UNIT II

APICULTURE
INTRODUNTION

Apis is Latin for bee, and apiculture is the science and practice of bee keeping. The words
‘apiculture’ and ‘beekeeping’ tend to be applied loosely and used synonymously: in some
parts of the world, significant volumes of honey are today still obtained by plundering wild
colonies of bees – this ‘honey hunting’ cannot be properly described as ‘beekeeping’. Honey
hunting still remains an important part of many rural livelihoods and falls within the remit of
apiculture, and this book. In some parts of the world apiculture forms part of the work of
hunter-gatherers, while elsewhere apiculture is practised by highly industrialised
agriculturalists in the world’s richest nations. The product that most people first associate
with bees is honey, although beekeeping generates much more than just honey. The
maintenance of biodiversity and pollination of crops are the most valuable services provided
by bees. Honey is just one of several different products that can be harvested: others are
beeswax, pollen and propolis, royal jelly and venom, and the use of bees in apitherapy,
which is medicine using bee products. It is still possible to harvest high quality, excellent
products from bees using simple equipment and techniques, building on the traditions held
in almost every societyThis book aims to provide the information that people working in
rural areas of developing countries need to maximise the benefit they can gain from bees.
There is no standard text on apicultural methods that is useful for every situation. This is
because there is no standard, globally applicable apicultural method. Today, there is still
great diversity of apicultural practices throughout the world, although most industrialised
countries use standard styles of frame hives for keeping European races of honeybee. The
resources available, and the reasons why people want apiculture, vary tremendously from
place to place. Apiculture is diverse, varying greatly in the way it is practised from one
region to another: in Africa, the Middle East and Asia, bees are often kept inside the walls of
people’s homes (and are often not noticed by visitors); while in India, over 50 percent of
honey is still harvested from wild-nesting bees. People practise apiculture not only in
different ways, but also for different reasons: some farmers want to have bees to ensure
that crops such as fruit, oil seeds and coffee are pollinated adequately; others keep bees to
harvest honey and wax; some farmers keep stingless bees for their honey, which is
especially valued for medicinal properties. Recently there was a report from Laikipia Plateau
in Kenya of bees being used as a ‘living fence’ to keep elephants away from smallholdings
(Vollrath and Douglas-Hamilton, 2002). Honey hunting and beekeeping, i.e. keeping bees
inside man-made hives and harvesting honey from them, has been practised by humans for
at least 4500 years - so human societies have long been aware of the worthwhile benefits to
be gained from bees. These benefits include the pollination of plants, harvests of honey and
beeswax, as well as a number of other useful products. Bees and theiToday, apiculture plays
a valuable part in rural livelihoods worldwide, and this book aims to provide an insight into
the many ways in which bees and beekeeping contribute to these livelihoods, and how to
strengthen this contribution. While the rationale for the sustainable use of tree resources is
widely appreciated, by contrast the sustainable use of bee resources is poorly promoted and
appreciated. Rural people in every developing country are keeping bees or harvesting from
them in one way or another. This book aims to help ensure that these people gain the most
from these activities.

Principle of preservation

Principle preservation is defined as the technique of extending storage life of produce

without deterioration in edible quality for its future use.

It is based on minimize damage by spoilage causing agents. The broad principles

involved in preservation of spoilage of horticultural produce are as under:-

 Prevention or delay of microbial decomposition

 Prevention or delay of self decomposition of food

Prevention or minimization damage by insect pest and disease

OBJECTIVES

In pursuit of “To establish areas of conservation throughout the island for the
conservation of the native Irish honey bee.”
 To help promote areas of conservation throughout the island to conserve the
native Irish honey bee.
In pursuit of “To promote the formation of Bee Improvement groups.”

 To liaise with bee-keepers with a view to establishing bee improvement groups.

 To advise and encourage bee-keepers to promote our aims and objectives.
In pursuit of “To provide education on Bee improvement and awareness to the
public of the values of the native Irish honey bee.”

