names are names of countries and political oradministrative divisions within
countries such as cities, provinces, towns,etc. e.g. London (England); Alaminos (Laguna, Philippines)

Non-jurisdictional geographic names are names of natural features orman-made structures associated
with places. Names of the following arealso non-jurisdictional geographic names.
o

archaeological sites, historic cities, etc.


o

areas and regions


o

canals
o

city sections
o

dams
o

farms, ranches, gardens


o

forests, grasslands
o

geographic features (e.g. caves, desserts, lakes, mountains, etc.)

79
o

parks, reserves, recreation areas, etc.


o

roads, streets, rails


o

e.g. Oregon National Historic Trail; Pinatubo, Mount; GrandCanyon (Ariz.)


The English form of the geographic name is preferred unless there is noEnglish name in common use.
o

e.g. Spain not Espa


!
a;
o

Germany not Deutschland


o

West Lake (China) not His-hu


The vernacular form is chosen when there is no English form in generaluse or it is widely accepted in
English-language works.
o

e.g. Rio de Janeiro (Brazil)


o

Rio de la Plata (Argentina and Uruguay)


For entries located in two jurisdictions, the name of both jurisdictions areadded in alphabetical order
unless the entry is located principally in one ofthe jurisdictions, which will then be the one listed first...
o

e.g. Everest, Mount (China and Nepal);


o

Black Creek (New Mexico and Arizona)


For a river, the place of origin is always listed first.


o

e.g. Wye River (Wales and England)


Note that international bodies of water are not qualified.


o

e.g. English Channel


For an entity that spreads over three or more jurisdictions, no qualifier isadded unless there is a
conflict or the name is ambiguous.
o

e.g. Amazon River;


80
o

Caribbean Sea, West (United States)


Individual non-jurisdictional islands or island groups that lie near a landmass and are under its
jurisdiction, as well as individual islands that formpart of a jurisdictional island cluster, are qualified by
the name of thecountry or first-order political division.
o

e.g. Elizabeth Islands (Massachusetts)


o

Santa Catalina Island (California)


If the island does not lie near its controlling jurisdiction, but a part of anisland group, the name of the
island group is used as the qualifier.
o

e.g. Palma (Wales and England)


Qualifiers are not used for isolated islands or isolated groups of islandsthat are not associated with a
mainland country, or with islands thatcomprise more than one autonomous jurisdiction.
o

e.g. Islands of the Pacific


o

Midway Islands

Natural features (lakes, hills, etc.) located within cities are qualified by thename of the larger
jurisdiction rather by the name of the city, except incases of conflict.
o

e.g. West Lake (China)


Headings for districts, quarters, sections, and other man-made structureslocated within a city, such as
buildings, cities, plazas, parks, bridges,monuments, etc. consist of the name of the entity qualified by
the name ofthe city. The name of a borough, city section, or city district is included inthe qualifier only
if it is necessary to resolve a conflict between entitieswith identical names.
o

e.g. Times Square (New York, N. Y.)


o

Forbidden City (Beijing, China)


o

Hotel de ville (Lausanne, Switzerland)


o

Hotel de ville (Lyon, France)d.


Other proper names
- These include names of animals, languages, ethnicgroups, roads, events, etc.

69
81

e.g. Squirt (Dolphin) [animal]


Persian Gulf War, 1991 [historical event]


National Book Week [event]


Nobel Prizes [prize, awards]


Christmas [holiday]

Chinese [language]

Tiruray [ethnic group]


Buddhism [religion]

Filipino language [language]33.2 Form Structure of Main Subject HeadingsThere are three basic form
structures of main subject headings.1.
Single concept headings
- Headings that are of this type appear either in theform of single-word terms or multiple-word terms.
This category is furthersubdivided into three.

Single word headings


- A single noun or substantive (adjectives andparticiples) is chosen as the heading when it represents
the object orconcept precisely.
o

Examples: [Single word noun headings]


o

Democracy; Women
o

[Single word substantive headings]


o

Aged; Poor

Multiple word/phrase headings


- A phrase is used when a concept orobject cannot be expressed properly by a single term. There are
twotypes.

Adjectival phrase headings


are headings consisting of a noun or a nounphrase with an adjectival modifier. Adjectival modifiers
may either be anyof the following
o

Common adjectives (e.g. Digital art; Universal design)


o
82
Common noun adjectives (e .g Budget surpluses; Web portals)
o

Ethnic, national, or geographical adjectives (e.g. Americanpoetry; Filipino songs)


o

Present or past participles (e.g. Laminated plastics; Workingpoor)


o

Common nouns in the possessive case (e.g. Children's festivals;Women's music)


o

Proper nouns (e.g. Norway lobsters; Toyota automobiles)


Prepositional phrase headings


are used when the concept is generallyexpressed in the English language in the form of a prepositional
phrase.
o

e.g. Boards of trade; Figures of speech2.


Multiple concept headings
- These headings appear as compound phrases,prepositional phrases, or subject heading strings made
up of a main heading withone or more subdivisions.

Compound phrase headings


- Such headings consist of two or morenouns, noun phrases, or a combination of both, with or without
modifiersconnected by the word "and", the word "or", or followed by the word"etc." These headings are
used to
o

express a reciprocal relationship between two general topicsdiscussed at a broad level from the
perspective of both topics
!

Examples: Education and stateLiterature and society


o

connect subjects that are often expressed together in worksbecause they are similar, opposite, or
closely associated
!

Examples: Boats and boatingGood and evilStores or stock-room keeping


o

connects nouns when one serves to define the other moregeneral noun
!

Example: Force and energy


Prepositional phrase headings


- These consist of nouns, noun phrases, orboth, with or without modifiers and connected by one or
moreprepositions. They are used to express complex relationships betweentopics.
o

Examples: Child sex abuse by clergyFertilization of plants by insects3.


Inverted headings
- These headings are used to bring together words inprominent positions as the entry elements.

83
Examples: Chemistry, OrganicEducation, HigherPhilosophy, Modern33.3 Subdivisions of Main
HeadingsSubdivisions of main headings are portions of a subject string used to identify aspecific aspect
of a main subject heading. These are in various forms.1.
Topical subdivisions
- These subdivisions are used to limit the conceptexpressed by the heading to a special subtopic.

Examples: Corn - Harvesting Automobiles - Motors - Carburetors
702.
Form subdivisions
- These are extensions of subject headings based on thebibliographic or physical form, or literary or
artistic genre in which the material isorganized and/or presented.

Examples: Engineering - PeriodicalsGardens - Poetry3.


Chronological subdivisions
- Chronological subdivisions are used with headingsfor the history of a place or subject.
Examples: United States - History - Civil War, 1861-1865English language - Grammar - 1950-4.
Geographic subdivisions
- These indicate the place of origin or the locality of themain subject and may be used with subjects
that lend themselves to geographictreatment.

Headings that may be subdivided by place carry the designation (MaySubd. Geog.) immediately after
their listing. The designation (NotSubd. Geog.) after the heading indicates that the subject cannot
besubdivided by place.
o

Examples: Education (May Subd. Geog.)Developing countries (Not Subd. Geog.)


Indirect geographic subdivisions mean that the name of the largergeographic entity is interposed
between the main heading and theplace in question.
o

Example: Music - Philippines - Bicol


Direct geographic subdivisions means that the place follows theheading or another subdivision
immediately without the interpositionof a larger geographic entity.
o

Examples: Education - Florida Agriculture - Thailand5.


Free floating subdivisions
- These subdivisions may be used under any existingappropriate subject heading for the first time
without establishing the usageeditorially. To illustrate, assuming that you are looking at the heading
"Periodicals",one is given the following instruction.SA English [French, etc.] periodicals; and subdivision
Periodicals under specificsubjectsTherefore, an item entitled "A monthly magazine for dentists" will
have the subjectheading Dentistry - Periodicals.Free-floating subdivisions of general application are
form and topical subdivisionsthat are applicable to a large number of headings.

Examples: - Abstract- Cost effectivenessFree-floating subdivisions under specific types of headings are
only applicable to,and only authorized for use under specific categories of main headings such
asclasses of persons, names of places, ethnic groups, names of corporate bodies,etc.

Examples: Actors - Political activity Asian-Americans - Race identityFree-floating subdivisions


controlled by pattern headings are form or topicalsubdivisions that are common in a particular subject
field or applicable to headingsin a particular category, instead of authorizing them heading by heading
andrepeating them under each heading within the category. For example, the headingEnglish language
is the pattern heading for languages. Therefore, all thesubdivisions listed under this heading are

84
applicable to other headings for othertypes of languages.33.4 Cross ReferencesCross references are
provided to connect related headings in the catalog. Thereare three kinds.1.
See (or Use) Reference
- This is a reference from the term or the name not usedas a heading to one that is used.

Example: Third world countriesSee Developing countries2.
See also reference
(including BT, RT, and NT) - These references connectrelated in some way, either hierarchically or
otherwise.

Example: PoetryRT LiteratureNT Classical poetryLyric poetry3.


General reference
- This type directs he user to a group or category of headingsinstead of to individual members of the
group or category. It is sometimes called ablanket reference and is represented by the symbol "SA".

Example: AtlasesSA subdivision Maps under names of countries, cities, etc. andunder topics.

Chapter 34 - Guidelines in Assigning Subject Headings

34.1 General GuidelinesThe following is a summary of general guidelines in assigning subject


headings.1.
Specificity
- Assign the most specific subject heading which represents exactlythe contents of the item.2
. Works on a single topic
- If the item contains a subtopic that falls outside thescope of the expected range, allocate headings
for the main topic and anadditional heading for the subtopic provided the latter covers at least 20% of
thework to warrant another heading.

Example: Cosmology: the origin and evolution of cosmic structure / PeterColes and Francesco Lucchin,
2002.[Subjects] CosmologyBig bang theory3.
Doubling in some cases
- This refers to the practice of assigning bilevels (genericand specific) to the same work.

Example: Introduction to economic reasoning /William D. Rohlf[Subjects] EconomicsUnited States -


Economic conditions

Works discussing individual buildings or structures within a city areassigned headings are assigned
headings in the form of [City] - Buildings,structures, etc. in addition to the name heading for the
building orstructure. Bilevel headings are assigned by tradition to certain subjects.
o

Example: World war, 1939-1945Paleontology4.


Duplicate entries
- These are made when two elements of a heading are of equalimportance and it is desirable
to provide access for both.

Example: US-China relations for the twentieth century : policies,prospects, and possibilities[Subjects]
United States - Foreign relations – ChinaChina - Foreign relations - United StatesUnited States -
Foreign relations - 2001-5.
Multi-topical work

Two or three related topics in a work - If a heading that exists representsprecisely the two or three
topics, assign it and not the two or threeheadings.
85
o
Example: The distinctive excellences of Greek ad Latin literature[Subject] Classical literature

Rule of three
- If a broad heading exists but includes more than two orthree topics in question, assign two or three
headings, not the broaderheading.
o

Example: Infants, children, and adolescents / Laura E. Berk[Subject] Child developmentInfants -


Development Adolescence

Rule of four
- This means that specific headings are preferred when thework being cataloged deals with four
topics, each of which forms only aportion small of the general topic.
o

Example: The first golden age of Viennese symphony : Haydn,Mozart, Beethoven, and Schubert / by
Peter Brown[Subjects] Symphony - 18th centurySymphony - 19th centuryHaydn, Joseph, 1732-1809,
SymphoniesMozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 1756-1791, SymphoniesBeethoven, Ludwig van, 1770-1827,
SymphoniesSchubert, Franz Peter, 1797-1828, SymphoniesSymphonies - Analysis and appreciation6.
Multi-element work
- If a work treats a single subject from different aspects orcontains various elements of one topic, use
one pre-coordinated heading, if thereis one available.

Example: Chemical plant management in Japan[Subject] Chemical plants - Japan - Management34.2


Subject Headings for Special Materials - Electronic Resources and RelatedMaterialsThere are certain
guidelines in dealing with subject contents of electronicresources.

Works carrying computer software carry the subdivision - Software or -Juvenile software.
o

Examples: Adobe GoLive [electronic resource] : Web workgroupserver CD[Subject] Web sites -
Authoring programs - Software
o

Texas geography, history, and culture [electronic resource][Subjects] Texas - Geography - Juvenile
softwareTexas - History - Juvenile softwareTexas - Civilization - Juvenile software

Works about software are assigned headings representing different typesor different aspects of
software.
o

Examples: Understanding agent systems[Subject] Intelligent agents (Computer software)


o

Software design : from programming to architecture[Subjects] Computer software - Development


A work about computer programs is assigned headings established in theform of the names of the
individual computer programs in addition toother appropriate headings.
o

Example: Linux application development for the enterprise[Subjects] Linux Application software -
Development

86
A work about databases in general is assigned appropriate headings suchas Databases or Relational
databases.
o

Example: Information and database quality[Subjects] Database managementDatabases - Quality


control

A work about databases relating to a specific field or subject is assignedheadings of the type [Topic]
- Databases
o

Example: Neuroscience database : a practical guide[Subjects] NeuroinformaticsNeuroscience -


Databases

For computer and video games, the heading Computer games or aspecific type of computer game is
assigned for computer and videogames.
o

Example: EA Sports NHL 2005 [electronic resource][Subjects] Hockey - SoftwareComputer games -


Software

For works about internet or web resources, the topical subdivision-Computer network resource is used.
o

Example: European history highway : a guide to internetresources[Subjects] Europe - History -


ResearchHistory - Computer network resourcesInternet34.3 Subject Headings for Special Materials
- Children's MaterialsSpecific guidelines also govern the treatment of subject contents of
children'smaterials.

In topical juvenile materials, appropriate form subdivisions such as -Juvenile literature, - Juvenile films,
-Juvenile software, Juvenile soundrecordings, etc. are added as the last element of the subject
headingsassigned.
o

Example: Hounds and Fabian / written and illustrated by PeterMcCarty[Subjects] Dogs - Juvenile
literatureCats - Juvenile literaturePets - Juvenile literature

For juvenile belles-lettres (literature: or writings that are valued for theirelegance and aesthetic
qualities rather than for any human interest ormoral or instructive content), headings of the type
Children's play andChildren's poetry or Children's poetry, [Language/nationality], etc. areassigned for
drama, fiction, poetry, .or other literary works written forchildren in addition to other required form
and topical headings forliterature.

Headings in the form of Children's stories or Children's stories,[Language/nationality] are assigned to


collections by one or severalauthors but not to individual works of juvenile fiction or young adultfiction.

If juvenile literary form headings are not available for particular genres,regular literary form headings
without juvenile subdivisions are used.
o

Examples: The fish is me : bath time rhymes / selected by NeilPhilip ; illustrated by Claire
Henley[Subjects] Baths - Children's poetryChildren's poetry, AmericanYou must be joking : lots of cool
jokes / compiled and illustratedby Paul Brewer ; with an introduction by Kathleen Krull[Subjects] Wit
and humor - JuvenileBabe Ruth and the ice cream mess / by Dan Gutman ; illustratedby Claire
87
Garvin[Subjects] Ruth, Babe, 1895-1948 - Childhood and youth -Juvenile fictionBaseball players -
fiction

7334.4 Subject Headings for Special Materials - BiographiesBiographical works may either be collective
or individual. Specific guidelinesgovern the treatment of subject contents of biographies in each
category.

Collective biographies
- The heading Biography with or withoutbibliographical form subdivisions, is assigned to a collective
biography,not limited to a particular period, pace, organization, ethnic group, orspecial field or
discipline.
o

Example: The Random House biographical dictionary[Subjects] Biography - Dictionaries


If a work is a collective biography of persons form a particular place, thesubject heading consists of the
name of the place plus the subdivision -Biography.
o

Example: Who's who in the Philippines[Subjects] Philippines - Biography


If the item is a collective biography of persons belonging to a particularethnic group or a particular


profession or subject field, the appropriateterm for the members of that group with the subdivision -
Biography isused as the subject heading.
o

Example: Presidents of the Philippines[Subjects] Presidents - Philippines - Biography


The subdivision - Biography is also used under names of corporatebodies and historical events,
periods, etc.
o

Example: United States - Army - BiographyPhilippines - History - EDSA Revolution, 1986 -Biography

When the required term referring to a special class of persons is not foundin subject authority lists
(LCSH in particular), the subject heading consistsof the name of the relevant subject or discipline with
the subdivision -Biography.
o

Example: Art – Biography (for all kinds of people associated withthe art including artists, dealers,
collectors, museums, personnel,etc.)

If the work contains lists of works of authors active in particular fields aswell as biographic information
about those authors, the subdivision - Bio-bibliography is used.
o

Example: Philippine literature - Bio-bibliography


Individual biographies - If the biography focuses on a specific aspect of aperson's life, an appropriate
subdivision taken from the list Free-FloatingSubdivisions Used Under Names of Persons, or from
pattern headings[like Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616 (for literary authors)] is added.
o
88
Example: Marcos, Ferdinand E. - CorrespondenceJoaquin, Nick

In addition to the personal name heading, a biographical heading in theform of [Class of persons] -
[Place] - [Subdivision indicating type ofbiographic work] is used.
o

Example: Franz Boas, social activist : the dynamics of ethnicity /Marshall Hyatt[Subjects] Boas,
Franz, 1858-1942 Anthropologists - United States -Biography Anthropology - HistoryUnited States -
Ethnic relations

Three (3) types of headings are assigned to a work of a statesman (ruler orhead of a state) which
contains information about his life:
o

the personal name heading with applicable subdivision(s)


o

a biographical heading
o

a heading for the event or period of the country's history in whicha person is involved
!

Example: The presidency of Corazon C. Aquino[Subjects] Philippines - Presidents - 1986-1992 Aquino,


Corazon CojuangcoPresidents - Philippines - Biography

Corporate headings (e.g. Great Britain, Sovereign, 1660-1685 : Charles II),which are used as main or
added entries in descriptive cataloging are notused as subject entries. Instead, the personal name
heading and theappropriate heading for the history of the period are used.34.5 The Subject Cataloging
ProcessSubject cataloging process is divided into two - subject analysis and translation.

Subject analysis or conceptual analysis is the process of identifying theconcepts/topics in a work and
determining what aspects of it the user willbe interested in. The following steps serve as a guide for its
effectiveundertaking.
o

Jot down the title of the document or the item in question. Thistitle is referred to as the raw title.

74
!

Example: How to manage barangay finances


o

Read through the other parts of the item (e.g. introduction,preface, table of contents, etc.) in order to
identify and expressthe specific contents of the item. This is called the expressivetitle. Below are the
parts of an item that will be useful in doingthis step.
!

Item Part
!

Remarks
!
89
Title - may or may not be helpful
!

Subtitle - often more useful


!

Author - may provide an identification of the broad topicif the author is already established in
publishing in thearea
!

Foreword, preface, introduction - usually state theauthor's intention


!

Publisher - may give an introduction if the publisherspecializes in a particular subject area


!

Series - may sometimes be useful


!

Comments and index - usually indicate the main topics


!

Text - confirms ideas about the subject


!

Catalog in publication (CIP) - useful but must be usedwith care


From the above example, a possible expressive title will be


o

How to manage barangay finances in the Philippines(Underscored items are not included in the raw
title.)

Write down the kernel title by retaining the substantive or kernel termswhich denote each of the
substantive ideas and dropping the auxiliarywords and connectives such as articles prepositions, and
conjunctions.The kernel title for the above example will be
o

Manage, Barangay finances, Philippines


Write down the transformed title by rearranging the kernel terms in asequence that would show which
concept is the most significant. Thetransformed title will be
o

Barangay finances, Philippines, Manage


Using standard terms lists or controlled vocabulary lists, verify the termsand make the necessary
modifications.
o

Subject headings:Local finances - Philippines - ManagementFinance, Public - Philippines - Handbook,


manuals, etc.

Translation takes place at the stage when standard terms contained in thecontrolled vocabulary are
used to represent the subject heading of anitem.

90
75
UNIT 10 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATIONPART 3
Chapter 35 - An Overview of Classification
35.1 Terminologies in Classification35.2 Purpose of a Classification System35.3 Types of
Classifications35.4 Notation
Chapter 36 - Guidelines in Classification
36.1 General Principles and Guidelines36.2 Classification of Multi-topical WorksChapter 37 -
Classification Schemes37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification System37.2 Library of Congress Classification
System37.3 Other Classification Schemes
Chapter 35 - An Overview of Classification
35.1 Terminologies in ClassificationClassification is the act of organizing the universe of knowledge into
somesystematic order. It would also mean grouping of things or objects that haveproperties or
characteristics in common into a class - a group of objects exhibitingone or more common
characteristics identified by specific notation. Classificationalso involves establishing relationships
among classes and making distinctionswithin classes to arrive at subclasses and finer divisions.Library
classification is the systematic arrangement by subject of books and othermaterials on shelves, or of
catalogue and index entries in the manner which is mostuseful to those who read or who seek a
definite piece of information. The inventoror creator of a classification scheme is a classificationist.
He/she may also be aperson involved in the theory of
classification. A notation that designates the class to which a given item belongs is the classnumber.
The call number is a set of letters, numerals, or other symbols (incombination or alone)used by a
library to identify a specific copy of an item in thelibrary collection. It may consist of a class number,
book number, date, volumenumber, copy number, etc. The book number distinguishes a specific item
fromother items within the same class number. A part of the book number, the workmark, consists of
a letter appended to the author (or biographee) designation toshow the first letter of the title (or first
letter of the name of the biographer).35.2 Purpose of a Classification SystemBasically, a classification
system aims to

arrange items in a logical order on library shelves, helping the user identifyand locate a work through a
call number and group all works of a kindtogether;

provide a systematic display of bibliographic entries in printed catalogs,bibliographies, and indexes


(performs a collocation system); and

serves as a direct retrieval function (in the case of some online catalogs)by helping in the identification
and retrieval of a group of related, as wellas specific known items.35.3 Types of ClassificationsThere
are four basic types of classification theories used in libraries.1.
Traditional theory of classification (logical or philosophical principles)
- In thistheory, classification begins with the universe of knowledge and divides it intosuccessive
stages of classes and subclasses, with chosen characteristics as thebasis for each stage.

Example: Universe of knowledge



Social science

Economics

Labor

Laboring classes

Duration of workThe progression is from general to specific, forming a hierarchical or "tree"structure;
each class being a specie of the class on the preceding level and agenus below it. According to
hierarchical principles, the bases for division within aclass are subclasses, and subclasses may vary

91
considerably from subject tosubject. For example:, literature can be divided by language, genre/form,
andperiod. Each characteristic is called a facet.This theory also provides listing of all subjects and their
subdivisions and providesready-made symbols for them; such scheme is known as enumerative
scheme. Anexample of this type of classification scheme is the Library of CongressClassification System
(LCCS).2.
Modern classification theory
- This theory places an emphasis on facet analysisand synthesis. Analysis is the breaking up of a
subject into its component parts,while synthesis is the reassembly of those parts as required by the
document to berepresented. In this theory, the basic components of subject are identified, andprovide
lists of elements or aspects that are topically important under eachdiscipline or main class. For
example, the topic Education may have the followingfacets.

Educational institutions

Persons taught

Subjects taught

76

Method of instruction, etc. A system based on these principles is called a faceted or analytico-
syntheticclassification. A good example of this type is the Colon Classification.3.
Close classification
- In this theory, the content of a work is specified by notationto the fullest extent possible.4.
Broad classification
- This system means that a work is placed in a broad classby use of notation that has been logically
abridged. For example, a work on Frenchcooking is classed closely by the Dewey Decimal Classification
System at641.5944 (641.59 corresponds to Cooking by place, and from Table 2, 44 isassigned to
France), or broadly at 641.5 (under Cooking).35.4 NotationNotation is a device consisting of numerals,
letters, and/or symbols used torepresent the main and subordinate divisions of a classification
scheme.There are several types of notation. If classified according to the kind of symbolsused, they
may either be pure notation or mixed notation.

Pure notation
- a notational system that uses one kind of symbol only (i.e.purely alphabetic or numeric)

Mixed notation
- a notation system using a combination of two or morekinds of symbols (i.e. a combination of letters
and numbers)Notation may also be classified according to the system they employ on how torepresent
subjects.

Hierarchical notation
- this notation reflects the structural order orhierarchy of the classification scheme; it may be either in
pure or mixednotation

Expressive notation
- this reflects the relationship among coordinatesubjects; may also be either in pure or mixed notation
Chapter 36 - Guidelines in Classification
36.1 General Principles and GuidelinesThe following is a set of general guidelines in doing classification
of librarymaterials.1.

92
Consider usefulness.2.

The primary consideration is subjects. Class by subject, then by form,except in literature where
language and literary form are the primarymatters.3.

Use the most specific number available.4.

Never classify from the index or on given numbers in subject authority listsalone. Always go through
the main schedules in the classification tools.36.2 Classification of Multi-topical WorksMulti-topical
works are treated distinctively from materials that are single-topical.Several considerations must be
taken into account.1. Determine the dominant subject or the phase relations.

To determine the dominant subject, consider the amount of spacedevoted to the topics and consider
the intention of the author in writingthe item.

Phase relations refer to the relationships of subjects treated in a work.Classify a work about the
influence of one thing or person under thesubject or author being influenced. Likewise, a work on a
particularsubject written with a bias toward, or aiming at a specific group of readerunder the very
subject, not the element towards the work is biased.
o

Example: Psychology for College StudentsClassify under Psychology, not college students.

Phase relations may also reflect one subject being used as a tool or as amethod of applying another
subject. In such case, classify under thesubject, not the tool.
o

Example: Chemical calculations: an introduction to the use ofmathematics in chemistryClassify under


chemistry, not mathematics.

If a number of subjects are being compared from one another, classifyunder the subject being
emphasized, or to the first subject being dealt bythe material if emphasis cannot be ascertained.2.
Classify the multi-topical material under the first subject that is being dealt within case when the
dominant subject cannot be ascertained. This applies for workstreating two or more subjects
separately, or in comparison without any indicationof preponderance.3. Class under the broader
subject of a work if it deals with two or three subjectsthat are subdivisions of a broader subject and
together they constitute the majorportion of the subject.

Chapter 37 - Classification Schemes


37.1 Dewey Decimal Classification SystemThe Dewey Decimal Classification System (DDC) is originally
for materialsconceived by Melvil Dewey in 1873. This was first published in 1876. Today, this is

77published both in printed and electronic formats. The latter is published anddistributed by Online
Computer Library Center, (OCLC) Inc.

Notation - Notation in DDC provides a universal language to identify theclass within which the subject
belongs and is expressed in Arabicnumerals. The first number in the three-digit number (preceding
thedecimal point) represents the main class; the second digit represents thedivision; and the third digit
indicates the section.
o

93
Example: Class number 5325 represents the main class which is science3 stands for the division that is
physics2 stands for the section
gas mechanics A decimal point follows the third digit in a class number, after whichdivision by ten
continues to the specific degree of classification needed.The decimal point is used as a "psychological
pause" to break themonotony of numerical digits and to ease the transcription and copying ofthe class
number.

Classes - Basic classes are organized by discipline or fields of study. Atthe broadest level, DDC is
divided into ten main classes, which togethercover the entire world of knowledge. Each main class is
further dividedinto ten divisions, and each division is subdivides more into ten sections.The following
table lists the ten main classes in the DDC.
o

000 Computer science, information & general works


o

100 Philosophy & psychology


o

200 Religion
o

300 Social sciences


o

400 Language
o

500 Science
o

600 Technology
o

700 Arts & recreation


o

800 Literature
o

900 History & geography


Notes - Notes are added instructions or information for the effective useof DDC. They are in various
forms.1.

Definition notes - These indicate the meaning of the term in theheading.


Example: 004.7 PeripheralsInput, output, storage devices that work in a computer nutare not part of
the central processing unit or internal storage.2.

Scope notes - These notes indicate whether the meaning of thenumber is narrower or broader than
is apparent from the heading.

Example: 700 The arts Fine and decorative artsDescription, critical appraisal, techniques,
procedures,apparatus, equipment, materials of the fine, decorative,literary, performing, recreational
arts3.

94
Number-built notes - These identify and explain the source of builtnumbers included in the schedules
and tables.

Example: 353.132 63 Foreign serviceNumbers built according to instructions under 352-354.Class here
consular and diplomatic services.4.

Former heading notes - These are given only when a heading hasbeen altered to such a degree that
the new heading bears little or noresemblance to the old.

Example: -983.2 Quechuan (Kechuan) and AymaranlanguagesFormer heading: Andean languages5.

Variant name notes - These are used for synonyms and nearsynonyms.

Example: 332.32 Savings and loan associationVariant names: Building and loan associations, home
loanassociations, mortgage institutions6.

Class-here notes - These notes list major topics in a class which maybe broader or narrower than the
heading, , overlap it, or define inanother way of looking at essentially the same material.

Example: 371.192 Parent-school relationsClass here parent participations in schools;


comprehensiveworks on parent-teacher relations..7.

Including notes - These identify topics that have "standing rooms" inthe number where the note
is found.

Example: 374.22 Groups in adult educationIncluding discussion, reading, self-help, special


interest,study groups.8.

Class-elsewhere notes - These notes lead the classifier to interrelatedtopics, or distinguish among
numbers in the same notationalhierarchy.

Example: 791.43 Motion pictures

78Class photographic aspects of motion pictures in 778.53; classmade-for-TV movies, videotapes of


motion pictures in 791.45.9.

Cross reference notes - These are of two types. See reference leadfrom a stated or implied
comprehensive number for a concept to thecomponent (subordinate parts of the concept.

Example: 577.7 Marine ecologyClass here saltwater ecology. slat lake ecology, see 577.639;For
saltwater wetland and seashore ecology, see 577.69.See also reference lead the classifier to related
topics.

Example: 584.3 LilidaeClass here Liliales, LiliesFor Orchidales, see 584.4..See also 583.29 for water
lilies.10.

Discontinued notes - Such notes indicate that all or part of thecontents of a number have been moved
to a more general number inthe same hierarchy, or have been dropped entirely.

Example: [516.361] Local and intrinsic differential geometryNumber discontinued11.

95
Relocation notes - These state that all or part of the contents havebeen moved in a different number.

Example: [370.19] Sociology of educationSociology of education relocated to 306.43.12.

Do-not-use notes - These notes instruct the classifier not to use all orpart of the regular standard
subdivision notation or an add-tableprovision, in favor of a special or standard subdivisions at a
broadernumber.

Example: [374.809] Historical, geographic, person treatmentDo not use class 374.9.37.2 Library of
Congress Classification SystemThe Library of Congress Classification System (LCCS) was developed by
J. C. M.Hanson, and Charles Martel, using Cutter's Expansive Classification as basis.

Notation - LCCS uses a mixed notation of letters and Arabic numerals toconstruct call numbers. The
notation in LCCS uses a three-elementpattern:
o

first element - single capital letters for main classes (e.g. H forSocial Science), with one or two capital
letters for theirsubclasses (e.g. HA for Statistics)
o

second element - Arabic integers from 1 to 9999 for subdivisions,and,


o

third element - Cutter numbers for individual books.


In many schedules, the single letter stands for the class as a whole, aswell as for its subclass (e.g.
class N for Fine Arts; subclass N for Visualarts: General).

The use of the second and third elements were allowed to accommodateexpansion. The divisions are
represented by Arabic integers from 1 to9999 with possible decimal extensions, and/or with further
indicated byCutter numbers.
o

Example: Z [One capital letter]8587 [Integer from 1 to 9999].8 [Decimal extension].A46 [Book
number]1991

Classes, subclasses, and divisions - LCCS has twenty-one (21) mainclasses displayed on over (40)
separately published schedules. Theorganization of divisions within a class, subclass, or subject
originallyfollowed a pattern known as Martel's seven points:
o

general form subdivisions


o

theory philosophy
o

history
o

treatises and general works


o

law regulation/state relations

96
o

study and teaching


o

special subjects and subdivision of subjects


The following table lists the main classes in the LCCS, as indicated belowby capital letters.
o

A -- General Works
o

B -- Philosophy. Psychology. Religion


o

C -- Auxiliary Sciences Of History


o

D -- World History And History Of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia,New Zealand, Etc.
o

E -- History Of The Americas


o

F -- History Of The Americas


o

G -- Geography. Anthropology. Recreation


o

H -- Social Sciences
o

J -- Political Science
o

K -- Law

79
o

L -- Education
o

M -- Music And Books On Music


o

N -- Fine Arts
o

P -- Language And Literature


o

Q -- Science
o

R -- Medicine

97
o

S -- Agriculture
o

T -- Technology
o

U -- Military Science
o

V -- Naval Science
o

Z -- Bibliography. Library Science. Information Resources(General)


Notes - Similarly, LCCS includes various forms of notes, which are addedinstructions or information for
the effective use of the classificationscheme.1.

Scope notes - These notes explain the type of works to beclassified at a particular subject. They may
refer the classifierelsewhere in the schedule or in another schedule.
!

Example: QH 540 EcologyClass here works on general ecology and general animalecology.2.

Including notes - These notes list topics which are includedwithin a subject.
!

Example: SF 101 Animal cultureBrands and branding, and other means of identifying,including cattle
marks and earmarks.3.

See notes - These notes refer the classifier to a numberelsewhere in the schedule, often as a result of
reclassificationdecision.
!

Example: QH 540 EcologyFor ecology of a particular topographic area,See GF 101 +In some instances,
a number in parenthesis indicates that thenumber is no longer in use and a see reference is given.
!

Example: TH 6518 Plumbing and pipefitting(6525) Rural water domestic supply,see TD 9274.

Confer notes (Cf.) - These notes indicate that related topics areclassified elsewhere in the schedules.
!

Example: QH 540 EcologyCf. HX 550 E 25 Communism and ecologyCf. QH 546 Ecological genetics5.

Apply at table notes - These notes refer the classifier to a tablewith subdivision instructions, so that
the instruction is notrepeated on the same page or several times over a couple ofpages.
!

Example: NK 3650.5 A-ZBy region or country, A-Z Apply table at NK 3649.35 A-Z37.3 Other
Classification SchemesThere are other classification schemes used in some libraries. These are
lessprominent than DDC and LCCS.1
. Cutter's Expansive Classification
- The Cutter Expansive Classification system isa library classification system devised by Charles Ammi
Cutter. It uses all lettersrather than digits such as Dewey Decimal Classification, or a mixture of digits
suchas Library of Congress classification). This has been called one of the most logicaland scholarly of
American classifications. Its outline served as a basis for theLibrary of Congress classification, which
also took over some of its features. It didnot catch on as did Dewey's system because Cutter died
before it was completelyfinished, making no provision for the kind of development necessary as the

98
boundsof knowledge expanded and scholarly emphases changed throughout the 20thcentury.Like the
LC classification system, texts are organized by subject. Users of Cutter'sExpansive Classification,
however, will find the subject headings more general thanthose of the LC system. Most call numbers in
the Cutter classification followconventions offering clues to the book's subject. The first line represents
thesubject, the second the author (and perhaps title), the third and fourth dates ofeditions, indications
of translations, and critical works on particular books orauthors. All numbers in the Cutter system are
(or should be) shelved as if indecimal order. Size of volumes is indicated by points (.), pluses (+), or
slashes (/ or //).For some subjects a numerical geographical subdivision follows the classificationletters
on the first line. The number 83 stands for the United States-hence, F83 isU.S. history, G83 U.S.
travel, JU83 U.S. politics, WP83 U.S. painting. Geographical

80numbers are often further expanded decimally to represent more specific areas,sometimes followed
by a capital letter indicating a particular city.The second line usually represents the author's name by a
capital letter plus one ormore numbers arranged decimally. This may be followed by the first letter or
lettersof the title in lower-case, and/or sometimes the letters a,b,c indicating otherprintings of the
same title. When appropriate, the second line may begin with a'form' number-e.g., 1 stands for history
and criticism of a subject, 2 for abibliography, 5 for a dictionary, 6 for an atlas or maps, 7 for a
periodical, 8 for asociety or university publication, 9 for a collection of works by different authors.On
the third line a capital Y indicates a work about the author or book representedby the first two lines,
and a capital E (for English-other letters are used for otherlanguages) indicates a translation into
English. If both criticism and translationapply to a single title, the number expands into four lines.2.
Brown's Subject Classification
- This classification system was designed byJames Duff Brown (1862-1914), It had three (3) editions:
1906, 1914, 1939 (revisedby Brown's nephew after his death). This classification scheme was well-
receivedin both the U.K. and the U.S. This was originally designed for shelf browsing in anopen stack
public library.Brown's Subject Classification was established in the general order of

Matter and Force (Generalia and Physical Sciences)


Life (Biology, Ethnology, Medicine, Economic Biology, Domestic Arts)


Mind (Philosophy, Religion, Political and Social Science)


Record (Language, Literature, Literary forms, History, Geography,Biography)Brown advocated the


principle of "one-place" classification - "concrete" subjectsshould have only one place, qualified by
"standpoints". For example, "Rose" couldbe qualified by its standpoints (i.e. Biological, Botanical,
Horticultural, Historical,Geographical, Ethical, Decorative, Legal, Emblematical, Bibliographical,
Poetical,Musical, Sociological, and so on to any extent).This idea carried out in the classification by
three kinds of notational synthesis:1. Intra-class synthesis - synthesis from two sections of the same
main classachieved by + and omission of the main class letter.

Example: Cats and dogs = F952 + F918 = F952 + 918There is no preferred citation order.2. Inter-
class synthesis - synthesis from two main classes by + and retention of themain class letter

Example: Logic and rhetoric = A300 + M170Gambling in dog racing = L933 + F944

Such are called "composite subjects" or "composite books". In thisnotational synthesis, there is no
preferred citation order.3. Categorical table - a table of forms, phases, standpoints, qualifications,
etc.,which apply more or less to every subject or subdivision of a subject; it is in twoparts

99
Notational order (e.g., .25 Diaries)

Alphabetical order (e.g., Art .116)


Numerical notation preceded by a dot, which is not a decimal (.). There isno synthesis within the
Categorical Table. Categorical Table numbers areadded to any notation from the schedules.
o

Examples: Economics of universities = A180.760Universities = A180 [schedules]Economics = .760


[Categorical Table]Economics of musical competitions = C798.760Musical competitions = C798
[schedules]Economics = .760 [Categorical Table]These synthetic notations provided more flexibility
than any classification of its time(except UDC, which had the same auxiliary tables for synthesis it has
now).3.
Colon Classification
- This classification system was developed by S. R.Ranganathan, although Ranganathan was not the
inventor of facet analysis. He iscredited as the first to "systematize and formalize the theory". It is said
that hisidea of a faceted classification scheme is inspired by a Lego-type toy set. Seeingthat the
salesperson can build different toys just by combining the same pieces ina different way, he builds his
classification scheme by this analogy.The Colon Classification, just as other classification schemes,
starts with a numberof main classes (42), which represent the fields of knowledge. Each class is
thenanalyzed and broken down into its basic elements, grouped together by commonattributes, called
facets. Upon examining all the facets, Ranganthan notices thatthere are five main groups into which
the facets fall, and he calls these thefundamental categories, represented by the mnemonic PMEST in
an order ofdecreasing concreteness.

Personality-

can be understood as the primary facet.-

the most prominent attribute


Matter

81-

physical material

Energy-

action

Space-

location

Time-

time periodThere are also facets that are common to all the classes. These are called commonisolates.
Examples include form and language. The same facet can be used morethan once.Notations, such as
numbers and letters, are used to represent the facets, whilepunctuation marks are used to indicate the
nature and type of the following facets.The classifier's job, therefore, is to combine the available terms
that areappropriate in describing the information package in hand.Let us consider the construction of a

100
notation using the Ranganathan's ColonClassification. Suppose we have a book that is about "research
in the cure oftuberculosis of lungs by x-ray conducted in India in 1950" (Glassel, 1998). The
callnumber will be as follows:L,45;421:6;253:f.44'N5The notations
represent[Medicine,Lungs;Tuberculosis:Treatment;X-ray:Research.India'1950]It is amazing how the
notation covers all the significant aspects of the subject ofthe item. Such a classification scheme is
considered to be "hospitable" to all sortsof complex topics. It is therefore a "dynamic" scheme.

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82
UNIT 11 - CATALOGING AND CLASSIFICATIONPART 4
Chapter 38 - Introduction to Non-book Materials
38.1 Defining Non-book Materials38.2 Types of Non-book Materials
Chapter 39 - Methods of Indicating Type of Material
39.1 Color Coding39.2 Media Code As Part of the Call Number39.3 General Material Designation and
Specific Material Designation
Chapter 40 - Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials
40.1 Description and Headings40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book Materials40.3 Rules of Entry and
Description40.3 Areas and Elements of Bibliographic Description for Non-book Materials
Chapter 38 - Introduction to Non-book Materials
38.1 Defining Non-book MaterialsExcept for serials (also known as continuing resources), non-book
materials aregenerally defined as materials that are not in book formats and are not totallydependent
on printer matter to transmit information. They are also called non-printmaterials because of their
physical form. There are also some occasions wherethey are categorized as audiovisual materials since
majority of non-book materialsrequire the intermediation of equipment like projectors, media players
for VHS,VCD, DVD, etc. in order to access the information they contain.In most cases, non-book
materials can facilitate more meaningful learningexperience since they can facilitate actual hearing,
viewing, and/or actual hand-onwith the resources. Whether these materials are housed in a library or a
mediacenter, they are treated distinctively in terms of handling, processing, organization,storage, and
other concerns. It is really a requirement for librarians or media centerdirectors or staffs to be
knowledgeable in handling these materials to make themserve their purpose effectively and
efficiently.In order establish cataloging procedures for an integrated library collection, alibrary or media
center must make policy decisions which will apply to all itsmaterials. These will include

a classification scheme (assignment of standard classification numbers)


the depth of classification within the scheme


a numbering system such as Cutter numbers or call letters


a subject heading system


the extent and detail of descriptive cataloging and added entries.38.2 Types of Non-book MaterialsThe
following is an enumeration of non-book materials taken from the AACR2R2002.

Cartographic materials
o
101
maps
o

globe

Manuscripts
o

typescript
o

hand writing

Music
o

piano score
o

vocal score

Sound recordings
o

cassette tape
o

phonodisc
o

CD
o

MP3

Motion pictures and Video recordings


o

films
o

VHS
o

VCD
o

DVD

Graphic Materials
o

chart
o

picture
102
o

slide
o

filmstrip
o

transparency
o

flash cards

Electronic Resources
o

computer data
o

computer program

Three-Dimensional Artefacts and Realia


o

diorama
o

game
o

model
o

speciman

Microforms
o

microfiche

83
o

microfilm

Continuing Resources
o

journal
o

magazine
o

newsletter

103
o

annual report

Multimedia
Chapter 39 - Methods of Indicating Type of Material
39.1 Color Coding As the movement away from card catalogs to other catalog formats hasprogressed,
color coding has been considered less and less alternative method forindicating type of material.
Although this method can be used in online catalogs,the following reasons still apply why color coding
is not recommended.

Color coding erodes the all-media approach to resource center materials.


To make color coding economically feasible in centralized cataloging, aninternationally accepted


standard color code would have to beestablished.

As new types of media are acquired, the library will soon run out ofdistinctive colors.39.2 Media Code
As Part of the Call Number A media code used as an integral part of the call number is not
recommended, dueto the following reasons.

Such type of call numbers caused individual items to be stored bymedium, Segregated shelving of
items by medium resulted to anuneconomic use of space.

Media codes, despite of the use of sign, resulted the need of patrons forhelp in understanding the
media code.

Media codes do not clearly identify the medium as the more accurategeneral material designation. A
media code may play a role in identifying the type of material for instances wherecatalogs display long
titles of some items causing the display of the generalmaterial designation to be lost in the brief entry.
However, the call number shouldbe formatted in a way that the media code is not part of the call
number and maybe omitted.39.3 General Material Designation and Specific Material DesignationThe
general material designation (GMD) is the element of bibliographic descriptionlisted in square brackets
following the title proper. It is given early in the record toinform the user succinctly and immediately
about the general form of the particularitem. More details about the general form of the item are
recorded in the physicaldescription and note areas.The general material designation is an optional
element of bibliographicdescription. The cataloger may or may not indicate the GMD in the
bibliographicrecords. As to whether the GMD will or will not be indicated in the bibliographicrecord,
careful consideration must be given to the implications of each of thesealternatives. In GMDs, generic
terms are used to avoid the proliferation which coulddevelop if more specific designation is used. The
AACR2R 2002 provides completelistings of GMD that can be used in describing general form of various
librarymaterials. GMDs for British libraries are distinct from GMDs for libraries in theUnited States,
Australia, and Canada.On the other hand, the specific material designation (SMD) of the material gives
thespecific form of the particular item being described. This element appears in thephysical description
area, particularly in the extent of the item element.The following is a listing of the most common GMDs
and SMDs used for variousforms of library materials taken from the list of British GMDs.
Chapter 40 - Cataloging Policies for Non-book Materials
40.1 Description and HeadingsThe most authoritative internationally recognized code of rules for
descriptivecataloging is the Anglo American Cataloging Rules (AACR2R 2002). The followingis a
summary of some points derived from AACR2R in cataloging non-bookmaterials.

Cataloging of materials as individuals or sets - Many materials are sold insets and can be processed
either as units or as separate items with aseries added entry indicating their relationship. In deciding
whether tokeep a set together or to break it up and catalog each item separately, thecataloger must
104
consider the type of materials, the library or the mediacenter, and the needs of the user. This decision
is often affected bysubject analysis. If each item within a set would have significantly
differentclassification numbers and subject headings, it may be advantageous tocatalog each part of
the set separately. On the other hand, if the itemswithin the set have the same classification and
subject headings, it ismore efficient to catalog the series as a unit.

Added entries - The purpose of added entries is to enable the user to finda particular item by some
name or title other than the selected as the mainentry heading. Added entries also add group materials
in useful ways, e.g.by director. The number and kind of added entries required depend on the

84catalog use in each library or media center. The following policy should beconsidered when
establishing a policy for added entries.
o

An added entry policy should be applied consistently to bookand non-book materials.


o

The policy should be keeping with the chosen level ofdescription, e.g. more added entries in third level
descriptionthan in first level description.
o

Only names, titles, and series listed in the catalog are


traced. Added entries may be made for any one of all of these if thecataloger believes that a patron
may search for an item under aparticular heading.

Designation of function - If a media center has special requirements forthe retrieval of particular
information, such as the quick identification of aperson's function or the need to group functions, a
designation chosenfrom a standard list may be added to a heading.40.2 Subject Analysis for Non-book
MaterialsThe subject analysis chosen by a library for its book collection should be used forall media.

Subject headings - Preference should be given to a subject headingsystem which is comprehensive and
is periodically revised. The systemsmost commonly used by certain types of libraries and media
centers arethe Library of Congress Subject Headings and the Sears List of SubjectHeadings. Special
libraries devoted to specific disciplines may usespecialized subject authority lists, such as the Medical
Subject Headings(MeSH) for health science collections. When appropriate, these subjectheading lists
can be supplemented with other subject authority list titles.

Media form subdivision - The terminology used for media form ofsubdivision is the same as that in the
list of general material designations.The use of such subdivisions has its own advantages and
disadvantages.
o

Advantages
!

In a long sequence of items listed under a heading,items in a particular format may not be found
readily.Media form subdivision can draw attention to variousformats of an extensively covered topic.
!

In a library where more requests link subject matter toformat, subdividing the sequence may make
suchinformation more accessible.
o

105
Disadvantages
!

The segregation of item in the catalog into formatgroupings erodes the concept of an
integratedcollection, which promotes the idea that informationcomes in all forms, the information being
moreimportant than the format.
!

In both a general material designation and a mediumform subdivision are listed in the record, the
sameinformation is given twice. This increases costs and isunnecessary in some automated systems.

