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To cite this article: Rosa Colomina & Ana Remesal (2015) Social presence and virtual
collaborative learning processes in higher education / Presencia social y procesos de aprendizaje
colaborativo virtual en educación superior, Infancia y Aprendizaje, 38:3, 647-680, DOI:
10.1080/02103702.2015.1054664
Universidad de Barcelona
(Received 27 November 2013; accepted 12 November 2014)
belonging that they identified as community, promoting trust that all perspectives
would be accepted (Conrad, 2005). Thus, the participants could develop a critical
discourse and argument that allowed them to learn (Lock & Redmond, 2009).
Therefore, some studies urged teachers to encourage a higher level of SP in both
the design and the development of online courses in higher education (Richardson
& Swan, 2003; Rovai, 2002). SP was considered to be an instrument for con-
structing a community that would, in turn, offer better opportunities for joint
discussion and, ultimately, for learning.
In the second place, studies on SP have proposed different categorizations in
their attempt to try and capture how participants perceived interpersonal connec-
tion with ‘other virtual’ ones. Communication among participants in collaborative
work was not created for exchanging feelings and emotions or for generating
cohesion per se. This exchange was produced in the context of a task’s joint
execution and was conceived of as a requirement for constructing (or maintaining)
a community and for achieving success in learning. These considerations were
reflected, for example, in a reference categorization on SP research that gathered
together emotional, affective or personal communication (permitting the expres-
sion of emotions), open communication, (supporting trust in taking the risk of
expressing oneself freely) and communication favouring group cohesion and
collaboration (which encouraged involvement of group members) (Garrison &
Anderson, 2003; Rourke et al., 1999). These dimensions showed how the analysis
of the group members’ interventions, far from being neutral, focused on the
support that emotional expression offered for creating a sense of community
and belonging that was considered, as we saw above, a requirement for construct-
ing shared knowledge.
In the third place, the CoI model enabled a further step into the conceptualiza-
tion of SP by analysing how it interacted with cognitive presence (CP) and teacher
presence (TP) in order to give an account of the educational experience as a whole
(Garrison et al., 2010; Marcelo & Perera, 2007) (see Figure 1).
According to Lock and Redmond (2009), collaborative knowledge construc-
tion was located in the convergence of the three ‘presences’ (TP, CP and SP).
Within this set, SP was responsible for ‘creating and maintaining a climate’ for
sustaining learning during the task’s development (product of its interaction with
Teacher Presence), and responsible for ‘supporting the participation of each one of
the students’ in the use of a reflexive discourse that would prove pivotal for their
learning (product of its interaction with Cognitive Presence). So, in addition to the
sense of community and of belonging, SP functioned by supporting the creation
of a climate that was of benefit to everyone’s learning, and the participation of all
the group members.
In spite of these contributions, we continue to be far from providing a clear
explanation of the processes in which SP acts as a learning mediator. However,
interest in this theme has brought about a number of important studies that have
agreed upon the need to improve conceptual accuracy regarding SP and the
elements that form it, so that these components and their relationships can be
650 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
Community of inquiry
Support the
Social discourse Cognitive
presence presence
Educational
Experience
Create the
environment Select the
content
Teacher presence
(Structure/Process)
Communication
Medium
Figure 1. Model of the three elements that intervene in an educational situation accord-
ing to Rourke et al. (1999).
more rigorously operationalized (Kreijns, Van Acker, Vermeulen, & Van Buuren,
2014). This would also permit an increase in the empirical research’s clarity
regarding the relationship between SP and learning that has been addressed thus
far, mainly through measurements of students’ perceived learning and satisfaction
(Richardson & Swan, 2003). Our proposals are directed towards what we believe
to be an urgent line of research. Our approach to SP grounds on two options. The
first option consisted of choosing some of the processes that have been considered
in the literature to be learning mediators through which the creation of community
and the participation of all of the students can be propelled. Further into the article
it will be argued that these processes are ‘group cohesion’ and ‘self-competence’.