 To establish a website which promotes our aims and objectives with links to
organisations promoting similar aims and objectives.
 Where possible to provide information, leaflets, press releases etc.
In pursuit of “To act in an advisory capacity to groups and individuals who wish to
promote the native Irish honey bee.”

 To provide information as to where local improvement groups are established.

 To provide information about ongoing events.

TRADITION METHODS

After collecting the honeydew from young leaves, the Italian bees fly back to their hive,
and then the honeydew needs an extra 16 days for full maturing. The mature honeydew
in the honeycomb will then be sealed intact by the beeswax secreted by the bees,
forming the natural organic 'capping honey".

This organic "capping honey" is a kind of honey without any artificial processing and
additives, free from contamination, and is rich in vitamins, minerals, trace elements as
well as a variety of biologically active enzymes. It has more nutrients and active
substances than many other kinds of ordinary honey, and is called a premium honey.

When the organic "capping honey" has become mature, the honey will then be
harvested by bee-keeping staff. Thanks to the stable honey source, bees do not have to
wander around. The stationed collection practice by Borneo Acacia has enabled harvest
and storage to take place on the same day. The whole process, from harvesting from
the nest to production and packaging, takes no more than 15 days, thus ensuring the
freshness of the honey from the stage of raw materials to finished products. Once
harvested 6-7 tonnes of raw materials, inspectors responsible for the Borneo acacia
honey will then extract some samples and send them to INTERTEK's APPLICA honey
products laboratory in the German city of Bremen through international air courier
within 96 hours for stringent testing.

Honey Fact

 Honey is a supersaturated sugar solution with approximately 17.1 percent water.

Fructose is the predominant sugar at 38.5 percent, followed by glucose at 31 percent.
Disaccharides, trisaccharides and oligosaccharides are present in much smaller
quantities. Besides carbohydrates, honey contains small amounts of protein, (including
enzymes), vitamins and minerals.
 Honey yields 64 calories per tablespoon, making it a more concentrated source of
energy than other common sweeteners. While the amino acid content is minor, the
broad spectrum of approximately 18 essential and nonessential amino acids present in
honey is unique and varies by floral source. Proline is the primary amino acid with
lysine being the second most prevalent. Other amino acids found in honey include
phenylalanine, tyrosine, glutamic and aspartic acids. The glutamic acid is a product of
the glucose oxidase reaction.13 Proline and other amino acids are contributed by
pollens, nectar or bee themselves.

Nutrient Percentage
Water 17.20 %
Fructose 38.29 %
Glucose 31.28 %
Sucrose 1.31 %
Maltose 7.21 %
Carbohydrates 1.54 %
Acid 0.57 %
Protein 0.26 %
Minerals 0.17 %
Enzymes, Vitamins etc 2.21 %

Table No. 1
1. The Honeybees
A. History of the honeybees:-
Usefulness of honeybees has been known to man from the prehistoric times. The bees
have been mentioned in the Vedas, the Ramayana, the Quran and other holy books. Figures
and carvings of honeybees, their combs and hives are found on the tombs, coffins, crowns and
maces of kings and on the coins of both ancient and modern empires. Honeybees have been
used as a weapon in the world war 1 when infuriated swarms were released to hamper the entry
of forces in Belgium. The mysterious property of bee venom of relieving muscular pain and
aches of sciatica, rheumatism and arthritis has also been known for a long time.

While primitive methods of beekeeping have been practiced in almost every country
from the times immemorial, more rewarding scientific method came into being only after the
discovery of Movable Frame Hive in 1851 by Revd. L. L Langstroth. In India ,this method
first came to Bengal in 1882 and then to the Punjab in 1883.The Imperial Entomologist
started beekeeping work at Pusain 1907 and continue within up to 1919.The beekeeping was
taken to the South by Revd. Newton in 1911.After the recommendations of the Royal
Commission on Agriculture to develop beekeeping as a cottage industry,(1928), the practice
got a fillip in Madras (1931),the Punjab(1933)and U.P.(1938).Nevertheless