Classification or accession number for information retrieval - The use ofsome classification scheme for
all media materials is suggested for thefollowing reasons.
o

Library or media center patrons find it easier to becomeacquainted with and use one system.
o

Whenever possible, materials of the same subject are storedtogether.


o

Emphasis is given on content rather than form.


o

Centralized cataloging and processing services do not assignnon-standard call numbers or accession
numbers.
o

Computer-based all-media bibliographies can be made availableeasily from the catalog data.
o

Some computer-based systems use classification numbers forcirculation control.


o

Computer-based systems may use classification numbers tohelp with collection development by
organizing holdings andusage data by subject area.Classifying materials for integrated collections
necessitates flexiblestorage and trained personnel. On the other hand, the cataloger maychoose to
store materials according to accession numbers. Note thataccession numbers may or may not be
relative to classification ofmaterials by subject; therefore, it has its set of drawbacks.
o

Materials on the same subject are not housed together becausethere is no relationship between
accession number and subject.
o

Added copies of a particular item may have different accessionnumbers and will be stored in different
locations.
o

The only subject access for the materials is through the catalog.
o

Call numbers must be assigned by individual resource centers,thereby diminishing the economy of
centralized services orderived cataloging.

85

106
Classification - The librarian or the media specialist should choose aclassification scheme which is
comprehensive, continuously revised, andproven in day to day use by libraries of a similar size and
type. Theselection of a particular scheme may be based generally on theanticipated size of the
collection and the degree of specificity required inclassification. The schemes most commonly used by
certain types oflibraries and media centers are the Library of Congress ClassificationSystem and the
Dewey Decimal Classification System. Libraries with morespecialized collection on a specific discipline
are advised to use subject-oriented classification schemes, e.g. National Library of
MedicineClassification System.

Call letters, identification numbers - The decision, whether to use callletters or specific numbering
systems (e.g. Cutter numbers) will generallydepend on the size of the collection. Unique call letters or
identificationnumbers are important, especially to some automated circulationsystems, and such
identification codes used in conjunction with copynumbers can eliminate the expense of assigning
accession numbers forexact identification.

Special aspects of subject analysis for non-book material - Librarians andmedia specialists had been
concerned about certain aspects of subjectanalysis for non-book materials.
o

Precision of subject headings


o

Currency in subject analysis


o

Book orientation in subject headings and subdivisions


o

Subject analysis for music (especially recorded performance)


o

Subject analysis for motion pictures40.3 Rules of Entry and DescriptionThere are certain rules that
must be observed regarding entries for non-bookmaterials. Note that these are parallel to rules applied
on book formats.1.

The main entry is normally based from the author or the creator of thework.2.

If the main entry is to be based from the title, at least one of the followingconditions must first be
satisfied.a. the work is produced under editorial directionb. the work is created or prepared by four or
more authors or creatorsc. the author/creator of the work cannot be ascertained3.

Principles governing uniform titles and corporate entries for non-bookmaterials are the same with book
formats.4.

As to added entries, they are provided as much as necessary.The following rules govern the
bibliographic description of non-book materials.1.

The following order of priority for chief source of information must beobserved.a. the object/item itself
or a label permanently attached to it.b. the container issued with the item by the
creator/manufacturerc. the accompanying textual materiald. other possible sources2.

The same rules as per book formats apply for punctuations in description.3.

The areas and elements of bibliographic description are transcribed as persequence prescribed by
established cataloging rules. There are somenuances on the part of non-book materials such as the
addition of GMDs,elements in the physical description area, and the presence of a specialarea for some
non-book materials, the material (or type of publication)specific designation area.40.4 Areas and
Elements of Bibliographic Description for Non-book Materials All eight (8) areas of bibliographic
description are taken when describing non-bookformats. The eighth area is a special feature of non-
107
book formats, together with theinclusion of the general material designation (GMD) element in the title
andstatement of responsibility area, as well as the special elements in the physicaldescription area.The
following is a brief account of points on the areas and elements ofbibliographic description for non-
book materials.1.
Title and statement of responsibility area
- The statement of responsibility isrecorded after the title proper, and/or other title information if this
element appearsprominently in the item. This means that a statement to which it applies must be
aformal statement found in one of the prescribed sources of information. It followsthe general material
designation (if this is indicated in the catalog), unless there is aparallel title or other title information,
in which case, the statement of responsibilitycomes after this. Note that the general material
designation always follows the titleproper.For motion pictures and video recordings, those persons or
bodies credited in thechief source of information with participation in the production of such works
suchas the director, producer, or film animator who are considered to be of majorinterest to the work
and the cataloging agency are recorded in the statement ofresponsibility area. These are used to be
given in the notes area.

862.
Edition area
- The same rule in recording the edition area used in catalogingbook formats apply in cataloging non-
book materials. The edition is indicated byordinal number and/or description in the edition area of the
bibliographicdescription, Edition is abbreviated as "ed". If the item does not have an editionstatement
but is known to include important changes from previous editions, abrief statement in the language
and script of the title proper is provided by thecataloger in square brackets.3.
Materials (or type of publication)specific details area
- The material (or type ofpublication) specific details area is reserved for elements of
bibliographicdescription specific to certain types of non-book materials. This area adoptsdifferent
names, depending on the type of material being cataloged.

Cartographic materials - For materials of this type, the MSD areabecomes the mathematical and other
specific data area. The elements ofbibliographic information that comprise this area are the following:
o

statement of scale
o

statement of projection
o

statement of coordinates and equinoxes (optional)


Electronic resources - This area becomes the file characteristics area forelectronic resources. This is
composed of two elements of bibliographicinformation.
o

designation [computer file(s), computer program(s), or computerfile(s) and program(s)]


o

number of records (for data, transcribe the number of files,records, and/or bytes; for programs,
transcribe the number offiles, statements, and/or bytes)

Continuing resources (serials) - For these materials, this area becomes thenumeric and/or alphabetic,
chronological, or other designation area. Thishas two elements:
o

108
numeric and/or alphabetic designation
o

chronological designation

Music - The musical presentation statement area for printed musicdescribes the physical form of the
presentation, whether it is a full score,miniature score, piano score, vocal score, etc.4.
Publication, Distribution, etc. area
- This is formerly known as the imprint. Thisarea records all information about the place, name, and
date related to publication,distribution, releasing, and issuance activities. Also included in this area
areinformation relating to the manufacture of the
item. An optional addition which may be made in this area is the recording of thestatement of function
of the publisher, distributor, producer, or productioncompany. This may be necessary for some non-
book materials where the produceror the production company and the distributor are different entities
and theirrespective functions need to be specified.

Example: New York : Encyclopedia Britanica Files[production company] ; London : Educational


Service[distributor], 1975.Where the publication or the production date differs from the date of
distribution,the latter may be added if it is considered to be significant by the catalogingagency. If the
publisher and distributor are different, the dates must be given afterthe names to which they apply.

Example: New York : American Broadcasting Co., 1975 ; SanFrancisco : Released by Pyramid
Films, 1972.In the description of art originals and other unpublished graphic materials, only thedate is
given in this area. Neither the place of publication nor the name of publisheris given. This is also true
for naturally occurring objects or realia, other than thosemounted for viewing or packaged for
presentation, and artifacts not intendedprimarily for communication such as models, dioramas, and
games. In the case ofnaturally occurring objects other than those mounted for viewing or packaged
forpresentation, not even the date is given. But for artifacts, it is given as the firstelement in this area.
The place and name of manufacture follows, enclosed inparentheses.

Example: The heart [model]. - 1962 (Philadelphia : DCA EducationalProducts)5.


Physical description area
- This area is formerly known as the collation, and itconsists of four elements.

Extent of item - This element is expressed in number of units of the itembeing described and the
material designation.
o

Examples: 3 filmstrips1 sound disc4 microfiches


If the material has a playing time like in motion pictures audio recordings,and videorecordings, the
duration or running time is given enclosed inparentheses.
o

Example: 1 film reel (24 mins.)


Other physical details - The extent or duration is not covered here. Thiselement varies with form or
type of material of the item. Thus for instance.

87in sound recordings or video recordings, appropriate details about thetype of recording, playing
speed either in revolutions per minute (rpm) orunit length per minute (e.g. inches/centimeters per
minute, trackconfigurations, number of sound channels (e.g. mono, stereo, quad.., etc.)and recording
and reproduction characteristics should be given in thatorder. A filmstrip, on the other hand, will need

109
indication of sound only ifthe sound is integral, as well as the color (col. or b & w).This element
ispreceded by a colon, and within it, the items are separated by commas.
o

Example: 1 sound tape reel (50 mins.) : 1 7/8 ipm., 2 tracks,mono.


Dimensions - This would again vary with the form of the materials asdiameter for discs (given in in.),
width for filmstrips, motion pictures, ormicrofilms (given in mm.), width for videotapes (given in in.),
height andwidth for transparencies, charts, pictures, microfiches, and slides (given incm.). This
element is preceded by a semi-colon.

Accompanying materials - Such materials may be in printed formats (e.g.booklet, pamphlet, guide), or
in other formats . Optionally, the physicaldetails of the accompanying material may be given.
o
Example: 1 microfilm reel : 16 cm. + 1 pamphlet (20 p. ; ill. ; 28cm.)6.
Series area
- If applicable, a series statement in parentheses follows the physicaldescription area. The series area
includes the following elements.

title proper of series

parallel title

other title information

statement of responsibility

International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)

numbering within series

subseries and its parallel titles, other title information,. and statement ofresponsibility

ISSN of subseries

numbering of subseriesIf an item belongs to more than one series titles rather than a series and
asubseries, each series is enclosed within its own parentheses. Series statementsmay be omitted.
However, series statements to be traced and those which addsubstantially to an understanding of the
catalog record should be listed.7.
Notes area
- Notes give useful descriptive information that cannot be fitted intoother areas of bibliographic
description. Notes that may be contained in this areavary for different kinds of materials. Notes may be
considered optional in that theirinclusion in the entry depends on the nature of the item described and
the purposeof the entry concerned. Some items may need several notes while other may onlyneed one
or two. When appropriate, several types of notes may be combined intoone note.Some important notes
which ought to be given for non-book materials are:

nature of artistic form of the item

language, translation, and/or adaptation


source of title proper



variations in title

parallel title and other title information (if not listed in the title andstatement of responsibility area)

110
statements of responsibility (credits or performers notes; may includeadditional information not listed
in the title and statement of responsibilityarea or statements of responsibility not taken from the chief
source ofinformation)

edition and history

material specific details

additional information about publication, distribution, etc.


additional information concerning physical description, particularly if suchinformation affects the item's
use (e.g. notes about system requirementsfor electronic resources)

accompanying materials and supplements (if not listed elsewhere)


additional information about series


intended audience

other formats

brief objective summary of the contents of the item (unless another areagives enough information)

full or partial contents


numbers associated with the item other than standard numbers


peculiarities of the particular copy the library or media center holds (e.g.incomplete holdings,
restrictions on use, other formats of the same itemavailable in the library or media center)

"with" notes (for items that consists of separately titled parts and has nocollective title)

information concerning the originality or the reproduction (eitherreproduction from another copy or
formats, or reproduction to othercopies or formats)The provision of such notes will preclude the
unnecessary handling of the materialand assist the reader in his choice of materials through
the catalog.

888.
Standard numbers and terms of availability area
- This area gives theinternational standard numbers (e.g. ISSN and ISMN) of the item being
described,if they are available. Standard numbers are transcribes exactly as the way theyappear in the
materials, as to the correct abbreviations and hyphenation of thenumbers. If two standard numbers
appear on the item, list the one that applies tothe item being cataloged. In a multipart item, list the
one that applies to the wholeitem. In serials, the key title of the serial follows the ISSN. This is
separated byspace-equals sign-space. The key title is not listed if no ISSN is found. If there aretwo
standard numbers, a brief qualification (enclosed in parentheses) follows eachnumber.The terms of
availability, an optional element, gives the terms on which the item isavailable. It is preceded by

111
a space-colon-space. Such terms may be the unit priceof the item (if the item is for sale), or a brief
statement of other terms (if the item isnot for sale). Special terms of availability are also qualified.The
following are schematic diagrams that can be used for describing usual non-book materials.

89
UNIT 12 - REFERENCE AND INFORMATION:SOURCES AND SERVICES
Chapter 41 - Reference and Information Sources
41.1 Reference Sources and Basic Types41.2 Bibliographies41.3 Library Catalogs41.4 Indexes and
Abstracts41.5 Encyclopedias41.6 Dictionaries and Thesauri41.7 Compendiums - Almanacs
and Yearbooks/Annuals41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and Manuals41.9 Concordances41.10
Directories41.11 Biographical Information Sources41.12 Geographical Information Sources41.13
Serials41.14 Government Publications41.15 Company and Trade Literature41.16 Technical Information
Sources41.18 Dissertations and Theses
Chapter 42 - Reference and Information Service
42.1 Reference Services and Reference Work42.2 Computer-Aided Search42.3 Information
Services42.4 Instructional Services42.5 Guidance
Chapter 43 - Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources
43.1 Introduction to Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources43.2 Encyclopedias and Other
Multivolume Works43.3 Dictionaries and Thesauri43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and
Manuals43.5 Geographical Information Sources43.6 Directories43.7 Biographical Information
Sources43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources and Government Documents43.9 Indexes43.10
Electronic Resources43.11 Information Networks and Online Resources
Chapter 41 - Reference and Information Sources
41.1 Reference Sources and Basic
Types ALA defines reference sources as materials designed by the arrangement andtreatment of its
subject matter to be consulted for definite items of informationrather than to be read consecutively.
These are any publication from whichauthoritative information can be obtained, including but not
limited to referencebooks, catalog records, printed indexes and abstracting services, andbibliographic
databases.There are two basic types of reference sources:1.
Control-access-directional reference
- These reference sources compileinformation that refer the user to other information sources.
Included in this groupare:

bibliographies

library catalogs

indexes

abstracts2.
Ready reference
- These reference materials are used most often in answeringready reference questions (a reference
question that can be answered by thereference librarian in just a few moments by providing a fact or
piece of informationfound in a single source). These include the following.

encyclopedias

dictionaries

thesauri

general factbooks

handbooks

manuals

concordances

112
directories

biographical information sources (e.g. biographies)

geographical information sources (e.g. maps,

atlases, gazetteers, travel guidebooks)

serials (e.g. magazines, journals, periodicals, newspapers, etx.)

government publications

company and trade literature

technical reports

standards

specifications

dissertations

theses

90The following titles are examples of guides to reference sources.



Guide to Reference Books

Walford's Guide to Reference Materials

Gale Directory of DatabasesThe next three chapters are dedicated to control-access-directional
referencesources. The succeeding ones will cover ready reference sources.41.2 BibliographiesStrictly
speaking, a bibliography is a systematic list or enumeration of written worksby a specific author or on
a given subject, or that share one or more commoncharacteristics (language, form, period, place of
publication, etc.). When abibliography is about a person, the subject is the bibliographee. A
bibliographymay be comprehensive or selective. Long bibliographies may be published seriallyor in
book form. The person responsible for compiling a bibliography is thebibliographer.In the context of
scholarly publication, this refers to a list of references to sourcescited in the text of an article or book,
or suggested by the author for furtherreading, usually appearing at the end of the work. Bibliographies
are covered ingreater detail in the next chapter.41.3 Library CatalogsLibrary catalogs are
comprehensive lists of the books, periodicals, maps, and othermaterials in a given collection, arranged
in systematic order to facilitate retrieval(usually alphabetically by author, title, and/or subject).
In most modern libraries, thecard catalog has been converted to machine-readable bibliographic
records and isavailable online. The purpose of a library catalog, as stated by Charles C. Cutter inRules
for a Dictionary Catalog (1904), later modified by Bohdan S. Wynar inIntroduction to Cataloging and
Classification (8th ed., 1992), is to offer the user avariety of approaches or access points to the
information contained in thecollection. Specifically, they aim the following:

To enable a person to find any work, whether issued in print or in non-print format, when one of the
following is known:
o
The author
o
The title
o

The subject

To show what the library has
o
113
By a given author
o

On a given and related subjects


o

In a given kind of literature


To assist in the choice of a work


o

As to the bibliographic edition


o

As to its character (literary or topical)The preparation of entries for a library catalog (called
cataloging) is performed by alibrarian known as a cataloger. Particulars about library catalogs and
aspects ofcataloging are already covered in the previous chapters.41.4 Indexes and
Abstracts An index is a tool used to locate information in a document or in a group ofdocuments. It is
an alphabetically arranged list of headings consisting of thepersonal names, places, and subjects
treated in a written work, with directionalindicators (page numbers or some other sort) to refer the
reader to the point in thetext at which information pertaining to the heading is found. In single-volume
worksof reference and nonfiction, any indexes appear at the end of the back matter. In amulti-volume
work, they are found at the end of the last volume. In very largemultivolume reference works (such as
encyclopedias), the last volume may bedevoted entirely to indexes.Works of fiction are rarely indexed.
The publisher of a periodical may provide anindex to each volume at the end of the last issue of the
publication year. For bestresults, indexing should be done by a professional indexer.Index also refers
to an open-end finding guide to the literature of an academic fieldor discipline (e.g. Philosopher's
Index), to works of a specific literary form (e.g.Biography Index) or published in a specific format (e.g.
Reader's Guide toPeriodical Literature), or to the analyzed contents of a serial publication (e.g.
NewYork Times Index). Indexes of this kind are usually issued in monthly or quarterlypaperback
supplements, cumulated annually. Citations are usually listed by authorand subject in separate
sections, or in a single alphabetical sequence under asystem of authorized headings collectively known
as controlled vocabulary,developed over time by the indexing service. An abstract is somehow
the same as an index. However, it has a brief, objectivesummary of the essential content of a book,
article, speech, report, dissertation, orother works, presenting the main points in the same order as
the original but withno independent literary value. An abstract can be indicative, informative, critical,
orwritten from a particular point of view (slanted).41.5
Encyclopedias An encyclopedia is a book or numbered set of books containing authoritativesummary
information about a variety of topics in the form of short essays, usuallyarranged alphabetically by
headword or classified in some manner. The termencyclopedia is derived from the Greek word (derived
from Greek enkyklios paideia(all-embracing education).

91The encyclopedia is an effort to bring together information from all branches ofknowledge or from a
single subject area and arrange it in an alphabetical order forready reference. An entry may be signed
or unsigned, with or without illustration ora list of references for further reading. Headwords and text
are usually revisedperiodically for publication in a new edition. In a multivolume encyclopedia,
anyindexes are usually located at the end of the last volume.Encyclopedias may be general (e.g.
Encyclopedia Americana) or specialized,usually by subject (e.g. Encyclopedia of Bad Taste) or discipline
(e.g. Encyclopediaof Library and Information Science).The oldest complete encyclopedia extant is the
Historia Naturalis (Natural History,c. ad 79) of Pliny the Elder. It is an encyclopedia of natural science.
Anotherencyclopedic work held in great esteem for many centuries is the Etymologiarum,seu Originum
Libri XX (Twenty Books of Etymologies, or Origins), compiled in 623by the Spanish ecclesiastic and
scholar Isidore of Seville. The modernencyclopedia began with the 21-volume Encyclopédie ou
Dictionnaire raisonné desSciences, des Arts, et des Métiers, compiled and edited by Denis Diderot and
Jeand'Alembert, an expression of the rationalism of the 18th-century Enlightenment(Cornell University
Library). In electronic publishing, encyclopedias were one of thefirst formats to include multimedia and
interactive elements (e.g. Microsoft EncartaEncyclopedia).There are many companies who are
responsible in publishing encyclopedias. Among them are the following:

114

Encyclopedia Britanica Educational Corp.


World Book International


Grolier, Inc.

Macmillan Educational Corp.


Funk & WagnallsEncyclopedias can be grouped according to the following categories. Each
groupenumerates a few famous titles.

Adult encyclopedias
o

The New Encyclopedia Britanica (familiarly known as Britannica3, which consisted of three parts -
Propaedia, which outlines the"circle of modern knowledge"; Micropaedia with contains readyreference
entries; and Macropaedia, which contains longerarticles offering "knowledge in depth")
o

The Encyclopedia Americana


Popular adult and high school sets


o

Academic American Encyclopedia


o

Collier's Encyclopedia
o

Funk & Wagnall's New Encyclopedia


Juvenile and young adults' Encyclopedia


o

World Book Encyclopedia


o

Merit Students Encyclopedia


o

Compton's Encyclopedia and Fact Index


o

Compton's Picture Encyclopedia


o

Oxford Children's Encyclopedia


o

New Book of Knowledge


o

115
Children's Britanica

One-volume encyclopedias
o

Concise Columbia Encyclopedia


o

The Cambridge Encyclopedia


o

The Random House Encyclopedia


Foreign published encyclopedias


o

Grand Dictionaire Encyclopedique Larousse (French)


o

Brockhaus Enzyklopadie (German)


o

Enciclopedia Europea (Italian)


o

Encyclopedia Italiana
o

Kodansha Encyclopedia of Japan


o

The Great Soviet Encyclopedia


o

Enciclopedia Universal Ilustrada Europeo-Americana - Espasa(Spanish)


Subject specific encyclopedias


o

International Encyclopedia of Information Library Science


o

Encyclopedia of Philippine Art


o

Encyclopedia of Social Work


Non-print encyclopedias
o

Academic American Encyclopedia Online (first onlineencyclopedia)


o

Grolier Encyclopedia (in CD) (first encyclopedia in CD-ROMformat)


o

Compton's MultiMedia Encyclopedia (first multimediaencyclopedia)


o
116
Microsoft Encarta (multimedia encyclopedia on CD-ROM basedinitially on text published in the 29-
volume Funk & Wagnalls NewEncyclopedia)41.6 Dictionaries and ThesauriBoth dictionaries and thesauri
deal with definition of terms. A dictionary is a bookcontaining a selection of words of a language or of
some special subjects. It maybe a single-volume or multivolume reference work containing brief
explanatoryentries for terms and topics related to a specific subject or field of inquiry,
arrangedalphabetically (e.g. Dictionary of Neuropsychology). The entries in a dictionary are

92usually shorter than those contained in an encyclopedia on the same subject, butthe word
"dictionary" is often used in the titles of works that should moreappropriately be called encyclopedias
(e.g.: Dictionary of the Middle Ages in 13volumes). In a more general sense, the term "dictionary" is
also applied to anyalphabetically arranged compendium of special aspects of a language such
asabbreviations, slang, or etymology, or in which the special terms of a subject aredefined. A
glossary is somewhat similar to a dictionary. It is an alphabetically arranged listof the specialized
vocabulary of a given subject or field of study, with briefdefinitions, often appearing at the end of a
book or at the beginning of a long entryin a technical reference work. Long glossaries may be
separately published (e.g.The ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science, 1983). Glossaries are
alsoavailable online.The earliest known dictionaries were found in the library of the Assyrian
king Ashurbanipal at Nineveh (7th century B. C.); consisting of clay tablets inscribed incolumns of
cuneiform writing (oldest system of writing introduced by
theSumerians). A dictionary can be classified as either unabridged or abridged. Abridgement isbasically
a shortened version or edition of an originally written work that preservesthe overall meaning and
manner of presentation of the original but omits the lessimportant passages of text and usually any
illustrations, notes, and appendices.Often prepared by a person other than the original author or
editor, an abridgededition is generally intended for readers unlikely to purchase the unabridgedversion
because of its length, complexity, or price. The following are some sampletitles of unabridged and
abridged dictionaries.

· Unabridged dictionaries
o

Webster's 3rd New International Dictionary


o

The Random House Dictionary


· Abridged dictionaries
o

The New Shorter Oxford English Dictionary


o

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language


o

Webster's 9th New Collegiate Dictionary


o

Webster's New World Dictionary of the English Language


o

The Random House College DictionaryDictionaries that are limited to a maximum of 60,000 entries are
referred to asreduced word dictionaries. Specialized dictionaries are more inclined to a specificaspect of
language, languages used in specific disciplines, or to a special intereston a certain language. Example
titles of these two are given as follows.

Reduced word dictionaries


o
117
Oxford American Dictionary

Specialized dictionaries
o

Dictionary of American Regional English


o

The Random House Cross-Word Puzzle DictionaryThere are certain types of specialized dictionaries.
Etymological or diachronicdictionaries provide information about the history of each word in their
entries.Slang dictionaries are dictionaries that deal with the variations of meaning of agiven slang
terms or words and trace their history. They can define an expressionwell, aiding authors in finding
words which will convey the background, class, oroccupation of a given character in their work. Slang
dictionaries are also just forcuriosity and interest about popular slang words used in a given society.
There arealso dictionaries for abbreviations and acronyms. Subject dictionaries explainparticular
meanings for particular words/items for professions, occupation, or areasof subject interest. Foreign
language dictionaries deal with languages other thanthe English language. The following enumerates
some sample title of these types.

Etymological/diachronic dictionaries
o

The Oxford English Dictionary (20 vols.)


Slang dictionaries
o

Dictionary of American Slang


o

Thesaurus of Slang
o

New American Dictionary of American Slang


Subject dictionaries
o

Harrod's Librarian's Glossary of Terms


o

Dictionary of Library and Information Science


Foreign language dictionaries


o

Casell's series
o

Dictionary of Foreign Phrases and Abbreviations


o

Dictionaries published by LarrousseDictionaries classified as encyclopedic dictionaries do not only


define words butalso explain things (though the explanations are relatively short compared to
thosefound in encyclopedias). Although similar to the general form of a dictionary, a thesaurus can be

118
treated as areference distinct from dictionaries. A thesaurus is basically a reference that listswords
related to each other in meaning, usually giving synonyms and antonyms.They can either be dictionary
in form or in a classified form (arranged according tosome scheme of classification).Here are sample
titles of encyclopedic dictionaries and thesauri.

93

Encyclopedic dictionaries
o

Grand Dictionnaire Universel (17 vols., 1865-1890)


o

Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia (revised ed., 12 vols., 1911)


Thesauri
o

Roget's International Thesaurus


o

Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases


o

Webster's Collegiate Thesaurus


o

Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms41.7 Compendiums - Almanacs


and Yearbooks/Annuals A compendium is a work that presents in condensed
form the main points of alonger work, prepared by a person other than the original author. Also, it is a
workthat treats a broad subject or entire field of knowledge briefly and concisely,sometimes in the
form of an outline. Almanacs and yearbooks are sometimeslumped together in this category since they
many qualities in common.Originally, an almanac is a book introduced by the Moors to Spain, listing
the days,weeks, and months of the year and providing information about festivals,
holidays,astronomical phenomena, etc. In modern usage, the almanac is an annualcompendium of
practical dates, facts, and statistics, current and/or retrospective,often arranged in tables to facilitate
comparison. Almanacs can be general orrelated to a specific subject or academic discipline. An almanac
is a compendiumof useful data and statistics relating to countries, personalities, events, subjects,and
the like. Here are some popular almanac titles.

Almanacs in printed formats


o

World Almanac and Book of Facts


o

Almanac of American Politics


o

Whitaker's Almanac (or An Almanac)


Almanacs in electronic format


o

Information Please (also in printed


format) An almanac may also be a yearbook if it satisfies the latter's definition. Ayearbook/annual is a
119
annual documentary, historical, or memorial compendium offacts, photographs, statistics, etc., about
the events of the preceding year, oftenlimited to a specific country, institution, discipline, or subject
(example: SupremeCourt Yearbook published by Congressional Quarterly). Optional yearbooks
areoffered by some publishers of general encyclopedias. Newspaper indexes oftenserve as yearbooks.
Here are some popular yearbook titles.

Government and international yearbooks


o

Annual Register: A Record of World Events


o

Europa World Yearbook


o

The Statesman's Yearbook


o

Chase's Annual Events


Newspaper indexes
o

New York Times Index


o

Facts on File Index41.8 General Factbooks, Handbooks, and


Manuals A factbook is a reference source that gives outright information about amazingevents and
extraordinary phenomena. They may also be a source of informationabout human achievements and
the extrema of the natural world (e.g. tallestmountain, deepest ocean, etc.) The following titles
are some examples.

The New York Public Library Desk Reference


Guinness Book of Records


American Book of Days


Kane's Famous First Facts (by Joseph Nathan Kane)Handbooks and manuals, often used
synonymously, are ready-reference sourcesfor given fields of knowledge. Their emphasis is on
established knowledge ratherthan on recent advances. Their value is in depth of information in a
narrow field. Ahandbook is a single-volume reference book of compact size that provides concisefactual
information on a specific subject, organized systematically for quick andeasy access. Statistical
information is often published in handbook form (e.g.Statistical Handbook on the American Family).
Some handbooks are publishedserially (e.g. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics). A manual, on
the otherhand, is book or pamphlet containing practical instructions, rules, or steps forperforming a
task or operation, assembling a manufactured object, or using asystem or piece of equipment It also
refers especially to materials that describe inconsiderable detail the government of a state or the
structure and functions of agovernment agency, although such materials may be considered
undergovernment publications.The following is a listing of handbook and manuals on some particular
subjects.

Etiquette
o

120
Emily Post's Etiquette
o

Miss Manner's Guide for the Turn of the Millennium (by JudithMartin)

Literature
o

Magill's Masterplots (by Frank Magill)


Quotations (book of quotations index "who said and what")


o

Bartlett's Famous Quotations


o

Home Books of Quotations (by Burton Egbert Stevenson)


o

The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations

9441.9
Concordances A concordance is an alphabetically arranged index of the principal words orselected
words in a text, or in the works of an author, giving the precise location ofeach word in the text, with a
brief indication of its context. A glossarialconcordance includes a brief definition of each term.
Concordances are usuallydevoted to very well known works, such as the Bible, or to the works of
majorwriters (e.g. Chaucer, Shakespeare, etc.). The first Bible concordance wascompleted in 1230 A.
D. under the guidance of Hugo de Saint-Cher while he wasPrior of the Dominican Order in France. It
was an index to passages in which aword could be found, indicated by book and chapter. A best
example of a bibleconcordance is Alexander Cruden's Complete Concordance to the Old and
NewTestament, which was first published in 1737.41.10
Directories A directory is a list of people, companies, institutions, organizations, etc., inalphabetical or
classified order, providing contact information (e.g. names,addresses, phone/fax numbers, etc.) and
other pertinent details (e.g. affiliations,conferences, publications, membership, etc.) in brief format.
Directories are oftenpublished serially. Like any other reference source, directories can also take
theelectronic formats. A directory is used for the following purposes:

to locate organizations, institutions, and people through address andtelephone number


to verify the name of the organization or spelling of a person's name


to match individuals with organizations that can answer their informationneeds


to look for description of a manufacturer's product or service


to look for biographical data on an individual, or a historical or currentdata about a group


to compile mailing lists


121
for sampling purposes for social or commercial surveysDirectories are grouped according to the
following categories.

Local directories (includes telephone books and city directories)


Government directories

Institutional directories

Professional directories

Trade and business directoriesThere are also directory of directories, which provide listings and
descriptions ofvarious directories. Some popular titles of directories of directories include

Directories in Print

City and State Directories in Print


International Directories in Print


Organizations Master IndexThe following enumerations are other directory titles specific to certain
subjects.

Associations and foundations


o

Encyclopedia of Associations
o

Directory of Foundations

Education
o

American Universities and Colleges


o

Comparative Guide to American Colleges


o

Lovejoy's College Guide


o

World of Learning41.11 Biographical Information Sources A biography is a carefully researched,


relatively full narrative account of the life of aspecific person or closely related group of people, written
by another. Thebiographer selects the most interesting and important events with the intention
ofelucidating the character and personality of the biographee and placing thesubject's life in social,
cultural, and historical context. An authorized biography,written with the consent and sometimes the
cooperation of its subject, may be lesscritical than an unauthorized biography. A person may also write
about his own lifehistory; is such case, the product will be an autobiography.The literary form was

122
pioneered by the Roman historians Plutarch, Tacitus, andSuetonius English literary biography began
with James Boswell's Life of SamuelJohnson, published in 1791. Modern biographers tend to be
objective in approach,but classical and medieval biographers often wrote to confirm a thesis or
illustratea moral principle.Biographical information sources may either be in a directory or in a
dictionaryformat. Biographical directories are presented in a data-type format (just like in abio-data).
Biographical dictionaries present their literature in essay form.Biographical dictionaries may be general,
subject-specific, or limited to persons ofa specific nationality, race, field or profession, or period or
gender.Biographical information sources can also be classifies as current andretrospective. Current
biographical information sources deal with personas who arestill living, while retrospective biographical
information sources are on the subjectof deceased personas.The following is a classified list of
some popular biographical information sources.

Current biographical directories

Who's Who in America


o

Who's Who

Current biographical dictionaries


o

Current Buiography
o

The New York Times Biographical Service


o

Newsmakers (Gale Research Co.)


Retrospective biographical dictionaries


o

McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of World Biography


o

Webster's New Biographical Dictionary


o

New Century Cyclopedia of Names


Retrospective biographical dictionaries (national)


o

#
Dictionary of American Biography
o

#
National Cyclopedia of American Biography
o

#
Who Was Who in America
o

#
123
Dictionary of National Biography
o

#
Who Was Who41.12 Geographical Information SourcesGeographical information sources are usually
graphical representations of ageographical unit, region, or area. They are used to answer
geographicalquestions. Usually, they deal with a time period; they may either be current orhistorical.
Included in this genre are maps, atlases, globes, gazetteers, and travelguidebooks. These are defines
as follows.

A map is any two-dimensional graphic representation of the physicalfeatures (natural or man-made)


of all or a portion of the surface of theearth or another celestial body, the heavens, or an imaginary
geographicarea. Maps are categorized by the type of content and method ofpresentation (e.g. base
map, cadastral map, cartogram, chart, city map,compiled map, computer-generated map, geologic
map, historical map,location map, pictorial map, political map, road map, schematic map,thematic
map, topographic map, world map, etc.).

An atlas is a collection almost entirely of maps. Traditionally, atlases havebeen collections of maps
about related themes with most of the maps ona common scale. Most, but not all of them, have the
maps bound togetherin a book.

A globe is a spherical map of the earth or the sky. The terrestrial globe(spherical map of the earth) is
the only true cartographic representation ofthe Earth and possesses several advantages over flat
maps: distances,directions, and areas are shown without distortion. A celestial globe(spherical map of
the sky) takes the Earth as its imaginary centre inshowing the positions of the stars.

A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary in which political and physicalfeatures of the Earth, such as
countries, cities, rivers, and mountains, arelisted alphabetically, and some information, usually
descriptive andstatistical, is given about them.

A travel guidebook is a handbook that provides useful current informationfor travelers to a city, state,
region, country, or other geographic area orfor visitors to a museum, park, historical site, etc.Maps and
atlases can be thematic; meaning, they focus on a particular aspect ofgeographic interest. Such
interest may be historical, economic, political, andrelated matters which may be shown graphically in a
map.The following is a classified list of some titles of geographical information sources.

Major-size world atlases


o

Time Atlas of the World (London: Times Newspaper)


o

The New York Times Atlas of the World


o

The New International Atlas (Rand McNally)


Intermediate to small-scale atlases


o

Gold Medallion World Atlas


o

Citation World Atlas


124
o

National Geographic Atlas


o

Ran McNally New Cosmopolitan World Atlas


Thematic atlases
o

The Times Atlas of World History


o

William Shepherd's Historical Atlas


o

Rand McNally World Atlas of History41.13 SerialsSerials are publications in any medium (print,
electronic, micro-format, etc.) issuedunder the same title in a succession of discrete parts, bearing
numerical orchronological designations, and appearing at regular or irregular intervals with
nopredetermined conclusion. In AACR2 2002, serials are classified as a type ofcontinuing resource.The
serials genre includes specific types of publications. They are the following.

Periodicals
- a serial appearing or intended to appear indefinitely atregular or stated intervals, generally more
frequently than annually, eachof which is numbered or dated consecutively and normally
containsseparate articles, stories, or other writings.

96

Magazine
- a periodical for general reading containing articles on varioussubjects by different authors.

Journal
- a periodical, especially one containing scholarly articles and/ordisseminating current information on
research and development in aparticular subject field.

Monographic

series
(
series
) - a group of separate bibliographic itemsrelated to one another by the fact that each item bears, in
addition to itsown title proper, a collective title applying to the group as a whole.

Conference proceedings
- considered as serials if they have the samename and are differentiated only by number, place, and
date, and thetitles proper of the publications themselves must vary only slightly, if at all.

Annual (report, yearbook, etc).


- a publication issued yearly.

125
Continuing directories
- any directory that is being published intosuccessions to be continued indefinitely.

Newsletter
- a printed report or letter containing news of interest to aparticular group, for example the members
of a society or employees ofan organization, circulated to them periodically

The following is a listing of some bibliographic materials and databasesfor serials.


o

Ulrich's International Periodical Directory (R.R. Bowker)


o

The Serials Directory (EBSCO)


o

The Standard Periodical Directory (Oxbridge Communications)


o

Magazines for Libraries


o

Union List of Serials in Libraries of the US and Canada (H.W.Wilson)


o

New Serial Titles41.14 Government PublicationsThe general definition that can be given for
government publications is "anypublication originating in, or issued with the imprint of, or at the
expense and bythe authority of, any office of a legally organized government or
internationalorganization." Under Title 44, Section 1901 of the United States Code, agovernment
publication is defined as "information matter" published as a separatedocument at government
expense or as required by law. Section 1902 states thatgovernment publications, except those
"required for official use only or for strictlyadministrative or operational purposes which have no public
interest or educationalvalue and publications classified for reasons of national security," are to be
madepublicly available to depository libraries by the Superintendent of Documents. Theterm is also
used in a broader sense to include documents published by local,state, territorial, and foreign
governments.The following are some titles of retrieval tools for government publications.

Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publications


Monthly Checklist of State Publications


LEXIS/NEXIS

NTIS41.15 Company and Trade LiteratureThis genre of reference source materials includes the
following specific materials.

Trade literature
- a catalog or any other material produced by anorganization containing information about its products
and services; this isused for choosing suitable products, materials, equipment or service, byproviding
information about products and services and on rival productsand services (e.g. school catalog,
product catalog, etc.).

Business and financial reports

126
- a detailed periodic account of acompany's activities, financial condition, and prospects that is
madeavailable to shareholders and investors.

Campaign literature
- documents that contain data intended to persuadevoters to vote for a particular politician or
party.41.16 Technical Information SourcesTechnical information sources are materials highly relevant
to or specializing inindustrial techniques or subjects or applied science. These are in several varieties.

Technical reports
- scientific papers or articles describing research orother significant developments in a field of the
applied sciences.

Standards
- a technical publication which state how materials andproducts should be made, measured, tested, or
described; these areestablished by computers trade associations representing industries,government
departments, and national and international standardsassociations (e.g. ISO).

Specifications
- a concise, legally binding statement of a set ofrequirements to be satisfied by a product, a material,
or a processindicating, whenever appropriate, the procedure by means of which it maybe determined
whether the requirements given are satisfied.
97

Patents
- official or legal grant issued by a government giving the inventorthe right to exclude all other from
making, using, or selling an invention fora specific period of time.

Trademark
- any word, name, symbol, or device, or any combinationthereof adopted and used by a manufacturer
or merchant to identify hisgoods and distinguish them from those manufactured or sold
by others.41.18 Dissertations and Theses A dissertation is a lengthy, formal written treatise or thesis,
especially an account ofscholarly investigation or original research on a specialized topic, submitted to
auniversity in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Ph.D. degree. Dissertationssubmitted at
universities in the United States, Canada, Great Britain, and otherEuropean countries are indexed and
abstracted in Dissertation AbstractsInternational (DAI), available in print, on CD-ROM, and online from
ProQuest. A thesis is a proposition advanced and defended in a formal disputation, especiallyby a
candidate in partial fulfillment of university requirements for a master's degreeor bachelor's degree.
Master's theses are indexed annually by discipline, subject,and author in Master's Theses Directories
and in Disseration AbstractsInternational. They can also be located in the WorldCat database in
OCLCFirstSearch. For digital theses, scan be accessed through Networked DigitalLibrary of Theses and
Dissertations (NDLTD).

Chapter 42 - Reference and Information Services

42.1 Reference Services and Reference WorkReference services are all the functions performed by a
trained librarian (referencelibrarian) employed in the reference section of a library to meet the
informationneeds of patrons (in person, by telephone, or electronically), including but notlimited to the
following activities.

answering substantive questions


instructing users in the selection and use of appropriate tools andtechniques for finding information
127

conducting searches on behalf of the patron


directing users to the location of library resources


assisting in the evaluation of information


referring patrons to resources outside the library when appropriate


keeping reference statistics, and


participating in the development of the reference collection.In a more generalized definition, reference
services are collectively organizedservices to serve the library users in finding information and the
personalassistance offered to them.Samuel S. Green is the pioneer in formal reference services. He
wrote a bookentitled "Personal Relations Between Librarians and Readers" in 1876 (1stconference of
the ALA). The Boston Public Library is the first library to offer a fulltime reference position in
1883.Librarians who specialize in reference work are reference librarians. Referencework, as defined by
Rothstein, is the personal assistance given to serve the libraryusers in finding information. A reference
librarian is tasked to

work in public services


answer questions posed by library patrons at a reference desk, bytelephone, or via e-mail

provide point-of-use instruction on the use of library resources andinformation technology


assist in the selection of a balanced collection of reference materials tomeet the information needs of
the library's clientele. According to the ALA Reference Service Guidelines, there are six points of view
towhich the duties of a reference librarian is measured. These are:

services

resources

access

personnel

evaluation

ethicsWhen a query message thrown be a user to the reference librarian is ambiguousand incomplete,
it is necessary for the librarian to conduct a reference interview ora query negotiation. This is an
effective means of negotiating with the user toascertain what the user really wants. James I. Wyer and
Samuel Rothstein bothdeveloped parallel theories on the level of assistance reference librarians can
giveto library users. The question that aims to seek information being thrown by a userto the reference

128
librarian is the query message. It has two components - the givenand the wanted. The given serves as
the starting point for the reference librarian inlocating the wanted particular information.

Example: What is the meaning of library automation?


Given: library automation


Wanted: definitionThe query message that a user can throw are of four (4) types.

98

Directional queries
- These queries are rooted from the question "where".They aim for information about an exact
location, or maybe, about how toget onto a particular location.

Ready reference queries


- These are reference queries that can beanswered by a reference librarian in one or two minutes by
providing afact or piece of information found in a single source.

Specific search queries


- These are in the form of questions that areformed by "what, when, where, why, and how". The
answers to suchqueries are very specific and can be given outright without furtherinquiries.

Research queries
- Upon further inquiry, what at first appeared to be asimple query may turn out to be an opening
gambit in a more extensivesearch, once the nature of the information need is fully understood.
Thesequeries are now in the form of research queries.Either in the point of view of the reference
librarian or the library user, there is aconscious approach to decision-making in order to achieve
certain specifiedobjectives, known as the search strategy. There are two (2) possible approaches
tothis. Either

the user is enabled to exploit bibliographic structure in order to achieve anobjective, or


the reference librarian will be the one to exert all efforts to help the userachieve his/her objective.In
ether way, the query can be treated in any of these two approaches in order toachieve the desired
endpoint.

specific to general (citation pearl-growing)


general to specificRothstein enumerated three different varieties of reference service.


Information Service
- This provides the answer to a question orinformation need regardless of its complexity or the length
of time it takesto find the answers.

Instructional Service
- This teaches individuals how to locate informationthemselves, or assists them in understanding and
using reference toolswhether these are reference books, databases, or card/online catalogs. Italso

129
teaches users how libraries and the information that they hold areorganized and how librarians can
assist them.

Guidance
- This service advises and assists the user in the identificationand selection of appropriate materials
about a particular topic rather thanteaching specific skills.42.2 Computer-Aided Search A very helpful
means of locating the desired answer to reference queries is throughcomputer-aided search. Through
the computer systems, a user can choose anyfrom three (3) computer resources to find the particular
information they want -online information systems (online databases), reference sources in CD-ROMs,
andthe internet (through various search engines and online directories).The most prominent computer-
aided searching is through databases. A databaseis a large, regularly updated file of digitized
information (bibliographic records,abstracts, full-text documents, directory entries, images, statistics,
etc.) related toa specific subject or field. It consists of records of uniform format organized forease and
speed of search and retrieval and managed with the aid of databasemanagement system (DBMS)
software. A database searcher can browse throughnational bibliographic utilities, distant library
catalogs, electronic files accessible viathe internet, or locally produced databases.42.3 Information
ServicesInformation service is rendered through different means.

Answering ready-reference questions


- Through various reference sourcematerials, a ready-reference question be answered by a reference
librarianin one or two minutes by providing a fact or piece of information found ina single source.

Bibliographic verification
- This type of information service provides factsabout publication rather than information about
events, people, places,and organizations. This ensures that the user accesses the right materialsto
answer his/her queries in case the user wishes to do so.

Interlibrary loan (ILL) and document delivery service (DDS)


- There arecertain instances when the library does not have enough resources toaddress the
information needs of its users. If library is a member of agroup of libraries sharing resources, the
library may borrow somematerials from any of the other libraries within the group which has
thematerial needed. When this material is handed to the reference librarian,the information needed by
the user is delivered through any of thedifferent channels of document delivery service (fax, e-mail,
postalservice, etc.)

Answering research questions


- Research questions are the most complexin nature compared to the other types of queries. It entails
a systematic,painstaking investigation of a topic, or in a field of study, often employinghypothesis and
experimentation, undertaken by a person intent onrevealing new facts, theories, or principles, or
determining the currentstate of knowledge of the subject. The reference librarian does not really

99conduct the research himself/herself, but provides the researcher usefulinformation for the
completion of the research work.

Current awareness service
- This service is designed to keep library usersaware of new materials acquires, new services, or any
otherdevelopments in the library. This can be through public bulletin, librarypublication, or any other
possible means.

Selective dissemination of information (SDI)
- This is a customized serviceoffered most frequently to researches in academic or special
libraries.This aims to review newly available documents and select most relevantitems to the needs of
an individual or group and recording them so thatnotification may be sent to them. A library that offers
this type of servicemaintains records of users' profiles (description of users' needs andinterest, usually
transcribed in machine-readable form) and documentrecords (description of the materials in machine-

130
readable form). Throughthese records, the reference librarian determines the hit - the
positivematching of a user's and document's discipline.

Database searches
- The library may allow the user to search databasesavailable for access in the library. There are two
basic types of librarydatabases.1.

Bibliographic databases contain data on how to identify and accessthe appropriate material that can
help the user. These are generallythe machine-readable form of indexes, abstracts, and catalogs.2.

Non-bibliographic databases are a variety of databases distinguishedfrom bibliographic databases by


content, style, and format.
o

Full text databases


- The base record in these databases is thefull paper, document, or article itself, with the
associatedbibliographic information rather than a citation to a paper or otherdocuments located outside
the database.
o

Numeric databases
- The base record in such databases arestatistical tables, along with the citation to the
printedcounterpart from which these table have been drawn.
o

Graphics databases
- The key element in the base records hereare in graphic representations.
o

Directory/addresses databases
- In such databases, the baserecord is a name, address, and telephone number. Businessdirectories
have additional information related to businessactivities, employees, etc. in their base
records.Nowadays, information is considered by many as a commodity that can be bought,sold, and
traded for gain. People who deal with specific problems to come up withcitations and documents which
will aid the user in the solution of a problem areknown as information brokers. Their services is usually
for a fee.42.4 Instructional ServicesThere are several means of giving instructional service to library
users. Theseinclude the following.

Library orientation
- According to James Rice, this is the first level ofgiving instructional services to library users. It
comprises service activitiesdesigned to welcome and introduce users and potential users to
libraryservices, collection building layout, as well as the organization ofmaterials.

Library instruction
- Considered as the 2nd level in instructional services,this aims to give instructions in the use of
libraries with an emphasis oninstitution-specific procedures, collections, and policies. It concentrateson
tools and mechanics, including techniques in using periodical indexes,reference sources, card and
online catalogs, and bibliographies.

Bibliographic instruction (BI)


- This is any activity designed to teach usershow to locate information they need. In contrast to library
instruction, itgoes beyond the physical boundaries of the library and beyond institution-soecific
confines. Bibliographic instruction intends to teach principles ofinformation organization and retrieval to
provide learners with theknowledge to function in a broad range of information situations
andenvironments.

131
Information management education
- This term emerged from medicallibrarianship in the 1980s. It refers to instructing the users in
theidentification, retrieval, evaluation, and use of information. This educationdemands that librarians
depart from their traditional roles as mereproviders of information, by instructing users how to use and
manageinformation.42.5 GuidanceThe following are varied types of services that aim to advise and
assist users in theidentification and selection of appropriate materials about a particular topic
orsubject,

Readers' advisory services


- This reflects the concept of personalassistance of the librarian to users. In some public libraries, this
exists inthe form of helping users identify fictional and other recreational materialsthat will satisfy their
individual interests and tastes.