The second option was to more systematically include SP directly linked with the
students’ reactions before the task. We were not interested in SP ‘outside’ of the
task, but in how the participants felt, or how they felt within the group during the
joint work. Some current studies are advancing in this respect, for example, by
integrating into the analysis the relationship that SP has with the task’s disciplin-
ary content (Gorsky, Caspi, Antonovsky, Blau, & Mansur, 2010). This study
prioritized two of the task’s elements in the theoretical and operational treatment
Social presence and collaborative learning / Presencia social y aprendizaje colaborativo 651
of SP: the task’s collaborative character, from a perspective that stressed indivi-
dual responsibility in group work, and the task’s evolving character, from a
perspective highlighting the temporal dimension of the learning and teaching
situations. Regarding the collaborative character, the best results for collaborative
learning were obtained when the objectives and/or rewards depended on the
individual learning of all the members. This increased interest in helping and
mutually encouraging each other in the efforts that had to be made and in over-
coming difficulties. Maintaining the group should be added to this individual
motivation, which reverts back to group cohesion (Slavin, 2014). From these
contributions, the participants’ expressions referring to themselves and to others
were looked at during the analysis of SP, as well as those expressions referring to
one’s own performance of the task and to the performance of others. Regarding
the task’s evolving character, the participants’ performance in a teaching and
learning process required an analysis of their involvement over the course of the
entire task in order to interpret its meaning within the framework of the temporal
dimension in which it took place (Coll, 2001). Likewise, SP understanding would
require including the point in the process in which the understanding was pro-
duced as well as analysing its evolution over the course of the task.
In accordance with these proposals, this approach ultimately suggested identi-
fying and analysing certain affective, motivational and relational elements con-
veyed through SP that were linked with supporting the task’s progress throughout
the joint activity (Colomina, Rochera, Naranjo, Remesal, & Mayordomo, 2007).
Consistent with this objective, SP was understood as the set of affective, motiva-
tional and/or relational expressions that appeared in participants’ discourse regard-
ing their own participation and that of others in the development of a task and that
supported the construction of a learning community (Remesal & Colomina,
2013). It was a constructive and dynamic process that created the work group
itself and was the product of the individual contributions of its members in and for
the completion of the joint task.
This interpretation of SP, necessarily partial, focused on two processes: one
of a more motivational nature, which is the attribution of self-competence, and
the other of a social nature, or interventions supporting group cohesion. Self-
competence referred to the participant’s perception regarding competence on the
basis of the relationship that they established, explicitly or implicitly, among
their personal characteristics or circumstances (or the groups) and their repre-
sentation in the task’s requirements. Self-competence, although it was personal
and individual, did not only refer to a particular student’s behaviour. Feeling
competent arose from the subjective assessment of the concrete task’s character-
istics and from the degree in which this involved a manageable challenge,
including any possible help given and one’s own skills for resolving it. The
dynamic character of self-competence, which was updated and validated in light
of each joint activity, was evident: involving the student (with his/her knowl-
edge) as well as teachers and classmates (as sources of support) and the task
(with its conditions).
652 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
collective efficacy was influenced by the task cohesion already developed by the
group in previous tasks (Wang & Hwang, 2012).
Method
An exploratory case study was performed by means of an interpretive and
qualitative case analysis (Flick, 2002; Yin, 2009).
Data analysis
Following the criteria of the chosen qualitative methodology, a content analysis of
the discourse was carried out, according to the categories developed. Brief
definitions of these categories and discourse examples are given in Table 1.
Table 1. (Continued ).
Example: ‘This work will be brilliant for us!!! I think that what Eva suggests is very
important and that it brings back a very good idea that we have already talked about
. . . this is perfect’.
Group competence before a challenge (GS2)
The participant expresses group competence, satisfaction with the group’s performance of
the task or expresses positive expectations in that regard, considering the task to be a
manageable challenge for the group (either because of its conditions or other factors:
technological aspects, external circumstances . . .).
Example: ‘Well done. It seemed as if we were not going to be able to do it, but look where
we are now. One more push this weekend and we will finish it off’.
Lack of group competence (GS3)
The participant expresses a lack of group confidence or lack of satisfaction with the
group’s performance of the task, or with the task’s performance expectations and
results.
Example: ‘if we do not do something now, I don’t know if we will be able to fix this
disaster. . . ’
Dimension 4. Expressions of belonging to the community (BC)
Group identity (BC1)
The participant makes references that identify the group as a collective, contributing to
creating/maintaining its identity.
Example: ‘Pink Team, we are on fire, hooray PANTHERS!!’
Maintaining the social relationship (BC2)
The participant makes references to continuity and support of the social interaction,
contributing to maintaining the stability of the group relationship.