B. Kind of honeybees:-

There are some 20,000 kinds of bees,all belonging to the insect order Hymenoptera. Of
them, three families of social bees are honey producing. They are Bombidae, Meliponidae and
Apidae. The Bombidae are mainly temperate which keep their broods and honey in separate
waxen pots(not combs).The Meliponidae are stingless bees, some of them making waxen pots,
some others horizontal combs and just one, Trigonastaudingeri of Africa making vertical
combs. The insect of both these families produce little honey and are, therefore, inviable
commercially even though some species like Meliponabeechii (in Mexico and S. America) and
Trigonastaudingeri(in Africa) are reared for the pleasant taste of their honey. The Apidae, on
the other hand, is the m,ain honey producing family. Its four species Apis dorsata, Apis indica,
Apis florea and Apis mellifera are most popular with beekeeping industry. Ofthem, the first
three are Indian and the last , European species that has been introduced into every country of
the world due to its good honey gathering quality. we shall briefly describe these species in the
following paragraphs:-

Fig:2.2 Apis dorsata

Apis dorsata:-

Apisdorsata also called the rock bees and giant bees,these insect are the largest of all the
bees.They are found all over India from the hilly tracts (1200 m) to the plains.They make the
largest hives -6 ft long and 3 ft deep that hang from high rocks and tall trees, several per tree.6
dozens to 156 hive s have been counted on a single silk –cotton tree in India. There colonies
shift from place to place to avoid extremes of climate or in search of honey but somehow they
occupy the same tree, even the same branches and the same branches and the ledges of rocks
year after year. Perheaps they leave a scent that helps them identifiy the place.They make single
vertical comb,are very industrious ,produce about 36 kg honey per colony per year but
unfortunately are also the most ferocious not sparing their victim even inside the water. Their
poison can kill a man.

Fig: 2.3 Apis indica

Apis indica:-

Apisindica or Indian bee is medium-sized bee and sapread over to Pakistan,Srilanka,S-E

Asia,Indonesia,Phillipines,China and Japan. In India two varieties :the hill variety or
Gandhiana, darker and larger and plain variety ,Indica, smaller and yellow, arerecognized.The
bee make parallel combs on trees ,termitaries, hollows of rocks and all kinds of cavities Its
honey yield is 3.6 to4.5 kg on the hills and 1.3 to 2.2 kg on the plains.It can be domesticated
and ,therefore, attempts have been made to produce a hybrid between it and A. dorsata. But it
has failed. The negative qualities of this bees is that it is prone to swarming and absconding
and is helpless against the waxmoth

Fig: 2.4 Apis florea

Apis florea:-

Apisflorea or the little bee is the smallest of all the bees. It is found all over the plains,
never above 450 m.It makes a single verticle comb of the size of palmsuspended from branches
of bushes ,hedges ,buildings, caves, chimneys, empty cases etc. It remains in the open and do
not stand captivity. It does not easily sting and so is mistaken for a stingless bee though it
possesses a sting. Its honey yield is poor ,about ½ kg and the consistency of honey is thin.
 Fig:2.5 Apis mellifera

Api mellifera:-

Apismellifera or the European bee has originated in Italy and been introduced in all
countries of the world where they have formed the following well recognized races: Apis
mellifera ligustica(Italy), A.m.carnica(America), A.m.caucasia(Russia), A.m.lehzeni(Britain),
A.m.mellifera(France), A.m.adansoni(Africa), A.m.indica(India), A.m.sinensis(China) and
A.m.japonica(Japan).The behaviour and looks of Apismellifera are so similar to those of
Apisindica that can be easily mistaken for the other.It make its nest in enclosed spaces in
parallel combs and in endowed with all the good qualities of a hive bee – has a prolific queen,
swarmless, gentle tempered so domisticable, good honey gatherer and can guard its nest against
enemies except wasps. It makes numerous colonies -500 being the common number in USA,
and its a honey yield averages 45-181kg per colony per year in the USA though 453 kg has
been claimed in the same country and even 959 kg by an individual beekeeper in Africa.It has
adapted itself well to modern methods of movable frame hives and,therefore, is the darling of
beekeeping industry the world over.