Bibliotherapy
- This is a more specialized form of guidance generallypracticed in a group. It intends to facilitate
personal growth orrehabilitation of group members through discussion of the material read orviewed.
There are two (2) primary types.
o

Clinical Bibliotherapy
- This is used by medical doctors andhospital librarians with persons who have emotional or
behavioralproblems (e.g. mental patients) to encourage self-understandingor behavioral change.
o

Developmental Bibliotherapy
- This is used with a wide variety ofindividuals in schools, or public libraries to promote self-knowledge
personal growth, and the successful completion ofdevelopmental tasks associated with various life
stages.

Term paper counseling


- This can be done in high school and academiclibraries by providing all sorts of assistance to students
in accomplishingtheir academic papers like term papers. This is also known as researchconsultation.

Research assistance and consulting


- This type of service providesguidance regarding a project the user/client is pursuing. The librarian
maybe asked to participate (as in consultancy) in the implementation of therecommendations produced
under the agreement.

Chapter 43 - Filipiniana Reference and Information Sources


43.1 Introduction to FilipinianaReference and Information Sources - A Filipiniana reference and
informationsources is any material which can satisfy any of the following conditions.

the reference of information source material is about the Philippines, or


the reference of information source material is about Filipinos, or


the reference of information source material is about the Philippines andFilipinos, or


the reference of information source material is about the


Philippines. A Filipiniana reference source may be the scholarly work of a native Filipinoindividual or
organization, or of foreign authors. It may also be published within oroutside the country.The following
are the general categories of Filipiniana reference and informationsources.

132
encyclopedias and multivolume works

dictionaries and thesauri


almanacs

yearbooks

handbooks

manuals

geographical information sources (maps, gazetteers, etc.)


directories

biographical information sources


indexes

electronic resources (CD-ROM and other electronic formats)


networks and online resources (consortia and online databases)43.2 Encyclopedias and Other
Multivolume WorksThe following encyclopedias and multivolume Filipiniana reference sources arelisted
chronologically, dating back from 1903 up to 2001.

The Philippine Islands, 1493-1803 ... (translated from the originals, editedand annotated by Emma H.
Blair and James Alexander Robertson, withhistorical introduction and additional notes by Edward
Gaylord Bourn.Cleveland, Ohio: A.H. Clark, 1903-1909. 55 v.)
o

This multi-volume work encapsulates the following topics, whichdate back 1493.
!

explorations by early navigators


!

description of the islands and their early people


!

history and record of the Catholic missions, as related incontemporaneous books and manuscripts
!

political, economic, commercial, and religiousconditions of early Philippine islands from their
earliestEuropean relations up to the early 19th century.

133
The Philippine Encyclopedia of Eloquence: a Complete Collection of theMasterpieces and Notable
Addresses of the Foremost Living Orators ofthe Philippines (Andres R Casamura, publisher and editor;
Venancio S.Duque, associate editor. Manila: The Philippine Encyclopedia, [1936]. 431p.)
o

This contains the oratorical pieces and addresses of notableFilipinos who lived at the time of its
publication.

Encyclopedia of the Philippines (Zoilo Galang, ed. 3rd ed. Manila: ExequielFloro [Printed by McCullough
Printing, 1950-1958]. 20 v.
o

This is actually a collection of materials written by variousauthors on different subjects arranged by


subject. It lacks acomprehensive index but has a simplified index whichreproduces the table of
contents and list of illustrations of everyvolume. The volumes contain topics on the following subject.
!

Volume 1-2 - Literature


!

Volume 3-4 - Biography

101
!
Volume 5-6 - Commerce and industry
!
Volume 7-8 - Art
!

Volume 9 - Education
!

Volume 10 - Religion
!

Volume 11-12 - Government and politics


!

Volume 13-14 - Science


!

Volume 15-16 - History


!

Volume 17-18 - Builders


!

Volume 19-20 - General information; Index


Philippine Encyclopedia of Law and Jurisprudence: ... (Pedro A. Venida.Quezon City: JMC Press, 1975-
o

This work is a comprehensive and encyclopedic compilation ofall code cases and commentaries from
Philippine, Spanish, and Anglo-American sources containing all important laws andpertinent decisions,
published and un published, of the SupremeCourt of the Philippines, from August 8, 1901 to December
31,1968, with the annual supplements thereafter, and importantdecisions of the Court of Appeals
alphabetically arranged foreasy-searching and easy-going research. (This informationencapsulates the
additional title information of this publication.)

134
The Wonderful World of Women: a Mini Encyclopedia (Lolita R. Lizano.Quezon City: New Bay, c1976.
285 p.)
o

This mini-encyclopedia is a useful reference for solutions toproblems pertaining to personal beauty,
child care anddevelopment, food, and home management. It has an index.

Filipino Heritage: the Making of the Nation ([edited by] Alfredo Roces.Quezon City: Lahing Pilipino
Pub., 1977-. 10 v.)
o

The contents of this work are divided into three basic periods.
!

Volume 1-3 - Prehistory (stone age, metal age, and ageof trade and contacts)
!

Volume 4-7 - Spanish period (from the colonization byLegaspi to the founding of the Katipunan)
!

Volume 8-9- Narration of the various armed strugglesagainst Spain and the US, the peaceful
political;struggle , followed by World War II, until the gaining ofPhilippine Independence in 1946.
!

Volume 10 - Index

The Philippine Encyclopedia of Social Work (editor: Leonora De Guzman.Manila: Philippine Association
of Social Workers, 1977. 692 p.)
o

The encyclopedia attempts to present a clear picture of thepurpose and function of social work
profession. It is divided intofive parts.
!

Part 1 - consists of 60 articles on social work, socialwelfare, and other related topics
!

Part 2 - compendium of social statistics fordevelopment planning


!

Part 3 - directory of facilities and resources


!

Part 4 - overview of 14 international organizations onsocial welfare in the Philippines


!

Part 5 - glossary, which is a compilation of technicalterms commonly used by social workers


Sports Encyclopedia (Manila: M.A.K, c1978. 76 p.)


o

This fully illustrated work lists 17 priority sports and gamesprofounded by different
agencies/associations on Philippinesports. Sports are presented by type or classification:
indigenoussports, individual sports, individual sports with weightclassification, and team sports. Rules
and regulations on sportsare included.

135
Bayang Magiliw: ang Pilipinas at ang Mamamayang Pilipino: Gabay saMag-aaral (Quezon City:
Instructional Materials, Ministry of Education,Culture and Sports, 1986. 2 v.)
o

This work deals on our country's people, geography, history,culture, economy, and political and social
institutions. The 4,000entries are based on knowledge and events up to 1986, arrangedaccording to
the Filipino alphabet.

Philippine Legal Encyclopedia (Jose Agaton Sibal. Quezon City: CentralLawbook, c1986. 1187 p.)

Philippine Science Encyclopedia (National Research Council of thePhilippines. Bicutan, Taguig: NRCP,
[198-]-1986. 8 v.)
o

Considered as the first of its kind in the country and the biggestproject of the NRCP in its more than 50
years of existence, theeight-volume set covers these broad subjects/divisions.
!

Volume 1 - Governmental, educational, and internationalpolicies


!

Volume 2 - Physical and mathematical sciences


!

Volume 3 - Medical science


!

Volume 4 - Chemical and pharmaceutical science


!

Volume 5 - Biological; science


!

Volume 6 - Agriculture and forestry


!

Volume 7 - Engineering industrial research


!

Volume 8 - Social science.


o

Each division has a project leader, usually the chairman of thedivision, a number of contributors, and
an editor or editors.

Documentary Sources of Philippine History (compiled, edited, andarranged by Gregorio F. Zayde.


Manila:
oThis 12-volume monumental work contains a total of 725historical documents. The first document is
"A.D 982: First Authentic Date in Sino-Philippine Relation", and the lastdocument is "The 1986
Constitution of the Philippines". It isarranged according to the dates when the dates occurred orwhen
they were written or published.

Encyclopedia of Philippine Folk Beliefs and Customs (compiled and editedby Francisco R. Demetrio,
assisted by Marcelino B. Panis, Jr. ... [et. al.].Enl. and rev. ed. Cagayan de Oro City: Xavier University,
c1991. 2 v.)
o

136
This is a revised and enlarged edition of the four-volumeencyclopedia published in 1970. The
encyclopedia puts togetherthe folk beliefs and customs from published works or field worksfrom 1967
to 1987. It consists of 25 chapters numberedsequentially. Volume 1 has 20 chapters covering actions,
amuletsand talismans, animals, aswangs or witches, birth, death,direction, diseases and sicknesses,
engkantos and spirits, andfeasts and celebrations. It has an appendix on the distribution offolk beliefs
and customs from the different provinces. Referencesincluded published and unpublished works. The
index is bychapter, alphabetically arranged by subject or topic.

Ensaklopidiya ng Pilosopiya (Emerito Quinto, patnugot. Manila: De LaSalle University Press, c1993. 229
p.)
o

This encyclopedia (in Filipino language) consists of four parts.


!

Volume 1 - Dictionary of English terms translated inFilipino, with brief explanations


!

Volume 2 - Name listings of different scholars, with theirbirth and death years, country or origin,
theirphilosophy, and the title of their works
!

Volume 3 - Important topics by authors with intensivediscussions


!

Volume 4 - Glossary of popular terms and phrases byscholars


Flora de Filipinas (by Manuel Blanco, with texts by Pedro Galende,Luciano P.R. Santiago, Domingo
Madulid, and Romualdo del Rosario.. 1stEnglish and modern Spanish language ed. Intramuros, Manila:
San Agustin Convent, c1993. 3 v.)
o

This work described and classified 1,200 herbal species,including their botanical properties, application,
and medicalqualities.
!

Volume 1-2 - Plates and laminas


!

Volume 3 - Blanco's list of plant nomenclature with anupdated list of their current names prepared
bycontemporary botanists.

Philippine Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (Domingo C. Salita, PSSCeditorial board exam. Quezon
City: PSSC, c1995. 5 v.)
o

This is a compendium of knowledge on the social sciences whichinclude anthropology, communication,


economics, geography,history, linguistics, political science, public administration, socialwork, sociology,
and statistics. Topics are arranged by discipline,with each discipline prepared by respective
associations. Themanuscript of each association contains the history and state-of-the-art, outstanding
social scientists who contributed in thegrowth and development of the discipline, and write-ups of
theimportant topics of glossary peculiar to the discipline. Maps andillustrations are provided top
facilitate understanding of theconcepts.

CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art (Manila: Cultural Center of thePhilippines, 1994. 10 v.)
o

137
This encyclopedia focuses on Philippine art in all its forms. Eachvolume contains the historical essays,
essays on the forms andtypes, essays on aspect of production, the major works, arts andorganization,
and the reference section. The contents of the 101volumes are the following:
!

Volume 1-2 - Master essays on the ethno-linguisticgroups, from Aeta to Yakan


!

Volume 3 - Architecture
!

Volume 4 - Visual arts


!

Volume 5 - Dance
!

Volume 6 - Music
!

Volume 7 - Theater
!

Volume 8 - Film
!

Volume 9 - Literature
!

Volume 10 - Index

A Practical Cyclopedia of Philippine Ornamental Plants (Domingo Madulid.Makati: Bookmark, Inc.,


1995. 388 p.)
o

This contains 1,000 species and varieties of endemic,indigenous, and exotic ornamental plants found in
thePhilippines. Plants are arranged in alphabetical order accordingto family. Each plant entry gives the
following information.
!

accepted scientific name (i.e. the genus name, thescientific epithet) and the authors' names
!

synonyms (if any)


!

local and foreign names


!

short description about the plant, which distinguishes itfrom the other plants
!

short notes on the country of origin

103
!

distribution
!
138
horticulture value
!

method of preparation.
o

This work provides a glossary and an index.


Booklet of Knowledge (Cristina Canonigo. Rev. ed. [s. l.]: Palinsad GeneralMdse., 1996. 200 p.)
o

This booklet contains varied subjects, interesting facts, andsome of the world's records for reference,
additional learning,self-acquisition of knowledge, and general information.Specifically, it presents
world's facts, records, events, etc.; thepecuniary units of world currencies,; basic knowledge
aboutdiamonds and typewriters, codes, astrology, boxing tips,selected words for scrabble, Christmas
songs, the PhilippineNational Anthem, Philippine presidents, and commonly usedabbreviations.

Ticzon Herbal Medicine Encyclopedia (Romeo R. Ticzon, edited byCarolina Elayda. Antipolo, Rizal:
Romeo R. Ticzon, publisher, c1996. 205p.)

This work is divided into three parts.


o

Part 1 - Introduction of objectives of the encyclopedia, whichclaims to be the in Philippine herbology


o

Part 2 - Compilation of excerpts from the author's "PhilippineHerbal Medicine" (with version in Filipino)
which includessketches of Philippine indigenous plants
o

Part 3 - Comprehensive research on the use of specific herbalplants with their scientific names and
sketches

Kasaysayan: the Story of the Filipino People ([Mandaluyong City]: AsiaPublishing Co. Ltd., c1998. 10
v.)
o

This work is claimed as "a comprehensive, readable, and reliablehistory of the Filipino people", because
each volume is written byone or more of the country's most authoritative experts in thefield. There is
an index and a list of all sources at the end of eachvolume. The 10th volume is a general glossary. The
following arethe titles of each volume with their respective authors.
!

Volume 1 - The Philippine archipelago / Raymundo S.Punongbayan, Precillano S. Zamora, [and] Perry
S. Ong
!

Volume 2 - The earliest Filipinos / Fr. Gabriel Casol,Eusebio Z. Dizon, Wilfredo P. Ronquillo, [and]
Cecilio S.Salcedo
!

Volume 3 - The Spanish conquest / Jose S. Arcillo, SJ


!

Volume 4 - The life in the colony / Maria Serena I.Diokno [and] Ramon N. Villegas
!

139
Volume 5 - Reform and revolution / Milagros C.Guerrero [and] John N. Schumacher
!

Volume 6 - Under stars and stripes / Milagros C.Guerrero


!

Volume 7 - The Japanese occupation / Ricardo T. Jose


!

Volume 8 - Up from the ashes / Ma. Serena I. Diokno


!

Volume 9 - A nation reborn / Alexander R. Magno


!

Volume 10 - A timeline of Philippine history / Henry S.Totanes, research editor


o

(The timeline starts from the formation of planet Earth 4.5 billionyears before prehistory and ends with
February 25, 1986, thedate when former President Corazon C. Aquino took her oath ofoffice as duly
elected President of the Philippines.)

Encyclopedia of Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (JerryKeenan. Santa Barbara, CA:


ABC CLIO., c2001. xxxii, 467 p.)
o

This work provides basic information about the Spanish- American and Philippine-
American wars ranging from names,dates, and summaries of the significant events related to
thosewars. Entries are arranged alphabetically; however, there is achronology of events from October
10, 1868 to April 7, 1903. Ithas a bibliography and an index.43.3 Dictionaries and ThesauriThe
following Filipiniana dictionaries and thesauri are grouped into three groups -language dictionaries,
subject dictionaries, and dictionaries of acronyms andinitialisms.

Language dictionaries
o

Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala, el Romance CastellanaNuestro Primero (Pedro de San Buenaventura.


Primer y segundaparte ... con lecencia impresso en la noble Villa de Pila, proTomas Pinpin y Domingo
Luag., Tagalos, 1618. 2 v. in 3.)
o

Vocabulario de la Lengua Pampanga en Romance (DiegoBergono. ea ed..Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y


Girandier, 1860. 343p.)
o

Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (compuesto por variosreligiosos doctor y graves, y coordinado por el
p. Juan deNoceda y el p. Pedro de Sanlucar. Ultimamente amuentado ycorregido por varios regiosos de
la orden de Augustinoscalzados. Reimpreso en Manila: Impr. de Ramirez y Girandier,1860. 642 p.)
104
o

Vocabulario de la Lengua Bicol (Marcos de Lisboa. Reimpresso aespensor del Fr. Francisco Gainza. 2nd
ed. Manila: Est. Tip deColegio de Santo Tomas, 1865. 417 p.)
o

Diccionario Bisaya-Espa
!

140
ol (compiled by Felix de la EncarnacionJuan. Tercera ed. Manila: Tipografia de Amigos del Pais, 1885.
2v. in 1.)
o

Vocabolario Ilocos-Espa
!
ol (trabajado por varios religiosos deorden de N.P.S Agustin, coordinado por el M.R.P, predicator
Fr. Andres Carro, y ultimamenta aum. y con. por algunos religiososdel mismo orden. 2nd. ed. Manila:
Test. Tip. : Litografico de M.Perez, hijo, 1888. 294 p.)
o

Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (Pedro Serrano Laktaw. Manila:Estab. Tip. "La Opinion" a cargo de G.
Bautista, 1889-1914. 2 v.)
o

Diccionario Bagobo-Espa
!
ol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila:Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188 p.)
o

Visayan-English Dictionary (Alton I. Hall. San Juan, Antique: [s.n.], 1911. 357 p.)
o

Diccionario Bagobo-Espa
!
ol (Mateo Gisbert. Laktaw. Manila:Est. Tip. de J. Marty, 1892. 188 p.)
o

Diccionario Ingles-Espa
!
ol-Tagalog (con partes de la oracion ypronunciacion figurada. Primera ed.. Manila: Libreria y
Papeleriade J. Martinez, 1915. 654 p.)
o

Practical English-Sulu Vocabulary and Conversation (RobertMcCutchen. Zamboanga: The American


Pharmacy, 1918. 167 p.)
o

Hanunu-English Dictionary (Harold C. Conklin. Berkley: Universityof California Press, 1953. 290 p.)
o

English-Tagalog-Pampango Vocabulary (Bienvenido M. Manaliliand J.P. Tamayo. Quezon City:


Pressman, [c1964]. 215 p.)
o

English-Tagalog Dictionary (Leo James English. Manila:Department of Education, 1965. 1211 p.)
o

An English-Tagalog Tagalog-English Dictionary (comp. by MariaOdulio de Guzman. Manila: G.O.T.


Publishers, [c1966]. 668 p.)
o

Dictionary: Bisayan-English-Tagalog (Tomas V. Hermosisima,Tagalog by Pedro S. Lopez, Jr. 1st ed.


Manila: Ayuda,[c1966].648 p.)
o

A Maranao Dictionary (Howard McCaughan and BatungMacaraya. Honolulu: Hawaii University Press,
[c1967]. 483 p.)
o

Bicol Dictionary (Malcolm W. Mintz. [Honolulu: Hawaii UniversityPress, c1971]. 1012 p.)
o
141
Cebuano-Visayan Dictionary (compiled by Elsa Paula Yap andMaria Victoria Bunye. Honolulu: Hawaii
University Press, [c1971].508 p.)
o

Kapampangan Dictionary (Michael L. Forman. Honolulu:University of Hawaii Press, [1971]. 246 p.)
o

Pangasinan Dictionary (Richard A. Benton. Honolulu: Universityof Hawaii Press, c1971. 313 p.)
o

Philippine Mirror Languages: Word Lists and Phonologies (ed. byLawrence Reid. Honolulu: University of
Hawaii Press, [c1971].239 p.)
o

Tiruray-English Lexicon (Stuart Schlegel. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, [c1971]. 294 p.)
o

Diksyunaryo-Tesauro Pilipino-Ingles: May mga Sinonimo saPilipino, Tagalog, Bikol, Kapampangan,


Hiligaynon, Ibanag,Ilukano, Bahasa-Indonesia, Ivatan, Maranaw, Bahasa-Malayu,Magindanaw,
Pangasinan, Sibuhanon, Samar-Leyte, TausugKabatirang Etimolohika, Mga Deribatibo at Pahayag
Idyomatikosa Pilipino at mga Omonimo at Di-magkakasinonimo sa Iba't-ibang Wika (Jose Villa
Panganiban. Lungsod Quezon: ManlapazPublication, [c1972]. 1027, xx p.)
o

Isneg-English Vocabulary (Morice Vanoverbergh. [Honolulu:Hawaii University Press, c1972]. 618 p.)
o

Tausug-English Dictionary (Irene Hasaan [and others]. Manila:Summer Institute of Linguistics, 1975.
789 p.)
o

Dictionary of Yakan-Pilipino-English (compiled by Janet Packand Dietlinde Bejrens. [Manila]: Summer


Institute of Linguistics,1978. 720 p.)
o

Philippine English Dictionary (Vito C. Santos. Rev. Metro Manila:National Book Store, 1983. 2677 p.)
o

Maguindanaon Dictionary: Maguindanaon-English, English-Maguindanaon (Robert E. Sulivan. Cotabato


City: Notre DameUniversity, Institute of Cotabato Cultures, c1986. 545 p.)
o

English-Tagalog Dictionary (Commission on the FilipinoLanguage. 3rd ed. Pasig, Metro Manila:
Anvil, c1992. 461p.)
o

A Dictionary of Philippine English (compiled by Isagani R. Cruzand Ma. Lourdes S. Bautista, cartoons
by Albert E. Gamos. PasigCity: Anvil, c1995.)
o

New Vcassan's English-Pilipino Dictionary (by Vito C. Santos andLuningning E. Santos, with a foreword
by Bro. Andrew B.Gonzales and introduction by Jovito R. Salonga. Pasig, MetrroManila: Anvil Pub.,
c1995. 1603 p.)
o

My Travel Companion in the Philippines (Amado M. Calderon.Quezon City: [Printed by Nazarene


Printers], 1996. 217 p.)
o

142
Diksiyonaryong Hiligaynon-Filipino (Ruby G. Alcantara. LungsodQuezon: Sentro ng Wikang Pilipino,
Office of ResearchCoordination, U.P., c1997. 538 p.)

105
o

New Japanese-English-Pilipino Dictionary (compiled by Julio F.Silverio. Metro Manila: National Book
Store, c1997.)
o

Gabby's Practical English-Filipino Dictionary (compiled,translated, computerized, and edited by Luciano


LinsanganGabby. Quezon City: Milmar Soyuz Trading, c1999. 1 v.)
o

A Contemporary English-Filipino Dictionary (Ernesto A.Constantino. Quezon City: Cecilio Lopez


Archives of thePhilippines and the Department of Linguistics-CSSP, UP Diliman,c1999. 500 p.)
o

Diksiyonaryong Filipino Filipino 2000 ([Maynila]: Sangay ng mgaPaaralang Lungsod, [2000]. 481 p.)
o

The New ISP Webster Philippine's Comprehensive Dictionary(International encyclopedia ed. [s. l.]:
Kimball Enterprise, c2001.476 [377] p.)
o

UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino (Virgilio S. Almario, punong editor.Quezon City: Sentro ng Wikang Filipino,
UP Diliman, c2001. 961p.)
o

Itbayat-English Dictionary (compiled by Yukihiro Yamada. Kyoto:Nakamishi Printing Co., 2002. 314 p.)

Subject dictionaries
o

Philippine Labor Dictionary (Romeo V. Isidro. Manila: NationalBook Store, 1966. 113 p.)
o

A Dictionary of International Law and Diplomacy (Melquiades L.Gamboa. Quezon City: Central Law
Books Pub., 1973. 351 p.)
o

Dictionary on Jose Rizal's Thoughts, Teachings, Principles(arranged and edited by Diosdado G. Capino.
Quezon City:Philippine Education Co., c1979. 383 p.)
o

Dictionary of Business and Economic Terms (Bernardo M.Villegas [and] Ramon Quesada. Manila:
Sinagtala Pub., c1988.204 p.)
o

Tagalog Slang Dictionary (compiled by R. David Zorc and RachelSan Miguel. Manila: De La Salle
University, 1993. 164 p.)
o

Plant World of the Philippines: an Illustrated Dictionary of VisayanPlant names With Their Scientific,
Tagalog, and EnglishEquivalents Franz Seidenschwarz. Cebu City: University of SanCarlos, 1994. 368
p.)
o

143
A Dictionary of Tagalog Slang and Expressions (Rosario P.Pacheco. Quezon City: Rex Book
Store, c1996.)
o

INNERTAP-PNN Thesaurus on Energy (editors and compilers,Evangeline J. Adventurado, Jose Edmund


P. Fajardo. QuezonCity: PNOC-EDC Energy Research and Development Center,1998. 55 p.)
o

The University of the Philippines Cultural Dictionary for Filipinos(Thelma B. Kintanar and associates,
foreword and overview ofJose V. Abueva. Quezon City: UP Press [and] Anvil Pub., 1996.1022 p.)
o

The Dictionary of Values (by Tomas Andres. Quezon City: GiraffeBooks, c2000. 166 p.)
o

A Guide to Commonly Used Chemistry Terms (compiled andedited by Victoria L. Magtangol. Quezon
City: Great BooksTrading, 2000. 150 p.)
o

Tumbasang Diksiyonaryo ng mga Katagang Pangmilitar - Ingles,Filipino, Cebuano, Hiligaynon,


Maranao, Tausug, Maguindanao(Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino. Iligan City: Iligan Institute ofTechnology,
2000. 383 p.)
o

Booklet of Idioms (compiled and arranged by Rogelio S. Olina.2001 ed. Cebu City: RSO Trading,
c2001. 104 p.)
o

A Dictionary of Philippine Plant Names (by Soming A. Madulid.Makati City: Bookmark, c2001. 2 v.)
o

Bokabularyong Traylingual: Maranao, Filipino, Ingles (Manila:Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino, 2003. 132
p.)
o

Learn to Speak Japanese, English, Filipino (Paz M. Belvez.Manila: Rex Book Store, c2003. 143 p.)

Dictionaries of acronyms and initialisms


o

Dictionary of Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms, 1946-1973(Sandra K. Repulda. Unpublished MLS


special problem,University of the Philippines, 1975. 297 leaves.)
o

Philippine Acronyms and Initialisms Dictionary, 1974-1983 (AfricaR. Castillo. Unpublished MLS special
problem, University of thePhilippines, 1987. 311 leaves.)43.4 Almanacs, Yearbooks, Handbooks, and
Manuals

Almanacs
o

Dimasalang Kalendaryong Tagalog (Dati'y La Sonrisa) (HonorarioLopez. [Maynila]: 1898-.)


o

Almanac for Manile


!
os (Nick Joaquin. Manila: Mr. & Mr. Pub.,c1979. 332 p.)
o

144
Student's Philippine Almanac (Children's Communication Center.Makati, Metro Manila: Filway
Marketing, c1979 576 p.)
o

RR's Philippine Almanac: Book of Facts (Juan Luis Z. Luna, Jr.,ed. 1990 ed. Manila: Aurora Pub.,
c1990.)
o

Philippine Banking Almanac (1993 ed. Makati: DRTI ConsultancyPhils. Inc. (in cooperation with the
Businessmen), c1993.)

106
o

The Asian-American Almanac: a Reference Work on Asians in theUnited States (Susan Gall, managing
editor; Irene Natividad,executive editor. Detroit: Gale Research, Inc., 1995. 834 p.)

Yearbooks
o

Philippine Statistical Yearbook (Manila: National Statistics Office,19--. annual.)


o

Philippine Yearbook (Manila: Bureau of Census and Statistics,[1973-].)


o

The Fookien Times Philippine Yearbook ([Manila: Fookien TimesYearbook Pub.], 1975-. annual.)
o

Food and Agricultural Yearbook 97 (Pasig City: University of Asiaand the Pacific, [1997]. 560 p.)

Handbooks and Manuals


o

Guide to Protocol (Luis Salcedo. Rev. ed. Manila: UniversityBook Supply, [c1959]. 280 p.)
o

1987 Guide to State Universities and Colleges in the Philippines(Higino A. Albes, [et. al.]. Laguna: UP
Los Ba
!
os., 1987. 144leaves.)
o

Agribusiness Opportunities: a Practical Guide on How to Look onLivelihood and Business Agricultural
Ventures (Quezon City:World Media, c1988 536 p.)
o

Guide for US Visa and Citizenship Applicants (Feliciano R.Fajardo. Rev. ed. Metro Manila: National Book
Store., c1988. 181p.)
o

Handbook on Barangay Administration (Pascual F. Jardimano.Manila: [P.F. Jardimano], c1989. 265 p.)
o

A Working Guide to Successful Conferences: Conference Manual(Quezon City: Center for Social Policy
and Public Affairs, Ateneode Manila University, c1989. 39 p.)
o

Ø Guide to Filipino Wedding (Luning B. Ira. Manila: Vera-Reyes,c1990. 165 p.)


o
145
Manwal sa Korespondensya Opisyal (Linangan ng mga Wika saPilipinas. Pasig, Metro Manila: LWP,
1990. 364 p.)
o

Overseas Filipino Workers Guide (edited by Maximo B. Garniongand Ma. Liana Lamanzares. Manila:
National Center for theProtection of Overseas Filipino Workers, 1990. 104 p.)
o

Philippine Health Care and Factbook (Pasig, Metro Manila:Center for Research and Communication,
c1990.)
o

Provincial Profile (Manila: National Statistics Office, 1990.)


o

Training a Trainer: a Manual (Tomas T. Andres. Makati, MetroManila: Salestiana, c1990. 181 p.)
o

Philippine Schools Librarianship: a Primer for Teacher-Librarians(by Maria Arcilla Orendain, [et. al.].
Manila: Rex Book Store,c1991. 181 p.)
o

Campaigning to Win (Consultants Bureau, Instructech, Inc..Manila: Instructech, c1992. 85p.)


o

Handbook for Filipino Overseas: a project of the Commission onFilipino Overseas (Department of
Foreign Affairs. Manila: theCommissions, [1995]. 50 p.)
o

Maid From the Philippines: Isang Manwal Para sa DomesticWorkers sa Hong Kong, Singapore, at
Malaysia (Amparita S. Sta.Maria, [et. al.]. Makati City: Ateneo Human Rights Center, c1998.)
o

Government Standard Operating Procedures 2001: a BasicHandbook (Quezon City: Fellowship of


Christians in Government,c2001. 208 p.)
o

Investigating Local Government: a Manual for Reporters (CecileC. Balgos. Quezon City: Philippine
Center for InvestigativeJournalism, c2001. 272 p.)
o

Fighting sexual Harassment in the Bureaucracy: a Manual(Manila: Civil service Commission, 2002. 105
p.)
o

A Handbook on Medical Services (Quezon City: Fellowship ofChristians in Government, c2002. 235 p.)
o

Tatu: a Guide on Tattoos and Body Pierces (Manila: Remedios AIDS Foundation, c2002. 132 p.)
o

Creative non-Fiction: a Manual for Filipino Writers (CristinaPantoja-Hidalgo. Quezon City: University of
the PhilippinesPress, 2003. 202 p.)
o

Guidebook on Monitoring and Evaluation ofProgrammes/Projects (Cesar M. Mercado. Quezon


City:Development Consultants for Asia-Africa-Pacific, [2003?]. 109leaves.)
o

Handbook on Colleges and Universities (Quezon City: Fellowshipof Christians in Government, c2003.
304 leaves.)
146
o

Philippine Migration Journalism: a Practical Handbook ([editedby] Paulyn P. Sicam. Quezon City:
Institute of Church and SocialIssues, Overseas Filipino Workers Consortium, 2003. 199 p.)43.5
Geographical Information SourcesThis genre of Filipiniana reference sources consist of maps, atlases,
gazetteers,and travel guidebooks.

Pronouncing Gazetteer and Geographical Dictionary of the PhilippineIslanda, United States of America,
with maps, charts, and illustrations
107(prepared in the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Insular Department (September30, 1900). Washington:
Government Printing Office, 1902. 933 p.)

Gazetteer to Maps of Philippine Islands, Map Series AMS S401 secondedition, scales 1:500,000
(Washington: Army Services, 1944. 239 p.)

The Philippine Atlas (Fund for Assistance to Private Education. Manila:FAPE, 1975. 2 v.)

Dining Guide to Manila's Best Restaurants (edited by Rafael Ma. Guerreroand Greg V. Trinidad. Makati:
Hotel and Restaurant Associations of thePhilippines, in cooperation with the Ministry of Toruism and
Philippine Airlines, 1986. 88 p.)

Guidebook to Museums of Metro Manila (text and project coordination byRegalado Trota Jose. Manila:
Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1988. 115 p.)

Guidebook to Museums of Mindanao (text and project coordination byFrancisco Demetrio, S.J.. Manila:
Presidential Commission on Culture and Arts, c1991. 85 p.)

Metro Manila Motorists Commercial Guide (Makati, Metro Manila:Philippine Motorists Guide, 1991.
[232] p.)

1993-1994 Metro Manila Citiguide: the Super Detailed Atlas of MetroManila (Rev. advance ed.
Mandaluyong, Metro Manila: Citiguide, [1993-].2 v.)
o

This atlas contains 160 maps, 498 tabular data, figures, andtextural write-ups covering the Philippines
and its 12 regions.Volume 1 presents the National Summary of the entirePhilippines and Regions 1-5.
Volume 2 covers Regions 6-12.Carefully given in details are the following data.
!

administrative boundary maps


!

legal bases of provinces and cities


!

maps on climate
!

maps on soil
!

maps on slope
!

147
maps on mineral resources
!

surface hydrology
!

fisheries
!

population density
!

vegetation
!

land classification

Ins and Outs of Metro Manila (Edmundo R. Abigan, Jr. Manila: ManilaPhilippine Guide, Inc., 1997-1998.
235 p.)
o

This work presents sectional maps and street directory of the 13cities and 34 towns of Metro Manila.

Environment and Natural Resources Atlas of the Philippines (produced bythe Environmental Center of
the Philippines Foundation in cooperationwith the DENR; edited by Gregorio Loarca Magdaraog. Quezon
City:ECPF, 1998. 395 p.)
o

This atlas presents the natural and socio-anthropological historyof the Philippines. It is divided into
nine (9) chapters. The firstchapter defines what an atlas is, gives background informationon maps and
map-making, identifies uses of maps, and gives anoverview of the succeeding chapters. The topics in
the next eightchapters are contributed by experts on the field of the subtopicscovered.

The Philippine Atlas (Manila: The Philippine Guides, Inc., c1998. 216 p.)
o

This reference provides basic facts and figures about the countryand profiles of the 16 regions and 78
provinces of thearchipelago. It also features special events in Philippine history,commemorating the
first 100 years of Philippine independence.Maps are printed in color.

E-Z Philippine Travel Atlas (Ken Buchanan. Angeles City: United TouristPromotion, c1999, 2000. 105
p.)
o

This is the first comprehensive atlas covering all parts of thenation. The accompanying text and
directory providesinformation about foods, accommodation, shopping, nightlife,major attractions, and
recreational activities.

Citiatlas Metro Manila (Mandaluyong City: Asia Type, Inc., c2000, 118 p.)
o

This atlas features streets and landmarks in Metro Manila. Itincludes subdivisions, bridges, major
buildings, churches,hospitals, and malls. It has an alphabetical general index ofareas.

148
The Ins and Outs of Metro Manila: Street and Building Guide (Corazon deJesus. Bacoor, Cavite:
Philippine Guide, Inc., 2003.)
o

This work features more than 5,000 buildings and landmarks, 142sectional maps of Metro Manila, 32
detailed maps, andcommercial centers.43.6 DirectoriesThe following directory titles cover a wide range
of subject areas about thePhilippines.

Cornejo's Commonwealth Directory of the Philippines (Encyclopedic ed.Manila: M.R. Cornejo, [1918-
?].)

Directory of Libraries in the Philippines (edited by Marina G. Dayrit, [et.al.]. Diliman, Quezon City:
U.P. Library, c1973. 131 p.}

Directory of Publishers and Printers (compiled by Iluminada A. DelRosario. Manila: Bibliography


Division, TNL, 1978. 86 leaves.)

Philippine Directory of Financial Institutions (Manila: Sinag-Tala, c1979-.)

108

Directory of Librarians in Southeast Asia (Marina G. Dayrit, editor. QuezonCity: Published for the
Congress of Southeast Asian Libraries by the U.P.Library, 1980. 140 p.)

Directory of Librarians in the Philippines (editors: Eleanor G. Arriola,Corazon M. Nera. [Manila]:


Philippine Library Association, 1980. 114 p.)

A Directory of Linguists and Language Education Specialists in thePhilippines (compiled by Andrew


Gonzales, Arlene Matocinos. Manila:Linguistic Society of the Philippines, 1981. 133 leaves.)

Metro Cebu Business Directory (compiled and edited by Research Libraryand Information Division,
National Research Council of the Philippines;Romeo F. Abarquez, project leader. Taguig:
NRCP, [1982?]. 260 p.)

Directory of Resource Agencies for Philippine NGOs (Rev. ed. Makati:PHILDHRRA, c1988. 62 p.)

The New ZIP Code Directory of the Philippines (Manila: Pride Pub., 1988.32p.)

Philippine Computer Directory (Quezon City: Computer Connection,1988.)


Directory of Philippine NGOs (Manila: Philippine Partnership for theDevelopment of Human Resource in
Rural Areas, 1988. 144 p.)

The Philippine Congress, 1987-1992. (Manila: Executive Computech Pub.,1988. 387 p.)

149
A Directory of Cooperatives, Self-
Help Groups, Samahang Nayons, Associations, and Federations (Quezon City: Cooperative Foundations
Philippines, c1989.)

Philippine Government Directory (Manila: Diplomatic Post, 1989-.)


Women Research Directory (Manila: National Commission on the Role ofFilipino Women, c1989. 246
p.)

Directory of Government-Developed Software (Quezon City: InformationTechnology Resource Research


Unit, National Computer Center, 1990-.)

Directory of Information Technology Specialists in the Government(Quezon City: IT Resources


Research Unit, National Computer Center,1991. 150 p.)

Philippine Manufacturers Directory (Manila: Pacific Pub. House, c1991-.)


Directory of Specialists (Makati: Fund for Assistance to Private Education,c1992. 331 p.)

Philippine Company Profiles (Michael G. Say, editor/publisher. Manila: TheMahal Kong


Pilipinas Foundation, c1987-1993.)

Philippine Fax Directory (1993-1994 ed. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas, Inc.199-.)

Media Directory of the Philiuppines (Makati: Diplomat Post Pub., c1995.)


Special Libraries and Information Centers (Manila: ASLP, c1995.)


Philippine Export Directory, 1996 (Makati: Pacific Trade MediaPublications, c199-.)


Katutubo Directory (Manila: Global Indigenous Cultural Olympics Summit(GICOS), [1996?]. 110 p.)

Philippine Construction Directory, 1997 (Makati City: Pacific TradePublications, [1997]. 238 p.)

Philippine Electronics Guide (1997 ed. Makati City: Belgosa BusinessPublications, Inc., 1997.)

2000 NBDB Directory of Registrants as of June 15, 2000 (Manila: NationalBook Development Board,
2000. 243 p.)

Directory of Licensed Librarians in the Philippines (compiled and edited byDante O. Perez. makati
City: LISCO multi-Purpose Cooperative, 2002. 361p.)43.7 Biographical Information SourcesThe
following is a chronological listing of biographical information sources.

Directorio Biographico Filipino (ed. P. Reyes. Manila: Imp. y Litografia"Germania" Alix, 1908. 59 p.)

150
o

This is a compilation of biographies of famous Filipinos who livedin the 19th century. Among those
included are Mariano Abella,Macario Adriatico, Cayetano Arellano, Sergio Osme
!
a, FelipeCalderon, Emilio Aguinaldo, and Jose I. Paterno.

Builders of a Nation: Series of Biographical Sketches (Morilla M. Norton.Manila: 1914. 266 p.)
o

Featured in this work is a collection of biographies of the leadingfigures in the Philippines at their time.
It includes writings ofMariano Ponce about the Philippines,; Epifanio de los Santos onliterature;
Gregorio Nieva on the Philippine assembly; and AustinCraig on the history of the University of the
Philippines.

Galeria de Filipnos Ilustres: Biografias a Cantor Desde los PrimeraosTiempos de la Dominacion


Hispana, de los Hijos Pais que en susRespectivas Profesiones Descollaron a Hayan Alconzado algun
Puesto deDistincion en Sociedad (Manuel Artigas y Cuerva. Manila: Imp. CasaEditora Renacimiento,
1917-18. 178 p.)
o

This work showcases an alphabetic biographical sketches ofFilipinos who have excelled in their
respective professions fromthe Spanish times to the early 1900s.

Sons of the Philippine Revolution: Lives and Memoirs (Rafael C. Londres;foreword by E. Finley Johnson.
Manila: National Federation of FilipinoTeachers, [1923], 178 p.)
o

This reference is divided into three parts.


!

Part 1 - The government of the revolution


!

Part 2 - Biographical sketches


109
!

Part 3 - Rise and fall of the Philippine Republic (by Apolinatio Mabini)

Who's Who in the Philippines (Rodrigo C. Lim. Manila: Claudio Nera,[c1929]. 213 p.)
o

This is a compilation of biographies, with portraits of successfulmen and women of the Philippines at
that time.

Who's Who in the Philippines (ed. by Rodrigo C. Lim. Chinese ed. Manila:U,P, Press, 1930. 212 p.)
o

These are biographies of over 100 Chinese residents in thePhilippines grouped under Manila, Cebu,
Iloilo, etc., with theoldest and/or most important persona presented first.

Men of the Philippines (George F. Nellist. Manila: Sugar News Co., 1931.)
o

151
This work is patterned under "Men of Hawaii", and containsbiographies and portraits of many
individuals, who, through theipersonal and community efforts, have contributed to the materialand
cultural advancement of the Philippines.

Leaders of the Philippines: Inspiring Biographies of Successful Men andWomen of the Philippines Zoilo
M. Galang. Manila: National Pub., 1932.324 p.)
o

This provides original biographies and portraits of people whohave led colorful and successful lives. It
includes officials of thegovernment from the Governor-General down to the municipalofficials and other
persons who have contributed to thedevelopment of the Philippines.

Who's Who in the Philippines: a Biographical Dictionary of Notable LivingMen of the Philippine Islands
(Franz J. Weisblatt. Manila: McColloughPrinting, 1937. 2 v.)
o

This work contains biographies of notable living men in thePhilippines, including foreigners, before
World War II. It givesgeneral information and statistics about the Philippines.

The Philper :or Philippine Personalities and Other Features ([Manila:Melicor Enterprise, 1947-.)
o

This consists of biographical sketches of Philippine personalitiesin the government from Manuel Roxas
to the variouscongressmen. It includes inspirational verses, stories, esays, andanecdotes.

Masonic Personalities (Mauro Baradi. Manila: Villamanr Pub., 1952. 147p.)


o

This is a collection of the author's editorials published in "CableTow", the official organ of The Most
Worshipful Grand Lodge ofFree and Accepted Masons of the Philippine Islands. It containsbiographical
sketches of men who served the fraternity and thecountry.

Men of Destiny (Alejandro P. Capitulo. Manila: 1953?.)


o

This work was serialized daily in 1953 by "The Manila Chronicle".It provides biographies of famous men
and women all over theworld.

Dictionary of Philippine Biography (Espiridion Arsenio Manuel. QuezonCity: Filipiniana Publications,


1955-.)
o

This is a dictionary of biographical sketches of deceased menand women who have made significant
contributions toPhilippine life and progress. The information includes names, tesof birth, parentage,
occupation and distinction of ancestors,education, activities, family data, and bibliography of
works.Each volume has a separate name and subject index.

Philippines Who's Who (Isidro L. Retizos and D.H. Soriano. Quezon City:Capitol Pub. House, [c1957].
327 p.)
o

This is a collection of 400 living Filipinos and members of theforeign community.


152
Tableau: Encyclopedia of Distinguished Personalities in the Philippines (EdGodofredo Jacinto, et. al.
Manila: National Souvenir Pub., 1957. 658 p.)
o

This work features biographical sketches and portraits of eminentFilipinos of the age. It has two parts -
The first lists the pioneers,while the second gives the personalities.

Our Presidents: Profiles in History (Jesus V. Merritt. Manila: Filipino Pub.Co., c1962. 126 p.)
o

This work gives information about the personal and political livesof Philippine presidents from Quezon
to Macapagal. It includesarticles about the presidents, their letters, speeches, messages,and
administrative and executive orders which marks thehighlights of their administration.

The Philippine Presidents from Aguinaldo to Marcos: Their Lives andMessages (Eufronio M. Alip. New
rev. ed. Manila: Alip and Sons, 1967.156 p.)
o

This contains a compilation of the inaugural addresses of thePhilippine presidents together with their
short biographicalsketches, the country's condition during their times, as well asproblems and their
corresponding solutions.

Eminent Filipinos ([by] Hector K. Villegas [and others]. Manila: 1965. 294p.)
o

This work compiles biographical sketches of men and womenwho became prominent during their time
because of theirsignificant contributions to the country through their respectiveprofessions. It starts
with Jose Abad Santos and ends withClemente Zulueta.

110

Know Them: a Book of Biographies (Wilfredo P. Valenzuela, editor.Manila: Dotela Pub., 1966. 236 p.)
o

This is composed of biographies of Jose Rizal and governmentofficials from the president down to the
congressmen before1966.

Women of Distinction: Biographical Essays on Outstanding FilipinoWomen of the Past and the Present
(Jovita Varias de Guzman, [et. al.].[Manila: Bukang Liwayway, c1967] 243 p.)
o

This contains biographical essays of Filipino women who haveshown heroism and leadership in their
chosen professions andhave had outstanding achievements worthy of emulation byevery Filipino.

Great Filipinos in History: and Epic of Filipino Greatness in War and Peace(Gregorio F. Zayde. Manila:
Verde Book Store, 1970. 675 p.)
o

This reference has biographies of Filipino men and women whoin time of war have demonstrated their
courage and love ofcountry as well as Filipinos who in time of peace havecontributed significantly to
the growth and development of thecountry through their respective professions or areas
ofspecializations. Some entries include photographs.

The Outstanding Leaders of the Philippines 1980 (Manila: Asia researchSystems. c1980)
o
153
This gives brief but comprehensive information about the leadingfigures from the upper echelons of the
government, business,industry, and the professions at the time of its publication. Itincludes the
portraits of featured persons.

Filipino Writers in English: a biographical and Bibliographical Directory(Florentino Valeros. Quezon City:
New Day, 1987. 286 p.)
o

This presents the life, works, prizes, and awards of some 500Filipino literary writers in English.

The VIPs of Philippine Business (edited by Michael say and assisted byLuz P. Say, Divine Grace L
Tauro. Manila: Mahal Kong Pilipinas CharitableFoundation, 1987. 377 p.)
o

This contains more than 500 biographical entries, includinginformation on names, addresses,
educational background,family history, extent of corporate holdings, achievements, andrewards,
together with photographs with the most famous anddistinguished business people of the Philippines.

Filipinos in History (Manila: national Historical Institute, 1989-. 4 v.)


o

This is a continuing compilation of biographies of noted whoselives, works, deeds, and contributions to
the historicaldevelopment of the country serve as inspirations to everyFilipino.

Mga Pangulo ng Pilipinas: mga Saligang Aklat (Lydia Gonzales-Garcia.Pasig, Metro Manila: Anvil
Publishing, c1991. 106 p.)
o

This contains biographical entries of 12 Philippine presidentsfrom Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo to Fidel V.
Ramos.

UMPIL (Unyon ng mga Manunulat sa Pilipinas) Directory of Filipino Writers(editors, Romulo P. Baquiran,
Jr., et. al. Quezon City: UMPIL, 1991. 203p.)
o

This contains over 300 biographical entries of living Filipinowriters who have published short stories,
poems, plays, novels,literary essays, criticisms, or anything of literary nature. Itincludes portraits and
list of Palanca Memorial Awards forLiterature from 1959 to 1989, Talaang Ginto from 1969 to 1990,and
CCP Literary Contest Awards from 1987 to 1990.

GUMIL Filipinas Directory of Ilocano Writers (compiled by Reynaldo A.Duque; edited by Honor Banco
Cabie. Manila: El Ni
!
o Pub. House, c1992.181 p.)
o

This covers more than 200 living and dead Ilocano writers (e.g.fictionists, essayists, poetsm
playwrights, etc.) who havecontributed to the enrichment of Ilocano literature. Entriesinclude portraits
and are arranged alphabetically.