Example: ‘I love being able to connect and meet you online, but before anything else . . .
What are you doing sitting in front of the computer on a Barça match day??? Ha, ha,
ha . . . (. . .) Let’s continue tomorrow, OK??’
Group and peer assessment (BC3)
The participant expresses positive feelings and satisfaction in relation to the group as a
community, over forming part of the group, and of gratitude for the mutual support.
Example: ‘(. . .) before saying goodbye, I wanted to say that we are a good team . . . let’s
see if we can do it again (. . .)’.
We used Atlas.ti (version 6) for coding the data. Qualitative and quantitative
procedures were combined and applied during the analysis in order to meet
reliability criteria. We used a previously agreed upon version of the categorization
protocol for coding 30% of the data and for contrasting the coding, enabling the
process of redefining the categories’ application criteria. An agreement of 98%
was reached. In the cases with an unresolved disagreement, a third-party inde-
pendent judge was required.
An analysis of frequencies was performed for each one of the categories, coin-
ciding with a large part of the research on SP (Rourke et al., 1999) even though the
global interpretation of the results complied with the convergence of distinct indica-
tors, which is typical of interpretive and qualitative studies of an exploratory nature.
Results
A first set of comprehensive results showed that the number of contributions from
the groups during the task was notably higher in group A, with more than twice
the number of contributions using SP than group B (see Table 2).
Looking more closely at the different SP dimensions, it was observed that both
groups gave greater specific weight to dimensions 2 and 4, pertaining to partici-
pation and belonging. We related this to the construction of group cohesion (see
Tables 3 and 4).
Regarding ‘belonging to a community’, both groups coincided in having a
high score in ‘maintenance of social relationship’, while expressions regarding the
creation of ‘group identity’ also predominated in group A.
A second set of results referred to the temporal analysis performed for captur-
ing SP development indicators from the groups. Dividing the task into the two
previously identified stages proved to be effective: stage 1, from the beginning of
the task up until end of the school term (four weeks); and stage 2, from the end of
the school calendar up to the essay’s submission date (two weeks) (Table 5).
Social presence from group A was mostly concentrated in the first stage. SP in
the second stage was maintained by two participants (A1 and A8) who continued
intervening in relation to the four dimensions, although to a lesser degree than
before. Supporting participation decreased in the second stage, whereas individual
self-competence prevailed. This could partly explain the two participants’ need to
reinforce motivation to succeed in concluding the task. This group developed the
discussion and basic contributions regarding the task in the first stage and took
care of finishing and reviewing the product in the second stage (Table 6).
There was no clear prevalence of SP in group B in either one of the two stages,
although considering the time given for each stage (with the second stage having only
half the amount of time as the first), there was a higher relative frequency of SP in the
second. Two students (B3 and B7) essentially maintained SP in both of the stages.
In summary, the principal differences between the two groups concerned the
dimensions regarding self-competence. Group A had double the percentage of
group B in its group self-competence expressions; group B came close to tripling
group A’s individual self-competence expressions. The data from each dimen-
sion’s specific categories showed that group A distributed its SP expressions
among three categories and group B basically focused on one of them. This set
of results pointed to the interpretation that both groups prioritized social cohesion
(although identity was important for group A, but not for group B). The principal
difference between the groups resided in the role of self-competence in the task.
The combination of these indicators displayed certain group characteristics:
A third data set allowed the relationship between the analysis of the proposed
social presence and another learning indicator to be immediately explored. To do
this, learning results evaluated by the professor were used. These were the marks
Table 5. SP percentages for each student by categories and stages. Group A.
Individual self-competence Positioning on participation Group self-competence Belonging to a community
(IS) (PP) (GS) (BC)
Stages Students 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Stage 1 A1 33.33 10 28.57 18.75 31.58 10.53 21.05 7.692 16.13 22.08 22.22
A8 100 10 28.57 31.25 21.05 21.05 5.263 38.46 16.13 25.97 22.22
A12 40 7.143 12.5 10.53 5.263 15.79 3.226 1.299
A13 50 10 23.81 25 26.32 47.37 26.32 23.08 35.48 25.97 33.33
Stage 2 A1 20 4.762 6.25 5.263 10.53 7.692 12.9 10.39
A8 16.67 10 7.143 5.263 5.263 15.79 7.692 6.452 10.39 11.11
A12
A13 5.263 5.263 5.263 15.38 9.677 3.896 11.11
Social presence and collaborative learning / Presencia social y aprendizaje colaborativo
659
660 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
Conclusions
The concept of SP displays the need to address affective, motivational and
relational processes for elaborating a comprehensive explanation of collaborative
learning in virtual environments. The fragmentation of theoretical and
Social presence and collaborative learning / Presencia social y aprendizaje colaborativo 661
methodological proposals regarding SP have led some authors to point out the
urgency to ‘revisit’ the concept of SP and to further explore its methodological
concretion (Kreijns et al., 2014).