Who's Who in Philippine History (Carlos Quirino. Manila: Tahanan Books,c1995. 227 p.)
o

154
This is a biographical dictionary of more than 500 Filipino menand women who have made significant
contributions toPhilippine history from the pre-colonial times to the death ofNinoy Aquino. It provides
basic facts like birth and death dates,occupation/profession, major contribution to history, etc.
Itincludes graphic icons before each entry to identify the majorfield categories where the person
belongs.

Great Women of our Time (Ireneo B. Angeles. Quezon City: Grecor andSons Printhouse, c1996. 176 p.)
o

This is a compilation of biographies of great women from thedifferent parts of the contemporary world.
It includes womenheads of states - presidents, prime ministers, and reigningqueens.

Interesting Bicolanas (Teresa O. Aureus. Naga City: Handog Pub., 1997.214 p.)
o

This is a gallery of brief biographies of outstanding Bicolanasfrom the political and socio-economic,
cultural and educational,religious and civic, and governmental and non-governmentalfields.

Kababaiyan: Kababaihan Para sa Kalayaa: Filipino Women in the Strugglefor Freedom (Manila: Socio-
Pastoral Institute, c1997. 124 p.)

111
o

This offers glimpses of what a few brave and inspiring womendid for the country in its struggle for
freedom and independence.

Pulang Hantik ([Reynaldo T. Jamoralin], patnugot. Sorsogon, Sorsogon:Bikol Agency for Nationalist
and Human Initiatives, 1997. 132 p.)
o

This features the life and death of bikolanos and Bikolanas whoat their tender age offered their lives for
the good of the countryduring the martial law years. It contains short biographies of theauthors and
editors. It includes illustrations and portraits.

Cockers Directory (Nid A. Anima. [s. l.]: N. Anima, c1998. 154 p.)
o

Aside from the directory, this features biographical essays andfolio of noted men and women
gamecock breeders and cockers.It provides tips on how to become a gamebird breeder and agood
cocker.

The National Artists of the Philippines (Pasig City: Anvil Publishing, 1998.392 p.)
o

This features Filipino national artists, presented in alphabeticalorder. It includes biographical sketches,
accomplishments, andlist of major works.

Filipino Women Writers and Their Works (Manila: National CentennialCommission - Women sector,
Task force for the Librarians Group, c1999.574 p.)
o

155
This is the fourth of a centennial series of five volumes on Filipinowomen. This work highlights the lives
of 520 Filipino women fromvaried fields who have led exemplary lives as evidenced by theiroutstanding
achievements and roles in our history and nationbuilding.

Liping Kabitenyo: Talambuhay ng mga Kilala at Di-kilalang Kabitenyo(tinipon at isinalin sa Filipino ni


Emanuel Franco Calairo. Dasmari
!
as,Cavite: Cavite Studies Center, De La Salle University, 1999. 202 p.)
o

This contains the biography, with black and white portraits, ofsome 99 known and unknown living and
deceased Cavite
!
os.

Philippine Presidents: 100 Years (Rosario M. Cortes. Quezon City: NewDay Pub., 1999. 210 leaves.)
o

This contains information, including photographs of thePhilippine presidents from Aguinaldo to Estrada.
It includes anindex, bibliography, and short biographies of the writers involvedin the book.

The Chief Justices of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Corazon L.Paras. Pasig City: Anvil
Publishing, c2000. 149 p.)
o

This contains biographical information of the 20 Chief justices ofthe Supreme Court from 1901 to 1999.
It also covers theassociate justices.

100 Taon: 100 Filipino sa Digmaan at Kapayapaan (Leonardo N.Camacho. Quezon City: SBA Printers,
c2000. [248 p.])
o

This work is about 100 Filipinos who played significant roles inthe Philippine history. Their portraits are
also included.

The Presidents of the Senate of the Republic of the Philippines Corazon L.Paras. Quezon City:
Giraffe Books, c2000. 152p.)
o

This features the biographical sketches of the 17 senatePresidents of the Philippines from 1916 to
1999. The officials arearranged in their sequence of service.

Philippine First Ladies Portraits (Jose R. Rodriguez. Manila: TantocoRustia Foundation, 2003. 143 p.)
o

This is a portrait collection and insight into the lives of 12 Firstladies of the Philippines from Hilaria del
Rosario-Aguinaldo toLuisa Pimentel-Ejercito Estrada.43.8 Bibliographical Information Sources
and Government DocumentsThese bibliographical information sources include bibliographies and
catalogs(including union catalogs). Government documents that function as are alsocovered in this
section.

Biblioteca de Filipina: a Sea, Catalogo Razonada de los Impresos, TantoInsulares con Eztranjeros,
Relativos a la Historia, la Etnografia, laLinguistica, la Botanica, la Fauna, la Flora, ... (Trinidad Pardo de
Tavera.Washington: Government printing Office, 1903. 3 v.)

156

Aparato Bibliografico de la Historia General de Filipinas: Deducido de laColeccion que Posee en


Barcelona la Compania General de Tabacos deDiches islas (Wenceslao E. G. Retano. Madrid: Imprenta
de la Sucesorade M. Minuesa de los Rios, 1906. 3 v.)

Bibliography of the Philippine Islands, Printed and Manuscripts, precededby a Descriptive Account of
the Most important Archives and CollectionContaining Philippina (James A. Robertson. Ohio: The Arthur
H. Clark Co.,c1908. Reprinted by Kraus, Co., 1979.)

Checklist of the Publications of the Government of the Philippine Islands,September 1, 1900 to


December 31, 1917 (compiled by Emma O. Elmer,Legislative Reference Division, National Library of
the Philippine Islands.Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1918. 288 p.)

Legal Bibliography (Vicente J. Francisco. [Revised]. Manila: East Pub.,1959. 345 p.)

Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1917-1949 (ConsolacionB. Rebadavia. Quezon City:


University of the Philippines, 1960. 817 p.)

Bibliography of Philippine bibliographies ([compiled by] Gabriel A.Bernardo. Quezon City: Ateneo
University Press, 1968. 192 p.)

112

Philippine Libraries and Librarianship: a Bibliography (Filomena C.Mercado. Manila: 1969. 58 p.)

Guide to Doctoral Dissertations in Microfilm, 1937-1968 (Concepcion S.Baylon. Manila: National library,
Filipiniana Division, 1971. 92 leaves.)

Philippine Ethnography: a Critically Annotated and Selected bibliography(Shiro Saito. Honolulu: The
University of Hawaii Press, 1971. 512 p.)

Filipiniana Materials in the National Library ([compiled by] Isagani Medina.Quezon City: national
Library of the Philippines and University of thePhilippines Press, c1972. 352 p.)

Catalog of Filipiniana at Valladolid (edited by Helen R. Tubangui. QuezonCity: Ateneo de Manila


University Press, 1973. 364 p.)

Philippine National Bibliography (The national Library of the Philippines.Manila: TNL, 1974-.)

Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1949-1962 (DivinaCu


!
ada. Unpublished MLS special problem, University of the Philippines,1977. 2 v.)

Muslim Filipinos: an Annotated Bibliography (Alfredo Tiamson. Makati:Filipinas Foundation, Inc., 1979.
386 p.)

157
Checklist of Philippine Government Documents, 1963-1973 (Carmelita Austria. Unpublished MLS thesis,
University of the Philippines, 1985. 3 v.)

Chinese in the Philippines: a Bibliography (Chinben See and Teresita AngSee. Manila: Chinese Studies
Program, de La Salle University, c1990. 208p.)

Bibliography of Philippine Languages (Rex Johnson. Manila: LinguisticsSociety of the Philippines, 1996.
355 p.)43.9 IndexesThese Filipiniana indexes cover a broad range of disciplines, from medicine andlaw
to arts and letters.

Philippine Index Medicus (Manila: Medical Library, College of Medicine,U.P. Manila, and the Philippine
Council for Health Research Development,19-.)

Supreme Court Reports Annotated (compiled and edited by the EditorialStaff of the Central Lawbook
Publishing Co. Manila: Central Book Supply,19-.)

Index to Philippine Republic Acts Nos. 1- (prepared by Isabela C. Moran;assisted by Sixto de la Costa.
Manila: PJL Publications, c1935.)

Index to Philippine Periodicals (Quezon City: University of the PhilippinesLibrary, U.P. Diliman, 1946-.)

U.P. Theses and Dissertations Index, 1946-1968 (Quezon City: TheLibrary, University of the
Philippines, 1969. 367 p.)

Accounting to Auditing Index: an Updated Compendium of Laws, Rules,Regulations, and Digests of


Selected decisions, Prewar to 1968 (byPatricia C. Fernando and Mena M. Caparros. Quezon City:
ManlapazPub., 1971. 697 p.)

Subject Guide to Supreme Court Decisions, 1st - 1973- (Quezon City: lawCenter, University of the
Philippines, [1974-].)

Guide to Presidential Decrees and Other Presidential issuances (MyrnaFeliciano. Quezon City: Law
Center, University of the Philippines, 1975.523 p.)

Philippine Short Story index (compiled by Maria Nena Mata. Quezon City:Rizal Library, Ateneo de
Manila University, 1976.)

Index to Philippine Plays, (1923-1983) (Manila: national Book Store,c1984. 67 p.)


Index to Philippine Poetry in English, 1905-1950 (compiled by Edna Z.Manlapaz, Gemino Abad. Metro
Manila: National Book Store, c1988. 746p.)43.10 Electronic ResourcesThe following is a listing of
Filipiniana reference sources in electronic formats,primarily in CD-ROM. Some of these titles were
previously issued in printedformats.

Bulacan 2000 Interactive CD-ROM (2nd ed. Malolos, Bulacan:Compulogic, c2000.)


o

158
This is an interactive information source on the province ofBulacan. It provides general information,
history, tourism andculture, and business of the province. Extensive informationabout the
municipalities is also available.

Castles of the Sea: a Story of the Manila Galleon ([s. l.]: Ayala Foundation,Inc. c1997.)
o

This is the story of the giant ships that for 250 years have sailedthe length of the Pacific from Manila to
Acapulco, which carriedvital global commerce from the east to the west part of the world.This formed a
link in a chain of trade that brought Asia, Europe,and the Americas together. The reference focuses on
how theships were built and what and who they carried.

CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art ([Manila]: Cultural Center of thePhilippines, c1998.)


o

This was previously published in a 10-volume set in 1994. TheCD-ROM edition of the encyclopedia
provides an enrichingmultimedia tour of the Philippine cultural landscape, as lived andpracticed by the
Filipino people, expressed in music, dance,literature, architecture, visual arts, film, and theater.

113

The Complete Island Traveler: a Multimedia Carousel on Philippine Travel([Manila]: Department of


Tourism, [c1998].)
o

This is a visitor's guide to the Philippines as it tells them where togo, how to get to a certain place,
what to see and where to stay,dine, and shop. It showcases over 500 images and over 50 videoclips.

Discover the Philippine Islands ([Pasig City]: Philippine Business Profilesand Perspectives, Inc., [20-].)
o

This contains essential information and actual footages of thePhilippine islands. It gives access to
detailed directories ononline bookings, transportations, accommodations, foreignembassies, and other
information relevant to traveling in thecountry. It has an updated online counterpart ().

Filipinas: Isang Kasaysayan ([Metro Manila]: Ayala Foundation, Inc.,c1997.)


o

This unveils Philippine history from the Tabon caves to theSpanish conquistadores, and the American
colonial period, torevolution and independence using the dioramas of the AyalaMuseum as guide.

Filipiniana Reference Sources Database (Nathalie Dela Torre, editor:Institute of Library and
Information Science, University of the Philippines,Diliman, 2003.)
o

This bibliographic database contains 1,746 titles of Filipinianareference sources in the sciences, the
social sciences, and thehumanities, with publication dates from 1880 to 1988. Using theMicro-
CDS/ISIS software, the database is searchable by name ofauthor, title, subject, call number, or
publication date. Each entryis complemented with an abstract.

Filipino Philosophy: a Critical Bibliography, 1774-1997 (Rolando M.Gripaldo. 2nd ed. Manila: De La
Salle university Press, c2000.)
o

159
This reference is presented in three parts. Prt 1 is composed ofnine essays that include a discussion on
the bibliography onFilipino philosophy from 1774 to 1997 and on the state ofphilosophy in the
Philippines today. Part 2 is the bibliographyproper of the original work (1774-1992), and continues in
Part 3(1993-1997).

From Britain to the Philippines ([s. l.]: British Embassy, 1998)


o

This records the historical links between the Philippines and theGreat Britain. It is presented into two
sections. The firstintroduces the character Lisa Earnshaw Bantug, who welcomesviewers in discovering
the rich shared heritage between the twocountries, while the second section presents
documentsgathered in London that researchers can pursue in their studies.

General Appropriations Act, FY 2000 (Department of Budget andManagement. Makati City: RAD
Gallery, 2000.)
o

This contains information about DBM's organizational profile,accomplishments, 2000 General


Appropriations Act, and primeron government budgeting.

Historic Journey to the Philippines (Pasig City: Trilogy Multimedia, Inc.,c1998.)


o

This reference is based of Pigafetta's diaries. It tells aboutMagellan's voyage to the Philippines. It gives
an overview of theroute with descriptions of the parts, the islands, and otherlocations; the forces of
nature that they battled as they venturedunexplored territories; and the significant characters
encounteredin the voyage.

Investing in Philippine Island destinations ([s. l.]: technologiesInternational, Inc., [199-].)


Lolo Jose: an Intimate Portrait (1st ed. Manila: EC Graphics and AsuncionBantug, c1999.)
o

This contains information about Jose Rizal's lineage or familytree, his full-text works, rare photos of his
sculptures, sketches,and historical notes. It also features trivia about Rizal and histime.

Lorenzo M. Ta
!
ada: a Centennial Birthday Tribute to a Filipino Hero(Manila: De La Salle University, c1998.)
o

This is a multimedia compilation of the photographs, historicaldocuments and letters, news clippings,
rare audio interviews,and video clips of Lorenzo M. Ta
!
ada, currently archived in amemorabilia room at the de La Salle University where he was oneof the
most outstanding alumni.

Mga Palasyo ni Erap: a Compilation of Investigative Reports on PresidentEstrada's Mansions (Philippine


Center for Investigative Journalism.Manila: PCIJ, 2000.)

Philippine Islands, 1493-1998 (Emma Helen Blair and James AlexanderRobertson, editors 1903; with
historical introduction and additional notesby Edward Gaylord Bourne; Antonio E.A. defensor, editor
2000. [manila]:[s. n.], 2000.)
160

Politica: Everyman's guide to Philippine Elections (produced by XKOM,Inc.; programming, graphical,


and animations by Quantum Systems, Inc.Quezon City: XKOM, Inc., c1998?.)
o

This contains a discussion on the different stages of thePhilippine electoral process, full text of election
laws and relatedissuances, court decisions, legal procedures, election forms,facts and figures, proposed
electoral reform laws, the vote count,

114automation programs, and a timetable of the Philippine politicaland electoral history.


The Public's Eye: Investigative Reports, 1989-1999 (Philippine Center forInvestigative Journalism.
[Manila]: PCIJ, 2000.)
o

This compiles information about the PCIJ, its timeline from 1989to 1999, abstracts of articles and
books authored by themembers of the center, as well as video documentaries on variedtopics. The
features are derived from "The Investigative Journal",a quarterly magazine, showcasing the writers'
best works withsections on politics, women, environment, informationtechnology, and journalism.

The 2002 Philippine Yearbook: Facts and Figures ([Manila]: [s. n.], c2002.)
o

This contains information about the Philippine government,diplomatic and media directories, listings of
top 5,000corporations in the country, the regions and provinces of thePhilippines, and a services
directory.43.11 Information Networks and Online ResourcesThe following is a listing of library networks
and online Filipiniana referencesources.

AGRIS (International Information System for Agricultural Sciences andTechnology)


ALINET (Academic libraries Information Network in Mindanao)


ARALIN (Association of Research and Academic Library InformationNetwork)


DACUN (Davao Colleges and Universities Network)


DOST-ESEP (Department of Science and Technology - Engineering andScience Education Program)


HAIN (Health Action information Network)


HERDIN (Health Research and Development Information Network)


LibraryLINK

NATLINE (National Labor Information Network)


NUTRIENT (Nutrition Research and Development Information Network)


161

PAARLNET (Philippine Association of Academic and Research LibrariesNetwork)


PAIS (Philippine Agricultural and Information Service)


PASFIS (Philippine Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System)


Philippine e-Lib Project


PHNET (Philippine Network Foundation, Inc.)


PREGINET

Robles Chan Virtual Library


Supreme Court e-Library


115
UNIT 13 - BIBLIOGRAPHIES AND THEDEVELOPMENT OF BOOKS AND LIBRARIES
Chapter 44 - The Development of the Book and Libraries
44.1 Introduction to Books and Its Derivatives44.2 Books in the Ancient Period44.3 Medieval Books -
Europe44.4 Development of Books in the Orient44.5 Books in the Renaissance Period44.6
Contemporary Books44.7 The Evolution of the Book and Libraries
Chapter 45 - Bibliographies as Sources of Information
45.1 Introduction to Bibliographies45.2 Types of Bibliographies45.3 Bibliographies for Non-Book
Materials45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources
and Guides toBibliographic Databases45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks45.7 Principles and
Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies
Chapter 44 - The Development of the Book and Libraries
44.1 Introduction to Books and Its DerivativesThe most simple definition tat can be given to a book is
that it is a volume of manysheets bound together, containing text, illustration, music, or other data
orinformation. A book is portable; and is intended for circulation.Technically, a book is a set of blank
sheets of paper bound along one edge andenclosed within protective covers to form a volume,
especially a written or printedliterary composition presented in this way. Another definition may be that
it is adivision of literary work which is separately published and has an independentphysical existence,
although its pagination may be continuous with other volumes. At the General Conference
of UNESCO in 1964, a book was defined as a non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages,
exclusive of cover pages. Abook may contain signatures - folded printed sheets bound within a book.
Theterm "book" is applied by extension to the scrolls used in the ancient world. In aneditorial sense the
word book refers to some literary works (e.g. Egyptian Book ofthe Dead), or to major divisions of a
literary work (e.g. books of the Bible, Romanepic the Aeneid).The early history of the modern book's
evolution is accounted to ancientpublication materials which includes the following.

Scroll and volume


- The scroll is a paper or parchment that usuallycontains writings rolled into rollers. This was an early
form of manuscript.It comprised of a number of sheets glued together to form a 20 to 30-feetlong strip
which was wound in a cylinder with projecting ornaments orknobs on ivory or colors, and was finished
with a colored parchmentcover. It was fastened by laces and were identifies with title labels
calledsittybus. A volumen is a papyrus roll used by ancient Egypt, Greece, and Rome.The term volume
was derived from this term. This type of scroll is writtenon one side with ink with a reed pen. The text
is usually laid in columns,the lines of which ran parallel with its length.

162
Codex
- A codex is an ancient book comprised of pieces of writingmaterials fastened so as to open like a
modern book. It superseded thescroll and volumen. Aside from the modern book, there
are also other derivatives of the book extantwhich are physically quite different. Included here are the
following.

Broadsheet and broadside


- A broadsheet is a long, narrow advertisingleaflet. It is usually a product of the long quarto (result of
folding papertwice) of the sheet of broad paper from which it is cut. This may beprinted on both sides.
The term "broadsheet" is used synonymously withbroadside - a large sheet of paper printed on one
side right across thesheet. A broadside is intended to be posted up (e.g. proclamations, balladsheets,
news sheets, sheet calendars, etc.).

Fascicule
- If a certain work is issued in parts (i.e. in installments) forconvenience of publishing or printing, it is
known as a fascicule. Theyusually consist of sections or group of plates protected by
temporarywrappers. They may or may not be numbered or designated as individualparts of a general
item.

Pamphlet and brochure


- As defined by the General Conference ofUNESCO in 1964, a pamphlet is a non-periodical publication
of at leastfive but not more than 48 pages, exclusive of the cover pages. It also hasan independent
entity, not being a serial, but it may be one of a series ofpublications having a similarity of format or
subject matter. A special type of a pamphlet is a brochure. Literally, it is a "stitched work".Since the
term is from the French word brocher which means to stitch, It

116is a short printed work of a few leaves merely stitched together, and nototherwise bound.

Foldings
- Foldings is a general term referring to printed sheets whichhave been folded to form sections. The
following table lists the usualfoldings
made. A folio relates to the format of a book. The term also refers to theindividual leaf of a book, or a
sheet of paper in its full size (i.e. flat,unfolded); hence, a folio ream is a ream of paper supplied flat.
The largestsize folio (25" x 16") is the atlas folio. The middle-sized folio between anordinary folio and
an atlas folio is the elephant folio (about 14" x 23"). Thiswas formerly used for service books,
maps, etc.

Placard or poster
- This is a large, single sheet of paper, usually printedbut sometimes written on one side with an
announcement oradvertisement. This is for display on a wall or notice board.Normally, the law entitles
certain libraries to receive one or more copies of everybook or other publication printed or published
within the country for free. This isknown as legal deposit or copyright deposit. The library entitled by
the law toreceive such items is the copyright library.44.2 Books in the Ancient PeriodDuring the pre-
historic era, man uses pictographs and landmarks in conveyingidea. Communication is more
concentrated in oral than written form.It was during the period of early antiquity (3600-626 B.C.)
when the forerunners ofbooks were used - the clay tablets and clay cylinders, which contained
informationwritten in cuneiform (any of several writing systems of the ancient Near East, forexample
Sumerian or Linear B, in which wedge-shaped impressions were made insoft clay). These were used by
the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and otherpeoples of ancient Mesopotamia. These people used a
writing instrument knownas stylus. Libraries were also born, but they are limited to the following
types:temple, government, private, and royal (e.g. libraries of Teloh, Borisppa, andNineveh). The
famous Code of Hamurabi is an example of writing produced duringthis period. At around 3000 B.C.,
Egyptians, on the other hand, used materials that were muchmore closely related to the modern book
163
- the scrolls (book rolls). These were alsoused by ancient Greeks, and Romans. They consisted of
sheets of papyrus, apaper-like material made from the pounded pith of reeds growing in the Nile
Riverdelta, formed into a continuous strip and rolled around a stick. The text containedin those
materials was written in hieroglyphics (writing system of ancient Egypt thatuses symbols or pictures to
denote objects, concepts, or sounds). An alphabetwhich consisted of 24 consonants was used. Scrolls
were tagged with the title andthe author's name. Professional scribes reproduced works either by
copying a textor by setting it down from dictation. Athens, Alexandria, and Rome were greatcenters of
book production and exported books throughout the ancient world. Inthese societies, the royal type of
library is less famous The famous libraries thenwere the libraries of Gizeh and Thebes. Famous writings
in scrolls are PrissePapyrus, Harris Papyrus, and Inscriptions. Phoenicains at around 2756 B.C.
alsodeveloped their own alphabet that is made up of 22 consonants.During the period of antiquity,
books were owned chiefly by temples, rulers, and afew rich people. Most education at that time and for
centuries thereafter, was byoral repetition and memorization. Papyrus did not last long since the
material wasbrittle; in damp climates it disintegrated in less than 100 years. Thus, a great part ofthe
literature and records of the ancient world has been irretrievably lost.Some of the book rolls produced
during the ancient world were made fromparchment and vellum (especially prepared animal skins -
parchment was fromsheep skin and velum was from calf skin). These materials did not have
suchdrawbacks. Other peoples of the ancient Middle East where papyrus did not growhad used scrolls
made of tanned leather or untanned parchment for centuries. Theproduction of parchment was
improved by King Eumenes II of Pergamun in the2nd century B.C. By the 4th century A.D., parchment
had almost entirelysupplanted papyrus as a medium for writing.The 4th century also marked the
culmination of a gradual process in which theinconvenient scroll was replaced by the rectangular codex
(Latin, "book"), thedirect ancestor of the modern book. The codex, as first used by the Greeks
andRomans for business accounts or school work, was a small, ringed notebookconsisting of two or
more wooden tablets covered with wax, which could bemarked with a stylus, smoothed over, and
reused many times. Additional leaves ofparchment were sometimes inserted between the tablets. In
time the codex cameto consist of many sheets of papyrus or, later, parchment, bound in a
waysomewhat similar to how present books are bound. The codex made it easier forreaders to find
their place or to refer ahead or back, particularly useful in theobservance of the Christian liturgy.44.3
Books in Medieval Period - EuropeIn the early Middle Ages in Europe, books were written chiefly by
Churchmen forother Churchmen and for rulers. Most were portions of the Bible, commentary,

117laboriously written out with a quill pen by monastic scribes working in the scriptoria(Latin, "writing
rooms") of monasteries. At first, scribes used a variety of local styles in capital letters only, a custom
carriedover from classical scrolls. As a result of the revival of learning initiated byCharlemagne in the
8th century, scribes shifted to capital and minuscule (small)letters, which eventually inspired the
typographers of the Renaissance. After the12th century, however, bookscript deteriorated into the
black letter style, whichconsisted of narrow, heavily drawn, angular letters crowded close together in
thincolumns that were difficult to read.Many medieval books were brilliantly illuminated in gold and
colors to indicate thestart of a new section of text, to illustrate the text, or to decorate the
borders.Medieval books had wooden covers, often strengthened with metal bosses andfastened with
clasps. Many covers were bound in leather, sometimes richlyadorned with gold and silver work,
enamels, and gems. Such beautifully producedbooks were works of art, which, by the late Middle Ages,
were usually created byprofessional scribes, artists, and jewelers. Books were few and costly; they
werecommissioned by the very small percentage of the population that could affordthem and that
knew how to read.The printing of books from wood blocks, a technique probably learned fromcontact
with the East, began in the late Middle Ages. Block books were usuallyreligious works with heavy
illustration and scanty text.44.4 Development of Books in the OrientPerhaps the earliest form of book
in the Far East was wood/bamboo tablets tiedwith cord. This had been used as early as the 3rd
millennium B.C. Chinese usedideographic characters in their writing system. Another early form was
strips ofsilk/paper, a mixture of bark and hemp invented by the Chinese in the 2nd
century A.D. At first, the strips, written on one side only with a reed pen or brush, werewound around
sticks to make scrolls. Later they were also folded like an accordionand stitched on one side to make a
book, which was glued to a light paper - orcloth-covered case. Libraries in ancient China are confined
within temples alone.In 6th century A.D., printing from carved wood blocks was invented in China.
Thefirst book known to have been printed from wood blocks was a Chinese edition ofthe Diamond
Sutra, a Buddhist text, dating from 868. The Tripitaka, (anotherBuddhist scripture), which ran to more
than 130,000 pages, was printed in 972.Printing from reusable blocks was a much more efficient
method of reproducing awork than copying by hand, but each block took a long time to carve and
could beused only for that one work.In the 11th century the Chinese also invented printing from
164
movable type, whichcould be reassembled in different orders for numerous works. They made little
useof it, however, for the great number of characters required in Chinese writing mademovable type
impracticable.44.5 Books in the Renaissance PeriodIn the 15th century two new technological
developments revolutionized theproduction of European books. One was paper, which Europeans
learned aboutfrom the Muslim world (which had acquired it from China). The other was movablemetal
type (which Europeans invented independently). The German printer JohannGutenberg pioneered the
use of movable type of printing. He is also sometimesidentified as the first European to print with
hand-set type cast in moulds.The first major book printed in movable type was the Gutenberg Bible
(1456).These innovations simplified book production and made it economically feasibleand relatively
easy. At the same time, public literacy increased greatly, in part as aresult of Renaissance scholarship
and exploration, and in part as a result of theProtestant Reformation tenet that every believer should
be able to read the Bible.Consequently, in the 16th century both the number of works and the number
ofcopies of them increased enormously, further stimulating the public demand forbooks.Italian
Renaissance printers of the 16th century set traditions that have persisted inbook publishing since that
time. Among them were the use of light pasteboardcovers, often bound in leather, regularized layouts,
and clear Roman and Italictypefaces. Woodcuts and engravings were used for illustrations. Another
traditionwas the designation of book sizes as folio, quarto, octavo, duodecimo, 16mo,24mo, and 32mo.
These designations signify the numbers of leaves (each sidecounting as a page) formed by folding a
large sheet of book paper. Thus, a sheetfolded once forms two leaves (four pages), and a book made
of sheets so folded iscalled a folio. A sheet folded twice forms four leaves (eight pages) and a
bookmade of sheets so folded is a quarto. Modern European publishers continue to usethese
terms.Renaissance books also established the convention of the title page and thepreface, or
introduction. Gradually the table of contents, list of illustrations,explanatory notes, bibliography, and
index were added.44.6 Contemporary BooksSince the Industrial Revolution, book production has
become highly mechanized.The more efficient manufacture of paper, the introduction of cloth and
papercovers, high-speed cylinder presses, the mechanical casting and composing oftype,
phototypesetting, and photographic reproduction of both text and illustration

118have made possible the production in the 20th century of vast numbers of books ata relatively low
price. The subject matter of books has become literally universal.While books as a means of
communication have been challenged by such 20thcentury technological devices as the Internet, radio,
television, films, and taperecorders, they remain the primary means for dissemination of knowledge,
forinstruction and pleasure in skills and arts, and for the recording of experience,whether real or
imagined.44.7 The Evolution of the Book and LibrariesThe following table summarizes all the important
events that took place along thedevelopment of the book.
Chapter 45 - Bibliographies as Sources of Information
45.1 Introduction to BibliographiesBibliographies are information sources that belong to control-access-
directionaltype. The term bibliography is derived from two Greek words - biblion (book) andgraphien
(write). Originally, it meant the writing or copying of books. Eventually, itsignified a list of books, or a
critical and historical study of books and othermaterials. Since the mid-18th century, the word has
come to mean a list of booksor other forms of written material on a subject, or the technique of
compiling sucha list.Formally speaking, bibliography is a systematic description of books,
manuscripts,and other publications as to authorship, title, edition, imprint, and subject, and
theirenumeration and arrangement into lists for purposes of information.Bibliographies are used in:

locating materials on the subject in question


providing means for verifying author's name, complete title of the work,place of publication, name of
publisher, date of publication, edition,number of pages, price, etc.

indicating the scope of the work and the manner in which the subject istreated, if annotated

obtaining comments on the usefulness of certain materials, if annotation iscritical and evaluative

165
grouping works according to form, location, and period A bibliography has the following qualities and
characteristics:

completeness

easy access to a part


varied forms (systematic enumerative, selection aids, bibliography ofbibliographies)


facilitates precise identification and accurate verification of materials


provides information about location of materials


aids in selection of materials for the library and the library user45.2 Types of
BibliographiesBibliography may be divided into two broad types: analytic (sometimes calledcritical) and
descriptive.

Analytic bibliography is concerned with books as objects; it uses theevidence of physical features (e.g.
the kind of paper and printingidiosyncrasies) to establish authorship or judge the reliability of
varianttexts.

Descriptive bibliography is the systematic enumeration of publications; itis, in turn, divided into three -
systematic enumerative, selective, anfbibliography of bibliographies..The three (3) major types of
descriptive bibliographies is further subdivided intomore specific types, as shown in the succeeding
discussions.1.
Systematic enumerative bibliographies

Universal bibliographies
- These bibliographies include everythingpublished, issued, or printed in the fields of communication
from thebeginning through the present to the future. The most popular titles forthis category will
include Bibliotheca Universalis (4 vols., 1545-1549) byConrad von Gesner, the known as the father of
Universal Bibliography. Another is a listing of the world's rare and noteworthy books, Manuel dulibraire
et de l'amateur de livres (3 vols., 1810; 5th ed., 9 vols., 1860-1890), compiled by the French scholar
Jacques Charles Brunet. TheBritish Library (formerly the Library of the British Museum) in London
hasso large a collection that its General Catalogue of Printed Books (108vols., 1881-1905; reissued
and updated in 263 vols., 1959-1966) canalmost be called a universal bibliography. It is certainly one
of the mostimportant general bibliographies extant, as are the catalogues of theholdings of the
Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris and the Library ofCongress in Washington, D.C.

National and trade bibliographies


o

National bibliographies
- A national bibliography aims toenumerate systematically works which are limited to materialswithin
a given country. A national bibliography is prepared by anational library by requiring publishers in the
country to provide
119free copies of their publications, known as legal deposit. Therecords contained in a national
bibliography must have beenobtained from direct examination of the materials. Examples ofnational
bibliography titles are:
166
!

Canadiana
- This is the national bibliography of Canada.
!

British National Bibliography (BNB)


- This is based onthe books deposited with the British Copyright Office,limited to works published
within Great Britain. It isarranged according to DDC with author, title, andsubject indexes.
!

Bibliographie Nationale Française (BNF)


- This waspublished since 1811, recording all titles received byBibliotheque National (National Library
of France)through legal deposit.
!

Philippine National Bibliography (PNB)


- This is aquarterly publication of The National Library with annualcumulation. Since 1985, it is issued
in two parts (Part 1 -books, music scores, government publications,periodicals, conference
proceedings; Part 2 - thesesand dissertations). It is classified according to DDC andincludes author,
title, series, and subject indexes.
o

National library catalogs


- This is a list of all the works catalogedand/or owned by a national library and other member
libraries;therefore, they are not limited to works published within the countryalone. Example titles of
national catalogs are the following.
!

National Union Catalog (NUC) of the Library ofCongress


- This was issued in microfiche in 1983. Ithas an online version which is MARC, which can beaccessed
through DIALOG ().
!

National Union Catalog: Pre-1956 Imprints (London:Marsell, 1968-1981)


- This is available on microformand online via REMARC (Retrospective MARC)..
!

Trade bibliographies
- The primary objective ofthese is to list commercial publications to aid in theselection and acquisition
of recently publishedmaterials, specifically trade books. Informationpresented in such bibliographies is
gathered fromthe publisher and is not examined by thebibliography compiler. Example titles include
thefollowing.
!

Books in Print
(R.R. Bowke, 1948 ff.) - This can beaccessed through printed, online (through databasevendors like
DIALOG), CD-ROM (Books in PrintPlus), and microfiche versions
!

Publishers Weekly
(1872 ff.)
!

Cumulative Book Index


(1933 ff.)
!

Publishers' Trade List Annual


(1873 ff.);
!

167
Subject Guide to Books in Print
(1957 ff.)
!

Biblio
(1935 ff.) - This is one among the Frenchtrade bibliographies. Since 1972 has beencontinued by
Bibliographie de la France-Biblio.
!

Deutsche Nationalbibliographie
(Leipzig, 1931 ff.) -This is one of several German trade listings
!

British Books in Print


(1874 ff.)
!

British National Bibliography


(1950 ff.)

Subject bibliographies
- These bibliographies list materials that relate to aparticular topic. They are intended for research
workers and others inspecial areas. An example title is
o

The Humanities: A Selective Guide to Information Sources (byRon Blazek and Elizabeth Aversa)

Guides to reference materials


- These bibliographies include the "best"works for a given situation or audience (e.g. guides to
reference books,special reading lists by a library and items devoted to the best works for aparticular
group of people). They aim to introduce the user to generalreference sources which will be of
assistance in research in all fields, andspecific reference sources which will aid in research in particular
fields.Example titles of these are the following.
o

Guide to Reference Books


(compiled by Eugene P. Sheehy -Chicago: ALA) - This publication concentrated on American,Canadian,
and some British titles, divided into five (5) majorareas.
o

Guide to Reference Materials


(edited by Albert J. Walford -London: LA) - This one is concentrated on British and Europeanreference
works.
o

American Reference Books Annuals


(by Bohdan A. Wynar) - Thisprovides a record of the reference books published or distributedin the US
and Canada during the preceding year. It hasannotations which are signed, critical, and more
expository thanthose found in Sheehy or Walford.

120

Analytical and textual bibliographies


- Analytical Bibliographies aregenerally concerned with the physical description of books.
Textualbibliographies highlight certain textual variations between a manuscriptand the printed book.

168
Daily-use bibliographies
- These bibliographies direct the user to an itemand are primarily used to find a specific use of
article.2.
Selective bibliographies (selection aids)
- These bibliographies are generally usedin selection and acquisition of library materials. Trade
bibliographies are alsoconsidered under this category. Here are some popular titles.

Choice (Chicago: ALA, 1964 ff.) - Choice evaluates a number of referencetitles of value to all libraries
(approximately 68,000 reviews are forreference titles). Choice is published monthly.

Library Journal (New York: R.R. Bowker, 1876 ff.) - This semi-monthlypublication is a yearly review of
reference titles, usually written bylibrarians and teachers.

RQ (Chicago: ALA 1960 ff.) - This quarterly publication that reviews140,000 to 150,000 titles yearly,
with around 200 words for each review.

Reference Books Bulletin, In Booklist (Chicago: ALA, 1905 ff.) - This semi-monthly publication provides
current, accurate, and in-depth reviews ofgeneral reference works.

Wilson Library Bulletin (New York: H.W. Wilson, 1970 ff.) - This publicationis issued monthly. It
devotes one section to "Current Reference Books".Since only one author is responsible for the reviews,
only about 20 to 30are reviewed each month.

Reference and Research Book News (Portland, OR: Book News, 1985 ff.)- This monthly publication
provides full bibliographic information and ashort (about 50 to 70 words) annotation.3. Bibliography of
bibliographies - These are listings of bibliographies that werecreated as a means pf bibliographic
control. Some popular titles are listed below.

World Bibliography of Bibliographies and of Bibliographical CatalogsCalendars, Abstracts, Digests, Indexes, and the
Like or Besterman
(byTheodore Besterman - Lausanne: Societas Bibliographica, 1965-1966) -This is the best-known and
greatest non-specialist bibliography ofbibliographies. It is comprised of four (4) volumes and covers
about117,000 volumes of separately published bibliographies in more than 40languages. The entries
are international in scope and are classified under16,000 subject headings. Besterman included other
substantialbibliographies but were not current. It lists separately publishedbibliographies only. The last
edition covers materials through 1963. Thiswas supplemented by Alice F. Toomey's World Bibliography
ofBibliographies (1964-1974). This supplement was compiled from Libraryof Congress printed cards
and arranged by subject according to LCSH.

Bibliographic Index
- This is a subject index to bibliographies, which havebeen published in books, pamphlets, and
periodicals. This is an excellentsource for beginning a search for scholarly and/or popular works in
manysubjects. Each entry gives complete information on the bibliography andindicates whether it is
annotated or not. Entries are arranged according toLCSH. Bibliographic Index has an online
counterpart (WILSONLINE),which covers bibliographies from 1984 onwards.45.3 Bibliographies for
Non-Book Materials Aside from bibliographies intended for book materials, there are also
bibliographiesthat deal with non-prints and other non-book formats, like serials (periodicals
andnewspapers). The following is a list of some titles.

For non-print materials


o

169
NICEM Indexes (National Information Center for EducationalMedia)
(Albuquerque, NM: Access Innovation, 1967 ff.) - This isan annual publication. It has an online
database called AV Onlinewhich can be accessed through DIALOG. This database is alsoavailable in CD-
ROM.
o

Video Source Book


(Detroit: Gale Research, 1978 ff.) - Thiscontains a listing of about 60,000 movies currently available
invideotapes and videodiscs. The entries are arrange alphabeticallyby title. This annual publication has
two supplements.
o

Bowker's Complete Video Directory


(New York: R.R. Bowker,1986 ff.) - This two-volume publication contains information on62,000
movies (educational, entertainment, professional) nowavailable on videotapes and videodiscs. It has a
CD-ROMcounterpart entitled Bowker's Complete Video Directory Plus.
o

Audio Video Review Digest Detroit


: Gale Research, 1988 ff.) -This quarterly publication indexes reviews of audiovisualmaterials that were
published in some 600 periodicals.
o

Media Review Digest


(by Ann Arbor - MI: The Pierian Press, 1970ff.) - This is an annual publication which analyzes reviews
onmedia appearing in about 140 periodicals. It covers about 40,000reviews that are indexed with full
citations. The entries areclassified according to type of media.
o

OPUS
(New York: Schwann Publications, 1949 ff.) - Thispublication is issued quarterly. It is considered as the
Books inPrint for recorded music (in various formats - CD, records,cassette).

121
o

Educational Film and Video Locator


(New York: R.R. Bowker,1980 ff.) - This publication is used to locate a particular film orvideo in
another library or collection. It contains 52,000 itemslocated in 46 libraries. This is issued in two (2)
volumes - volume1 is a list of subject headings and the particular titles under each,and volume 2 is an
alphabetical list of titles.
o

Guide to Microforms in Print


(New York: Bowker-Saur, 1961 ff.) -This publication considers sixteen (16) different types
ofmicroform. It lists works by author, by title, and by subject(according to LCSH).

For periodicals and newspapers


o

Ulrich's International Periodicals Directory


(New York: R.R.Bowker, 1982 ff.) - This is a guide to currently availableperiodicals (about 120,000).
Entries are arranged under 600broad subject headings. It includes a title index. Since 1988,
itincorporated the Irregular Serials and Annuals, thus providingpublication and ordering information for
most directories,almanacs, and yearbooks. Aside from print format, thispublication is available in
various formats - cd-rom (Ulrich's Plus),microform (Ulrich's Plus in Microfiche) and online
(Ulrich's Online,which is available through DIALOG, ESA-IRS, and BRS).
o
170
The Serials Directory
(Birmingham, AL: EBSCO Pub., 1986 ff.) -This annual publication was developed out of the firm's list
ofperiodicals which it sells as a jobber to libraries, bookstores, andcorporations. It covers 130,000
periodical titles and about 5,000newspapers worldwide. It also indicates major indexing servicesfor
each title, but adds dates for coverage of the particular item.
o

The Standard Periodicals Directory


(New York: OxbridgeCommunications, 1964 ff.) - This biannual publication lists about75,000 periodical
titles in the US and Canada, includingconsumer and special interest magazines, newsletters,
houseorgans, directories, government publications, bulletins,yearbooks, and religious associations
publications.
o

Magazines for Libraries


(edited by Bill Katz and Linda Katz - NewYork: R.R. Bowker, 1992) - This provides an annotated list
ofmagazines for the general reader and for school, junior college,college, university and public
libraries. It provides completebibliographic information and indicates availability of items inother
formats other than print.
o

Comparative Online Serials Program


(CONSER) - This is an onlineserials union list operated by the Library of Congress as anextension of
National Union Catalog.45.4 Current and Retrospective Bibliographies Another way of classifying
bibliography is by grouping the whether they are currentor retrospective. Current bibliographies list
materials close to the time at whichthey are being published. Retrospective bibliographies, on the other
hand, covermaterials published during an earlier time period.In the following list are examples of
current and retrospective bibliographies.

Current bibliographies
o

Cumulative Book Index


(New York: Wilson, 1898 ff.) - This isissued monthly except on August. It is an author-title-
subjectinternational list of books published in the English language. Itprovides information on author's
full name, complete title,edition, series, number of pages, publisher, date of publication,price Library of
Congress call number, and ISBN. It can beaccessed online through Wilsonline. It also has a CD-
ROMversion entitled Wilson-Disc.
o

American Book Publishing Record


(New York: R.R. Bowker, 1961ff.) - This monthly publication provides complete catalogingrecords for
books as they are published. It excludes governmentpublications, subscription books, pamphlets, and
dissertations.Entries are arranged according to DDC with author and titleindexes.

Retrospective bibliographies
o

American Bibliography
(by Charles Evans - New York: Evans,1903-1934) - This 14-volumework lists books, pamphlets,
andperiodicals published in the US from 1639 to 1806. The titles arelisted in chronological order by
date of publication. Included areindexes to authors, printers, and publishers.
o

Early American Imprints


(produced by Readers Microprint) - Thisis a microform set of the full-texts of the non-serial titles
inEvan's work.
o

171
American Bibliography: A Preliminary Checklist
- This coverspublications dating from 1801 to 1819.
o

Bibliotheca Americana
(by Joseph Sabin) - This lists booksrelating to the US from its European discovery (October 12,
1942)dating to 1868. It provides complete bibliographic descriptionand locations of copies as well as
references to reviews.
o

A Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of English Books Printed Abroad
(by A.W.Pollard and G.R. Redgrave - 2nd ed. London: BibliographicalSociety, 1976-1991) - This is a
three-volume work whose firstand second volumes include about 37,000 titles arrangedalphabetically
by author. The third volume provides a

122comprehensive index, which includes printers, publishers, andgeographic names.


o

Short Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland,Ireland, Wales, and British America, and of English Books
Printed in Other Countries
(by compiled by D.G. Wing - 2nd ed., rev. andenlarged, New York: Index Committee of the Modern
Language Association of America, 1972-1988) - This is also a three-volumework which covers 120,000
entries arranged by author.
o

Eighteenth Century Short Title Catalogue


(London: British Library)- This can be accessed online through BLAISE-Line and RLINand also in CD-
ROM as ESTC.45.5 Electronic Access to Bibliographic Sources and Guides to
BibliographicDatabases Aside through print medium, bibliographies and bibliographic guides can beacce
ssed electronically. A very popular electronic media of bibliographies is theCD-ROM, a high-capacity
read only optical disk that is intended for publishing dataand information. It can be intended for
database publishing and distribution. It mayalso contain databases of bibliographic records that are
distributed to customersites. Some databases available in CD-ROM are listed below.

Bibliofile (Library Corporation)


- Bibliofile is a MARC databasemanagement utility that provides access to catalog records by main
entry,title, ISBN/ISSN, and LC call number.

CD-MARC Bibliographic
- This is an implementation of the LC-MARCDatabase in CD-ROM.

Laser Quest
(from General Research Corporation)

SuperCat
(from Gaylord Research Corporation)

CD-CATSS
(from Utlas)

CAT-CD450
(from OCLC)

Laser Cat
172
(from Western Library Network)

Precision
(from Bodart)

Alliance Plus
(from Follett Software) - Listed below are some titles ofprinted guides to bibliographic databases.

Bibliofile
- This consists of two volumes and is published semi-annually. Itcontains about 6,000 entries
arranged alphabetically by database name. Itidentifies databases that are bibliographic in nature. The
first volumecovers online databases, while the second lists databases in CD-ROM,diskettes, and
magnetic tapes. This is also available online through
DataStar and in CD-ROM from Silver Platter
.

The CD-ROM Directory


(London: TFPL, 1986) - This annual publication islimited to sources in CD-ROM format.

CD-ROMs in Print
: An International Guide to CD-ROM, Multimedia, andElectronic Book Products (Westport, Conn.:
Mecklemedia, 1987 ff.) - Thisis also published annually. It covers all electronic sources in
variousformats.45.6 Bibliographic Utilities and Networks A bibliographic utility is an organization
that provides access to and support forbibliographic databases directly to member libraries or through
a network ofregional bibliographic service centers, usually via a proprietary interface. It mayalso refer
to a large database for shared cataloging information created by thecombined efforts of large libraries.
Such databases are used to identifycooperatively-based online systems in the sharing of cataloging
data.Relying on machine-readable cataloging provided by the Library of Congress, themajor
bibliographic utilities offer

software for downloading, editing, and local record creation


authority control utilizing the Library of Congress authority files; and


services to facilitate interlibrary loan based on holdings informationincluded in each record.The largest
bibliographic utilities known are the following

Online Computer Library Center


(OCLC) - This was formerly known as theOhio College Library Center (1967). OCLC is the largest
bibliographicutility. Its network and services link 36,000 libraries in the US and 74countries and
territories.

Research Libraries Information Center


(RLIN) - RLIN started in 1967. Theorganization responsible for its existence is Research Libraries
Group.

Utlas
- This was formerly University of Toronto Library Automation System(1973). Later, it was acquired by
Information System Management (ISM) in1992. This is now Utlas International Canada since it was
acquired byInternational Thomson Organization.

173

Western Library Network


(WLN) - This was previously known asWashington Library Network since it was initially installed in
Washingtonto give a comprehensive record to public and private libraries. It acquiredits present name
in 1985. Membership to WLN is restricted to the PacificNorthwest.

A-G Canada Ltd


. - Bibliographic utilities are significant for the followingreasons.
o

· rapid location of a material or article


o

· acquisition of materials through either direct or indirect file use


o

· circulation control and remote catalog access


o

· shared cataloging
o

· online access to LC Name Authority File


o

· answering bibliographic verification and location queries

12345.7 Principles and Guidelines in Compiling Bibliographies A bibliography may also refer to a list
of references to sources cited in the text ofan article or book, or suggested by the author for further
reading, usually appearingat the end of the work, in the context of scholarly publication. The
compilation ofsuch bibliographies is governed by certain principles.

All bibliographical entries must be in accord with the purpose of thescholarly work.

All entries should be accurate, logical, and clear


The bibliographical form, which is prescribed for a given scholarly must befollowed consistently in
every entry.The following is a summary of specific guidelines in compiling bibliographies.1.

A bibliography must be classified and divided into sections, usually by type ofmaterial, unless it is very
short.2.

The variety of source materials may sometimes call for further subdivision ofmain classes (e.g. primary
sources may be divided into published andunpublished works.3.

Entries should be arranged in a definite order within the division (alphabetical,chronological, etc.).4.

The bibliography of an academic paper is single-spaced with one blank spacebetween entries. The first
line of each entry is flushed left, and all subsequentlines if there are any, are indented five spaces.5.

The author's full name is given in inverted order.6.

If there are two or more authors, only the first author's name is in invertedorder while succeeding
names are transcribed in natural order.7.

Full stops are used in bibliographical entries at the end of each main part.8.

174
Bibliographical references to periodicals retain the parentheses around thedates of publication when
these follow volume number.9.

Page numbers are listed in bibliographical entries when the main item is part ofa whole work. When
given, page numbers must be inclusive (first and lastpage of the cited section). In journal articles,
when an article is continuedsomewhere else in the journal, only the first page is to be given.10.

Bibliographical entries are arranged alphabetically by author's family name,letter by letter.11.

In a succession of works by the same author, the name is given for the firstentry and an eight-space
line of underscore ending with a period takes placein subsequent entries.12.

Titles of works edited by the author or written by the author in collaborationwith others should not be
alphabetized along with works written by the authoralone. Put edited titles after those written by the
author using an eight-spaceline of underscore for the author's name, followed by a comma, a space,
and"ed."13.

Co-authored works follow edited works, but the author's name must berepeated in them.The following
illustrates some sample bibliographical citations.

Books
o

[One author] Anderson, W.D. Music and Musicians in Ancient Greece. 2nd ed.Ithaca, NY: Cornell
University Press, 1994.Hakemi, A. Shahdad: Archaeological Excavations of a
Bronze Age Center in Iran. Translated by S.M.S. Sajjadi. New Delhi:Instituto italiano per il Medio ed
Estremo Oriente, 1997.
o

[Edited work]Langdon, S., ed. From Pasture to Polis. Columbia, MO:University of Missouri Press, 1995.
o

[Two, three, or more authors]Lynd, Robert, and Helen Lynd. Middletown: A History in American
Culture. NY:Harcourt, Brace and Worls, 1929.Christianson, Elin B., David E. King, and Janet L.
Ahrensfeld.Special Libraries: A Guide for Management. 3rd ed. Washington,DC: SLA, 1991.Pahlen,
Kurt, et. al. The World of the Oratorio: Oratorio, Mass,Requiem, Te Deum, Stabat Mater and Large
Cantatas. Aldershot:Scolar, 1990.
o

[No author]The Lottery. London: J. Watts, [1732].


Journal article
o

Weinert, Regina. "The Role of Formulaic Language in SecondLanguage Acquisition: A Review." Applied
Linguistics. 16 (1995):180-205.

Magazine article
o

Jackson, Richard. "Running Down the Up-Escalator: RegionalInequality in Papua New Guinea."
Australian Geographer. 14(May 1979): 175-84.

124

Newspaper article
175
o

Manegold, Catherine S. "Becoming a Land of the Smoke-Free,Ban by Ban." New York Times. 22 Mar.
1994, late ed. A1.

Unpublished materials
o

Hoff, M.C. "The Roman Agora at Athens." Ph.D. diss.,BostonUniversity, 1988.Barradas, Josephine
Cecilia L. "The Organization of PhilippineVocal and Instrumental Scores in Selected Academic
MusicLibraries in Metro Manila: A Survey." MLS graduate thesis,University of the Philippines, Diliman,
2000.

Government documents
o

United Nations, Center on Transnational Cooperations. ForeignDirect Investment, the Service Sector,
and International Banking.(New York: United Nations, 1987) 4-6.

Electronic sources
o

Oxford English Dictionary Computer File: On Compact Disc. 2nded. CD-ROM. Oxford: University Press,
1992. Schneiderman,R.A. (1997). Libraries can make sense of the Net. San AntonioBusiness Journal,
(11)31, pp. 58+. Retrieved January 1999 fromEBSCO Database (Masterfile) on the World Wide Web:
AmericanPsychological Association. (1995, September 15).
o

APA public policy action alert: Legislation would affect grantrecipients [Announcement]. Washington,
DC: Author. RetrievedJanuary 25, 1996 from the World Wide Web:

Mitchell, William J. City of Bits: Space, Place, and the Infobahn[Book online]. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1995, accessed 25September, 1995: available from; Internet.

125
UNIT 14 - INDEXING
Chapter 46 - Indexes and Indexing - An Overview
46.1 Basic Concepts46.2 Functions and Uses of an Index46.3 Types of Indexes by Arrangement46.4
Types of Indexes by Type of Material Indexed46.5 Types of Indexes by Forms of Literature46.6 Types
of Indexes by Physical Form and Other Categories
Chapter 47 - Concepts and Principles in Indexing
47.1 Indexing Principles and Concepts47.2 Indexing Methods47.3 Indexing Languages47.4 Subject
Heading Lists and Thesauri
Chapter 48 - Indexes and Indexing Systems
48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes48.2 String and Permuted Indexes48.3 Faceted and Chain Indexes
Chapter 49 - Guidelines for Indexing
49.1 Selection of Documents and Periodical Titles for Indexing49.2 Subject Indexing49.3 Indexing
Procedures for Books49.4 Indexing Procedures for Periodical Titles49.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction
and Other Imaginative Works49.6 Choice and Form of Headings49.7 Factors That Affect the Quality of
an Index49.8 Evaluating Indexes49.9 Indexing Software Applications49.10 Institutions for
Standardizing Indexes
Chapter 46 - Indexes and Indexing - An Overview
46.1 Basic ConceptsIndexing is the process of analyzing the informational content of records
ofknowledge and expressing the informational content in the language of theindexing system (a set of
prescribed procedures, either manual and/or automated,intended for indexing). It involves
176

selecting indexable concepts in a document


expressing these concepts in the language of the indexing system asindex entries An index (from the
Latin word indicare, which means "to point out) is a systematicguide to items contained in, or concepts
derived from a collection. These items orderived concepts are represented by entries in a known or
stated searchable order,such as alphabetical, chronological, or numerical. Alphabetically or
otherwiseordered arrangement of entries, different from the order of the document orcollection
indexed, an index is designed to enable users to locate information in adocument or specific documents
in a collection.The document is any item that presents information, including machine-readablerecords,
microforms, prints, and non-prints. Collection is used to denote any bodyof materials indexed which
may be a single or a composite text (e.g. treatise,anthology, encyclopedia, periodical, etc.). The term
also refers to group ofdocuments to the contents of which reference is made or expected to be made
inan index (e.g. documents scanned by an indexing service, a database or abstracts,etc.). It may also
pertain to a set of representations (e.g. maps, drawings,reproductions of art, or other
objects). An index is made up of index entries (individual records in the index). An indexentry has
several elements. The basic ones include the following:

Index heading
- This is a term chosen to represent in the index the item orconcept derived from the material being
indexed.

Index subheading
- This refers to the heading that is subsumed under aheading to indicate a modifying or subordinate
relationship.

Qualifier
- This is a term added to a heading, but separated from it bypunctuation (preferably parentheses) in
order to distinguish the headingfrom homographs in the same index.

Scope note
- This pertains to the explanation added to a heading to clarifythe range of the subject matter
encompassed, or the usage of the headingwithin the index.

Locator
- This element leads the user directly to the part of the documentor collection containing the
information to which the index heading refers.One of the primary objectives of an index is to be part of
the library's informationsystem (collection, processing, storage, dissemination, and use of information).
Anindex is a useful tool in information retrieval (process of searching some collectionof documents in
order to identify those documents which deal with a particularsubject, or the process of recovering or
retrieving documents from a givencollection relevant to a request). The index is a very important
element of a library'sinformation retrieval system, the set of operations and associated
equipment,procedures algorithms, and documentation by which documentary units are

126indexed and the resulting records are stored and displayed, so that selectedrecords (and/or the
documentary units they represent) can be retrieved.46.2 Functions and Uses of an IndexThe functions
and uses of an index are as follows.

An index identifies potentially relevant information in the document orcollection being indexed.

An index analyzes concepts treated in a document so as to producesuitable index headings based on


its terminology.
177

An index indicates relationships among topics.


An index groups together information on topics scattered by arrangementof the document or


collection.

An index organizes headings and their modifying subheadings into indexentries.


An index directs users seeking information under terms not chosen asindex headings to headings that
have been chosen, by means of Seereferences.

An index suggests to users of a topic to also look up at related topicsthrough See also references.46.3
Types of Indexes by ArrangementThe following is a listing of the various types of indexes classified
according to thearrangement of their entries.

Alphabetical index
- This index is based on the orderly principles of lettersin the alphabet and is used for the
arrangement of subject headings, crossreferences, and qualifying terms, as well as main headings. It is
moreconvenient to use since it follows an order that is familiar to any user.However, problems of
synonymy and scattering may arise. Scatteringmeans that subcategories of a subject are not drawn
together under thegeneric term, but are frequently cross referenced from the not preferredterms to the
preferred ones. Users might be slowed in their searchessince there is always a possibility of searching
under the not preferredterm. For example if a user wishes to get information about "nationallibraries",
what term does the user search - libraries or national libraries?

Classified index
- The classified index has its contents arranged on thebasis of relation among concepts represented by
headings (e.g. hierarchy,inclusion, chronology, and other association). Classified indexes are
oftenbased on existing classification schemes(e.g. DDC). Such indexes areuseful for generic searches
when retrieval is aiming for classes ofdocuments. Since the hierarchy is clearly presented, the user
isimmediately made aware of terms closely related to a concept. They bringsimilar things together.
Looking at the other side, classified indexes areusually difficult to use for some users primarily because
they do not knowhow they are constructed. To identify the right position of an item in theclassified list,
a secondary file which is an alphabetical list is needed. Forentries which follow the sequence of
notational symbols, one cannot enterto the item directly as one can with alphabetical-sequenced
listing. Aconversion table must be consulted first in order to translate naturallanguage words into their
notational equivalents. Entries in classifiedindexes may appear under highly specific class numbers
derived from ageneral or specific-purpose classification scheme. Otherwise, they maybe grouped under
relatively broad subject categories and subcategories.

Concordance
- A concordance is an alphabetical index of all the principalwords appearing in a single text or in the
multi-volume work of a singleauthor with a pointer to the precise point at which the word occurs.
Theindex shows very contextual occurrence of a word. The need for indexeswas first felt when the
English Bible was made available to ordinarypeople. This paved the way for Alexander Cruden in 1737
to prepare TheConcordance of the Bible. A concordance is used to
o

to locate a partly or completely remembered passage


o

to assemble subject matter


o
178
to compare and analyze word meaning and usage

Numerical or serial order


- Included in this group are patent-numberindexes (e.g. The Numerical Patent Index of Chemical
Abstracts) and tableindexes.46.4 Types of Indexes by Type of Material IndexedIndexes are also
classified by the type of material being indexed, such as thefollowing.

Book index
- The book index, or back-of-the-book index, is analphabetical list of words, or group of words at the
back of the bookgiving a page location of the subject or name associated with each wordor group of
words. A book index is prepared in order to
o

reduce the frustration of information overload


o

permit a browser in a bookstore to compare books prior topurchase


o

collect the different ways of wording the same concept


o

provide well-worded sub-entries (rather than long strings ofunanalyzed page references
o

guide a user directly to a specific aspect of a topic


o

filter information for the readerThe contents of the index must satisfy the following conditions.
127
o

It must bring together references to similar concepts that arescattered in the text
o

All significant items in the text must appear in the index.


o

Items and concepts in the text must be represented byappropriate, precise, accurate unambiguous
headings.
o

Index entry headings should be consistent in form and in usage.


o

The book index should represent the text and is not a vehicle forexpressing the indexer's own views
and interests. A book index has the following components.
o

Entry
- This is the principal subdivision of the index.
o

Heading - This identifies the subject and is the top line in theindex entry hierarchy.
o

Subentry
/
subheading
179
- This is a line of indented text thatimmediately follows the heading. It usually represents someaspect
of the main heading.
o

Locator
- This tells the reader where to find the item or materialpertaining to the subject.
o

Cross

reference
- This is an internal index navigation guide. Theyusually take the forms See and See also.The following
is a sample entry from a book index.Dogsbreeding of, 134-139breeds listed, 15-19longevity, 22-
25nutritional requirements, 90-93training, 45-47whelping of puppies, 142-145See also American
Kennel Club

Periodical index
- The periodical index is based on the same principlesand has the same general objective as a book
index but has a broaderscope. Periodical indexes are open-ended projects usually performed bya group
of people. Each issue of a periodical may deal with unrelatedtopics by several authors, written in
different styles and aimed at differentusers.The following table summarizes the major distinctions
between the bookand periodical indexes.Book Index Periodical IndexCompiled only once and within
arelatively short time and usuallyperformed by a person. A continuous process and more
oftenperformed by a term of indexers andlasting for an extended period.Deals with a more or less well-
definedcentral topic.Deals with a great variety of topics.Indexing terms are almost alwaysderived from
the text.Terminology must be consistent andderived from controlled vocabulary.Specificity is largely
governed by thetext itself.Terms are prescribed be a controlledvocabulary and their level of
specificitymay be lower than the book index.Every single page of a book must beread. Articles are
scanned for indexable itemsand may rely on an abstract orsummary compiled.Entire text is virtually
subject toindexing. A periodical index will depend on anumber of policy decisions. Always bound with
the intended text. Compiled separately.

Newspaper index - This index uses the same principles and objectiveswith the previous index types,
except for some problems occurring tothem.
o

A newspaper article may contain names, places, or evensubjects that may not occur again (problem in
vocabularycontrol).
o

Multiple editions that some newspapers tend to have may causesome stories to be added, dropped, or
shifted to other pages.

Index to audio-visual materials - There are two noted subtypes of theseindexes.


o

Multimedia sources
- In these indexes, textual labeling is needed(index terms or descriptive-narrative) along with image
matching.Thus a search on words (e.g. battle, attack, fight) might retrievean image of a particular type
of scene, and this in turn could beused as input to find others like it.
o

Sound databases
- Usually these are neural networks (retrieval;indexes created automatically). They usually feature
soundbrowsers which allow fuzzy searches on audio databases (e.g.find sounds similar to...). There are
sound databases that canutilize speech recognition technology for retrieving televisionnews segments.
Such is used to create transcripts of the audioportion of the broadcast, which are then stored in a
searchableform. Speech recognition requires that a system identifies the
180
128words in an utterance. This is useful for structured tasks such asdata entry and issuing simple
commands. Audio processing onsound databases can only identify broad categories (e.g. music).46.5
Types of Indexes by Forms of LiteratureThe following indexes are classified by the type literature in the
material beingindexed, with an example title for each type.

Index to short stories


o

Example: Short Story Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.) - Thisindex lists stories in both book and
periodical collections. Itprovides entries for author, title, and subject. This index is issuedannually, with
over 3,000 stories included each year. Short storyindex provides a list of books and periodicals that
were analyzed.Five-year cumulation issues are also provided.

Index to plays
o

Example: Play Index (NY: H.W. Wilson, 1953 ff.) - Unlike ShortStory Index, this index is published
irregularly. It provides author,title, and subject index entries to individually published plays andplay
collections. An author entry contains the full name of theauthor, title of the play, a brief description
note, the number ofacts and scenes, the size of the cast, and the number of setsrequired. It contains a
cast analysis that helps a librarian locateplays for a number of players required.

Index to Poems
o

Example: The Columbia Granger's Index to Poetry. 9th ed. (NY:Columbia University Press, 1990. 2048
p. Also available in CD-ROM) - This publication indexed close to 400 poetry anthologies.It provides four
(4) indexes: by first line, author, subject, and title.It serves as a guide in locating a poem in a
particular anthology.It is also valuable in locating elusive quotations either by first lineor by subject.
The index provides access to over 40,000 poems.
o

The Columbia Granger's Guide to Poetry Anthologies (NY:Columbia University Press, 1991) - This
publication provides anannotated, descriptive, and critical appraisal of all theanthologies indexed in the
9th edition of The Columbia Granger'sIndex to Poetry, with attention given to the audience for
theparticular works. The annotations were prepared by William andLinda Katz.

Index to Essays
o

Example: Essay and General Literature Index (NY: ColumbiaUniversity Press, 1990 ff.) - This index
consists of analyticalsubject entries to the contents of approximately 300 collectedworks on every
subject from art to medicine. It is useful inapproaching an author's work via his/her name, as well as
inlocating criticism of the author's individual efforts. Regular issuesof four-year cumulation for the
previous index issues areprovided.46.6 Types of Indexes by Physical Form and Other
CategoriesIndexes are also classified by their physical form. These include the following.

Card indexes (e.g. card catalog)


Printed indexes (e.g. indexes in printed book or serial formats) - Theseindexes contain indexer's
markings on the items. They are constructedthrough the use of bibliographic worksheets.

Microform indexes

181

Computerized indexes (e.g. online indexes, indexes in CD-ROM)The intervention of computers in


indexing can either be automated or computer-assisted. In automated indexing, the computer is left to
construct the index withouthuman intervention. In computer-assisted indexing, humans are
responsible for theintellectual part of the task while the mundane work is done by computers
(e.g.sorting, organizing, etc.).Indexes can also be categorized by the type of index headings they
contain. Theseinclude the following.

Subject index
- This index provides access to the topics treated indocuments and/or features of documentary units
(e.g. genre, format, etc.).Index subject headings are arranged alphabetically or in other
systematicorder.

Author index
- This index provides access to information on documentscited by the author's name in the indexed
document, or it lists documentsdistinguished by author's name in the indexed collection.

Name index
- The name index provides access to names contained indocuments, whether or persons,
organizations, or other animate orinanimate objects which are identified by a proper name.
o

Examples: Red Rum (racehorse)Macrex (computer programs)


Chapter 47 - Concepts and Principles in Indexing
47.1 Indexing Principles and ConceptsThere are some principle concepts that govern the process of
indexing.

Exhaustivity
- This principle refers to the extent to which concepts ortopics are made retrievable by means of index
terms. There are twoidentified basic degrees of Exhaustivity.
129
o

Depth indexing aims to extract all the main concepts dealt with ina document, recognizing many
subthemes and subtopics. Thishas been traditionally practiced for the subject analysis of partsof items
(e.g. journals, articles, chapters in books, etc.).
o

Summarization identifies only a dominant, over-all subject of theitem, recognizing only concepts
embodied in the main theme.This is usually observed in library cataloging subject analysis.

Specificity
- This principle refers to the extent to which a concept or topicin a document is identified by a precise
term in the hierarchy of its genus-species relationship. If the heading used is parallel to the
conceptcontained in the item and represents this concept correctly, then the levelof specificity is high.
o

Example: An information resource about musicians is enteredunder Musicians and not Performing
artists.

Coextensive entry
- It should be noted that this concept is not exactly thesame as the concept of specificity. Coextensive
entry means that thesubject heading will cover all, but not more than, the concepts covered inthe
document.

182
o

Example: For a document that deals both with musicians anddancers, should be Musicians
and dancers.
o

However, if a controlled vocabulary is used, there is no specificentry that can be assigned. Instead,
several entries are provided(Musicians and Dancers for instance in the above example). Anexample of
an indexing system that attempts to make subjectheadings coextensive with the concepts covered in
thedocument analyzed is The Preserved Context Indexing System(PRECIS).

Consistency
- This refers to the extent to which agreement exists on theterms to be used to index some
documents. It requires that items on thesame subject be conceptually analyzed and translated in the
same way.There are two types of consistency level.
o

Inter-indexer consistency refers to the agreement between oramong indexers working as a team.
o

Intra-indexer consistency refers to the extent to which oneindexer is consistent to himself/herself.Many


studies identified two factors that influence indexing consistency.
o

Number of concepts represented


- Consistency diminishes asmore concepts are represented. That is, the higher theExhaustivity, the
lower the consistency, and vice versa. It hasbeen observed that typically, indexers usually choose the
samefirst term for the major subject of the document, but consistencydecreases as they choose more
terms.
o

Size of vocabulary
- As the size of vocabulary grows, consistencydrops. That is, the more choices indexers have, the less
likelythat they will choose the same term for describing a concept.47.2 Indexing MethodsThe process
of indexing can be exercised through two distinct methods.

Derived or derivative indexing


- Also known as extractive indexing, this is amethod by which words and phrases occurring in the title
or text of adocumentary unit are extracted by a human or computer to serve asindexing terms.

Assigned indexing
- In this method, terms, descriptors, or subjectheadings are selected to represent the topics or
features of adocumentary unit. Assigned terms are often times taken from a sourceother than the
document itself.47.3 Indexing Languages An indexing language is a system of naming or identifying
subjects contained in adocument. Like languages used in daily living, it also serves as a tool
forcommunication, a means of expressing feeling or thoughts and is a method ofcombining a group of
words or word-like symbols so that they can be understoodby daily users. In indexing, it is used for
the representation of topics and features ofa documentary unit and for the retrieval of documentary
units from an information-retrieval system. An indexing language has various features.

Vocabulary
- This refers to terms selected for the indexing of concepts. Itemploys certain classes of words,
adjectives, participles and gerunds, fewprepositions and conjunctions, almost no adverbs, pronouns or
verbs,and no interjections.

Syntax

183
- This refers to the combination and modification of terms to formheadings and multi-level headings or
to form search statements for non-displayed indexes. It is concerned with the clearness of expression,
withefficient and unambiguous communication and is language dependent.Syntactic relationships may
be shown in several ways.
o

Order of sequence
o

Example: Training of employees


!
Employees, training of
o

Use of "markers" - This may take the form of inflections (such as's) or prepositions (such as of).
o

Example: Dog's hair


!
Hair of the dog
130

Semantics
- This is actually the study of meaning expressed incommunications such as words. In indexing,
semantics indicate classrelations among index terms. Semantic relationships are categorizes asfollows.
o

Equivalence relationship
- This kind of semantic relationshipimplies that there will be more than one term denoting the
sameconcept. Equivalence is expressed through any of the following.
!

synonyms (e.g. Feminism


!
Women's LiberationMovement)
!

quasi-synonyms (e.g. Economics


!
Cost and financing)
!

preferred spelling (e.g. Program


!
Programme)
!

acronyms and abbreviations (e.g. ALA



AmericanLibrary Association)
!

current and established terms (e.g. Developingcountries


!
Third world
!
Underdeveloped areas
!
Less developed countries)
!

184
translation (e.g. Manila hemp
!
Abaca)
o

Hierarchical relationship
- This kind of semantic relationship ismanifested in various instances.
!

genus/species (e.g. Agroindustry



Food industry

Meat industry)
!

whole/part relationships (e.g. Foot



Toes)
o

Affinitive/associative relationships
- Such relationships aredisplayed with the use of related terms.
!

Example: Men - WomenEducation - TeachingMaintenance - RepairingIndexing languages are of


different types.

Natural language
- This type of language uses significant terms or wordsoccurring in the text as is as index entries.
Words extracted from the textthat use natural language for indexing purposes are often
calledkeywords. Natural language has several characteristics.
o

Natural language tends to improve recall because it providesmore access points but reduces precision.
o

In natural language, redundancy is greater.


o

Natural language uses more current terms.


o

Natural language tends to be favored by subject specialists orthe end-user.


Controlled vocabulary
- Controlled vocabulary makes use of authority liststhat enable an indexer to establish a standard
description for eachconcept and use that description each time it is appropriate. It servesseveral
purposes.
o

It controls synonyms by choosing one form as the standard term.


o

It makes distinctions among homographs.


!

Example: Security (Law)Security (Psychology)


o

185
It establishes the size or scope (e.g. whether the word baseballwould include softball).
o

It usually records hierarchical and affinitive/associative relations.


o

It controls variant spellings.Controlled vocabulary uses several syndetic devices.


USE and USE FOR (for synonymy)


o

v USE indicates that another term is to be used inpreference.


o

v UF (Used for) indicates that a term is used instead ofanother.


BT, NT, and RT (references for differing levels specificity andcertain near synonyms and antonyms.
o

v BT - indicates that the term is broader in scope inrelation to other termsd within the unit.
o

v NT - suggests that the term is narrower in scope


o

v RT - indicates availability of related terms to the termin the unit.


parenthetical qualifiers (for semantic ambiguities)


o

Example: Mercury (Planet)Mercury (Chemical element)Mercury (Mythology)Controlled vocabulary


offers advantages for the indexer and the user ofthe index.

It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher willexpress a particular concept in the same
way, so as to improvethe matching process and enable the searcher to find what isbeing looked up to.

It increases the probability that both indexer and searcher can beled to a desired topic by the syndetic
features.

It increases the probability that the same term will be used bydifferent indexers or by the same
indexer at different times toensure consistency.

It helps to speed the indexing process and especially thesearching process by making it unnecessary to
imagine and to

131look up possible or likely synonyms if the term looked up is not inthe database.

It helps searchers to focus their thoughts when they approachthe information system without a full and
precise realization ofwhat information they need.Coupled with these advantages are some
disadvantages.

186
Indexing with controlled vocabulary can mean high input costs,since it is usually done by people who
must read the document,discern the various ideas it contains, then match these withappropriate terms
in the authority lists.

Controlled vocabulary indexing is prone to human error ininterpreting a document's subject matter.

Different indexing languages may be incompatible, even with thesame discipline or subject, making
searching in differentdatabases difficult.

There is a possibility that the controlled vocabulary may beinadequate. The indexer and the searcher
are limited to theterminology used, to the scope of each content (term ornotation), and to the
structure of the existing system.47.4 Subject Heading Lists and ThesauriControlled vocabulary is
channeled in two basic forms.

Subject heading list


- This is an alphabetical list of subject headings withcross references from not preferred terms and
headings to preferredones, and linking devices between related terms and headings. It oftenincludes
separate sequences of standardized subheadings that may becombined with subject headings. Rules
for applying subheadings usuallyaccompany the list. A subject heading is used primarily to index
textual,book-length documents, with one or two terms that capture what thedocument is all about.
Examples of subject heading lists are the following.
o

Library of Congress Subject Headings (LCSH)


- LCSH is used inconjunction with the Subject Cataloging Manual: SubjectHeadings, a document that
contains policies and practices of theLibrary of Congress. LCSH is updated continuously.
Electronicupdates are available via subscriptions to Cataloger's Desktopand through various
bibliographic utilities such as RLIN andOCLC.
o

Sears List of Subject Headings


- This list is intended for smallcollections used by persons with general needs. Its main usersare public
and school libraries. It is also continuously updated(updates are available in electronic form).
o

Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)


- This list is used to providesubject access points on every bibliographic record created atthe National
Library of Medicine. In printed version, MeSH iscomprised of three (3) volumes - one volume for a
hierarchicallisting, another volume that is alphabetically-arranged thatincludes scope note, and a
volume of permuted alphabeticallisting. in which every word of a phrase is brought into leadposition.

Thesaurus
- The term thesaurus is derived from Latin, which means"treasure". It is used to control indexing
vocabulary in one subject or fieldof interest, ranging from Agriculture to Vocational Training and to
theEuropean Communities. It is a controlled indexing language vocabularyarranged in a known order
and structured so that equivalence,homographic, hierarchical, and associative relationship indicators
amongterms arte displayed clearly and identified by standardized relationshipindicators that are
reciprocally employed. More than the subject headinglist, a thesaurus is based on terms and concepts
that appear on the actualtext of documents being indexed. A thesaurus aims to promoteconsistency in
the indexing of documents, predominantly for post-coordinate information retrieval systems, and to
facilitate searching bylinking lead-in terms with descriptors.
Chapter 48 - Indexes and Indexing Systems
48.1 Title-Based Derivative Indexes A title-
based derivative index is generated merely by obtaining and analyzingcontexts present in document or
article titles. There are two (2) known indexingsystems that are centered in this principle.

187
KWIC (Keyword in Context)
indexing was introduced by Hans Peter Luhnin 1959. It is a rotated index commonly derived from the
titles ofdocuments. Each keyword appearing in the title becomes an entry pointand highlighting in
some way by setting it off at the center of the page.KWIC indexing employs the following principles.
o

Titles are generally informative.


o

The words extracted from the title can be used effectively toguide the user to an article or a paper
likely to contain desiredinformation.
o

Although the meaning of the word viewed in isolation may beambiguous or too general, the context
surrounding the wordhelps to define and explain its meaning.

KWOK (Keyword Out of Context)


indexing system is also a rotated index,but uses a different method. Keywords that become the access
points are
132set off on the left hand margin of the page or sometimes, they are used asthough they were
subject headings. A keyword used as an entry point in aKWOC index is not usually repeated in the title
but is replaced by anasterisk (*) or some other symbols.Below are some examples how KWIC and
KWOC indexes are constructed.Examples:Document titles - Blue-Eyed Cats in TexasThe Cat and the
FiddleDogs and Cats and Their DiseasesThe Cat and the Economy48.2 String and Permuted Indexes A
string indexing system is a word-based system in which the indexer analyzes thevarious aspects of a
complex subject treated in a document and records theaspects as words, along with "role operators"
(that is, instructions to thecomputer). The computer program combines these words into a string of
termsthat represents a brief summary of the document's content. Then, the programprovides index
entries by automatically recasting the string under every significantterm that forms part of the
string.Timothy C. Craven cited two main characteristics of a string index.1.

Each indexed term normally has a number of index entries containing at leastone of the same terms.2.

Computer software (index string generator) generates the description part(index string) of each index
entry according to regular and explicit syntacticalrules.Examples of string indexes are the following.1.

PRECIS (Preserved Context Index System)


- This is a method of subjectindexing developed by Derek Austin for the British National
Bibliography(1971-1973) in order to produce printed alphabetical subject entries. It involves

determining the subject content of the document


analyzing the subject statement to determine the role of eachsignificant term (action term, location
term, an agent or object of theaction)

computer manipulation of the coded string to produce index entries


determining the relationship of the term to other terms in thedatabase and how should all these terms
be linkedPRECIS is based on citation order principle of context-dependency. The firstprinciple governs
what terms are placed together in the citation order; the second,which is placed first. The principle of
context states that a term should be adjoinedby those other terms which serve most to narrow its
scope or to qualify it. On theother hand, the basic principle of the dependency principle is that the
moredependent of two linked terms should normally be cited after the less dependent.The following
illustrates how a string of terms is organized according to thisprinciple.Example: A > B > C >
DPhilippines > Paper industries > Personnel > SelectionNote that a PRECIS indexer must use
188
"operators" (codes tacked onto componentterms) in order to represent term relationships
unambiguously.Example: Topic: Selection of personnel in paper industries in thePhilippinesInput
string: (O) Philippines(I) paper industries(P) personnel(2) selectionwhere:2 = transaction actionP =
object of actionO = locationI = key system (object of transitive action)From the above example, the
operators show the role that a term plays in relationto other terms and thus can be regarded as
role indicators or role operators. Belowis an example of a PRECIS index.Example: Topic: Selection of
personnel in paper industries in thePhilippinesEntries: PhilippinesPaper industries. Personnel.
Selection.Paper industriesPersonnel. Selection.Personnel. Paper industries. PhilippinesSelection.
Personnel. Paper industries. Philippines

1332.

POPSI (Postulate-based Permuted Subject Indexing)


- This indexing systemwas developed at the Documentation Research and Training Center in
India,following the classification ideas of S.R. Ranganathan. The coding used for theindex string
generator in this system is based on the indicator system of ColonClassification (also by S.R.
Ranganathan). A comma ("," )precedes the entitysegment, a semicolon (";") before the property
segment; a colon (":") before aprocess segment; a hyphen ("-") before a qualifying sub-segment; and
agreater-than sign (">") before a narrower term.Example: Topic: Study, using rabbits, of heart's
stimulation by antibiotics (underpharmacology)Input string:PHARMACOLOGY, CHEMICAL > DRUG >
ANTIBIOTIC; STUMULATION -CIRCULATORY SYSTEM > HEART: STUDY - ANIMAL > RABBITThe index
string generator of POPSI is basically KWOC-like except that additionalqualifying terms are inserted
after the lead term, and generic terms are dropped inthe subheading.Example: Based from the above
example, some of the index strings that may begenerated will be ANIMAL, STUDY,
STIMULATIONPHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION -HEART: STUDY - RABBIT ANTIBIOTIC,
PHARMACOLOGYPHARMACOLOGY, ANTIBIOTICS; STIMULATION -HEART: STUDY – RABBIT3.

NEPHIS (Nested Phrase Indexing System)


- This system was developed byTimothy C. Craven. In this system, the input string was designed to be
aphrase in ordinary language. Four (4) different coding symbols are used - theleft and right angular
brackets ("<" and ">") which mark the beginning and theend of a phrase embedded, or "nested"
within the large phrase; question mark("?") which indicates that what follows is a connective to be
included only inthose index strings in which the connective has something to which toconnect; and the
at sign ("@"), used either at the beginning of wither the inputstring or the nested phrase, which
indicates that what follows is not an accessterm.Example: Topic: Measures from information theory of
the information content ofdocument surrogatesInput string:@MEASURES? OF <INFORMATION
CONTENT? OF<DOCUMENT SURROGATES>>? FROM <INFORMATIONTHEORY>Sample index strings
that may be producedSOCUMENT SURROGATES. INFORMATION CONTENT.MEASURES FROM
INFORMATION THEORYINFORATION CONTENT OF DOCUMENT SURROGATES.MEASURES FROM
INFORMATION THEORYINFORMATION THEORY. MEASURES FROM INFORMATIONCONTENT OF
DOCUMENT SURROGATES4.

CIFT (Contextual Indexing and Faceted Taxonomic Access System)


- Thissystem was developed for the Modern Language Association (MLA). In thisindexing system,
alphabetical subject entries are created from strings providedby indexers who assign facets derived
from literature, linguistics, and folklore.This system was published with the MLA International
Bibliography. A CIFTindex string has three parts - a heading to be displayed in bold capitals;
asubheading, in mixed upper and lower case boldface; and a subheading, intypeface of ordinary
weight. A lead term repeated in the subheading iscapitalized; author dates appear only in
the heading.Examples:HENDIADYSEnglish literatureShakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of HENDIADYS.
Source in Vigil. Linguisticapproach.LINGUISTIC APPROACHEnglish literature. Tragedy. 1500-
1599Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Use of Hendiadys. Source in Vigil.
LINGUISTIC APPROACH.Permuted indexes are created by systematically rotating information-
conveyingwords in the title as subject entry points in the index.Through permuted indexing, indexing
can be done easily at minimum cost. It doesnot need the expertise of a professional indexer because it
is entirely done by acomputer. However, it has some drawbacks. Some documents may not
beaccurately reflected accurately in this type of index since titles sometimes do notexactly reflect the

189
subject content of the work. The limited number of termsrestricts complete subject indication. Most
title indexes are unappealing to the eye

134and are difficult to scan. The lack of vocabulary control can increase the retrieval ofirrelevant
documents. Due to this, permuted indexes usually employ stop lists(words that are not suitable as
subject indicators).48.3 Faceted and Chain IndexesFaceted indexes are products of a type of
systematic classification that is oftencalled as analytico-synthetic system. A facet analysis is a tightly
controlled processby which simple concepts are organized into carefully defined categories
buyconnecting class numbers on the basic concepts. A faceted index is pre-
coordinated at the time of indexing and is arranged inclassification order rather than straight
alphabetical order. Faceted classificationsystem was introduced by S.R. Ranganathan by publishing his
basic works in thesystem on the 1930s.Chain indexes are prepared though a simple technique of
constructing anorganized set of entries for an alphabetical subject index of a classified catalog.They
provide that every concept becomes linked, or chained, to its directly relatedconcept in the hierarchy
system.Chain indexing involves the creation of multi-level headings that consist of "chains"of terms
extracted from a classification scheme, arranged in an inverse citationorder of facets to that of the
classification scheme itself. This was also introducedby S.R. Ranganathan as part of his Colon
Classification, which uses synthesis ornumber building. The number that represents some complex
subject is arrived atby joining the notational elements that represent more elemental
subjects.Example:Topic : Victorian period English poetryHierarchy:8 Literature2 English1 Poetry8
Victorian periodChain index entries:Victorian period: Poetry: English: Literature 821.8Poetry: English:
Literature 821English Literature 820Literature 800
Chapter 49 - Guidelines for Indexing
49.1 Selection of Documents and Periodical Titles for IndexingThere are certain factors to be
considered in the selection of periodical titles forindexing. These are the following.

usefulness

subject coverage or content


class and range of readership


availability in most libraries


indexing of titles in other indexing servicesWhen indexing particular documents, especially books,
these are the only partsthat should be considered for the process.

body of the text that is directly relevant to the subject matter, scope, andaudience of the book

introduction

chapter headings

footnotes and endnotes (if they present material not found in the textitself)

personal names

quotations (should be paraphrased if lengthy)

190

appendices (if they contain important material omitted in the body)


illustrative matter, e.g. charts, maps graphs, drawings, etc. (if they areprinted several pages away
from the page containing the textualdiscussion)49.2 Subject IndexingSubject indexing is a process by
which the subject matter content of a document isrepresented in an index. It involves three (3) basic
steps.

determining the aboutness or subject content of a document


subject analysis (sometimes called conceptual analysis), which decideswhich on an item's aspects
should be represented in the bibliographicrecord

translation (converting concepts derived from the document into aparticular set of index terms usually
derived from a controlled vocabulary)These three basic steps are operational through the following
detailed specificsteps in indexing.

Recording locators (may sometimes be the bibliographic data about thedocument)


o

When indexing printed books, pamphlets, periodicals, and otherprinted documents, use locators that
refer to the page numbers,separating locators with a comma (","). It is necessary todistinguish
between different sequences of numbers.

135
!

Example: Livingstone, Ken 1/3, 1/97, 3/94 orLivingstone, Ken 1:3, 1/97; 3:94
o

When indexing a collection of documents, locators should givecomplete information about each
document. In the case ofperiodical articles, each locator normally consists of the title ofthe article, the
author(s) of the article (if named), the title of theperiodical (often in an abbreviated form that is
explained in theintroductory notes), the periodical's volume number and date,and the inclusive
pagination of the document.
!

Example: Computer simulationBuilding working computer models. R. Collison andPeter Farcas.


Computer univ. 16:37-41 Jan-Feb '89.tablesComputer-simulated robotic arms. Bits & bytes. 8:26Jan
'89. illus.
o

If a document treats a subject continuously in a consecutivelynumbered sequence, reference should be


made to the first andlast numbered elements only (e.g. 7-18).
o

Exceptionally, where space constraints apply or where thelocators are extremely long (e.g. 10003-
10009), numbers may beelided so that the only changed digits of the second locator aregiven (e.g.
10003-9). Conventionally, the digits 10-19in eachhundred are given in full (e.g. 14-17, 412-18).

Content analysis - There are some factors that mat affect this activity.
191
o

Environmental situations - If there is labor shortage or othercritical time factors, this process may be
hurried. The variousphysical environmental factors such as noise and other factorsthat determine the
conduciveness of a workplace may also affectthe process.
o

Policy decisions - Guidelines imposed by agencies are generallyconcerned with the selection of certain
content indicators andthe rejection of others. For example, indexers of scientificliterature may be told
to concentrate on methodology,measurement, equipment used, and the results, ignoringhistorical
materials.
o

Decision of the indexer - This determines which aspects of thesubjects must be emphasized and which
aspects aredeemphasized.
o

Content analysis must cover the following parts of the documentbeing indexed.
!

Title - Despite the fact that some titles are vague andare not related at all to the subjects of the
document,they are still considered as basic indexing units andserve as the first sop in determining
subject content.
!

Abstract - This is the actual information-packedminiature of the document. Good abstracts can
befundamental indicators of subject content
!

List of contents - This gives an overview of the actualcontents of the document.


!

Text - It is also necessary to examine the4 introduction,summary, and conclusion. Likewise, section
headingsand first and last sentences of paragraphs should alsobe given primary attention.
!

Illustrations, diagrams, tables, and their captions


!

Reference section (bibliography) - The references for thework cited by authors are also considered
subjectindicators.

Subject determination - At this point, the indexer determines theaboutness of the document. It entails
the formulation of a concept list.The following guidelines must be observed.
o

Choose the concept which would be regarded as the mostappropriate by a given community of users,
bearing in mind thepurpose of the index.
o

If necessary, modify both indexing tools and procedures as aresult of feedback from inquiries. Such
modification should notbe taken to a point where the structure or logic of the indexinglanguage is
distorted.
o

No arbitrary limit should be set on the number of terms ordescriptors which can be assigned to a
document. This shouldbe determined entirely by the amount of information contained inthe document,
related to the expected needs of the users of theindex.
o

192
Concepts should be identified as specifically as possible. Moregeneral concepts may be preferred in
some circumstances,depending upon the following factors.
!

Extent to which the indexer considers that over-specificity might adversely affect the performance of
theindexing system - For example, an indexer might decidethat very specific models of equipment may
berepresented by more general terms such as the name of

136the maker and perhaps of the family of models,especially when these concepts occur in the
fringeareas of the subject field covered by the index.
!

Weight attached to a concept by the author - If anindexer considers that an idea is not fully developed,
oris referred to only casually by the author, indexing at amore general level might be justified.

Conversion to the index language - Terms in the concept list must bematched against those available
in the controlled vocabulary. Thefollowing practices must be observed in the translation process.
o

Concepts which are already translated into indexing termsshould be translated into their preferred
terms.
o

Terms which represent new concepts should be checked foraccuracy and acceptability in reference
tools such as:
!

dictionaries and encyclopedias recognized byauthorities in their fields


!

thesauri (especially those constructed in accordancewith ISO 2788 or ISO 5964)


!

classification schemes
!

subject specialists (especially those with someknowledge in indexing or documentation)


o

If the concepts are not yet present in an existing thesaurus orclassification scheme, these may be
expressed by terms ordescriptors which are admitted to the indexing languageimmediately, or they
may be represented temporarily by moregeneral terms, the new concepts being proposed as
candidatesfor later addition.

Preparation of index entries - The indexer may use a pre-printed form orbibliographic sheet encoding
to prepare and organize the index entriesobtained. The process of editing index elements (e/g/ cross
references,spelling, punctuation, headings, subheadings, missing entries, andunnecessary entries) is
also undertaken at this point. In organizing theindex entries, the indexer may opt to arrange the
entries alphabetically(either word by word or letter by letter), or in a classified system.49.3 Indexing
Procedures for BooksMethods in preparing book indexes are somewhat similar to methods
andtechniques discussed earlier, only with some deviations. The following are thespecific procedures
observed in preparing book indexes.

Examine the text carefully.


193
Read the text several times, page by page, to be able to analyze thecontents and determine the
indexable topics.

Select the topics to be indexed, taking into consideration theirsignificance to the central theme of the
book.

Name the topics that were chosen to be indexed.


o

Mark up page proofs all at once before any cards are prepared orentries encoded.
o

For each chosen heading, supply a modification, a word or aphrase that narrows the application of
the meaning.
o

If a text discussion extends more than one page, beginning andending references have to be given.
o

Type the entries either on cards or in a word processor in acomputer.


o

Proofread each typed entry and check the content and locatoragainst the proof.
o

After completing and checking all the entries, read quicklythrough the pages again to determine if
anything indexable hasbeen omitted.

Arrange the entries in alphabetical order.


o

All entries are arranged in alphabetical groups by initial letter.


o

Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically,following either word-by-word or letter-by-
letter mode.

Word-by-wordWe Five, 101Weather underground, 143weatherproofing, 212Weaver, James Baird,


47weaverbird, 119weft knitting, 68

Letter-by-letterweatherproofing, 212Weather Underground, 143weaverbird, 119Weaver, James Baird,


47We Five, 10weft knitting, 68

Edit the entries.


o

Decide which entries should be the main headings and whichshould be the subheadings.
o

Decide whether certain entities will be treated as main entries orsubentries.


o

Entries within each letter group are arranged alphabetically,following either word-by-word or letter-by-
letter mode.
!

194
Example: painting Handicraftspottery making or paintingweaving pottery makingwood carving
weavingwood carving
o

Main entries unmodified by subentries should not be followed bylong rows of page numbers. Provide at
least one subentry for aheading that has more than five references.
o

Subentries must be concise and informative and begin with akeyword or phrase.
o

Make a final choice among synonymous terms (e.g. being, life, orexistence).
o

Provide adequate but not excessive cross-referencing.


!

Examples: Cars See also Trucks Trucks See also CarsChevrolet, 224 Dodge Ram, 219Mazda, 146 GMC
(Jimmy), 143Volkswagen, 168 Mercedes Benz, 144
o

Observe correctness in punctuation.


!

The inversion of a phrase used as a heading in a mainentry is punctuated by a comma.


!

If the heading is followed immediately by pagereferences, a comma is used between the heading
andthe first numeral and between subsequent numerals.
!

If the heading is followed immediately by run insubentries, a colon precedes the first subheading.
Allsubsequent subentries are preceded by semicolons.
!

Example: payments, balance of; definition of, 16importance of, 16


Determine the design of the index after the compilation of the entries.
o

Decide whether subentries will follow an indented or run-in style.


o

The index should be balanced and should not be overloaded withtoo many subentries.
o

Typography should be used to differentiate between types ofheadings and to distinguish item from
numerals indicatingvolumes, parts, and pages.

Type or encode the index using a word processor. After typing, proofreadthe typescript against the
cards. Check the alphabetical order of allentries and conduct a final review.49.4 Indexing Procedures
for Periodical TitlesThe preparation of indexes for periodical titles employs a different means with
thatof book indexes, with some additional principles to consider. The followingenumerates these
principles.

Always index names of persons honored by awards or prizes and thoseeulogized in obituaries.

195
Every article that has permanent value should be indexed under all topicsand issues dealt with.

Editorials should be indexed under their topics as any other article butdifferentiated from others by the
addition of "(Ed.)" or "(E)". The titles ofeditorials may be indexed under a collective heading
"Editorials".

Letter to the editor, if considered indexable, should be indexed by topic,not under a caption that may
have been assigned by the editor. It isadvisable to index at least the name of the person who criticized
an articleas well as the author's response.
o

Example: Author entry:Doe, John. "Effects of magnetic fields" 37-43errors (H. Smith) 75; corrections,
185Letter writer's index entrySmith , Henry. "Effects of magnetic fields"(John Doe pp. 37-43): errors,
75

Book reviews are indexed by the title of the book, followed by the name ofthe author, the locator, and
the designation (R), unless all book reviewsare listed under the class heading "Book Reviews" or in
a separate index.
o

Example: Guide to reference books, 10th ed. (Sheehy) 68 (R)


The name of the reviewer should be included in the author name index.
o

Example: Dixon, Geoffrey 68 (R), 92-96, 12349.5 Indexing Schemes for Fiction and Other Imaginative
WorksIndexing fiction and other imaginative works has an entirely different disciplineamong others.
The following is a scheme used for indexing such materials.

Determine the subject matter. This will include the following.


o

action and course of events


o

psychological development and description


o

social patterns

Note the timer and place frames covered in the material.


o

time frame (past, present, future)


o

place frame (geographical, social environment, profession)•

Know the author's intention in writing the text. It may fall under any of thefollowing.
o

emotional experience
o

cognition and information



196
Define the accessibility of the material. The following elements will counton this.
o

readability
o

physical characteristics
o

literary form49.6 Choice and Form of HeadingsThe following guidelines in the choice and form of index
headings are based onISO 999.1.

Personal names
- Personal names should be provided in as full form aspossible to give the users of the index the most
complete informationavailable. Personal names should take the form used in the document but ifthe
text is not consistent, the indexer should adopt one form.

Choose the most commonly known, or the most commonly used form ofpersonal name as the heading
and add See cross reference from otherforms.
o

Example: Clemens, Samuel Langhorne See Twain, Mark


Where surnames are in common use, the entry should be the surname,followed by any given name or
initials. When surnames are not used, thename that customarily comes first should properly be used as
the entryword.
o

Example: Inuran Khan


Persons identified only be a given name or forename should be indexedunder that name, qualified if
necessary, by a title of office or otherdistinguishing epithet.
o

Examples: Boudicca, Queen of the IceniLeonardo da Vinci


Persons normally identified by a title of honor or nobility should beindexed under that title, expanded if
necessary by their family name.
o

Examples: Dalai LamaMarlborough, John Churchill, first Duke of


Compound and multiple surnames, whether hyphenated or not, should beindexed under the first part.
o

Examples: Layzell Ward, PatriciaPerez de Cuellar, Javier2.