This study offers three contributions in this direction. In the first place, the
proposed definition of SP focuses on socio-affective expressions exclusively
related to the task’s performance. This delimits its study to relevant dimensions,
group cohesion in this case, and also increases the theoretical-methodological
coherence of the proposal. This study supports results from other research
concerning the crucial role of group cohesion that can be mediated through
SP. At the same time, it provides an operationalization proposal for the notions
of task cohesion and social cohesion (which are used in very disparate ways in
the literature on SP). Furthermore, the study incorporates self-competence
before a task into the analysis of SP, as a motivational component that inter-
venes in virtual learning. In the second place, and unlike previous studies, the
definition of SP that we propose includes the evolution of SP over the course
of the whole task. This approach has permitted us to show, in the studied case,
the use that participants make of SP depending on whether the task also
interests them as a process (related to an intrinsic motivation) or only as a
result (related to an extrinsic motivation) and of the degree in which they feel
involved and identify with their group during the whole process. And finally,
despite the exploratory nature of the study, our approach maintains consistency
among the theoretical and methodological proposals, thus contributing to over-
coming the succession of barely articulated categories and indicators that
characterize many of the studies on SP.
Some of the study’s limitations point to new challenges in understanding
how SP can support learning. On the one hand, the proposal regarding dimen-
sions in their current version is closely related to collaborative tasks, in such a
way that it must be revised in order for it to be useful in the analysis of SP in
tasks of another nature. Therefore, it would be interesting to study SP from the
same participants involved in different types of tasks (individual vs group;
debate vs collaborative work), to identify regularities in their behaviour for
establishing SP profiles (Strijbos & Weinberger, 2010), and to develop instru-
ments with theoretical-methodological coherence for analysing SP (Agut, Peris,
Grandío, & Lozano, 2011). To conclude on a very important note, the absence
of SP from the professor in our empirical data has not permitted us to study
how a professor uses SP and how he/she encourages it among students. This is,
without a doubt, a crucial question for a comprehensive view on how SP
mediates learning (Kim, Kwon, & Cho, 2011).
662 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
Figura 1. Modelo los tres elementos que intervienen en una situación educative según
Rourke et al. (1999).
participantes que se refieran a uno mismo y a los otros, así como a las que se
refieran al propio desempeño en la tarea y al de los demás. En cuanto al carácter
procesual de la tarea, la actuación de los participantes en un proceso de enseñanza
y aprendizaje precisa del análisis de su intervención a lo largo de toda la tarea
para interpretar su significado en el marco de la dimensión temporal en el que
tiene lugar (Coll, 2001). Del mismo modo, la comprensión de la PS exigiría
incluir en su interpretación el momento del proceso en el que se produce así
como analizar su evolución a lo largo de toda la tarea.
De acuerdo con estos planteamientos, en definitiva, esta aproximación se
propone identificar y analizar algunos elementos afectivos, motivacionales y
relacionales vehiculados a través de la PS que se vinculan con el apoyo al
progreso de la tarea a lo largo de la actividad conjunta (Colomina, Rochera,
Naranjo, Remesal, & Mayordomo, 2007). En coherencia con este objetivo se
entiende la PS como el conjunto de expresiones afectivas, motivacionales y/o
relacionales que aparecen en el discurso de los participantes sobre la propia
participación y la de los otros en el desarrollo de la tarea y que apoyan la
construcción de una comunidad de aprendizaje (Remesal & Colomina, 2013).
Se trata de un proceso constructivo y dinámico que crea el propio grupo de
trabajo, y que es producto de las aportaciones individuales de sus miembros en
y para la realización de la tarea conjunta.
666 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
Método
Mediante una metodología interpretativa y cualitativa de análisis de casos (Flick,
2002; Yin, 2009) se realizó un estudio de caso con carácter exploratorio.