Corporate names - Names of corporate bodies should normally be indexedwithout transposition and in
as full a form as necessary. An initial article isomitted, unless specifically required for semantic
or grammatical reasons.
o

Example: The British Museum



British Museum

197
Transposition may, however, be used if it is considered that this wouldhelp the user of the index.
o

Example: Department of Agriculture See Department of Agriculture.J. Whitaker & Sons See Whitaker,
(J) & Sons

Choose the most recent, or the most commonly used form of corporatename as the main heading and
add See cross references from otherforms.
o

Example: John Moores University See Liverpool John MooresUniversityLiverpool John Moores
University3.

Geographic names - Geographic names should be as full as necessary forclarity, with additions to avoid
confusion with otherwise identical names.
o

Example: San Fernando City (Pampanga) See City of SanFernandoSan Fernando City (La Union)

An article or preposition should be retained in a geographic name ofwhich it forms an integral part.
Where the articles and prepositions doesnot form an integral part of a name, it should be omitted.
o

Examples: La PazLas VegasNew Forest rather than The New ForestReihnfall rather that Der Reihnfall4.

Titles of documents - Titles of documents should normally be italicized,underlined, or otherwise


distinguished. If necessary for identification, names ofcreators, place of publication, dates, or other
qualifier may be added withinparentheses.
o

Examples: Ave Maria (Gonoud) Ave Maria (Schubert) Ave Maria (Verdi)•

In an English index, articles in titles are conventionally transposed to theend of the heading so that
filing order is explicit.
o

Example: Hunting of the Snark, TheKapital, Das


A preposition at the beginning of the title should be retained.


o

Example: To the Lighthouse5.

First lines of poems - Conventionally in an index of first lines of poems, thearticle is retained without
transposition and is recognized for purposes ofalphabetical arrangement.
o

Examples: A little black thing in the snowThe modest Rose puts a thorn49.7 Factors That Affect the
Quality of an IndexThe quality of an index is determined by two (2) major factors. These include
thefollowing.

Qualifications and expertise of the indexer - This factor pertains toaspects of the indexer like
o

subject knowledge
o

198
knowledge of users' needs
o

experience
o

concentration level
o

reading ability and comprehension


o

impartiality

Hospitability of the indexing language being employed - This determineswhether to freely admit new
terms or changes in terminology, and also torespond to new needs of users.49.8 Evaluating
IndexesThe process of evaluating indexes is to determine their effectiveness, efficiency,and value. The
following guidelines will help the indexer, librarian, or even the userto determine the quality of an
index.

Subject errors
o

Are there errors in choosing subject descriptors?


o

Are there any errors related to omissions?


o

Are some particular entries too broad or too narrow for theconcept they intend to reflect?

Generic searching - Alphabetical indexes have always presenteddifficulties in promoting generic


searching.

Terminology - If writers and users reject the terminology contained in athesaurus, the quality of the
index will suffer from their frame of reference.

Internal guidance
o

Are there printed instructions on how to use the index?


Cross references
o

Does the index allow cross referencing?


Accuracy in referring
o

Are the bibliographic citations and cross references correct andaccurate?


Entry scattering
199
o

Are terms which are related in some way gathered together bycertain means?
!

Example: College libraries School librariesNational libraries Special librariesPublic libraries


Entry differentiation - An entry that has five or more locations must bebroken down.
!

Example: Libraries, 1-2, 28-31, 42, 53-60, 82, 109-11,131-40, 310, 342-50

Spelling and punctuation


o

Are there errors in spelling and usages of punctuation?


Filing
o

Are the entries filed letter-by-letter or word-by-word?


Layout
o

Can entries and elements of each entry be distinguished formone another?


!

Example: [Main headings][Subheading][Cross reference]


Length and type - The following are the suggested lengths of indexes forvarious types of materials.
o

Non-fiction book - 3-5% of the total number of pages


o

History or biography - 5-8% of the total number of pages


o

Reference books - 15-20% of the total number of pages


Cost
o

Is the price of the index reasonable for its content?


Standards
o

Does the index conform with prevailing recognized standards(e.g. ISO)?There are two highlighted
aspects that should be looked at in evaluating the qualityof an index.

200
Recall ratio - This is the ratio of relevant documents retrieved to the totalnumber of relevant
documents potentially available in the file. Recalldepends on the level of Exhaustivity allowed by the
indexing policy.
•Relevance ratio - This refers to the ratio of relevant documents to the totalnumber of documents
retrieved. Relevance or position depends on theterminology of the text being indexed and the
specificity of the indexinglanguage used.49.9 Indexing Software ApplicationsWhether in doing
computer assisted or automated indexing, the indexer has abroad range of indexing software
application he/she can choose from. Some ofthese are listed as follows, with some basic descriptions
on their features.

Aythex Plus (Teeswater, ON: Reference Press) - This was primarilydeveloped for newspaper and
magazine indexing. This software requiresthe intellectual input and labor of an indexer. The indexer
must decidehow to classify articles and build a database of citations and headings.The software sorts
the inputs, add cross references, and formats
pages. Authex Plus can also be used for bibliographies, abstracts, vertical fileindexes, thesaurus
construction, community information databases,library patron databases, and local history indexes.

CINDEX (New York: Indexing Research) - This program is uniquelycapable for preparing book indexes
and indexes to newspapers and otherperiodical publications. It performs sorting, checking, cross-
referencing,and formatting.

MACREX (Daly City, CA: Wise Bytes) - This software was designed toassist the indexer working from
printed proofs, text on disk, the author'smanuscript, or an already completed book. This software
performsroutinary tasks such as sorting, printing, repagination, etc.

SKY Index ™ (Winchester, VA: SKY Software) - This so9ftware employsspreadsheet approach to data
entry and editing. It contains specialfeatures for sorting order, including frequency of use, and last
time of use.The software works for cross references and it can even be used as acontrolled vocabulary
tool. It allows the indexer to specify index entriesthat will be automatically double-posted and how
they will be posted. SKYIndex also allows dragging of entries from the program to word-
processeddocuments.

WINDEX (for DOS) (Waltham, MA: Susan Holbert Indexing Services) - Thissoftware is capable of
alphabetizing, placing of punctuation marks,combining of identical entries, and formatting
instantaneously andcorrectly. It alphabetizes entries either letter-by-letter or word-by-word.The
indexer can specify what characters to ignore when alphabetizing.He/she may also specify what words
to ignore in alphabetizing subentries.The indexer can choose from either paragraph style or line-for-
lineformats. The indexer can also choose whether to apply standardnumbering or chapter-page styles
of manuals. Entries and subentries canbe sorted by page number or alphabetical order. The indexer
working withthis software can make notes on other word-processing applicationswithout leaving the
indexing program. This software also permits thecreation of WINDEX files on word processing
applications and mergingindexes contained in separate files.

HTML Indexer (by David M. Brown - Portland, OR: Brown, Inc.) - Thisprogram serves as a tool for
creating and maintaining real indexes forwebsites, intranets, and documents in HTML, Help, JavaHelp,
etc.49.10 Institutions for Standardizing IndexesThere are local and international institutions that serve
as models or guidelines forthe analysis of documents, construction and organization of indexes,
indexingterminology, construction and use of thesauri, etc. These institutions promoteconsistency and
uniformity. Among these institutions are the following.1.

International Organization for Standardization - ISO is a network of the nationalstandards institutes of


146 countries, on the basis of one member per country.The Central Secretariat which coordinates the
system is based in Geneva,Switzerland.The following are the ISO documentations that concern the
practice of indexing.

201

ISO 2788-1996 - Documentation - Guidelines for the establishment anddevelopment of monolingual


thesauri

ISO 5964-1985 - Documentation - Guidelines for the establishment anddevelopment of multilingual


thesauri

ISO 5963-1985 - Documentation - Methods for examining documents,determining their subjects, and
selecting indexing terms

ISO 999-1996 - Information and documentation- Guidelines for thecontent, organization, and
presentation of indexes

ISO 4-1997 - Information and documentation - Rules for the abbreviationof title words and titles of
publications (It publishes List of Serial TitleWord Abbreviations which includes title word abbreviations
in over 50languages.)2.

National Information Standards Organization (NISO) - This is a non-profitorganization accredited by


the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),which identifies, develops, maintains, and publishes
technical standards tomanage information to our changing and ever-more digital environment.
NISOstandards apply both traditional and new technologies to the full-range of
141information related needs, including retrieval, re-purposing, storage, metadata,and preservation.
Some of the standards developed by NISO (which may alsoapply to the practice of indexing) are the
following.
•ANSI/NISO Z93.2 - 1994 (R2001) Information Interchange Format(Equivalent to ISO 2709) - This is
the basis for the Machine-ReadableCatalog (MARC) record. It specifies the requirements for a
generalizedinterchange format that can be used for the communication of records inany data.

ANSI/NISO Z39.14 - 1997 (R2002) Guidelines for Abstracts - This helpsauthors and editors
preparabstracts by describing the components ofan abstract and the appropriate styles and formats.
Numerous examplesillustrate the instructions presented in the standard and clarify how tohandle
special cases.

ANSI/NISO Z39.19 - 2003 Guidelines for the Construction, Format, andManagement of Monolingual
Thesauri (Equivalent to ISO 2788) - Thisshows how to formulate descriptors, establish relationships
among terms,and present the information in print and on a screen. Included arethesaurus maintenance
procedures and recommended features forthesaurus management systems. Extensive examples,
suggestions forfurther reading, and a detailed index are also packaged in this publication.3.

British Standards Institution (BSI) - This is the National Standards Body of theUK. Through
engagement and collaboration with its stakeholders, it developsstandards and applies innovative
standardization solutions to meet the needsof business and society. Some of the standards developed
by BSI that arerelated to library and information science are the following.

BS 1749: 1985 - Recommendations for alphabetical arrangement and thefiling order of numbers and
symbols - This provides guidance onarranging entries within lists of all kinds (e.g. bibliographies,
catalogs,directories, and indexes). A comprehensive list of examples amplifies therecommendations
made.

BS 5726: 1987 - Guide to establishment and development of monolingualthesauri - This provides


standards for the contents, layout, methods ofconstruction, an maintenance of a monolingual
thesaurus covering termswhich constitute the working vocabulary of an indexing agency thatemploys
human indexers to analyze the subject content of documents.
202

BS 6478: 1984 - Guide to filing bibliographic information in libraries anddocumentation - This gives
filing principles for incorporation into the filingrules of individual bibliographies, libraries, and
documentation centers.This is applicable to the exchange of bibliographic records in machine-readable
form, and for the manipulation of these records by manual andmachine-based techniques.

BS 6529: 1984 - Recommendations for examining documents,determining their subject, and selecting
indexing terms - This standardprovides general techniques for document analysis and
conceptidentification, especially applicable to systems in which subjects ofdocuments are expressed in
summary form, and concepts recorded in theterms of a controlled indexing language.

BS ISO 999-1996 - Information and documentation- Guidelines for thecontent, organization, and
presentation of indexes

BS DD CEN/TS 14463: 2003 - Health informatics - This is a standard ofsyntax to represent the content
of medical classification systems.

UNIT 15 - ABSTRACTING
Chapter 50 - Abstracting: An Overview
50.1 Abstracts as Document Surrogates50.2 Uses of Abstracts50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and
Qualities of Abstracts
Chapter 51 - Types of Abstracts
51.1 By Type of Information51.2 By Writer51.3 By Form
Chapter 52 - Abstracting: Essentials
52.1 Abstracting Plan52.2 Abstracting Manual of Procedures52.3 Abstracting Standards52.4
Abstracting Process52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length52.6 Representative Abstracting Tools
Chapter 50 - Abstracting: An Overview
50.1 Abstracts as Document
Surrogates Abstracting is simply the process of preparing abstracts, abbreviated, accuraterepresentatio
ns of the significant contents of a document. Usually, it isaccompanied by an adequate bibliographic
description to enable the user to tracethe original document, which qualifies it as a document
surrogate. Aside from the abstract, there are other types of document surrogates which areoften found
relatively similar to abstracts. These are the following.

Annotation
- This is a one-sentence description or explanation of adocument.

Extract
- An extract is an abbreviated version of a document that isproduced by drawing out sentences from
the document itself.

Summary
- This is the restatement of the document's salient findings andconclusions. It is intended to complete
the orientation of a reader who hasread the preceding text. Summaries are usually found at the end of
texts.

Terse literature

203
- This type of document surrogate is a highly abbreviatedstatement that encapsulates the major
points of a document. They arequite rarely used.50.2 Uses of AbstractsIn principle, abstracts are
complement to indexes. Abstracts also serve as retrievaldevices, just like catalogs, indexes,
bibliographies, etc. The following are thespecific uses of abstracts that qualify them both as retrieval
tools and documentsurrogates.

Promote current awareness - They keep people informed of and updatedon newly published literature
in their fields of interest.

Save reading time of the user - Though abstracts are smaller in size thanthe original document, yet nit
can provide as much information as the userneeds without going into the full text.

Facilitate selection - Abstracts help users decide whether a particulardocument is likely to be of interest
or not.

Help overcome the language barrier - Abstracts enable users to find outwhat studies and researches
have been published in languages he/shemay not understand.

Facilitate literature searches - Abstracts can also serve for theidentification of relevant documents,
especially in computer-basedretrieval systems.

Improve indexing efficiency - Since the abstract accurately providesinformation on what a document is
all about, the indexer may index fromthe abstract instead from the original document, taking less time.

Aid in the preparation of reviews and bibliographies - Since abstracts arebrief, accurate
representations of original documents, abstracts can alsofacilitate the preparation of reviews and
bibliographies of the actualdocument.50.3 Types of Materials Abstracted and Qualities of AbstractsThe
following are the usual materials from which articles are abstracted.

Journals
- These are the main sources of publications for most of theprimary literature.

Technical reports
- Primarily, these are reports required by recipients offederal grants and those coming from foreign
researches.

Dissertations
- These are sources of original researches.

Monographs/books
- These publications which are abstracted usually dealwith a single topic.

143

Patent specifications
- These are essential to persons or organizationsconcerned with patents.

Conference and symposium proceedings

204
- Abstracts are useful inaccurately describing events like lectures and discussion, meeting
ofrepresentatives of organization, meeting of two legislative committees,area organization of churches,
legal action brought against somebody,etc.

Reviews
- These may be book reviews, movie or film reviews, and so
on. Abstracts must possess three basic qualities in order to serve their purposeeffectively.

Accuracy
- As far as practicable, abstracts should avoid errors inrepresenting the actual document. The
information delivered by abstractsmust be confined within what is contained in the actual document,
andwhat information is really important on the original document.

Brevity
- Apparently, an abstract should be much shorter that the originaldocument from which they are
derived. . This saves the users' time insearching and retrieving their desired information, and lowers
the cost ofproducing abstracts as well. To achieve this, loss of novelty should not besacrificed. Brevity
should also mean the prevention of redundancy.

Clarity
- This quality ensures that abstracts should be free from all sorts ofambiguities. As much as possible,
an abstract is written in a language andstyle clearly understood by the user.
Chapter 51 - Types of Abstracts
51.1 By Type of Information Abstracts can be classified into four (4) according to the type of
information theycontain.1.

Indicative (descriptive) abstract


- This abstract simply describes or indicateswhat the document is about. Its main purpose is to
indicate to the reader ofthe abstract whether or not he/she would want to read the
original document.2.

Informative abstract
- This provides readers with quantitative and qualitativeinformation in the present document. Ideally,
such an abstract obviates thenecessity to refer to the original. It is intended for experimental studies
but notfor theoretical studies or opinion articles. An abstract can also becomeindicative-informative if it
has the qualities of both.3.

Critical abstract
- This abstract does not only describe the document contentbut also evaluates the work and its
presentation. It indicates the depth andextent of the work. The abstractor expresses views on the
quality of work ofthe author and compares/contrasts it with other works.

Examples: Abstracts found in the following publications: Applied Mechanics ReviewReferativnyi Zhurnal
MekhanikaMathematical Reviews

At times, this abstract makes value judgment or editorial comment ongeneral papers with broad
overviews, on reviews, and on monographs. Ifit is heavily editorial, it cannot convey much basic
information and is really just a review of the document rather than a true indication of the contentsof
the document.4.

Slanted or special purpose abstract


- There are two types.

Discipline-oriented abstract
205
- This one is in which the information ordescription reported in a document is oriented to a specific
discipline towhich the abstracting service is devoted. In this type of abstract,emphasis may be given to
the collateral information like modification ofmethods, new instruments, newly discovered documents
or data sources,or findings that were only incidental to the author's major purpose.

Mission-oriented abstract
- This abstract is written to support applicationactivities that may or may not be interdisciplinary in
nature. It highlights orconcentrates on a selected portion of a document's subject content.Mission-
oriented abstracts are produced to meet the needs of a particularindustry or group of individuals whose
interests are more homogenousand specialized.

Indicative abstracts should preferably be prepared only when the natureor length of the document
being abstracted will not permit the writing ofan informative or informative-indicative abstract. The
following are sometypical examples for each type.

Informative abstractTHE LOW-INCOME FARMERS IN A CHANGING SOCIETYTo identify some major


differences among low-income farmers and todelineate the group that represents the real core of the
persistently poor,data were obtained from 189 farm operators representing a stratifiedrandom sample
in Fayette country, Pennsylvania in 1957. The five maincategories of individuals identified were: (1)
the aged, (2) the physically

144handicapped, (3) the farm operator primarily oriented to non-farmopportunities, (4) the farm
operator oriented to commercial agriculture,and (5) the farm operator oriented to subsistence
agriculture. Thecharacteristics of the core of low-income subsistence farmers whonormally do not
respond to either welfare or economic growth efforts wereexamined in greater detail. It was found that
they: (1) retained traditionalvalues while having lost many traditional subsistence skills, (2) failed
torespond to greater agricultural efficiency and productivity efforts becausecommercial success was not
highly valued, (3) placed emphasis onneighborliness and friendliness as their primary goals, and (4)
mustrespond to an attempt to change prestige orientation if their cycle ofpoverty is to be broken.

Indicative-informative abstractDIAGNOSING INTERDEPARTMENTAL CONFLICTResolution on


interdepartmental conflicts that decrease productivity mayrequire structural reorganization to reduce
authority-prestige ambiguityand internal social instability, and/or may require inter-group training
toreduce and counseling to reduce point-of-view conflicts. A thorough studyis needed of the goals and
environment of the organization as a whole.Experience (cited at numerous case histories) has
demonstrated that threeconditions must be established to reduce these interdepartmentalconflicts.
Each group must have internal social stability, includingcommon interests and promotion opportunities.
Groups in close contactmust share external values through common training and point of
view. Authority, as indicated by work flow and control, must follow prestige linesto be legitimate.

Critical abstract1989. Pao, Y.C., Dept. of Eng. Mech.., Univ. of Nebr., Lincoln, Shy, D.S.,et. al., On
relationship between bulk modulus and relative volume of lungduring inhalation-deflation maneuvers,
p. 136-142, Journal of BiochemicalEngineering, Transactions of the ASME v 104, n 2 (May 1982)The
paper presents an equation relating the bulk modulus of the lung tothe relative volume during inflation
and deflation. The average bulkmodulus of the lung was obtained by injecting a 6-mm.-i.d. cannula in
themain lobar bronchus. "Regional lobe" volume changes were measured byroentgen-videographically
determined placement of 25 metal markersimplanted in the excised lower lobes of three dogs. Whole
lobe volumesat various transpulmonary pressures were measured by waterdisplacement. Pressure and
volume measurements were used to calculatebulk modulus (K=AVP/AV). The "most satisfactory least
squares curve fit"of bulk modulus (K) vs. relative volume (V/Vmax) was obtained with theequation
K=C(1-V/Vmax). Substituting for bulk modulus with the equationK=VdP/dV, and integrating enabled
computer-generated pressure-volumeplots, this equation provided a better pressure-volume curve fit
thanpreviously obtained, especially at low values of pressure and volume. Also, as expected, the bulk
206
modulus was smaller at low volume, but therate of change of modulus was greater during deflation
than duringinflation.The authors assumed, without giving sufficient justification that the"regional lobe"
(the area bounded by the 25 markers) included a higherdensity of airways tha the rest of the lobe.
Using this assumption, theauthors claimed that the modulus and rate of change of modulus
weredifferent for parenchyma tissue and the airways during both inflation anddeflation. No mention,
however, was made of paired t-tests or any otherstatistical tests. In fact, if they had done a paired t-
test, they would havediscovered that none of these differences were significant, even at the 90percent
confidence level.Other sources of error which were not addressed include : the differencein the
properties of excised lung and intact lung due to blood in thevessels, surrounding tissue, negative
pressure, etc.; the effect of strainrate in the modulus of lung tissue, which is a viscoelastic material;
thedifference between the true regional AV and the measured AV; and thedifferences between the
mechanical properties of dog and human lungtissue.Despite its limitations, the paper presents a step
forward in theunderstanding of mechanical properties of the lung, and, thus, lungdiseases. Therefore,
it should be of benefit to researchers interested inrespiratory mechanics and physiology.D.S Feldman,
USA51.2 By WriterThere are three (3) possible groups who can prepare abstracts - authors,
subjectexperts, and professional abstractors.1.

Author-prepared abstract
- These abstracts are prepared by authors ofdocuments for publication together with the document.
This is submitted ontime since it generally accompanies the article for publication. However,

145authors do not necessarily write the best abstracts since they lack training andexperience in
abstracting as well as knowledge of abstracting rules.2.

Subject-expert prepared abstract


- This type of abstract is prepared by aprofessional in the subject field concerned. It may be an
excellent high-qualityabstract if the subject expert is trained and experienced in the methods
andprocedures of abstracting. In general, subject experts volunteer asabstractors, but may not submit
their abstracts on time. They are given amodest honorarium or none at all if they volunteer. Another
agendum theymight have is to be up-to-date to developments in their fields by getting liberalaccess to
information in the documents they abstract.3.

Professional abstractor-prepared abstract


- This kind of abstract is preparedby a professional abstractor, a person who has been trained in the
proceduresand methods of abstracting. He/she is one who has attained experience inabstracting, has
foreign language expertise, and can cover subject areas inwhich subject areas cannot be found.51.3 By
FormThere are five (5) possible forms of abstracts.1.

Statistical or tabular abstract


- This abstract is a summary of the datapresented in tabular form. This is used in certain specialized
subjects, such aseconomics, sociology and other social sciences, and in applied sciences
likeengineering, where data is frequently emphasized exclusively in statistical andtabular form.

Example: Abstracts in Statistical Abstracts of the United States2.

Modular abstract
- This abstract is a full content description of a documentand consists of five (5) parts.
o

citation
o

annotation
o

indicative abstract
o

informative abstract
o
207
critical abstract

This was designed with the intention that abstracting service couldprocess it to conform to its own
unique requirements with a minimum ofeffort. Any one of the abstracts could be used, intact or edited
as the casemay be. Its purpose is to eliminate duplication and waste of intellectualeffort involved in the
independent abstracting of the same documents byseveral abstracting services. The following is an
example. Ablation of fiberglass-reinforced phenolic resin. R.E. Rosenweig and N. Beecher. American
Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Journal 1, 1802-9 (1963) Annotation A model was developed
for charring and melting a composite4 material with glassyablation combined with char-layer-molten-
glass reaction.Indicative Variables in ablasion of a fiberglass-phenolic resin composite includeglass
ablation and plastic pyrolysis, flow of melt, mass loss, reaction-heatabsorption, mass injection, and
coupling between pressure and chemical reaction.Mathematical developments and approximations are
discussed. Parametricexaminations are made.Informative Melting and pyrolysis and other chemical
reactions are considered inthis theory of ablation of phenolic-resin fiberglass composite. In this
theory,reaction occurs in a surface film in which carbon from pyrolysis of the resin reactswith the glass.
For IRBM reentry, there is little temperature drop in the reactionzone, usually less than 1% and 6%
maximum. Depth of the reaction zone was onethousandth that of the thermal thickness. The
unreacting runoff in the melt was 40-80% and was a function of the possible reaction- enthalpy level.
More than 89% ofthe material reaching the reaction zone was affected. At 1000-2000OC, thereaction
assumed was: SiO2 + 3C

SiC + 2O. Up to a 25% increase in theablation rate appeared only at lower reaction rates. Changing
reaction enthalpythree times changed the reaction rate less than 10%. The value calculatedaccording
to this theory for peak reentry ablation rate was 38% below experimentalvalue, critical.This theory of
ablation of carbon-contaminated glass extends the work of Betheand Adams (Cr. Avco-Everett
Research Laboratory, Research Report No. 38, 1958)on glasses. Experimental ablation was 38%
greater than the calculated by thistheory. Thorough error analysis was not included. Spalding (Aero
Quarterly 223-74(Aug. 1961)), and Scala (General Electric Co. MSVD. report R59SD401 (July
1959); ARS Journal, 917-24) have treated similar problems.3.

Structured abstract
- This refers to an abstract in non-narrative form whereinthe abstractor lists the items in a worksheet
or template as these are found inthe document. This kind of abstract works well only for a subject
area in whichthe essential elements/items are more or less the same from one study toanother. This
abstract may also take a form in which subheadings (e.g.background of the study, objectives,
methods, results, and conclusion) areincluded to facilitate scanning. Such type is commonly used in
abstractingmedical journals. Below is an example of a structured abstract.BACKGROUND: Structured
abstracts - which, like the present one, contain severalsubheadings - have replaced traditional
abstracts in most medical journals.

146Evaluation studies have shown that such abstracts provide more information, areof a higher
quality, facilitate peer review, and are generally welcomed. AIM: The aim of the studies reported here
was to investigate a possible advantagefor structured abstracts - namely: whether or not they are
easier to search.METHOD: Two studies are reported. In study 1, using an electronic database,
52readers were asked to find the answers to two questions for each of eightabstracts set in the other
format (say, traditional, followed by two questions foreach of eight abstracts set in the other format).
Time and error data were recordedautomatically. In Study 2, using a printed database, 56 readers
were asked to findfive abstracts that reported a particular kind of study (e.g., studies with
schoolchildren and reading tests) and then to find five more that reported another kind ofstudy. Again,
the order of presentation of the format of their abstracts wascounterbalanced. Time and error data
were recorded manually.RESULTS: In Study 1, the participants performed significantly faster and
madesignificantly fewer errors using the structured abstracts. There were, however,some
unexplainable practice effects. In Study 2, the participants again performedsignificantly faster and
made significantly fewer errors with the structuredabstracts. In Study 2, however, there were
asymmetrical transfer effects;participants who responded first to the structured abstracts responded

208
morequickly to the following traditional ones than did those participants who respondedfirst to the
traditional abstracts.CONCLUSIONS: The overall findings, notwithstanding certain caveats, support
thehypothesis that it is easier for readers to search structured abstracts than it is tosearch traditional
ones.4.

Mini abstract
- This is a highly-structured abstract designed primarily forcomputer-aided searches. It actually is an
index-cum-abstract rolled into one.The terms used in this abstract are drawn from a controlled
vocabulary andare arranged in a specific sequence nearly approximating that of a sentencestructure. It
is also known as machine-readable index-abstract.Example: Statement: A method is described for the
determinationof strontium and barium in human bone by radioactive analysis.Mini abstract:
/METHOD/DETERM/STRONTIUM/BARIUM/BONE/HUMAN/RADIOACTIVATION/ANALYSIS5.

Telegraphic abstract
- This document representation is presented in completesentences which resemble a telegram. At
times, it is just a string of termswithout syntax. It originated in the early computerized retrieval
systemdevelopment at Western Reserve University.

Chapter 52 - Abstracting: Techniques, Methods, and Standards


52.1 Abstracting
Plan An abstracting plan is a record of basic abstracting decisions. It should bedeveloped in advance of
any actual abstracting activity. This should be maintained,revised, and updated periodically. There
are some reasons why an abstracting planshould be developed.

to ensure that the principles of abstracting (i.e. accuracy, brevity, andclarity) are always borne in mind
in order that researchers will be lead tothe relevant documents

to save the reading time of the user


to be consistent in the type of abstracts to be produced


to keep the abstract within reasonable limits


to ensure that the abstractor follows the library's or information center'spolicy as to how the abstract
should be structured.The following criteria should be carefully considered in developing an
abstractingplan.

Users of the abstract - Determine who the users are, their information-seeking behavior, and their
needs with regard to the currency, accuracy,and reliability of the abstract, their point of view, and their
terminologypreferences.

Documents to be abstracted - Which documents acquired by thelibrary/information need to


be abstracted?

Parts of the documents to be abstracted - Which items in the documentswill be of utmost interest to
the users of the abstract?

Type of abstract to produce - This will determine if abstracts will beindicative, informative, indicative-
informative, structured, slanted, slantedbut indicative, slanted but informative, and so on.52.2
Abstracting Manual of ProceduresRelative to the abstracting plan, an abstracting manual of procedures
providesspecific guidelines in abstracting various types of documents. It is considered moreas a
209
manual of style in abstracting.The following are usually included in the manual of procedures in
abstracting.

a summary of the abstracting process (i.e. reading and understanding thedocument, selecting the
important phrases and passages, organizingthese to produce a rough draft, and writing the final draft)

instructions on transcribing the bibliographic reference whether on paperor electronic worksheets

rules on the sequence of the bibliographic elements


o

transcribing the author's/authors' name(s)


!

number of author's name(s) to be transcribed if there aremore than three


!

natural or inverted order of transcribing


o

transcribing the title of the article


!

which words in the title should be capitalized


o

transcribing the title of the periodical


!

in full or abbreviated form (if abbreviated, whatstandards must be observed)


!

italicized or underlined
o

transcribing the volume and/or issue number


o

transcribing inclusive pages of article


o

transcribing date of publication


!

abbreviations for month and year


instructions on style of writing, particularly on the following items


o

Topic sentence - Begin the abstract with a topic sentence.


o

Sentences within the abstract - Use complete sentences butsimple, and transitional words and phrases
for coherence.
o

Verbs - Use verbs in the active voice.


210
o

Pronouns - Use third-person pronouns.


o

Language - Use simple language.


o

Abbreviations - Use commonly understood and easily intelligibleabbreviations.


o

Terminology - Use standard and familiar terms. Avoid the use oftrade jargons and colloquial terms.
o

Verbosity - Ideas in phases must be completely expressedthrough the minimum number of words.
o

Redundancy - Avoid the use of a word whose meaning is alreadyconveyed elsewhere in a passage.
o

Number of words - This determines the specified length of theabstract.52.3 Abstracting


StandardsThere are various organizations and institutions that issued standards in producinggood-
quality abstracts. Some of these organizations are named below, with thetitle of the standards issued
by each.

Armed Services for Technical Information Agency (ASTIA) - Guidelines forCataloging and Abstracting.
2002.

Defense Documentation Center (DDC) - Abstracting Scientific andTechnical Reports of Defense-


Sponsored RRDT/E AD 667000. 1968.

UNESCO - Guide for the Preparation of Author's Abstracts for Publication.1968.


International Organization for Standardization (ISO) - ISO 214-1976 -Documentation: Abstracts for
Publication and Documentation. 1976.52.4 Abstracting ProcessThe process of abstracting is composed
of several stages.1.

Reading and understanding


- This is the very first and essential step whereinthe introductory paragraphs and text are scanned for
key information. Thisconcludes with comprehension (i.e. textual meaning interpretation).2.

Selection
- This is a process of purposeful elimination developed by means ofcontraction, reduction, and
condensation strategies. Here, the abstractor maymark the important phrases and passages and jot
down marginal notes.3.

Interpretation
- The abstractor makes a second interpretation using reasoningand inference. At this point, the
abstractor starts organizing the phrases andpassages previously marked, as well as the marginal notes
jotted down. Then,a raft-draft of the abstract is produced.4.

Synthesis (analytical description)


- In writing the final draft, the prefixedanalytical description level or desired type of abstract is
carefully considered.In scientific or scholarly abstracts, information must be so organized that
theabstract should contain the following.

211
Objective or purpose - This should be stated unless this is already clearfrom the title of the document
or can be derived from the remainder partof the abstract.

Methodology - The techniques of approaches employed should bedescribed but only to the degree
necessary for comprehension. Newtechniques should be identified clearly and the basic
methodologicalprinciple, the range of operation and the accuracy obtained would bedescribed as well.

Results and conclusion - Results and conclusions should be clearlypresented. These may be abstracted
jointly to avoid redundancy.In the presentation of data for scientific abstracts, the main findings must
behighlighted. Furthermore, collateral and additional information may be added.Collateral information
includes findings or information incidental to the mainpurpose of the study, including modification of
methods, new instruments, newcompounds, and newly discovered documents or data sources.
Additionalinformation includes tables, illustrations, and references. These may be included inan
abbreviated form within parentheses at the end of the abstract.

Example: 4 tab., 5 fig., 10 ref.52.5 Abstracting Format, Styles, and Length

148 Abstracts have three (3) major parts.


Reference - This contains the complete bibliographic citation of theoriginal document.


Body - The body contains data from the original document and indicatesor describes the content of the
original.

Signature - This indicates the abstractor's name (either the full name orinitials may be given) and his
affiliation. This usually comes at the end ofthe abstract.Citation formats do not strictly adhere to a
single standard. There are severalvarieties of standards which can be adapted. Below are some
examples ofcitations based from ISO 690-1975 (Documentation: Bibliographic References -Essential
and Supplementary Elements).

Monographs/books
o

Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s)


o

Title of publication (distinguished by italicizing or underlining)


o

Edition number
o

Place of publication
o

Publisher
o

Year of publication
o

Pagination (total number of pages)


o

212
Price
!

Example: Lancaster, F. W. Indexing and Abstracting inTheory and Practice. 2nd ed. London,
Library Association, 1998, 365 p., Php 3,856.00

Periodicals
o

Name(s) of author(s), with forename(s)


o

Title of article
o

Title of periodical (preferably abbreviated, distinguished byitalicizing or underlining)


o

Volume number
o

Issue number (in parentheses)


o

Date of issue
o

Pages
!

Example: Parkinson, Claire. Paradigm transitions inmathematics. Philos Math. 2(2) 1987:127-50

Patent documents
o

Kind of patent document (i.e. patent, inventor's (author's)certificate, utility model, patent application,
etc.)
o

Number of patent document


o

Name of country publishing the patent document


o

Date of publication in the country of origin


o

Title of invention
o

Number of other patent documents to which the patentdocument is legally related


o

Full name of country of the grantee if appropriate and known


o

Surname(s) and forename(s) or initial(s) of the inventor


o

213
Language of the patent document
!

Example: Patent, 27208, US Appl. 559, F. 5 Jan. 70.Pub. 29 Oct. 71. Int. Cl. B607 1/2, 1/12. Nat Cl.
810,122.
!

Vehicles for traveling over land and/or water (Reissue of3363716. Hovercraft Devt. Limited, GB. Inv.
ChristopherSydney Rockerell). [16 p.]In writing abstracts, accepted rules of good writing are also
applicable.

Simple sentences in plain language should be used.


Use abbreviations commonly understood or easily intelligible.


Use standard and familiar terms.


Avoid using trade jargons and colloquial terms.


Avid verbosity and redundancy.There is a direct correlation between the length of an original
document and itsabstract. Generally, the following number of words for each type of abstract willapply.

annotation - 5-15 words


indicative abstracts - 20-30 words


informative abstracts - 100-150 words.In special cases, abstracts may run to as many as 205-500
words. The followingtable lists the component of typical abstracts of scientific documents and
theirapproximate proportion to the total length of the abstract. Description for eachcomponent is also
given.52.6 Representative Abstracting ToolsThe following is a summary of popular titles of abstracting
tools that flourishedthroughout their history.

17th to 19th century


o

Le Journal de Scavans. Paris: French Academy of Sciences,1665-


o

Pharmaceutisches Central-Blatt. 1830-


o

Physics Abstracts. London: Institute of Electrical Engineering,1898-


o

Science Abstracts. 1898-


149

20th century
o

Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: BIOSIS, 1926-


o
214
Bulletin Signelatique. Paris, 1940-
o

Chemical Abstracts. Columbus, Ohio: American ChemicalSociety, 1907-


o

Dissertation Abstracts International. Ann-Arbor, Mich.: UniversityMicrofilms International, 1938-


o

Electroanalytic Abstracts. 1963-


o

Excerpts Medica. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1948-


o

Fertilizer Abstracts. Muscle Shoals, Ala.: Tennessee


Valley Authority, National Fertilizer Development Center, TechnicalLibrary, 1968-
o

Historical Abstracts. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Clio Press, 1955-


o

Journal of Current Laser Abstracts. 1967-


o

Library and Information Science Abstracts. London: The Library Association. 1969-
o

Mathematical Reviews. Providence, R.I.: American MathematicalSociety, 194?-


o

Nucleic Acid Abstracts. 1971-


o

Psychological Abstracts. Wash., D.C.: American Psychological Association, 1927-


o

Referativnyi Zhurnal. Moscow, 1954-


o

Sociological Abstracts

150
UNIT 16 - IT FOR LIS PART 1: COMPUTERS ANDDATA RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Chapter 53 - The Development of Computers and Information Systems
53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating Machines53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the
Analytical Engine53.3 Early Computers53.4 First Generation of Computers53.5 Second Generation
of Computers53.6 Third Generation of Computers53.7 Fourth Generation of Computers53.8 Fifth
Generation of Computers53.9 Computers and Information System
Chapter 54 - Computer Hardware
54.1 Defining Computer Hardware54.2 Input Devices54.3 Central Processing Unit54.4 Primary
Storage54.5 Secondary Storage55.6 Output Devices55.7 Communication Devices
Chapter 55 - Computer Software
55.1 Defining Computer Software55.2 System Software55.3 Application Software53.4 Contemporary
Tools for Software Development
Chapter 56 - Data Resources Management
56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and Terminologies56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and
Structure56.3 Classifying Databases56.3 Trends in Database Management
Chapter 57 - Issues and Trends in IT
215
57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information Centers57.2 Trends and Future Developments
Chapter 53 - The Development of Computers and Information Systems
53.1 Pre-Computer Age and Calculating MachinesThe abacus is one of the earliest machines invented
over 2000 years ago by Asianmerchants to speed up calculation. It is a simple hand device for
recordingnumbers or performing simple calculations.Calculating machines were first introduced in the
17th century. In 1642, the firstcalculating machine that can perform addition and subtraction, a
precursor of thedigital computer, was devised by the French scientist, mathematician, andphilosopher
Blaise Pascal. This device employed a series of ten-toothed wheels,each tooth representing a digit from
0 to 9. The wheels were connected so thatnumbers could be added to each other by advancing the
wheels by a correctnumber of teeth. In the 1670s the German philosopher and mathematicianGottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz improved on this machine by devising one that could alsomultiply.It was in 1820 when
the next generation of calculating devices was invented, theartithometer, by Charles Xavier Thomas of
France. It combined the features of theLeibnitz calculator with newer engineering techniques. The first
mechanicalcalculator produced in the US was developed in 1972 by Frank S. Baldwin.Improving the
Leibnitz design, it made a much smaller and lighter calculator. Thefirst commercial calculator that was
both a calculating and a listing machine wasdeveloped in 1886 by William Seward Burroughs,
an American bank clerk.53.2 Punched Card Information Processing and the Analytical EngineThe
French weaver and inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard, designed an automaticloom (Jacquard's loom),
which used thin, perforated wooden boards to control theweaving of complicated cloth designs. The
concept of recording data in the form ofholes punched in cards was used in the design of punched card
informationprocessing equipment. Another lesson from Jacquard learned from Jacquard wasthat work
can be performed automatically if a set of instructions can be given to amachine to direct it in its
operations. This was the fundamental for thedevelopment of computers.During the 1880s the American
statistician Herman Hollerith who worked in the USBureau of Census, conceived the idea of using
perforated cards (punch cardssimilar to Jacquard's boards) for processing data. Employing a system
that passedpunched cards over electrical contacts, he devised the Hollerith's punched-cardstabulating
machine, which he used to speed up the compilation of statisticalinformation for the 1890 United
States census. Hollerith went on to establish theTabulating Machine Company to manufacture and
market his invention, which IN1911 merged with other organizations to form the Computing-
Tabulating-Recording Company.

151In 1924, after further acquisitions, Computing-Recording-Tabulating Companyabsorbed the


International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) and assumed thatcompany's name. Thomas J.
Watson, Sr. arrived that same year and began tobuild the foundering company into an industrial giant.
IBM soon became thecountry's largest manufacturer of time clocks and developed and marketed
the firstelectric typewriter. In 1951 the company entered the computer field. The punched-card
technology was widely used until the mid-1950s. Also in the 19th century, the British
mathematician and inventor Charles Babbage(referred to as the Father of the modern computer)
worked out the principles of themodern digital computer. He conceived a number of machines, such as
theDifference Engine and Analytical engine, the forerunners of the modern computer,that were
designed to handle complicated mathematical problems. One ofBabbage's designs, the Analytical
Engine, had many features of a moderncomputer. It had an input stream in the form of a deck of
punched cards, a "store"for saving data, a "mill" for arithmetic operations, and a printer that made
apermanent record. Babbage failed to put this idea into practice, though it may wellhave been
technically possible at that date.Many historians consider Babbage and his associate, the
mathematician Augusta Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace and daughter of the poet, Lord Byron, the
truepioneers of the modern digital computer. The latter provided complete details as toexactly how the
analytical engine was to work. Because she described some of thekey elements in computer
programming, she was referred to as the "world's firstcomputer programmer".53.3 Early
Computers Analogue computers began to be built in the late 19th century. Early modelscalculated by
means of rotating shafts and gears. Numerical approximations ofequations too difficult to solve in any
other way were evaluated with suchmachines. Lord Kelvin built a mechanical tide predictor that was a
specializedanalogue computer. During World Wars I and II, mechanical and, later, electricalanalogue
computing systems were used as torpedo course predictors insubmarines and as bombsight controllers
in aircraft. Another system was designedto predict spring floods in the Mississippi River basin.In the
United States, a prototype electronic machine had been built as early as1939, by John Atanasoff and
Clifford Berry, at Iowa State College. This prototypeand later research were completed quietly for the
development of the Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). This is considered as the first electronic
computingmachine. It could only perform addition and subtraction, and never becameoperational
because of the involvement of the inventors in US military efforts inWorld War II.In 1944, Howard
216
Aiken completed the MARK I computer (also known as the Automatic Sequence controlled Calculator),
the first electromechanical computer. Itcan solve mathematical problems 1,000 times faster
than existing machines.The first electronic computer to be made operational was the Electronic
NumericalIntegrator and Calculator (ENIAC). It was built in 1946 for the US Army to performquickly
and accurately the complex calculations that gunners needed to aim theirartillery weapons. ENIAC
contained 18,000 vacuum tubes and had a speed ofseveral hundred multiplications per minute, but
originally its program was wiredinto the processor and had to be manually altered.The scientists of the
Cambridge University in England designed the world's firstelectronic computer that stored its program
of instructions, the Electronic DelayStorage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC). This gave more flexibility in
the use of thecomputer. Two years after (1951), machines were built with program storage,based on
the ideas of the Hungarian-American mathematician John von Neumannof Pennsylvania University. The
instructions, like the data, were stored within a"memory", freeing the computer from the speed
limitations of the paper-tapereader during execution and permitting problems to be solved without
rewiring thecomputer. This concept gave birth to the Electronic Discreet Variable AutomaticComputer
(EDVAC).During World War II a team of scientists and mathematicians, working at BletchleyPark, north
of London, created one of the first all-electronic digital computers:Colossus. By December 1943,
Colossus, which incorporated 1,500 vacuum tubes,was operational. It was used by the team headed by
Alan Turing, in the largelysuccessful attempt to crack German radio messages enciphered in the
Enigmacode.53.4 First Generation of ComputersThe first generation of computers (1951-1959) is
characterized by use of thevacuum tube and were very large in size (a mainframe can occupy the
wholeroom).The first business computer, the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), wasdeveloped
in 1951. It was invented to improve information processing in businessorganizations.In 1953, IBM
produced the first of its computers, the IBM 701-a machine designedto be mass-produced and easily
installed in a customer's building. The success ofthe 701 led IBM to manufacture many other machines
for commercial dataprocessing. The IBM 650 computer is probably the reason why IBM enjoys such
ahealthy share of today's computer market. The sales of IBM 650 were a particularly

152good indicator of how rapidly the business world accepted electronic dataprocessing. Initial sales
forecasts were extremely low because the machine wasthought to be too expensive, but over 1,800
were eventually made and sold.The invention of the integrated circuit (IC) by Jack S. Kilbey of Texas
Instruments in1958 is considered as a great invention which changed how the world functions. Itis the
heart of all electronic equipment today.Between 1959 and 1961, (COBOL) was invented by Grace
Murray Hopper. It is averbose, English-like programming language. Its establishment as a
requiredlanguage by the United States Department of Defense, its emphasis on datastructures, and its
English-like syntax led to its widespread acceptance and usage,especially in business applications. It is
a champion of standardized programminglanguages that are hardware independent. COBOL is run in
many types ofcomputers by a compiler that is also designed by Hopper.53.5 Second Generation
of ComputersThe invention of the transistor marked the start of second generation of computers(ca.
1954-1964) which were smaller in size (a mainframe can be the size of acloset). Second generation
computers were smaller, faster, and more versatilelogical elements than were possible with vacuum-
tube machines. Becausetransistors use much less power and have a much longer life, components
becamesmaller, as did inter-component spacings, and the system became much lessexpensive to build.
The Honeywell 400 computer is the first in the line op of secondgeneration computers.In the 1950's
and 1960's, only the largest companies could afford the six to sevendigit tags of mainframe computers.
Digital Equipment Corporation introduced thePDP-8, which is generally considered as the first
successful transistor-basedmicrocomputer. It was an instant hit and there were tremendous demands
frombusiness and scientific organizations.53.6 Third Generation of ComputersEven if the first IC was
invented earlier during the era of first generation computers,it was only in late 1960s when it was
introduced, making it possible for manytransistors to be fabricated on one silicon substrate, with
interconnecting wiresplated in place. The IC resulted in a further reduction in price, size, and failure
rate.This was the start of third generation computers (mid-1960s to mid 1970s).Some historians
consider the IBM System/360 of computers the single mostimportant innovation in the history of
computers. It was conceived as a family ofcomputers with upward compatibility, when a company
outgrew one model itcould move up to the next model without worrying about converting its data.
Thismade all previous computers obsolete.In 1964, Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code
(BASIC). a high-levelprogramming language, was developed by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz
atDartmouth College. BASIC gained its enormous popularity mostly because it canbe learned and used
quickly. The language has changed over the years, from ateaching language into a versatile and
powerful language of both business andscientific applications.In 1969, two Bell Telephone Labs
software engineers, Dennis Ritchie and KenThompson, developed a multi-user computer system named
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Multics (MultiplexedInformation and Computing Service). They eventually implemented a
rudimentaryoperating system they named Unics, as a pun of Multics. Somehow, the namebecame
UNIX. The most notable feature of this operating system is its portability:the operating system can run
in all types of computers, is machine-independent,and supports multi-user processing, multitasking,
and networking. UNIX is used inhigh-end workstations and servers. This is written in C language, which
was alsodeveloped by Ritchie and Thompson.53.7 Fourth Generation of ComputersThe introduction of
large-scale integration of circuitry (more circuits per unit ofspace) is the mark of the beginning of
fourth generation of computers. The basetechnology, though, is still the IC, had significant innovations
after two decadeshave passed. The computer industry actually experienced a mind-boggingsuccession
of advancements in the further miniaturization of circuitry, datacommunications, and the design of
computer hardware and software. Themicroprocessor became a reality in the mid-1970s with the
introduction of thelarge-scale integrated (LSI) circuit.Bill Gates and Paul Allen revolutionized the
computer industry. They developed theBASIC programming language for the first commercially-
available microcomputer,the MITS Altair. After successful completion of the project, the two
formedMicrosoft Corporation in 1975. Microsoft is now the largest and most influentialsoftware
company in the world. Microsoft was given an anonymous boost when itsoperating system software,
MS-DOS was selected for use by the IBM PC. Gates,now the wealthiest person in the world, provides
the company's vision of newproduct ideas and technologies.One important entrepreneurial venture
during the early years is the Apple IIpersonal computer, which was introduced in 1977. This event has
forever changedhow society perceives computers: that computing is made available to individualsand
very small companies.

153IBM tossed its hat into the personal computer ring with its release of the IBMpersonal computer in
1981. By the end of 1982, 835,000 units had been sold.When software vendors began to orient their
products to the IBM PC, manycompanies began offering IBM PC-compatibles or clones. Today, the IBM
PC andits clones have become a powerful standard in the microcomputer industry.In 1982, Michael
Kapor founded the Lotus Development Company, a subsidiary ofIBM. It introduced an electronic
spreadsheet product (Lotus 123) and gave IBM PCcredibility in the business marketplace. Sales of IBM
PC and Lotus 123 soared.In 1984, Apple Macintosh introduced the Macintosh desktop computer with a
veryfriendly graphical user interface (GUI). This was a proof that computers can be easyand fun to
use. GUI began to change the complexion of the software industry. Theyhave changed the interaction
between the user and the computer from a short,character-oriented exchange modeled from the
teletypewriter to the now famousWIMP interface (WIMP stands for windows, icons, menus, and
pointing devices).It was in 1985 when Microsoft adopted the GUI in its Windows operating systemfor
IBM PC compatible computers. Windows did not enjoy widespread acceptanceuntil 1990, with the
release of Windows 3.0. It gave a huge boost to the softwareindustry because larger, more complex
programs could not be run on IBM-PCcompatibles. Subsequent releases made the PC even easier to
use, fueling the PCexplosion in the 1990s.In 1991, Linus Torvalds developed LINUX, a reliable and
compactly designedoperating system that is an offshoot of UNIX and can be run on many
differenthardware platforms. It is available free or at very low cost. LINUX was used as analternative to
the costly Windows Operating System.In 1993, the IBM-PC compatible PCs started out using Intel
microprocessor chips,then a succession of even more powerful chips. But not until the Intel Pentium
andits successors did PCs do much with multimedia (the integration of motion, video,animation,
graphics, sound, and so on). The emergence of the high-powered IntelPentium processors and their
ability to handle multimedia applications changed theway people view and use PCs.It was also in this
year when millions of people began to tune into the Internet fornews. The World Wide Web (WWW),
one of several internet-based applications,came of age as Web traffic grew 341.634%. The web is
unique that it enabled Webpages to be linked across the Internet. A number of Internet browsers
wereintroduced (e.g. Mosaic and Netscape Navigator which were developed by
Marc Andreesen, and Internet Explorer by Microsoft Corporation). These browsersenabled users to
navigate the World Wide Web with ease. Today, WWW is thefoundation for most Internet
communications and services. The World Wide Webwas actually created in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee,
an engineer in Geneva,Switzerland.53.8 Fifth Generation of ComputersThe fifth generation of
computers is characterized by the very large-scaleintegrated (VLSI) circuit (microchip), with many
thousands of interconnectedtransistors etched into a single silicon substrate. It is also characterized by
networkcomputers of all sizes, the Internet, Intranets, and Extranets.The year 1996 marked the 50th
year of computer history. The US Postal serviceissued stamps that commemorated the 50th
anniversary of ENIAC, the first full-scale computer and the 50 years of computer technology that
followed. It wasduring this year when the handheld computer was introduced and signaled to theworld
that you can place a tremendous computing power at the palm of your hand.Nowadays, millions of
218
people rely on handhelds for a variety of personalinformation management applications, including e-
mail.In the year 1999, the world was threatened by the Y2K problem, known as themillennium bug. It
may have been one of the biggest challenges ever to confrontthe businesses of the world. For most of
the 20th century, information systems hadonly two digits to represent the year (e.g. 99 for 1999). But
what would happenwhen the 20th century ended and a new one begins is that non-
compliantcomputers would interpret the date 01-01-00 for January 1, 2000 as being January1, 1900.
Y2K heightened management's awareness of how critical informationtechnology is to the operation of
any organization.Jack Kilbey's first IC contained a single transistor. Tens of thousands engineersaround
the world have built on his invention, such that each year, our society is thebeneficiary of smaller,
more powerful, cheaper chips. One continuing trend incomputer development is microminiaturization,
the effort to compress more circuitelements into smaller and smaller chip space. In 1999, scientists
developed acircuit the size of a single layer of molecules, and in 2000 IBM announced that ithad
developed new technology to produce computer chips that operate five timesfaster than the most
advanced models to date. Also in 2000, scientists discovereda way to transfer information on an
atomic level without relying on traditional wiresor circuits. This effect, dubbed the quantum mirage,
describes how an atom ofmatter placed in an elliptical-shaped structure on a solid surface reflects itself
atother points within the ellipse, thereby relaying information. Researchers are alsotrying to speed up
circuitry functions through the use of superconductivity, thephenomenon of decreased electrical
resistance observed in certain materials atvery low temperatures.

154Whether we are moving into a fifth generation of computing is a subject of debatesince the concept
of generations may no longer fit the continual, rapid changesoccurring in computer hardware,
software, data, and networking technologies. Butin any case, we can be sure that progress in
computing will continue to accelerateand that the development of Internet-based technologies and
applications will beone of the major forces driving computing in the 21st century.53.9 Computers and
Information Systems A computer can be defined as an electronic device that has the ability to
acceptdata, store and execute a program of instructions, perform mathematical andlogical operations
on data, and report the results. A computer system has thefollowing common features regardless of
brand, type, or size.

input and output devices


primary and secondary storage


processor and control unit


peripheral devicesModern digital computers are all conceptually similar, regardless of


size.Nevertheless, they can be divided into several categories on the basis of cost andperformance.

Mainframe computer
- This is a large, expensive machine with thecapability of serving the needs of major business
enterprises, governmentdepartments, scientific research establishments, or the like.

Midrange computer or minicomputer


- This is a middle-sized computerthat is capable of supporting the computing needs of
smallerorganizations or of managing networks of other computers. It is generallytoo expensive for
personal use, and has capabilities suited to a business,school, or laboratory

Microcomputer
- This is a small computer used in systems for universities,factories, or research laboratories. Under
this category are the following:
o

personal computer
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- a relatively low-cost machine, usually ofdesktop size (though laptops are small enough to fit in
abriefcase, and palmtops can fit into a pocket, or even wearablePCs);
o

server
- computer that is specifically optimized to providesoftware and other resources to other computers
over a network;and
o

server farm
- a large group of servers maintained by acommercial vendor and made available via subscription
forelectronic commerce and other activities requiring heavy use ofservers.

Workstation
- This is a desktop computer with enhanced graphics,mathematical, and communications capabilities
that make it especiallyuseful to perform complicated tasks at once. They are ideal for officework.;

Supercomputers
- This is a highly sophisticated and powerful computerthat can perform very complex operations in
extreme speed.

Thin client
- This computer functions only when connected to a server.Information system is not a concept that is
purely confined in computers. Aninformation system (IS) is a set of people, procedures, and resources
that collects,transforms, and disseminates information in an organization. It is a system thataccepts
data resources as input and process them as information products asoutput. An information system
can be an organized combination of:

hardware (physical equipment, machines, media; may be mechanical,electronic, electrical, magnetic,


or optical device)

software (computer programs and procedures concerned with theoperation of the information system)

data/information
o

Data - streams of raw facts


o

Information - processed data


people (information specialists, librarians, knowledge workers, IT people,etc.)


communication networks (LAN, client/server networks, internet, intranet,etc.) A computer-


based information system (CBIS) relies on computer hardware andsoftware for processing and
disseminating information. The librarian or informationspecialist provides and delivers information
systems services, which nowadays isusually computer-based.
Chapter 54 - Computer Hardware
54.1 Defining Computer HardwareThe computer hardware is the equipment and devices that make up
a computersystem as opposed to the programs that are used on it. A digital computer is not asingle
machine: rather, it is a system composed of distinct elements.

220
input devices

central processing unit


primary storage devices


secondary storage devices


output devices

communication devicesIn order for information to flow through a computer system and be in a
formsuitable for processing, all symbols, pictures, or words must be reduced to a string

155of binary digits. A binary digit is called a bit. It represents the smallest unit of datain a computer
system. It can only have one of two states (e.g. true or false, on oroff), represent ed by 0 or 1. A byte
is a string of eight (8) bits, used to store onenumber or character in a computer system.Computers
continue to become smaller, faster, more reliable, less costly topurchase and maintain, and more
interconnected within computer networks. inputdevices are directed toward direct data input that ids
more natural and easy to use,while output devices are geared toward direct output methods that
communicatenaturally, quickly, and clearly.54.2 Input DevicesInput devices enable a computer user to
enter data, commands, and programs intothe CPU. Included in this category are the following.
Keyboard
- This is commonly known as the QWERTY keyboard, namedafter the six leftmost characters in the top
row of alphabetic characters onmost keyboards-the standard layout of most typewriters and
computerkeyboards. An alternative layout, the Dvorak keyboard, is consideredmore efficient, but the
QWERTY keyboard has the advantage of familiarity.This is the most common input device. Information
typed at thetypewriter-like keyboard is translated by the computer into recognizablepatterns.

Mouse
- This was invented by Douglas Englebert and was popularized byits inclusion as standard equipment
with the Apple Macintosh. It helps auser navigate through a graphical computer interface. It is
generallymapped so that an on-screen cursor may be controlled by moving themouse across a flat
surface. There are many variations on mouse design,but they all work in a similar manner. Some
mouse units feature a scroller,which provides a better way of scrolling through documents
verticallyand/or horizontally. The latter optomechanical mouse eliminates the needfor many of the
wear-related repairs and maintenance necessary withpurely mechanical mice.

Joystick
- This performs the same function as the mouse. It is favored forcomputer games. A joystick usually
has a square or rectangular plasticbase to which is attached a vertical stem. Control buttons are
located onthe base and sometimes on top of the stem. The stem can be moved in alldirections to
control the movement of an object on the screen. Thebuttons activate various software features,
generally producing on-screenevents. A joystick is usually a relative pointing device, moving an
objecton the screen when the stem is moved from the centre and stopping themovement when the
stem is released. In industrial control applications,the joystick can also be an absolute pointing device,
with each position ofthe stem mapped to a specific on-screen location.

Trackball
- This can be roughly described as a mouse on its back. Itconsists of a ball resting on two rollers
at right angles to each other, whichtranslate the ball's motion into vertical and horizontal movement on
thescreen. It typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. Theonly functional difference
between a mechanical mouse and a trackball isin how the ball is moved. With a trackball, the housing
is stationary, andthe ball is rolled with the hand. A trackball is useful for fine work becausethe user can
exert fingertip control. Another major advantage of atrackball is that it takes up little desktop surface.
This replaces the mouseon some laptop computers.
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Graphics

tablet
- This pointing device is also called a digitizing tablet. It isa flat plastic rectangle with subsurface
electronics, used in conjunctionwith a pointing device in many engineering and design applications
aswell as in illustration work. When a pointing device, like a puck (or eventhe finger), is moved on the
surface of the tablet, the location of the deviceis translated to a specific on-screen cursor position.

Puck
- This is often used in engineering applications. It is a mouse-likedevice with buttons for selecting
items or choosing commands and aclear plastic section extending from one end with cross hairs printed
on it.The intersection of the cross hairs on the puck points to a location on thegraphics tablet, which in
turn is mapped to a specific location on thescreen. Since the puck's cross hairs are on a transparent
surface, adrawing can easily be traced by placing it between the graphics tablet andthe puck and
moving the cross hairs over the lines of the drawing.

Scanner
- This input device uses light-sensing equipment to readinformation in paper or another medium, and
translate the pattern of lightand dark (or color) into a digital signal that can be manipulated by
eitheroptical character recognition software or graphics software. A frequentlyencountered type of
scanner is flatbed, meaning that the scanning devicemoves across or reads across a stationary
document. Another type offlatbed scanner uses a scanning element placed in a stationary
housingabove the document. Other scanners work by pulling in sheets of paper,which are scanned as
they pass over a stationary scanning mechanism,as in the common office fax machine. Some
specialized scanners, likebarcode readers, work with a standard video camera, translating the
videosignal into a digital signal for computer processing. Another popular type
156of scanner is the hand-held scanner, a scanner held in the user's hand ismoved over the document
to be scanned.

Light

pen
- This is a pointing device in which the user holds a wand, whichis attached to the computer, up to the
screen and selects items orchooses commands on the screen (the equivalent of a mouse click) eitherby
pressing a clip on the side of the light pen or by pressing the light penagainst the surface of the
screen. The light pen doesn't require a specialscreen or screen coating, as does a touch screen, but its
disadvantage isthat holding the pen up for an extended length of time is tiring to the user.

Touch
screen
- This is a computer screen designed or modified torecognize the location of a touch on its surface. By
touching the screen,the user can make a selection or move a cursor.. The touch screen'spopularity
with personal-computer users has been limited because usersmust hold their hands in midair to point
at the screen, which isprohibitively tiring over extended periods. Also, touch screens do not offerhigh
resolution-the user is not able to touch only a specific point on thescreen. Touch screens are, however,
immensely popular in applicationssuch as information kiosks because they offer pointing control
withoutrequiring any movable hardware and because touching the screen isintuitive.

Card
reader
- This is a device that can acquire and process informationstored in electronic cards like ATM cards, ID
cards, special privilegecards, credit and debit cards, and so on. It commonly found incommercial
establishments where transaction cards are swiped to obtainnecessary information about the customer
or client.

Voice
222
recognition

system
- It may be any device and software whichtogether, take spoken words and translate them into digital
signals for thecomputer. A typical device used in speech recognition is a microphone.Speech
recognition is the ability of a computer to understand the spokenword for the purpose of receiving
commands and data input from thespeaker. This method is also fairly reliable provided the speaker's
speechpatterns are consistent. Speech recognition also allows full speech-to-textconversion.

Storage devices
- can also be used to input data into the processing unit. An example is the transfer of data from an
external storage device to thecomputer, such as an external disk drive, digital camera with
storedimages, or any other external storage device.54.3 Central Processing UnitThe central processing
unit (CPU) is the part of the computer system wheremanipulation of data, (symbols, numbers, and
letters) occurs. It also controls otherparts of the system.The CPU may be a single chip or a series of
chips that perform arithmetic andlogical calculations and that time and control the operations of the
other elementsof the system. Contemporary CPUs use semiconductor chips calledmicroprocessors,
common in personal computers, which integrate all the memory,logic, and control circuits for an entire
CPU onto a single chip. The development ofthe microprocessor was made possible through
miniaturization and integrationtechniques.The speed and performance of a computer's microprocessor
help determine acomputer's processing power. These are based on the following.

Word length
- This refers to the number of bits that the computer canprocess at one time (e.g. a 64-bit chip can
process 64 bits, or 8 bytes in asingle cycle). The larger the word length, the greater the
computer'sspeed.

Cycle speed
- This is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).This indicates the number of cycles per
second (e.g. a 500 MHz IntelPentium III processor will have 500 million cycles per second).

Data bus width


- This acts as a superhighway between the CPU, primarystorage, and other devices, which determines
how much data can bemoved at one time. the 8088 chip having 16-bit word length but only an 8-bit
data bus width can process data in 16-bit chunks but could only bemoved 8 bits at a time).Most CPU
chips and microprocessors are composed of four functional sections:

Arithmetic/logic unit
- This gives the chip its calculating ability and permitsarithmetical and logical operations.

Registers
- These are temporary storage areas that hold data, keep trackof instructions, and hold the location
and results of these operations.

Control section
- The control section has three principal duties.
o

It times and regulates the operations of the entire computersystem


o

Its instruction decoder reads the patterns of data in a designatedregister and translates the pattern
into an activity, such as addingor comparing
223
o

Its interrupt unit indicates the order in which individual operationsuse the CPU, and regulates the
amount of CPU time that eachoperation may consume.

Internal

bus
. - This segment of a CPU chip or microprocessor is a networkof communication lines that connects the
internal elements of theprocessor and also leads to external connectors that link the processor tothe
other elements of the computer system. There are three types of CPUbuses
o

Control bus
- This consists of a line that senses input signals andanother line that generates control signals from
within the CPU.
o

Address bus
- This is a one-way line from the processor thathandles the location of data in memory addresses.
o

Data bus
- This is a two-way transfer line that both reads datafrom memory and writes new data into
memory.There are certain ways that can speed up processing.

Reduced instruction set computing


(RISC) - This technology is used toenhance the speed of microprocessors by embedding only the
mostfrequently used instructions on a chip.

Parallel processing
- This is a type of processing in which more than oneinstruction can be processed at a time by
breaking down a problem intosmaller parts and processing them simultaneously with
multipleprocessors.

Massively parallel processing


- This is similar to parallel processing, onlythat hundreds or thousands of processing chips are used to
attack largecomputing problems simultaneously. The manner in which data are inputinto the computer
affects how the data can be processed. Informationsystems collect and process information in one
or two ways.

Batch processing
- This is a method of collecting and processing data inwhich transactions are accumulated and stored
until a specified timewhen it is convenient or necessary to process them as a group.

On-line processing
- This In this method, transactions are entered directlyinto the computer system and processed
immediately. Aside from the computer's CPU, another computer hardware that can beconsidered under
this category is the motherboard (or the main board). This is themain circuit board containing the
primary components of a computer system. Thisboard contains the microprocessor, main memory,
support circuitry, and buscontroller and connector. Other boards, including expansion memory
andinput/output boards, may attach to the motherboard via the bus connector.54.4 Primary
StoragePrimary storage refers to temporary storage of data and program instructionsduring
processing. It is also known as internal storage since it stores data in thecomputer memory. There are
two types.

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RAM (Random Access Memory


) - These are chips that are mounteddirectly on the computer's main circuit board, or in chips
mounted onperipheral cards that plug into the computer's main circuit board. They arecalled so
because the computer can directly access any randomly chosenlocation in the same amount of time.
These RAM chips consist of millionsof switches that are sensitive to changes in electric current. So-
calledstatic RAM chips hold their data as long as current flows through thecircuit, whereas dynamic
RAM (DRAM) chips need high or low voltagesapplied at regular intervals-every two milliseconds or so-if
they are not tolose their information. RAM is used for short-term storage of data orprogram
instructions. It is volatile - meaning its contents will be lost whenthe computer's electric supply is
turned off.

ROM (Read-Only Memory)


- These chips form commands, data, orprograms that the computer needs to function correctly. RAM
chips arelike pieces of paper that can be written on, erased, and used again; ROMchips are like a book,
with its words already set on each page. ROM isnon-volatile. ROM can only be read from it; it cannot
be written to. ROMchips come from manufacturers with programs already burned in orstored. ROM is
used in general-purpose computers to store important orfrequently-used programs. Like RAM, ROM
chips are linked by circuitry tothe CPU.Primary storage has three main functions.

They store all or part of the software program that is being executed.

They store the operating system programs that manage the operation ofhe computer.

They hold the data that the program is using.Computer storage is measured in bytes. A byte is
equivalent to a string of eightbits. If byte is prefixed with kilo (i.e. kilobyte), it becomes 1,000 bytes;
such that100 kilobytes (KB) is 100,000 bytes. Megabyte (MB) is 1,000,000 bytes; gigabyte(GB) is
1,000,000,000 bytes; and terabyte (TB) is 1,000,000,000,000 bytes.54.5 Secondary Storage

158Secondary storage stores data and instructions when they are not used inprocessing. Relatively,
they are long-term, non-volatile storage of data outside theCPU or primary storage. Secondary storage
is also known as external storagebecause it does not use the computer memory to store data. External
storagedevices, which may actually be located within the computer housing, are externalto the main
circuit board. These devices store data as charges on a magneticallysensitive medium such as a
magnetic tape or, more commonly, on a disk coatedwith a fine layer of metallic particles.The most
popular secondary storage devices include the following.

Magnetic disks
- This broad category includes the following.
o

Floppy disk
- The floppy disk in normal use stores about 800 KBor about 1.4 MB.
o

ZIP disk
- A ZIP disk is much like a floppy disk but has a greatercapacity.
o

Hard disk
- Hard, or "fixed", disks cannot be removed from theirdisk-drive cabinets, which contain the
electronics to read andwrite data on to the magnetic disk surfaces. Hard disks currentlyused with
personal computers can store from several hundredmegabytes to several gigabytes.
o

225
RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks)
- This is a diskstorage technology to boost disk performance by packing morethan 100 smaller disk
drives with a control chip and a specializedsoftware in a single large unit to deliver data over multiple
pathssimultaneously.

Optical disks
- These disks use the same laser techniques that are used tocreate audio compact discs (CDs). Under
this genre are:
o

CD-ROM
- This is an acronym for compact disc read-onlymemory, a form of storage characterized by high
capacity(roughly 600 MB) and the use of laser optics rather thanmagnetic means for reading data.
o

WORM
- This is an acronym for write once, read many. This isvery much like the CD-ROM. This type of optical
disc can beread and reread but cannot be altered after it has been recorded.WORMs are high-capacity
storage devices. Because they cannotbe erased and re-recorded, they are suited to storing archivesand
other large bodies of unchanging information.
o

CD-R and CD-RW


- In simple definition, these are blank CD-ROM that are ready for data storage. A CD-R is similar to
aWORM which cannot be erased or re-recorded. A CD-RW iscapable of being erased and re-recorded.
o

DVD
- This is short for digital versatile disc. The group of DVDdisc formats includes various forms of data
recording forcomputer purposes, including discs that contain pre-recordeddata (DVD-ROM) and discs
that can be rewritten many times(DVD-RAM). These are several times the capacity of CD-ROMs.The
simple single-layer version of the DVD holds between 3.7and 4.38 GB (with double-layer versions
holding 15.9 GB),compared to the 650 MB of CD-ROMs. These higher capacitydiscs are used
particularly for computer games and in multimediaapplications.
o

DVD-R and DVD-RW


- These are blank optical disks in DVDformat ready for data storage, just like CD-R and CR-RW.54.6
Output DevicesOutput devices enable the user to see the results of the computer's calculations ordata
manipulations. They present data in a form the user of the computer canunderstand.The most common
output device can deliver either the soft copy or the hard copyof the data. Devices that render soft
copy are the following:

Video display unit (VDU)


- This is commonly known as the monitor, whichdisplays characters and graphics on a television-like
screen. It usually hasa cathode ray tube like an ordinary television set, but small, portablecomputers
use liquid crystal displays (LCDs) or electroluminescentscreens.

Audio output devices


- These are responsible for the sound that the userhears from the computer. These include the sound
card and the speakers.The sound card is a computer circuit board that allows the computer toreceive
sound in digital form and reproduce it through speakers.

External storage devices


- These include floppy disks, compact disks,,external hard disks, etc.

226
Interactive multimedia
- This is the combination of audio, video, and texton high-capacity compact discs. CD-I includes such
features as image

159display and resolution, animation, special effects, and audio. Interactivemultimedia includes the
following materials.
o

e-books and e-newspapers


o

electronic classroom presentation technologies


o

full motion videoconferencing


o

imaging
o

graphic design tools


o

video and voice mail


o

interactive web pages


o

multimedia web sites (they render digitized music and videos)There are only two output devices known
to reindeer hard copy of data.

Printers
- These are computer peripherals that put text or a computer-generated image on paper or on another
medium, such as a transparency.Printers can be categorized in several different ways. The most
commondistinction is impact and non-impact.
o

Impact printers
- physically strike the paper and are exemplifiedby pin dot-matrix printers and daisy-wheel printers.
o

Non-impact printers
- include every other type of printmechanism, including thermal, ink-jet, and laser printers.
Otherpossible methods of categorizing printers include (but are notlimited to) the following:
!

Print technology
- Chief among these, withmicrocomputers, are pin dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser,thermal, and (although
somewhat outdated) daisy-wheelor thimble printers. Pin dot-matrix printers can befurther classified by
the number of pins in the printhead: 9, 18, 24, and so on.
!

Character formation
- Fully formed characters are madeof continuous lines (for example, those produced by adaisy-wheel
printer) versus dot-matrix characterscomposed of patterns of dots (such as those producedby standard
dot-matrix, ink-jet, and thermal printers).Laser printers, while technically dot-matrix, are
generallyconsidered to produce fully formed characters becausetheir output is very clear and the dots
are extremelysmall and closely spaced.
!

227
Method of transmission
- This is parallel (byte-by-bytetransmission) versus serial (bit-by-bit transmission).These categories
refer to the means by which output issent to the printer rather than to any mechanicaldistinctions.
Many printers are available in either serialor parallel versions, and some printers offer bothchoices,
yielding greater flexibility in installation options.
!

Method of printing
- This can either be character bycharacter, line by line, or page by page. Characterprinters include
standard dot-matrix, ink-jet, thermal,and daisy-wheel printers. Line printers include the band,chain,
and drum printers that are commonly associatedwith large computer installations or networks.
Pageprinters include the electrophotographic printers, suchas laser printers.
!

Print capability
- Printers may print in either text-only ortext-and-graphics modes. Text-only printers, includingmost
daisy-wheel and thimble printers and some dot-matrix and laser printers, can reproduce only
charactersfor which they have matching patterns, such asembossed type, or internal character maps.
Text-and-graphics printers-dot-matrix, ink-jet, laser, and others-can reproduce all manner of images
by "drawing" eachas a pattern of dots.

Computer-output microform
- These are outpot devices that can rendermicroscopic format of documents.54.7 Communication
DevicesCommunication devices control the passing of information to and fromcommunication
networks. It consists of both physical devices and software thatlink the various pieces of hardware and
transfer data from one physical location toanother. Computers and communications equipment can be
connected innetworks for sharing voice, data, images, sound, video, or even a combination ofall
these.The most familiar communication device in a typical computer is the modem. adevice that
converts between analogue and digital signals. The modem works by,and derives its name from, a
process of modulating and demodulating. In the firstinstance, the digital signal is used to vary an
analogue carrier signal. In the second,the variations in the analogue carrier signal are translated into
digital signals.Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to communicate with eachother
across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a personalcomputer (PC) to connect to
the Internet via an Internet service provider. The

160service provider's premises are equipped with banks of modems so that manyusers can gain
access. If each pair of modems transmits data to each othersimultaneously, the modems are operating
in full duplex mode; if only one modemcan transmit at a time, the modems are operating in half-
duplex mode.Some modems have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one ofthe
cards available for a PC is a facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows thePC to talk directly to fax
machines and to send and receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work
at speeds of 2 megabits persecond. These are used as components in leading-edge communications
services.Telecommunication, which is communications over a distance using technology toovercome
that distance, has the following system components.

Computer terminals which process information


Input and output devices that send or receive data


Communication channel. which include the telephone line, fiber-opticcables, coaxial cables, and
wireless transmission technologies like infra-red (IR) and Bluetooth technologies

Communication processors such as modems, multiplexers, controllers,and front end processors


228
Communication software, which control input and output activities andmanage other function networks
in the communication networks

Chapter 55 - Computer Software


55.1 Defining Computer SoftwareThe computer software is the detailed program and instruction that
control theoperations of a computer system. They cause the hardware to do work. A softwareprogram
is a series of statements or instructions to the computer. The process ofwriting coding programs is
termed programming, and individuals who specialize inthis task are programmers.Software as a whole
can be divided into a number of categories based on the typeof work done. The two primary software
categories are:

system software (operating system and language translators), whichcontrol the workings of the
computer, and

application software, which addresses the multitude of tasks for whichpeople use computers.Two
additional categories that are neither system nor application software,although they contain elements
of both, are:

network software, which enables groups of computers to communicate,and


language software, which provides programmers with the tools they needto write programs.In addition
to these task-based categories, several types of software are describedbased on their method of
distribution. These include the so-called cannedprograms or packaged software developed and sold
primarily through thefollowing.

retail outlets

freeware and public-domain software (made available without cost by itsdeveloper)


shareware (similar to freeware but usually carries a small fee for thosewho like the program)

vapourware (a software that either does not reach the market or appearsmuch later than
promised.55.2 System SoftwareSystem software is a set of generalized programs that manage the
computer'sresources, such as the central processor, communication links, and peripheraldevices. It
coordinates the various parts of the computer and mediates betweenthe application software and the
computer hardware.There are three major types of system software.

Operating

system
- This manages ad control's the computer's activities,such as multiprogramming, multitasking, virtual
storage, time sharing, andmultiprocessing. The most common feature of software programsnowadays
is the graphical user interface (GUI), which is the part of the OSusers interact with, which uses graphic
icons and some input pointingdevices like the mouse to issue commands and make selections.
Thefollowing is a list of popular operating systems.
o

DOS (Disk Operating System)


- This is a 16-bit OS used by earlierPCs. It does not support multitasking and limits the size
ofprograms that can be run.
o
229
OS/2
- This is an operating system for personal computers whichallows multi-tasking. It can run MS-DOS
and Windows-basedapplications, and can read all MS-DOS disks. OS/2 was originallydeveloped as a
joint project between Microsoft and IBM.
o

Mac OS
- This is the first OS to render graphical user interfacethat was developed for Macintosh computers.
o

Linux
- Linux is available from many different companies eachadding their own features, such as a graphical
installationroutine, but all relying on a basic set of operating systemfunctions. Linux has been refined
and developed to become one

161of the most popular operating systems in the world. It is widelyused in the business community to
support office andcommercial systems as well as being an increasingly popularoperating system for
personal computing. Rather than beingdeveloped as a commercial product, the original version of
Linuxwas released to a public Internet forum and was subsequentlyadopted by software engineers
worldwide as a programmingchallenge. The basic Linux operating system is free. Linux wascontinually
enhanced through the 1990s. In addition to thedistributed development mechanism, commonly known
as opensource, software, several commercial enterprises have releasedtheir own Linux-based products.
A number of vendors havegathered together various pieces of software and presentedthem in a
distributable format that makes Linux look like anyoperating system with which people are familiar.
The Linuxreleases from these companies are called distributions. The RedHat distribution is the most
popular commercial offering withCaldera, Debian, and Suse some of the other leading names.
o

UNIX
- This is a multi-user, user ID operating system thatincorporates multitasking. It was originally
developed for use onminicomputers. UNIX exists in various forms andimplementations and is
considered a powerful operating systemthat is more portable-less machine-specific-than other
operatingsystems because it is written in C. UNIX is available in severalrelated forms, including AIX, a
version of UNIX adapted by IBM(to run on RISC-based workstations), A/UX (a graphical versionfor the
Apple Macintosh), and Mach (a rewritten but essentiallyUNIX-compatible operating system for the
NeXT computer).
o

Microsoft Windows
- This is a multitasking graphical userinterface environment that runs on MS-DOS-based
computers.Windows provides a standard interface based on drop-downmenus, screen windows, and a
pointing device such as a mouse.Programs must be specially designed to take advantage of
thesefeatures. This was released in several versions.
!

Windows 3.0 (1990)


!

Windows 3.1 (1992)


!

Windows NT (1993) - This is an operating system forbusiness environments.


!

Windows 95 (1995)
!

Windows 98 (1998) - This featured integrated Internetcapabilities.


!

230
Windows CE (1999) - This OS was used in devicesdesigned to provide consumers with integrated
cable-television, telephone, and high-speed Internet services.
!

Windows ME (Millennium Edition, 1999)


- This is verymuch similar to the features and capabilities ofWindows 98, with some additional
upgrades.
!

Windows 2000 (1999)


- This was released as an updatefor Windows NT, intended for workstations and networkservers.
!

Windows XP
(eXPerience, 2001 - This is the company'sfirst operating system for consumers that was not basedon
MS-DOS. It combines the robustness of Windows2000 and Windows 98 and ME.
!

Windows Longhorn
- This OS by Microsoft is the nextgeneration to Windows XP, with updated and addedfeatures not
present in previous versions. It has notbeen released to the market and is presently
underdevelopment.

Language translators
- These are programs that convert the programminglanguage instructions in a computer program into
machine languagecode. The program I the high level language before translation intomachine language
is called source code. There are two basic types oflanguage translators.
o

Assembly languages
- These programs substitute mnemonics fornumeric codes. These are popular in second
generationcomputers.
o

Compilers or interpreters
- These programs translate high-levellanguage into machine language. Some examples are
thefollowing.
!

Third generation programming languages


COBOL

FORTRAN

BASIC

PASCAL

C and C++
!

Succeeding generation programming languages


PERL interpreter
231

JAVA compiler
!

Fourth generation languages are language programsthat can be employed directly by end users or
less-skilled programmers to develop computer applicationsmore rapidly than conventional
programming languages.They are characterized by the following.

They are less procedural, or even non-procedural.


They use a programming language that is veryclose to human language (natural language).

They incorporate software tools that provideimmediate on-line answers to requests forinformation that
is pre-defined (querylanguage).
!

Fourth generation language programs are distributed inseven categories.


PC software tools (e.g. WordPerfect, IE, Access)


Query language (e.g. SQL)


Report generator (e.g. RPG III)


Graphics language (e.g. SAS Graph, Systat)


Application generator (e.g. Focus, PowerBuilder, MS Front Page)


Application software packages (e.g.Peoplesoft, HRMS, SAP R/3)


Very-high-level programming languages (e.g. APL, Nomads2)


Utility software
- These are programs that are used to support, enhance,and expand existing programs in a computer
system. Typical utilitysoftware programs include
o

screen savers
o

data recovery and back-up utilities


o

virus-detection programs
o

data compression and disk defragmenter tools


o

device drivers
o
232
spooling programs
o

internet security programs55.3 Application


Software Application software is a program written for a specific application to performfunction
specified the end user. It must work through the system software in orderto operate.The following are
features common to all application software programs.

WYSIWYG (What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get)
- What appears exactly inthe computer monitor is exactly as they would be finally produced.

White space
- The area where the work is done is commonly white (unlessthe user changes the default color).

Cursor
- This indicates where particularly in the document are the currentand next operations applied.

Panning
- The user can scroll through the document to the left or to theright.

Desktop
- This is usually the entire screen area that is available for GUI.

Desktop accessories
- These are features commonly found on aconventional office desktop like toolbars, icons, forms,
drop-down lists,check boxes, etc.

Clipart
- These are artwork designed for import usually to text documentsor charts.

Object linking embedding (OLE)


- This lets one to embed an objectcreated using one application into another application. This is
common inintegrated software packages.The following is a categorization of application software
commonly usednowadays.

Word processing software


- These are programs that are used to enter,store, manipulate, and print text (or sometimes text with
images) toproduce documents.
o

Examples: MS WordOffice WriterStar Office Writer


Electronic spreadsheets
- These are programs that are used for filecontaining data and formulas in tabular format. They are
capable of easilyrecalculating numerical data.
o

Examples: MS ExcelSPSSCalc

Database management software


233
- These are used for creating andmanipulating lists, creating files and databases to store data,
andcombining information for reports.
o

Examples: MS Access

163Integrated Library System SoftwareFile Maker Pro


Presentation graphics software


- These are programs that create qualitygraphics presentations that can incorporate charts, sound,
animation,photos, and video clips.
o

Examples: MS PowerPointLotus Freelance Graphics


Integrated software packages and software suites


- These come inbundles of two or more applications, which provide easy transfer of databetween
them. Integrated software suites have capabilities for supportingcollaborative work on the Web or
incorporating information from the Webinto documents (e.g. MS Office 2000, XP, and 2003).
o

Examples: MS OfficeLotusNotes

Personal information management software


- These are equipped withappointment scheduling systems, calendars, contact lists, e-mailbrowsers,
and other applications used for organizing personal data andinformation.
o

Examples: MS OutlookPalm OS

Electronic mail software


- These programs facilitate computer-to-computer exchange of messages. Web browsers and PC
software suitesalso have e-mail capabilities.
o

Examples: MS OutlookMozillaEudoraPegasus

Web browsers
- These are easy-to-use software tools for accessinginformation in the World Wide web and the
Internet.
o

Examples: MS Internet ExplorerNetscape NavigatorOpera


Web authoring software


- These are intended in the creation of highquality Web pages and Web sites. They usually apply a
WYSIWYGworking environment, allowing the less skilled Web developers to comeup with competitive
work results.
o

Examples: MS FrontPage Adobe GoLive


Image processing software


- These are intended in producing and editinghigh-quality images and photos, which can be used in
other works or canbe shared online or through devices like digital cameras.
234
o

Examples: Adobe PhotoshopCorrel Draw


Reference suite software


- These are the electronic counterpart of theprinted reference sources known, like encyclopedias,
dictionaries, atlases,and so on.
o

Examples: MS Encarta Reference SuiteCompton's Interactive Encyclopedia


Media authoring software


- These are intended to be used in producingvarious types of media like video, music, animations, and
so on.
o

Examples: PinnacleCakewalk StudioSonic Foundry Acid ProMacromedia Flash


Music notation software


- These are chiefly intended for the production ofprinted music. Some music notation software
applications are integratedwith features that function like media authoring software.
o

Examples: FinaleVoyetra MusicWriteCakewalk Score Writer


Media players
- These are intended to playback media files like music files(e.g. audio tracks, mp3 files, MIDI
sequences, wav files, etc.), and videofiles (MPEG files, avi files, etc.). They are also used to access the
mediacontent of optical discs (e.g. VCD, DVD, audio CD) or other storagedevices that contain media.
o

Examples: Windows Media PlayerCyberlink Power DVDCreative Media Center


Computer aided design software - These are highly specialized softwareused in creating designs like
architectural and engineering designs. Theyare capable of rendering three-dimensional images.
o

Example: Autodesk AutoCAD

16455.4 Contemporary Tools for Software DevelopmentHere are some of the tools and approaches
commonly used nowadays in thedesign, creation, and development of computer software applications.

Object-oriented programming
- This is an approach to softwaredevelopment that combines data and procedures into a single
object. Theobject combines data and program code. It has spawned a newprogramming technology
known as visual programming. Visual Basic (VB)is a widely used visual programming tool to run
on Windows platforms.

JAVA
- This is a programming language that can deliver only the softwarefunctionality needed for a
particular task. such as a small appletdownloaded from a network. JAVA can rin on any computer or
operatingsystem.

235
HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)
- This is the standard text formattinglanguage for documents on the World Wide Web since 1989.
HTMLdocuments are text files that contain two parts: content that is meant tobe rendered on a
computer screen; and markup or tags, encodedinformation that directs the text format on the screen
and is generallyhidden from the user. HTML is a subset of a broader language calledStandard
Generalized Markup Language (SGML), which is a system forencoding and formatting documents,
whether for output to a computerscreen or to be printed on paper.

XML (Extensible Markup Language)


- This was created to structure, store,and send electronic information. In appearance, XML is similar to
thefamiliar HTML used to create pages on the World Wide Web. The maindifference between the two is
that HTML is used to describe how Webpages should look while XML is designed to describe what the
informationon a Web page actually means. Put another way, HTML is aboutdisplaying information,
while XML is about describing information. XML isnot a replacement for HTML; it was designed for a
specific purpose withan overall intent that it should complement HTML.

Chapter 56 - Data Resources Management


56.1 Databases: Some Concepts and TerminologiesThe management of data and information in
computers typically involvesdatabases. A database is a collection of data organized for storage in a
computermemory and designed for easy access by authorized users. It serves manyapplications
efficiently by centralizing the data and minimizing redundant data. Thedata may be in the form of
text, numbers, or encoded graphics.Since their first, experimental appearance in the 1950s, databases
have become soimportant in industrial societies that they can be found in almost every field
ofinformation. Government, military, and industrial databases are often highlyrestricted, and
professional databases are usually of limited interest. A wide rangeof commercial, governmental, and
non-profit databases are available to the generalpublic and may be used by anyone who owns or has
access to the equipment thatthey require.The organization of data in databases involves some
terminologies.

character - consists of a single alphabetic, numeric, or other symbol


field - a grouping of characters into a word, a grouping of words, or acomplete number; such as a
person's name or age

record - a group of related fields


file - a group of records of the same type, or rewcords that are somehowrelated

entity - a person, place, thing, or event about which information must bekept

attribute - a piece of information describing an entity


key field - a field in a record that uniquely identifies instances of thatrecord so that it can be retrieved,
sorted, or updated

query - a statement defined by the user, which instructs the databasemanagement system (DBMS) the
find and retrieve the wanted record orinformation

236
tuple - a row or record in a relational database56.2 Databases: Management, Design, and
StructureDatabase management system (DVMS) is a special software or a computerprogram that
controls the creation, maintenance, and use of a database of anorganization and its end users. It has
three (3) components:

a data definition language


a data manipulation language


a data dictionaryMany database management software packages make use of SQL (StructuredQuery
Language). It is the most prominent data manipulation language today. A typical database consists of
several database objects. The following objects arethe usual components of a database. Other
database management programs mayuse a different name for some of the objects.

Table
- A table is the basic unit for storing a collection of data. A table'sdefinition consists of a list of fields,
each of which stores a discrete pieceof information for a single record.

Queries
- Queries enable the user to extract a subset of data from a singletable, from a group of related
tables, or from other queries, using criteriayou define. By saving a query as a database object, the
query can be runat any time, using the current contents of the database. They maysometimes look
exactly like a table; the crucial difference is that each rowof the query's results may consist of fields
drawn from several tables. Aquery may also contain calculated fields, which display results based
onthe contents of other fields.

Forms
- Forms enable users to enter, view, and edit information, generallyone record at a time. They can
closely resemble paper forms such asinvoices and time sheets; or they are organized for data entry
with datavalidation rules. A form may also include a sub form that displaysinformation from a related
table.

Reports
- Reports enables the user to present data from one or moretables or queries in a readable style and a
professional format, generallyfor printed output. A report may include detailed lists of specific data,
witheach row consisting of a single record, or it may provide a statisticalsummary of a large quantity of
information. A report design can includegrouping and sorting options.

Macro
- A macro is a set of one or more actions that perform a particularoperation, such as opening a form
or printing a report. Macros can help toautomate common tasks. For example, the user can run a
macro thatprints a report when a user clicks a command button. A macro can be onemacro composed
of a sequence of actions, or it can be a macro group.

Module
- A module is essentially a collection of declarations, statements,and procedures stored together as
one named unit to organize VisualBasic code or nay other code used by the database which are
generatedby other programming languages.In designing a database, the following steps should
be applied.1.

Determine the purpose of your database. - The first step in designing adatabase is to determine
its purpose and how it's to be used.

237
Talk to people who will use the database.

Brainstorm about the questions you and they would like the database toanswer.

Sketch out the reports you'd like the database to produce. Gather theforms you currently use to
record your data. As you determine the purpose of your database, a list of information you want
fromthe database will begin to emerge. From that, you can determine what facts youneed to store in
the database and what subject each fact belongs to. These factscorrespond to the fields (columns) in
your database, and the subjects that thosefacts belong to correspond to the tables.2.

Determine the fields you need in the database. - Each field is a fact about aparticular subject. For
example, you might need to store the following factsabout customers: company name, address, city,
state, and phone number.You need to create a separate field for each of these facts.3.

Determine the relationships between tables. - Now that you've divided yourinformation into tables and
identified primary key fields, you need a way to tellthe database how to bring related information back
together again inmeaningful ways. To do this, you define relationships between tables.4.

Refine the design. - After designing the tables, fields, and relationshipsneeded, it's time to study
the design and detect any flaws that might remain. Itis easier to change the database design at this
point than it will be after youhave filled the tables with data.5.

Test the design. - Enter enough sample data in your tables so as to test thedesign. To test the
relationships in the database, see if you can create queriesto get the answers you want. Create rough
drafts of forms and reports and seeif they show the data expected. Look for unnecessary duplications
of data andeliminate them.6.

Enter data and create other database objects. - If table structures meet thedesign principles described
and is determined to serve its purpose effectively,then it's time to go ahead and add all existing data
to the tables. Otherdatabase objects can already be created at this point, such as queries,
forms,reports, macros, modules, and other available objects.56.3 Classifying DatabasesDatabases can
be classified in different ways. They can be classified by theirintended use and function, or by
their structure.

By intended use and function


o

Operational databases
(e.g. HR database, inventory database,customer database)
o

Distributed database
- This is a replicate copy or a part of adatabase to network servers at a variety of sites.
o

External database
- This database is designed to be published inthe World Wide Web which can be accessed through
theInternet, with charge or free.

By structure
o

Relational DBMS
- This is a type of a logical database model thatrepresents all data in the database as simple two-
dimensionaltables called relations. The tables appear similar to flat files butthe information in one
file can be easily extracted and combined.
238
o

Hierarchical DBMS
- This is an older logical database model thatorganizes data in a treelike structure. A record is
subdivided intosegments that are connected to each other in one-to-manyparent-child relationships.
o

Network DBMS
- This is also an older logical database modelthat is useful for depicting many-to-many relationships.
o

Object-oriented DBMS
- This is a database for storing graphicsand multimedia and has the capabilities of a relational DBMS
forsorting traditional information.56.4 Trends in Database ManagementThe notable factor to the trends
in database programming and management is thecontinuous advancement of information management
practices. Listed below aresome of these trends.

Multidimensional data analysis


- This is the capability for manipulating andanalyzing large volumes of data from multiple
perspectives. It is alsoknown as on-line analytical processing (OLAP).

Data warehouses
- A data warehouse is a database, with reporting andquery tools, that stores current and historical data
extracted from variousoperational systems and consolidated for management reporting analysis.

Data mining
- This is the analysis of large pools of data to find patternsand rules that can be used to guide decision
making and predict futurebehavior.

Hypermedia databases
- These are common in the Web. Hypermedia wasused as an approach to data management that
organizes data as anetwork of nodes linked in any pattern the user specifies. The nodes cancontain
text, graphics, sound, full-motion video, or executable programs.

Chapter 57 - Issues and Trends in IT


57.1 Issues Affecting Libraries and Information CentersEven if there are so many developments in
hardware, software, and networktechnologies, there are several issues in IT that are of great concern
to libraries andinformation centers.

Licensing
- Like in any of the many areas of commerce in which licensesare required, licensing applies also in
commercially-distributed software.This is a very big concern since the cost of licensed software is too
highnowadays. Some institutions who cannot afford to purchase a licensedsoftware resort to the use of
pirated software. An alternative to expensivelicensed software is the use of shareware (software that is
distributed onthe basis of an honor system), or freeware (a computer program givenaway free of
charge). Most shareware is distributed free of charge but theauthor usually requests that you pay a
small fee if you like the program oruse it on a regular basis. Freeware is often made available on
bulletinboards and through user groups. An independent program developermight offer a product as
freeware either for personal satisfaction or toassess its reception among interested users.

Piracy
- Software piracy is a crime of robbery for private ends. Softwareprograms are reengineered and
redistributed by unauthorized bodies fortheir own gains. They usually unlock the software by providing

239
passwords,serial numbers, or codes required for installation. There are also times atwhich they unlock
the software by using cracking program tools.