Social presence and collaborative learning / Presencia social y aprendizaje colaborativo 669
Contexto y participantes
En el estudio participaron 17 estudiantes universitarios de primer curso de magis-
terio, agrupados en cuatro grupos (de cuatro miembros) y su profesora, aunque en
este trabajo se analizan exclusivamente los datos de dos grupos (A y B). Los
estudiantes elaboraron en grupo un ensayo argumentativo de análisis de situa-
ciones de aula usando el foro de la plataforma virtual Moodle para comunicarse y
compartir el proceso de redacción del texto. Los estudiantes dispusieron de un
total de seis semanas para realizar la tarea: en las cuatro primeras semanas podían,
si lo deseaban, consultar a la profesora. En las dos semanas restantes, fuera del
periodo docente y hasta la fecha máxima de entrega del trabajo, los grupos
siguieron interactuando para terminar el documento.
Se recogieron, mediante registro tecnológico de la plataforma, todas las con-
tribuciones de los estudiantes al foro de grupo realizadas durante la tarea; no hubo
intercambios con la profesora. Los datos sobre los resultados de aprendizaje
proceden de las calificaciones otorgadas por la profesora.
Tabla 1. (Continuación ).
Ejemplo: ‘Olé y olé. Parecía que no lo íbamos a conseguir, pero mirad dónde estamos ya.
Un esfuerzo más este finde y lo remataremos’.
Falta de competencia grupal (AG3)
El participante expresa falta de competencia del grupo o de falta de satisfacción con la
realización de la tarea por parte del grupo o con las expectativas de realización y
resultados de la misma.
Ejemplo: ‘si no reaccionamos ya, no sé si podremos resolver este desastre . . . ’
Dimensión 4. Expresiones de pertenencia a la comunidad (PC)
Identidad de grupo (PC1)
El participante expresa referencias que identifican al grupo como tal, en tanto que
colectivo, contribuyendo a crear/mantener la identidad del mismo.
Ejemplo: ‘Equipo Rosa, estamos que nos salimos ¡¡arriba PANTERAS!!’
Mantenimiento de la relación social (PC2)
El participante expresa referencias de continuidad y apoyo a la interacción social
contribuyendo a mantener la estabilidad de la relación en el grupo.
Ejemplo: ‘Me encanta esto de conectarme y encontraros pero antes de nada . . . ¿puede
saberse qué hacéis un día de partido del Barça enganchados al ordenador??? Je, je, je
. . . (. . .) Seguimos mañana, OK??’
Valoración del grupo y los compañeros (PC3)
El participante expresa sentimientos positivos y satisfacción en relación al grupo como
comunidad, sobre el hecho de formar parte del mismo y de agradecimiento a los apoyos
mutuos.
Ejemplo: ‘(. . .) antes de despedirnos quería deciros que somos un buen equipo. . . a ver si
podemos repetir (. . .)’.
Resultados
Un primer conjunto de resultados, de carácter global, muestra que el número de
contribuciones de los grupos durante la tarea es notablemente superior en el grupo
A que cuenta, además, con más del doble de contribuciones en las que se usa la
PS que el grupo B (ver Tabla 2).
Conclusiones
El concepto de PS visualiza la necesidad de atender a los procesos afectivos,
motivacionales y relacionales para elaborar una explicación global del aprendizaje
colaborativo en entornos virtuales. La fragmentación de las propuestas teóricas y
metodológicas sobre la PS han llevado a algunos autores a señalar la urgencia de
‘revisitar’ el concepto de PS y profundizar en su concreción metodológica
(Kreijns et al., 2014).
678 R. Colomina and A. Remesal
Acknowledgements / Agradecimientos
This study was carried out as part of a research project funded by the Dirección General
de Investigación del Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia [grant number EDU2009-08891].
Additional information about this project can be found at: http://www.psyed.edu.es/
grintie/?lang=es_ES. / Este trabajo ha sido realizado en el marco de un proyecto de
investigación financiado por la Dirección General de Investigación del Ministerio de
Educación y Ciencia (EDU2009–08891). Se puede encontrar más información sobre este
proyecto en http://www.psyed.edu.es/grintie/?lang=es_ES.
Social presence and collaborative learning / Presencia social y aprendizaje colaborativo 679
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. / Los autores no han referido
ningún potencial conflicto de interés en relación con este artículo.
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