Computer viruses
- A computer virus is a program that "infects" computerfiles (usually other executable programs) by
inserting copies of itself inthose files. This is usually done in such a manner that the copies will
beexecuted when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect stillother files, and so on.
Viruses often have damaging side effects,sometimes intentionally, sometimes not. PC users can
safeguard theirfiles using anti-virus software packages such as Norton Anti virus, McAfeeVirus Scan,
AVG Anti-Virus, and so on. These programs can detectviruses, and often repair the damage done by
them. The increase intransactions over the Internet has greatly increased the chance of virusinfection,
so anti-virus measures have been introduced to promote thegrowth of electronic business. Digital
certificates can be used to validatethe identity of people and organizations on the Internet, digital
signaturescan prove the identity of an individual, and Secure Electronic Transaction(SET) mechanisms
have been developed to allow safe credit cardtransactions. E-mail viruses remain a major threat,
however-during 2000,many large organizations were brought down by a virus attached to an e-

167mail message entitled "I Love You". In 2002 a new type of virus appearedthat allowed
unauthorized users to access private information (such ascredit card details). This virus, known as
"Bugbear", was carried via e-mailand affected many users.
•Data theft
- This is a more serious problem than software piracy.Computer system hackers (or crackers) mutilate
the encryption ofrestricted databanks and databases and make unauthorized use of
theinformation/data contained in them. The use of these data may beintended for unlawful activities
like theft.
•Spam and junk mails
- Spam or unsolicited e-mail is the electronicequivalent of junk mail. People usually send spam in
order to sell productsand services, to draw traffic to Web sites, or to promote moneymakingschemes.
Unlike physical junk mail, spam does not stop if it isunsuccessful. When marketing departments send
junk mail they incursome expense, so give up if they do not succeed. Spam costs virtuallynothing to
send and so it persists, whatever the recipient does. Spam caneasily be confused with legitimate bulk
e-mail. According to Mail AbusePrevention System (MAPS), an electronic message is regarded as
spamonly if the recipient's personal identity is irrelevant because the messageis equally applicable to
many others; the recipient has not grantedpermission for it to be sent; and the message appears to
the recipient togive a disproportionate benefit to the sender. Spam has become a bigproblem over the
past few years as it consumes large amounts of therecipient's time and Internet capacity. It is also an
enduring problem as itis virtually impossible to determine where it originates. The first spam wassent
as long ago as 1978 by a Digital Equipment Corporation salesrepresentative to advertise a computer
equipment demonstration. Theinitial defense against spam was to block mail from domains that
areknown to be senders but it is relatively easy for spam senders to sendfrom a new domain. The most
effective measure now available is to useone of the e-mail filters on the market that saves the user
from having tomanually sift though his or her inbox. Legislation introduced in theEuropean Union in
December 2003 makes it a criminal offence to sendspam unless the recipient has agreed in advance to
accept it. Similarlegislation was signed into law in the US in the same month.
•Obsolescence of hardware and software
- The very fast developments incomputer technology mean the very quick obsolescence of
computerdevices. Both hardware and software are subject to this problem. This canbe resolved by
downloading software updates from the Internet. Unusedcomputers which are left because of
purchasing newer one can bedonated to charitable institutions so that they become useful once
more.Computers drain critical resources such as electricity and paper. Theyalso produce unwanted
electrical and chemical, and bulk-waste sideeffects. As a society, we should adopt a more
environmentally positionwith respect to use, manufacture, and disposal of computer equipmentand
devices. This is known as green computing (environmentally sensiblecomputing).
•High costs in electricity
- A computer will never work without electricity.The electrical consumption of computers becomes a
big deal if theinstitution has many computer units which are run simultaneously. Alwaysset the
computer to a mode at which the monitor and the hard drive isautomatically turned off when not in
use. Green computing is also asolution to this problem.
•Health issues
240
- Ergonomics (or human factor engineering), the science andtechnology emphasizing the safety,
comfort, and ease of use of human-operated machines such as computers,. Its goal is to produce
systemsthat are user-friendly, safe, comfortable, and easy to use. Institutionswhich make use of
computers in their daily activities should considerusing ergonomically correct furniture (e.g. chairs and
tables) and devices(e.g. mouse, keyboard, etc.).57.2 Trends and Future DevelopmentsThe following
are just some of the trends in the development of informationtechnology.
•Computer system capabilities
- Computers continue to become smaller,faster, more reliable, less expensive to purchase and
maintain, and moreinterconnected within computer networks and other electronic gadgetsand devices.
•Input technology trends
- Input devices are becoming more natural andeasy to use. Even programming languages are
becoming to be structuredlike human language, making them easier and faster to learn.
•Output technology trends
- Output devices are geared toward directoutput methods that communicate naturally, quickly, and
clearly.
•Trends in storage media
- The capacity of data storage media iscontinuously growing. Primary storage media are starting to
usemicroelectronic circuits while secondary storage media are usingmagnetic and optical media.

168One continuing trend in computer development is microminiaturization, the effort tocompress more
circuit elements into smaller and smaller chip space. Researchersare also trying to speed up circuitry
functions through the use of superconductivity,the phenomenon of decreased electrical resistance
observed in certain materials atvery low temperatures. As the physical limits of silicon-chip computer
processorsare being approached, scientists are exploring the potential of the next generationof
computer technology, using, for instance, devices based on deoxyribonucleicacid (DNA).The fifth-
generation computer effort to develop computers that can solve complexproblems in ways that might
eventually merit the description "creative" is anothertrend in computer development, the ideal goal
being true artificial intelligence. Onepath actively being explored is parallel processing computing,
which uses manychips to perform several different tasks at the same time. Parallel processing
mayeventually be able to duplicate to some degree the complex feedback,approximating, and
assessing functions of human thought. One important parallelprocessing approach is the neural
network, which mimics the architecture of thenervous system. Another ongoing trend is the increase in
computer networking,which now employs the worldwide data communications system of satellite
andcable links to connect computers globally. There is also a great deal of researchinto the possibility
of "optical" computers-hardware that processes not pulses ofelectricity but much faster pulses of light.

169
UNIT 17 - IT FOR LIS PART 2: INTERNET ANDNETWORKS
Chapter 58 - The History of the Internet
58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the Internet58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide
Web58.3 Cyber Crimes58.4 Governing the Internet
Chapter 59 - Methods of Internet Connection
59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic Communication59.2 Internet Connection59.3 Modem.59.4
Broadband
Chapter 60 - Internet Communication
60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP Address60.2 TCP/IP60.3 Packet Retransmission and
Checksums60.4 DNS60.5 URL
Chapter 61 - Internet Services
61.1 FTP and Telnet61.2 E-Mail and Newsgroups61.3 World Wide Web61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and
ExtranetChapter 62 - World Wide Web Services62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines62.2
Metasearch Engines62.3 White Pages and Yellow PagesChapter 63 - Internet Searching and the E-
Mail63.1 Search Fundamentals63.2 Queries63.3 Search Strategies63.4 Search Mechanism in Search
Engines63.5 The E-Mail
Chapter 58 - The History of the Internet
58.1 ARPANET: The Predecessor of the InternetIn 1958, the US government formed the Advanced
Research Project Agency(ARPA) to create a worldwide network that would monitor and control
weaponslocated in the different parts of the globe. ARPA reports directly to the USDepartment of
Defense and developed at that time a state-of-the-art technology inorder for US to maintain its leading

241
military research position. At that time, networked computers were in telephone companies and
used circuitswitching. ARPA developed a better way of sending messages through packetswitching. A
new experimental WAN (Wide area Network) was born, which wascalled ARPANET. Larry Roberts is the
principal architect of ARPAET. Initially, onlyfour nodes, connected by AT%T 50 kbps lines, comprised
ARPANET. The fournodes are based at the following sites:
•University of California, Los Angeles (host is SDS Sigma 7)
•Stanford Research Institute (host is SDS 490)
•University of Cambridge, Sta. Barbara (host is IBM 360/75)
•University of Utah (host is DEC PDP-10)In 1971, ARPANET grew and had a total of 15 nodes. ARPANET
became a networkof about 60,000 medium-to-large-scale computers. ARPANET was established
tofunction as a vehicle for enabling universities and research organizations toexchange information
freely. ARPANET, although part of the Department ofDefense, is not a classified government or military
network. ARPANET operated onUNIX which uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol), anetwork protocol which became a standard for interconnecting to the ARPANET.TCP/IP was
developed by Vinton Cerf, who is considered as the Father of Internet.In 1972, Ray Tomlinson invented
the e-mail (electronic mail). Tomlinson alsointroduced the "at sign" (@). Studies showed that in 1973,
75% of the traffic in the ARPANET. In 1976, Queen Elizabeth II used the ARPANET to send an e-
mail. Itwas also during this when ARPANET began sending packets (small pieces of amessage for
transmission through a computer network) via satellite.From the late 1970s up to early 1980s, many
networks independent of ARPANETwere built. Some of these include:
•CSNET (Computer Science Network)
, which was founded by the NationalScience Foundation,
• BITNET ("because It's True" Network)
, which started as a cooperativenetwork, and
•JJANET (Joint Academic Network)
in the United kingdom.
•ARPANET
was eventually split into two - ARPANET (for research) andMILNET (for military use). The use of
computer networks was expanded.
•FTP (File transfer Protocol)
- a set of rules or standard procedure thatallows a user on one computer to transfer files to and from
anothercomputer over a network, for example the Internet. Full form file-transferprotocol
•Telnet
- a terminal emulation program that allows computer users toconnect interactively to a server and
access remote sites, for example onthe Internet
•Mailing lists
- a list, typically computerized, of names and addresses towhich advertising material or information
can be posted
•UseNet
- a worldwide system that uses the Internet and other networks todistribute articles of news
or information
•Newsgroups
- a discussion group maintained on a computer networksuch as the Internet in which people leave
messages on topics of mutualinterest for other participants to read
•Online games – software programs played for entertainment, challenge, oreducational purposesIn
1990 ARPANET was replaced by the National Science Foundation Network(NSFNET) to connect its
supercomputers to regional networks. NSFNET nowoperates as the high-speed backbone of the
Internet.58.2 The Birth of the Internet and the World Wide WebThe Internet technology was created
by Vinton Cerf in early 1973 as part of aproject headed by Robert Kahn and conducted by ARPA. In
1984 the technologyand the network were turned over to the private sector and to
governmentscientific agencies for further development. The growth has continuedexponentially, from
four computers of the ARPANET in 1969 to over 300,000computers by 1990. The distribution and
decentralization of the Internet is actuallya strategic move to avoid unwanted events that might harm
and destroy thetechnology.Service-provider companies that make "gateways" to the Internet available
tohome and business users enter the market in ever-increasing numbers. In the1990s, the US
government eased restrictions on commercial activities on theInternet. Much of the Internet became
privatized and commercial activitiesincreased. The number of hosts grew dramatically, and Internet
traffic consisted ofother types of information media, such as graphics, sound, and video).In 1991, Tim
Berners-Lee and Robert Calliau created the World Wide Web (WWW)at the European Laboratory of
Particle Physics (CERN), an international researchcentre straddling the French-Swiss border west of
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Geneva. It is a system ofhyperlinked documents created in HTML.By 1993, web browsers were
introduced to Internet users. Mosaic, a graphicalInternet browser, was released by Marc Andreesen at
the National Center forSupercomputer Applications (NCSA) in the University of Illinois at
Urbana,Champaign. It was immediately followed in 1994 by Netscape, also by Marc Andreesen with
Jim Clark. By 1996, 75% of Internet surfers use Netscape. In 1998, America On-Line (AOL) bought
Netscape for US$4.2 billion.By early 2000, access was available in over 200 countries and
encompassedaround 100 million users. The Internet and its technology continue to have aprofound
effect in promoting the sharing of information, making possible rapidtransactions among businesses,
and supporting global collaboration amongindividuals and organizations.In 1999, 205 countries and
territories in the world had at least one connection tothe Internet. The development of the World Wide
Web is fuelling the rapidintroduction of new business tools and activities that may by then have led
toannual business transactions on the Internet worth hundreds of billions of pounds.The potential of
web-based commerce is immense. Techniques that allow safetransactions over the Net (for payment
and funds transfers), the construction offaster, more secure networks and the development of efficient
search techniquesmake the Internet an ideal trading medium.Future concerns are focused in a number
of areas, including the efficiency ofsearch engines-even the most efficient of them cover less than a
sixth of allpublicly available pages-as well as privacy, security, and Internet piracy. By its verynature,
the Internet does not cope well with traffic that requires a dedicated linkbetween two points (such as
voice) as end-to-end delay cannot readily becontrolled. Several protocols that allow greater
predictability are being developedto guarantee an assured quality of service. The ability to integrate
applications is ofincreasing importance. Common data formats allow e-business applications
tocooperate and services such as Internet phones that are easy to install are beingrefined and
deployed.In addition to these extra features, the core of the Internet-the network hardwarethat
connects everyone together-is undergoing an overhaul that will enable it tocope with ever-increasing
traffic loads. The "Internet 2" project has been underway for several years now and is building faster
links and bigger switches that willpower the Internet for years to come.
17158.3 Cyber CrimesThere are several kinds of cyber crimes that take place nowadays.
Computernetworks, specially the Internet, are the usual commonplaces of these. Below aresome of
these cyber crimes.
•Internet worm and computer viruses
- A virus that propagates itself acrosscomputer networks, usually via e-mail, is sometimes referred to
as aworm, especially if it is composed of many separate segments distributedacross the network. In
1988, Robert Morris, a Computer Science graduateof the Cornell University, wrote an experimental,
self-replicating, self-propagating program, which was called worm. This was distributed toover 6,000 of
60,000 computers hooked in the Internet at that time. Morriswas sentenced of three years of
probation, 400 hours of community work,and a fine of US$10,050. A known virus is the Trojan Horse,
thoughtechnically not a virus, is a program disguised as something useful, whichwhen run does
damage to the computer system while appearing to dosomething else. Another is the Melissa virus, a
virus that invadescomputers via e-mail and IRC (Internet relay Chat). It is a distinct programwhich can
run unaided.
•Hackers, hacking and cracking
- Originally, a hacker is a computerphile-aperson totally engrossed in computer programming and
computertechnology. Hacker also means someone who, beyond mereprogramming, likes to take apart
operating systems and programs to seewhat makes them tick. In the 1980s, with the advent of
personalcomputers and dial-up computer networks, hacker acquired a pejorativeconnotation, often
referring to someone who secretly invades thecomputers of others, inspecting or tampering with the
programs or datastored on them. The correct term such person is actually cracker, andtheir activity is
cracking.58.4 Governing the InternetNobody owns the Internet. However, there are some institutions
and organizationswhich define the standards that must be observed in the Internet. Among theseare:
•Internet Architecture Board
- for Internet Protocol (IP) development
•Internet Society (ISOC) - a professional membership society for theInternet
•World Wide Web Consortium
(W3C) - an organization that developstechnologies, inclusing specifications, guidelines, software,
and tools
•Internet Network Information Center
(InterNIC) - an organization thatgoverns domain registration
•Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) - a large open internationalcommunity of network designers, networks, operators, vendors,
andresearchers.
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•Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) - an organization in-charge ofassigning IP addresses

Chapter 59 - Methods of Internet Connection


59.1 Differentiating Media of Electronic CommunicationThe medium of connection for electronic
communication can either be cable-based(or wire-based) or wireless. Cable-based communication uses
wires and cables intransmitting information. Wireless communication, on the other hand,
useselectromagnetic waves propagated through space. The following are specificmedia for these two.
•Cable based communication
oTwisted pair
(e.g. RJ45 connector) - This is the electric cablecomposed consist of numerous pairs of paper-
insulated wire,encased in a lead sheath; the individual pairs of wire areintertwined to minimize induced
interference with other circuits inthe same cable.
oCoaxial cable
(e.g. BNC connector) - This type of cable consistsof several copper tubes; each tube contains a wire
conductorthat extends along its centre. The entire cable is sheathed in leadand is generally filled with
nitrogen under pressure to preventcorrosion. Because the coaxial cable has a broad frequencyrange, it
is valuable in the transmission of carrier-currenttelephony
oFiber-optic cable
(e.g. ST or SC connector) - Fiber-optic cables,which are composed of bundled optical fibers, are
rapidlyreplacing bulky copper-wire cables in the telecommunicationsindustry. A single pair of such
cables can carry over a thousandconversations simultaneously. The medium of transmissionwithin the
cable is light.
•Wireless communication
oInfrared rays
(IR) - This is used in the familiar television remotecontrol. Infra-red signals only work over a short
distance. Evenso, it can be used to carry significant amounts of information andhas been adopted as
the basis for the "wireless" office.
oMicrowaves
- This is a short, high-frequency radio wave lyingbetween infrared waves, which have higher
frequency, andconventional radio waves. Microwaves have many applications:in radio and television,
radar, meteorology, satellitecommunications, distance measuring, research into theproperties of
matter, and cooking.
oBluetooth
- This is a short-range radio standard used to connecta range of devices into a fixed network. This is
very common inhandheld PCs.
oSatellite connection
- The maximum carrying capacity of a line inan electronic communications network is known as
bandwidth.For digital devices, bandwidth is measured in bits or bytes persecond (bps); for analog
devices, in Hertz (cycles per second).Bandwidth determines the amount of data that can betransmitted
in a fixed amount of time and is often described asnarrow or broad, with broadband having greater
capacity. Duringperiods of peak use, it may also determine speed oftransmission, particularly for large
data files (graphics, audio,video, etc.) known as bandwidth hogs. On the Internet, the fiber-optic
backbone has highest bandwidth.59.2 Internet ConnectionThere are several ways on how to get
hooked in the Internet. Connect to theInternet is provided by any of the following.
• ISP (Internet Service Provider)
- This is a business that provides access tothe Internet, usually for a monthly fee. Some large
providers offer users awide range of news, information, and entertainment services
•Cable Television
- Also known as cable, this is a television system inwhich signals are sent to a central antenna and
then transmitted by cableto subscribers. Connection to an ISP can be through dial up, which uses
atelephone line to connect, or LAN (Local Area Network) in schools oroffices. Other channels that can
facilitate Internet connection are thefollowing.
•Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS)
- This is a simple connection to thepublic telephone system with no special features, as distinguished
from aprivate line or high-speed network connection. Dial-up connection to theInternet uses the POTS.
•DSL (Digital Subscriber Line)

244
- This is a high-speed telephone line that cansupply television, video, Internet access, and video
telephoning, oftenover standard copper wire. It has recently been introduced and is capableof
operating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most common format
•ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
- ISDN is an all-digital networkthat allows a whole host of services to be carried together on the
samecircuits. It can be regarded as an extension of the public switchedtelephone network, the key
similarity to that being that it permits any twocompatible pieces of connected equipment to talk to
each other. It cantransmit both voice and data messages.
•ADSL (Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line)
- This is a technology thatenables high-speed data to be carried between modems located at
thecustomer site and local telephone exchange via the twisted-pair copperlocal loop normally used for
telephone calls. It provides up to 512 kbpsdownstream and 128 kbps upstream.
•T1 and T3 (synonymous with DS7 and DS3 respectively)
- T1 is a termintroduced by AT&T to refer to a dedicated digital circuit provided by thetelephone
companies capable of transmitting data point-to-point at therate of 1.544 Mbps, containing 24
individual channels, each capable oftransmitting voice or data at the rate of 64 kbps. Individuals may
purchaseone of these channels in an arrangement known as fractional T1 access.Businesses and
academic institutions lease T1 lines to connect to theInternet and may also use them for local area
networks. The monthlycharge is usually determined by distance. T1 lines are also used byInternet
service providers to provide Internet access to individuals andsmall businesses. The Internet backbone
is constructed of higher-speedT3 lines. T3, also introduced by AT&T, is capable of transmitting
datapoint-to-point at the rate of 44.736 Mbps, used mainly by Internet serviceproviders to connect to
the Internet backbone and for the backbone itself. A T3 line contains 672 individual channels, each
capable of transmitting64 Kbps.
•Wi-Fi and WiMax
- Wi-Fi (wireless fidelity) is a technology that uses radiowaves to connect notebook computers and
personal digital assistants(PDAs) to the Internet without cables, at least within 200 meters to awireless
access point. Its higher version, called WiMax can reach as far asseveral kilometers.
•Satellite connection
- This connection is governed by an object put intoorbit around Earth or any other planet in order to
relay communications signals or transmit data. It has a very wide coverage.relative to othernetwork
connection media
.59.3 Modem A modem is a device that converts between analogue and digital signals. Digitalsignals,
which are used by computers, are made up of separate units representedby a series of 1s and 0s
(bits). Analogue signals vary continuously; an example ofan analogue signal is a sound wave. The
modem works by, and derives its namefrom, a process of modulating (the digital signal is used to vary
an analogue carriersignal) and demodulating (the variations in the analogue carrier signal
aretranslated into digital signals).Modems are most frequently used to enable computers to
communicate with eachother across telephone lines. For instance, a modem can be used with a
personalcomputer (PC) to connect to the Internet via an ISP. The service provider'spremises are
equipped with banks of modems so that many users can gainaccess. If each pair of modems transmit
data to each other simultaneously, themodems are operating in full duplex mode; if only one modem
can transmit at atime, the modems are operating in half-duplex mode.Modern modems are faster,
cheaper, and much more widely available. Speeds ofover 56 kbps can be achieved with commercial
modems over normal telephonelines, and can take the form of cards small enough to fit inside a PC.
Modems canuse coaxial cables to carry TV signals and high-speed Internet access.Modems using ISDN
lines or other forms of fast data transmission are capable ofeven higher speeds. A standard known as
PCMCIA (Personal Computer MemoryCard International Association) has evolved to cover internal
PC modems. PCMCIAtype 2 specifies a 5 mm card that can be plugged into a PC slot.Some modems
have become specialized in terms of function. For instance, one ofthe cards available for a PC is a
facsimile transmission (fax) modem that allows thePC to talk directly to fax machines and to send and
receive fax messages. High-speed modems have been developed that work at speeds of 2 Mbps. These
areused as components in leading-edge communications services and are not as yetcommercially
available.59.4 BroadbandBroadband is a communications channel that can support a wide range
offrequencies or data rates. A broadband connection can transfer information at arate of at least 2
Mbps. This is almost 40 times faster than a standard narrowband56 kbps modem connection. Some
broadband services can even offer 10 Mbpsconnection but, in practice, most transfer information at a
rate of around 512 kbpswhen downloading, and 128 kbps when uploading.There are a number of
options for providing broadband. All involve some sort oflink between an end user and a switch
connected to a wide area network (WAN).
245
•The simplest option is to install a dedicated link between the two andinstall suitable transmission
equipment at each end. This allows very high-speed operation but is usually expensive.
•A more affordable approach is to reuse existing telephone lines by addingtechnology that enhances
the rate at which information can be transferredover them. There are several ways in which this can
be achieved.
oISDN - This is widely available and allows connection speeds ofup to 128 kbps.
oDSL - This has recently been introduced and is capable ofoperating at up to 2 Mbps. In its most
common format,
oADSL - This provides up to 512 kbps downstream and 128 kbpsupstream. This means faster
download and slower download.
oEtherloop - This shares many characteristics of DSL but whichfollows the format of the ubiquitous
local area networktechnology, Ethernet. Its performance is a little better than DSL.Cable modems,
which are offered by cable providers for Internet access viaexisting cable television lines. Although
capable of connection speed up to 2Mbps, cable modems operate over shared media and are therefore
liable to slowdown when many users are active.The real attraction of broadband from a user's point of
view is that it provides truemultimedia (for example, voice, data, and video) without the delay that
anarrowband connection incurs.

Chapter 60 - Internet Communication

60.1 Internet Data Transmission: the IP AddressThe Internet is thought as a packet switching network.
Packet switching refers tothe transfer of information.When delivering information via the Internet, the
information is split packets, smallpieces of a message for transmission through a computer network.
When a packetis sent from one site to another (say for example, Microsoft Corporation to acomputer at
the UP-ILIS), it follows the following path.Microsoft

US

Philippines

UPD

ILIS

computer terminal

174Then all packets are totally transmitted to their final destination. they arereassembled. Data
packets are continuously being switched from the source to thedestination.Data delivery via Internet is
made possible because each connected computer(called an Internet host) is provided with a unique
Internet Protocol (IP) address.The IP address is separated by dots and is composed of four groups - for
example,198.105.232.1. The range of each group is from 0 to 255. The IP address is dividedinto two
parts - the network number and the host number.
•Example: The IP address for agronet.com is 198.70.185.3Network number - 198.70Host number -
185.3The process of transmitting a data packet from a source to the destination via aseries of
intermediate stations is called IP routing. IP routing works as follows.Each data packet is labeled with
the IP address of the destination host. Each datapacket can contain 1,500 bytes of data. If the data is
huge, it is disintegrated intosmall packets, each attached with a sequence number, which determines
whichportion of the data is in the packet. The disintegrated packets are rejoined oncethey are delivered
to their destination.60.2 TCP/IPTCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a set of
internationalstandards that enables different types of computers and networks on the Internetto
communicate with one another. TCP/IP was originally developed by the UnitedStates Department of
Defense for computers using the UNIX operating system, butit is now used by every computer,
regardless of operating system, on the Internet.TCP/IP is actually a duplex protocol. A protocol is a
collection of rules forformatting, ordering, and error-checking of data sent across a network.
TCPdefines how data are transferred across the Internet to their destination. It takescharge of breaking
up the data into packets and then the reassembly when thepackets reach their destination. IP defines
how data are divided into packets, andhow they are transmitted, determining the path each packet
takes betweencomputers. In other words, TCP places the messages in an envelope. IP would bein
charge of addressing the envelope and makes sure the package arrives itsproper destination.TCP/IP
246
was invented by Vinton Cerf and Robert Kahn. This has been used as astandard protocol for the
Internet. Its significance was the reason why Cerf,together with Kahn, is considered as the Father of
the Internet.60.3 Packet Retransmission and ChecksumsDuring the transmission process, it is possible
that a packet may be lost across theInternet. This may be caused by a link failure, or because the host
is down. If thedestination host has been waiting for a particular packet for a certain time (knownas
timeout), the destination host will request the source host to retransmit thepacket. There is no need to
retransmit all data packets. Instead, only the missingpacket (which is identified by the sequence
number) needs to be retransmitted.Even if a data packet is received by the destination successfully,
transmission errormay also occur. There is a method to detect possible transmission errors. At
thedestination, checksum is recalculated based on the received data. The attachedchecksum and the
newly recalculated checksum are compared. If there is amismatch, transmission error has
occurred.60.4 DNSFor obvious reasons, the IP address has become known as the "dot address" of
acomputer. Although very simple and effective for network operation, dot addressesare not very user-
friendly. For the convenience of users, names were given to eachcomputer in the Internet. The names
are known as DNS (Domain Name System).Like IP address, DNS is also a method of translating
Internet addresses so thatcomputers connected in the Internet can locate each other. A DNS
servertranslates a numerical IP address assigned to a computer (such as 123.456.78.90)into a
sequence of words, and vice versa. A DNS name, written in lowercase letters with words separated by
full stops, takesthe form of [username]@[hostname].[zone name] (for
example:president@whitehouse.gov). Username is the name or account number used to logon. The
hostname (whitehouse in the example above) is the name of the computeror Internet provider; it may
consist of several parts. Zone name indicates the typeof organization. Common zone names include:
•.com (commercial organization)
•.edu (educational)
•.gov (government)
•.co (company),
•.org (non-profit organizations)
•.net (networking organization)
•.info (informational sites)
•.biz (business
.name (for for individuals to register their name for a Web site or for an e-mail address)
•.museum (museum)
•.aero (aviation industry)
•.coop (business cooperatives such as credit unions)
•.pro (professionals such as accountants, lawyers, and physicians)one names such as .com are called
top level domain (TLD) names, Before 2001there were just three: .com, .net, and .org. Each country
was also allocated its owncountry code, such as .uk for the United Kingdom and .ph for the Philippines.
Withthe rapid expansion in Internet use the demand for generic domain namesexceeded initial
expectations. Accordingly, in October 2001 the introduction ofseven new TLDs was announced. As of
March 2002, all of these domain namesuffixes were operational, with the exception of .pro.60.5
URLThe URL (Uniform Resource Locator) is method of naming documents or places onthe Internet,
used most frequently on the World Wide Web (WWW). A URL is astring of characters that identifies the
type of document, the computer thedocument is on, the directories and subdirectories the document is
in, and thename of the document.For example, the URL of the Web page (a document on the WWW)
for the UnitedKingdom's "open government" initiative is . The part of the URL before the
colonrepresents the scheme, or format used to retrieve the document. The following areschemes that
can be found in URLs, together with their meaning.
•http - means the document is on the WWW.
•ftp - means that that document could be accessed through File TransferProtocol (FTP)
•gopher - indicates that the document is on a Gopher system (a menu-driven document delivery
system for retrieving information from theInternet)
•news - means that the document occurs on a Usenet newsgroup (a forumin which users can post
and respond to messages)
•telnet - indicates Telnet (an access method in which the user logs on to aremote computer)The next
part of the URL is called the hostname and represents the computer onwhich the document can be
found. The .gov.uk extension identifies the computeras belonging to the United Kingdom government.
Some other common extensionsare .com (commercial-also .co.uk in the United Kingdom; .co.fr in
France, etc.), .acand .edu (academic and education respectively-usually a college or
university). After the computer and host names come the path, or chain of directories, onwhich the
document is found; in this case, the only directory is services. The lastitem to be listed is the document
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name-in this case, standards.htm.URLs are case-sensitive, which means that uppercase and lowercase
letters areconsidered different letters, so a user has to enter a URL with all letters in thecorrect case.
URLs on the WWW are accessed with browsers, or computerprograms that can connect to the Internet
and display Web pages.

Chapter 61 - Internet Services

61.1 FTP and TelnetFTP (File Transfer Protocol) is a method of transferring files from one computer
toanother via the Internet and other networks. The protocol is a set of rules thatensures a file is
transmitted properly to the receiving computer. A computer thatstores files that can be retrieved using
FTP is called an FTP site or FTP server. FTPis part of the TCP/IP, the system that enables different
types of computers andnetworks on the Internet to communicate.Telnet is a protocol that enables a
user of one computer on the Internet to log onremotely to any other computer on the Internet,
provided the user has a passwordfor the distant computer or the distant computer provides publicly
available files.Telnet is also the name of a computer program that uses these rules to makeconnections
between computers on the Internet. Many computers that providelarge electronic databases, like
library catalogues, often allow users of Telnet in tosearch the databases. Many resources that were
once available only throughTelnet have now become available on the World Wide Web.61.2 E-Mail and
NewsgroupThe electronic mail or e-mail is a transmission of electronic messages betweencomputers
via a network. Millions of e-mails are exchanged every day-virtuallyevery business relies on it and
many people see it as their preferred method ofcommunication.For all its ubiquity and importance e-
mail is very simple and has humble roots. Ane-mail message is nothing more than a piece of text and
the sending of a mailmessage requires no more than the simple attachment of this text to a special
file,known as a mailbox. The first e-mail message was sent in 1971 by an engineernamed Ray
Tomlinson, one of the pioneers of the Internet.Practical e-mail systems have only a few, simple
components. At the user end is apiece of software known as an e-mail client. Examples of e-mail
clients are:
•MS Outlook
•Eudora
•PegasusThe client allows the user to create mail messages, to view the contents of themailbox, and to
read incoming mail. At the other end from the client is the e-mail server. This is a
computer, typicallyone provided by an ISP that is dialed up when messages are sent and received.

The server has a list of e-mail accounts, each of which has a text file where all ofthe messages for that
account are stored.Despite the fact that e-mail only works for text, a variety of file types (for
instance,images, sounds, spreadsheets, and so on) can be attached. An e-mail thatcontains these is
known to have an attached file. A program called uuencode turnsall attachments into text so that they
can be transmitted across a network. Whenthe message which could be some words plus
an attachment rendered into text byuuencode is received, the client invokes uudecode to restore the
original. A newsgroup is a topic-specific forum where people can post questions, news,and comments,
or read and respond to such postings left by other users on theInternet and other networks. Most
publicly available newsgroups are Usenetnewsgroups, so-called because they use software originally
designed for creating,managing, and distributing discussion areas on a network called Usenet.61.3
World Wide WebThe World Wide Web (WWW) is a library of resources available to computer
usersthrough the global Internet. It enables users to view a wide variety of information,including
magazine archives, public and college library resources, and currentworld and business news.WWW
resources are organized so that users can easily move from one resource toanother. The connections
to different source computers, or servers, on the networkare made automatically without being seen
by the user. These connections aremade with the use of hypertext (system of storing images, text, and
other computerfiles that allows direct links to related text, images, sound, and other data)
andhypermedia (a hypertext system that supports the linking of graphics, audio andvideo elements,
and text).Users generally navigate through information on the WWW with the aid of aprogram known
as a WWW browser, or client. The browser presents text, images,sound, or other information objects
on the user's computer screen in the form of apage, which is obtained from a WWW server. The user
can navigate throughinformation by pointing to specially designated text or other objects on the
screen.These objects link the user to other WWW pages on the same server or on anyother accessible
WWW server on the network. The WWW links exist across theglobal Internet, forming a large-scale,
distributed, multimedia knowledge basethrough related words, phrases, and images. Smaller-scale
implementations arepresent on the enterprise internets used by businesses. These
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implementations,known as intranets host private data and applications and can be protected
frompublic access through a device known as a "firewall".WWW pages are formatted using HTML, and
WWW communication amongcomputers uses the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), or Wireless
AccessProtocol (WAP) for mobile phones. This communication is usually through theInternet via
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connections, but almost any kindof connection can be used.The
further development of the WWW is guided by the WWW Consortium based atMassachusetts Institute
of Technology. Current concerns include the efficiency ofsearch engines, the security of transactions
and privacy of users, as well aspreventing Internet piracy. The main prospect for WWW is its
development to forma basis for electronic business. Many applications have been developed to
addpayment, reservation, and other interactive facilities to WWW pages.61.4 Gopher, Ethernet, and
ExtranetGopher is system that enables computer users to find servers and files on theInternet.
Developed at the University of Minnesota in 1991, Gopher presentsmenus and submenus that users
can select to specify their searches. Each Gopherserver contains menus for local servers and files and
is linked to other Gopherservers; its menus change as the resources available to the system change.
Thereare hundreds of Gopher servers around the world. The system of all Gopherservers is
called Gopherspace.Ethernet is a local area network (LAN) system developed by the Xerox
corporationin 1976, originally for linking minicomputers at the Palo Alto Research Center. Awidely
implemented network from which computer industry standards for networkswere developed, Ethernet
uses a bus configuration and relies on the form ofaccess known as CSMA/CD to regulate traffic on the
main communication line.Network nodes are connected by coaxial cable (in either of two varieties,
known asthin and thick) or by twisted-pair wiring. Information on an Ethernet network is sentin
variable-length frames containing delivery and control information plus up to1,500 bytes of data. The
original Ethernet standard provides for basebandtransmission at 10 Mbps.Extranet is an extension of
the intranet of a company or organization. An extranetgives authorized outsiders, for example
customers, suppliers, or business partners,controlled access to parts of the intranet
Chapter 62 - World Wide Web Services
62.1 Web Directories and Search Engines A web directory or a web guide is an internet service which
features a hierarchicalrepresentation of hyperlinks. The top level is typically wide range of very
generaltopics. Each topic contains hyperlinks of more specializes subtopics. Web directories are very
easy to use in locating a particular information under a pre-determined subject. Popular web
directories include:
•AOL Anywhere ()
•CNET Search.com ()
•Excite ()
•E-Wild Life ()
•Lycos ()
•Yahoo! ()
•Google ()
A search engine is a computer software that compiles lists of documents, mostcommonly those on the
World Wide Web (WWW), and the contents of thosedocuments. Search engines respond to a user
entry, or query, by searching thelists and displaying a list of documents (called Web sites when on the
WWW) thatmatch the search query. Some search engines include the opening portion of thetext of
Web pages in their lists, but others include only the titles or addresses(URLs) of Web pages. Some
search engines occur separately from the WWW,indexing documents on a local area network or other
system. The major globalgeneral-purpose search engines include
•AOL Anywhere ()
•Google ()
•Yahoo! ()
•MSN Search ()
• AltaVista ()
•Lycos ()
•HotBot ()
•Magellan ()Some web directories are also feature search engines or vice versa, just likeGoogle and
Yahoo!. Yahoo! is one of the first available search engines. It differsfrom most other search sites
because the content and listings are manuallycompiled and organized by subject into a directory. By
the end of 2001, Googlewas ranked the most comprehensive search engine available, with 1.5 billion
pagesindexed, recording 150 million searches per day62.2 Metasearch Engines A metasearch engine
or all-in-one search engine is a Web-information-search toolthat performs like a typical search engine,
only that it performs by using more thanone other search engines to complete the search job. A
metasearch engine is moreeffective than a typical search engine because of its unique features.
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•It eliminates duplicate search results.
•The search results are raned according to their relevance or how well theymatch with the query given.
•It can access a lot of search engines, which opens a broader pool ofpossible
hits. Although a metasearch engine may offer these benefits, it also has itsdisadvantage. It has a high
noise to signal ratio; meaning, a lot of matches will notbe suitable. Examples of metasearch engines
are:
•Metasearch ()
•Metacrawler ()
•MetaFind ().62.3 White Pages and Yellow PagesWhite pages are Web services that allow a user to look
up for information aboutindividuals. Just like the white pages of the telephone directory, they can be
usedto track down the telephone numbers, e-mail addresses, and other personal dataof particular
persons.Not all people wish to be included in white pages. Some think that they are a formof invasion
to their privacy. Some people can abuse white pages. However, theyactually serve a good purpose. It
is possible to contact a long-lost person throughwhite pages, if ever they are entered in this service.
Popular white pages are:
•Bigfoot ()
•Yahoo! People Search ()
•Yahoo ()
•WhoWhere ()If a telephone directory has yellow pages, same is true for the Web. Web yellowpages,
just like the yellow pages in the telephone directory contain informationabout business. They usually
serve as portals to Web sites maintained bybusinesses. Otherwise, they provide basic contact
information of businesses.
•Yahoo! Yellow Page ()
•SuperPages ()
•e-Tello Pages ()

Chapter 63 – Internet Searching and the E-Mail

63.1 Search FundamentalsWeb directories, search engines, and metasearch engine are the most
popularsearch tools that can be used to locate information in the Internet. However, theymight not be
as effectively as possible. There is an overwhelming amount ofinformation online, but not all can be
easily accessed because some are notcompletely accurate. Aside from this, some may be available for
only a short spanof time, owing to some reasons like constantly changing Web addresses and
theincapacity of some groups to maintain their sites for longer periods.

In using Web information-search tools, the user must first be familiar with at leastthe basic features of
each of these tools. Some of these features include thefollowing.
•Header - This is where the logo of the web directory, search engine, orwhatever site which permits
information search appears. Frequently, italso includes some advertisements.
•Information bar - This contains series of hyperlinks to other related sites,like for some instances, other
services offered by the site (e.g.newsgroups, e-mail, online store, auction, etc.).
•Search form area - This is a box where the user enters the search query. Itis usually attached with
a command button that executes the search job.
•Directory area - This is the main feature of web directories, which presenthyperlinks of a large number
of broad and narrow subjects/categories thatare portals to related sites.
•Links - This is usually similar to the information bar, which also presentlinks to related sites.
•Footer - This contains some information about the site, includingcopyright, author of the site,
disclaimer, etc.63.2 QueriesBasically, a query is a question that seeks information. The query asks the
Websearch tool and also in other similar non-Internet-based tools what information isneeded by the
searcher.The construction of a valid query or syntax is very important to yield the desiredhit(s) or
match(es) (URL(s) that the search engine returns for a specific query). Themeaning of a query (known
as search semantics) is another important thing that theuser must consider in constructing queries. A
relevancy score (a value thatindicates the quality a the hit/match) is sometimes indicated in the search
outputs. Anybody who whishes to locate any information through Web search tools mayconsider using
either a pattern matching query or a Boolean query.1.

Pattern search query


- This is also known as a fuzzy query. Such query cantake any of the following forms.
•ungrammatical sentence
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•incomplete sentence
•disjoint phrases
•nonsense wordsFrom this type of query, the search engine tries to extract a collection of
keywords,which are then matched to possible hits. This query may use the plus sign (+) forrequired
keywords and the minus sign (-) for prohibited keywords. The "+" and "-"are placed before their
respective keywords.2.

Boolean query
- This consists of keywords and logical operators (AND, OR,NOT, and NEAR). Boolean queries wok in
ways similar to the followingillustrations.
•A AND B (A & B) - This will return URLs that contain both A and B.
•A OR B (A | B) - This will return URLs that contain either A or B.
•A NOT B (A ! B) - This will return URLs that contain A but do not containB.
•A NEAR B (A ~ B) - This will return URLs that contain A that is related toB.63.3 Search StrategiesIn
order to increase the chances to getting accurate hits in searching, find a searchtool (specially a search
engine) that meets the following conditions.
•It has a user-friendly interface.
•It has a documentation that is easy to understand.
•It is convenient to access.
•It has a large indexed database.
•it is good in assigning relevance scores.If there are few or even no exact hits match the query, the
query might need to begeneralized. For pattern matching queries, eliminate and change one of the
morespecific keywords to a more generic keyword. For Boolean, queries, removekeywords with AND
operator, or even keywords with operator NOT. If there is stillno desired URL match the modified
query, try using a directory or a metasearchengine.If the query returns too many hits, there is a need
to specialize the query. Forpattern nmatching queries, add more keywords, or use the "-" for
prohibitedkeywords. For Boolean queries, use the AND operator with other keywords, or addNOT to
exclude some unwanted keywords. Try capitalizing proper nouns andnames, or use proper
capitalization as necessary. A directory yields a more specificreturn for this case.In doing a Web
information search, the following tips will help.
•Be natural. For example, if you wish to find information on whether cellphones are harmful, you may
query the search engine with "cell phone AND harmful".
•It is advisable to always type queries in the lower case. At some specificinstances, use appropriate
capitalization. .
•Think of uncommon but valid keywords. The use of uncommon keywordswill yield the more specific
results.
•For a required keyword, add "+" before the keyword. The keyword will bereturned in every match. To
eliminate unwanted words from the returns,add "-" before the keyword.
•Beware of the differences in spelling (e.g. American and English spellings).Use the OR operator for
such instances (e.g. color OR colour).
•Ignore the use of stop words like the, is, of, etc. These are ignored by thesearch engine, unless the
search engine features an advanced searchoption which can accommodate these stop words. Add more
relevantkeywords as long as necessary.
•The use of wildcards also helps. An example of a wildcard is theasterisk(*). For example, the query
"funk* " will return funk, funky, andfunkies.
•It is a normal occurrence to obtain a dead link. For example, if the URLrefers to a dead link, try or
.63.4 Search Mechanisms in Search EnginesThe search engine is very complex. In order to understand
how it works, it needs tobe broken down into its different components and examine the mechanism
ofeach.
•User interface
- This provides a mechanism for a user to submit a query tothe search engine. It uses a search form.
It is user-friendly since it is quiteeasy to use - just type in the query, press the search button and
thesearch results are displayed in a very convenient fashion. A summary ofeach hit is also included.
•Searcher
- This is a program that uses the search engine's database(which holds an extremely large number of
indexed Web pages) to locatethe matches for a specific query. Ahighly efficient search algorithm
isnecessary. The searching and sorting methods of a search engine wasdeveloped by computer
scientists for years.
•Evaluator

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- Not all hits returned after generating the search are exactlyrelevant to the query. Search engines
rank the returns according to theirrelevance score. A more relevant hit is given a higher rank and is
usuallydisplayed before other less relevant hits. The calculation of the relevancescore varies with
different search engines. This depends on any of thefollowing.
othe number of ties the word appears
othe query words that appear in the title
othe query words that appear in the META tag (special keywordsembedded in the header of the Web
page)
•Gatherer
- This is also known in any of these names - bot, crawler, robot,spider, and worm. This is a program
that traverses the Web and gathersinformation about Web documents. It runs at short and regular
intervals. Itreturns information that will be indexed by the database.
•Indexer
- This organizes the data by creating a set of keys or an index.Indexes need to be rebuilt frequently in
order to ensure that the URLreturns are not out-of-date. Some search engines use full-text
indexes(every word on every page is included during searching).63.5 The E-Mail and Personal
Online NetworksThe e-mail has already become one of the most popular means of long-
distancecommunication in addition to the telephone, fax, and the post. The following tablegives the
functionality of e-mail over the telephone and the post.Just like the ordinary post, the e-mail also use
an address to have the messagedelivered to its intended destination, known as the e-mail address It
has twocomponents - the user name and the domain/host name. These are separated bythe at sign
("@"). The user name may take the real name of the user or otherfictitious name he/she wishes to
use. The domain name is indicates the serverwhich handles the user's electronic mailbox (a disk file
which stores e-mailmessages). The e-mail address is in the form .
•Example: User name: allan.quiambaoDomain name: up.edu.phThe handling of e-mail is managed
either by an e-mail client or an e-mail server.The e-mail client is a software or program that can only
transfer e-mail for a localhost to another e-mail server, which does not only receive but also transfers
e-mail. Another popular method by which users obtain their e-mail is called a central mailspool. This
allows the simultaneous access of the contents of a particular mailboxby several users. This is possible
through the IMAP (Interactive Mail AccessProtocol). IMAP also encrypts passwords so that the others
who try to sniff in thenetwork cannot directly obtain the passwords. A special kind of e-mail, known as
a POP mail is also used nowadays. With POPmail, the user does not have to know the name or address
of the receiver. A POPmail server installed on a computer automatically runs whenever the computer
isturned on. The POP mail facilitates a graphical interface in accessing the e-mail.Once an e-mail is
received in the computer, it is popped in the computer monitor.E-mail clients can either be Web-based
or non-Web-based (HTTP-based). Web-based e-mail servers deliver e-mails in web pages when the
user accesses his/her account in the e-mail server' Web site. A particular example is Yahoo! Mail.
Manystill view POP and IMAP mail more reliable than HTTP mail.One key feature of the e-mail is its
ability to include an attached file (or simplyattachments). The protocol responsible for this is the MIME
(Multi-purpose InternetMail Extension). MIME is a protocol that transmits non-text information across
theInternet. It is a specification that automatically for automatically sending objectsother than text in
e-mail messages. MIME is usually associated with multimedia(e.g. images, audio, and video). Basically,
MIME converts non-ASCII data to ASCIIdata for transmission. The data is reconverted back to its
original form when itreaches the receiver. Additional hardware and helper software is required
forMIME. Almost all e-mail clients and servers nowadays are MIME compliant.There are two protocols
that govern how real e-mail systems work. The first isSMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), which is
used to determine how to route themessage through the Internet and then send the message. The
other is POP3 (PostOffice Protocol), which handles incoming mail, simply appending incomingmessages
to a user's file. The POP3 server holds the message until the recipientretrieves the e-mail in his/her
mailbox. There are several problems that arise in thee-mail.
•Bouncing mails
- There are some instances when a mail sent is notsuccessfully sent. Usually, a notification e-mail
confirms this occurrence.There are several possible reasons why this happens.
oThe address us badly encoded (either the user name, domainname, or both).
oThe domain name server is down for quite some time.
oSome other malfunctions which may be caused by too large filesto transmit or other reasons may also
fail the sending of themessage.
•E-mail viruses

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- E-mails are often the medium of transmission of viruses incomputer networks. They are bound to e-
mail messages as attachments.On May 24, 1999, a virus, named Melissa virus, spread over the
Internetas an RTF file attachment to e-mails. 100,000 hosts in 300 organizationswere affected. It was
reported that within 45 minutes, 32,000 copies of theinfected e-mail was distributed. This virus is not a
worm. It requires userinteraction in order to propagate. The name of the virus was derived afterthe
anti-virus software vendor which was able to eliminate the virus.
•Spamming
- Spam refers to unsolicited often commercial messagetransmitted through the Internet as a mass
mailing to a large number ofrecipients. They get into a user's mailbox because their sender was ableto
obtain the user's e-mail address from
oname cards, letter heads, published papers
osearch engine in online bulletin boards, newsgroups, directories,and similar sources
odumping of full user list in a serverThe intrusion of spam in mailboxes is solved by filtering e-mail
messages. Filteringis already nowadays a feature embedded in e-mail clients and servers. Spam
isreally a problem because
•they are usually fraudulent (they are not really advertisements and areintended toi pull the wool over
the reader's eyes)
•they are wasting other's resources ("stealing" of bandwidth
•the displace the normal e-mail (they actually destroy the usefulness andeffectiveness of the e-mail)
•they violate cyber ethicsThere are several considerations that one has to take in constructing an e-
mailmessage Internet etiquette (Netiquette) must be observed, not only in composinge-mail but also
in participating in discussion boards and newsgroups. Basically, theetiquette observed in writing a post
mail applies in constructing an e-mailmessage.
•Use uppercase text with caution. Note that UPPERCASE LETTERS YELL AT PEOPLE.
•Never leave the subject line blank. Indicate a proper subject for the e-mail.
•Include your e-mail address in the body, particularly in the signature part.
•Avoid sending flames (abusive insulting messages).
•Use emoticons, abbreviations, and acronyms.There are some instances when a mail sent is not
successfully sent. Usually, anotification e-mail confirms this occurrence. There are several possible
reasonswhy this happens.
•The address us badly encoded (either the user name, domain name, orboth).
•The domain name server is down for quite some time.
•Some other malfunctions which may be caused by too large files totransmit or other reasons may
also fail the sending of the message.

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