Body Structure of Honey Bee

HEAD OF A HONEY BEE

The honey bee’s head is flat and somewhat triangular in shape. Here’s where you’ll

find the bee’s brain and primary sensory organs (sight, feel, taste, and smell). The
head is also where you’ll find important glands that produce royal jelly and various
chemical pheromones used for communication. (Royal jelly is a substance secreted

from glands in a worker bee’s head and used as a food to feed brood.)

The important parts of the bee’s head are its:

 Eyes: The honey bee’s head includes two large compound eyes that are used

for general-distance sight and three small simple eyes, called ocelli, which are

used in the poor light conditions within the hive. Notice the three simple eyes

(ocellus) on the members of all three castes, while the huge wrap-around

compound eyes of the drone make him easy to identify. The queen’s eyes,
however, are slightly smaller than the worker bee.

 Antennae: The honey bee has two antennae in front (attached to its

forehead). Each antenna has thousands of tiny sensors that detect smell (like

a nose does). The bee uses this sense of smell to identify flowers, water, the

colony, and maybe even you! They also, like the branched hairs mentioned
earlier, detect feel.

 Mouth parts: The bees’ mandibles (jaws) are used for feeding larvae,
collecting pollen, manipulating wax, and carrying things.

 Proboscis: Everyone’s familiar with those noisemakers that show up at

birthday and New Year’s Eve parties. You know, the ones that unroll when

you toot them! The bee’s proboscis is much like those party favors only

without the “toot.” When the bee is at rest, this organ in retracted. But when

the bee is feeding or drinking, it unfolds to form a long tube that the bee uses
like a straw.
 FIG: 2.6 HONEY BEE’S THORAX

The thorax composes the middle part of the bee. It is the segment between the head
and the abdomen where the two pairs of wings and six legs are anchored.

 Wings: How many wings does a honey bee have? The answer is four. Two

pairs are attached fore and aft to the bee’s thorax. The wings are hooked
together in flight and separate when the bee is at rest.

 Legs: The bee’s three pairs of legs are all different. Each leg has six

segments that make them quite flexible. The bees also have taste receptors

on the tips of their legs. The bee uses its forward-most legs to clean its
antennae.

The middle legs help with walking and are used to pack loads of pollen (and
sometimes propolis) onto the pollen baskets that are part of the hind legs.

(Propolis is the sticky resinous substance that the bees collect from the buds

of trees and use to seal up cracks in the hive.)

 The hind legs are specialized on the worker bee. They contain special combs

and a pollen press, which are used by the worker bee to brush, collect, pack,
and carry pollen and propolis back to the hive.

 Spiracles: These tiny holes along the sides of a bee’s thorax and abdomen

are the means by which a bee breathes. The bee’s trachea (breathing tubes)

are attached to these spiracles. It is through the first hole in the thorax that
tracheal mites gain access to the trachea.

ABDOMEN ON A HONEY BEE

The abdomen is the part of the bee’s body that contains its digestive organs,

reproductive organs, wax and scent glands (workers only), and, of course, the
infamous stinger (workers and queen only).

Apiculture and Agriculture -

Beekeeping is a very fascinating occupation. It can be practiced equally by men, women,
grown up children and even by physically handicapped and old persons. The investment
required is low, and the economic returns are comparatively very high. Beekeeping does not
bring any pressure on agriculture land. It produces honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis from the
flowers which otherwise dry up in nature and go waste. Beekeeping is a decentralized industry
and does not displace persons from their villages. If conditions are favorable, level of
beekeeping can be increased to semi-commercial or commercial level.Though the honeybees
are best known for the honey they produce, their economic role in nature is to pollinate
hundreds and thousands of flowering plants and assure seed or fruit set. Honeybees thus play
very important role in cross pollinating various agricultural and horticultural crops and increase
their yield per unit area and improve their quality. Agricultural scientists in America and
Europe have estimated that value of the increased crop yields due to honeybee pollination is
several times more than the value of the honey and beeswax the honeybees produce
Honeybees and Forests:

Honeybees and forests have been associated with each other for several million years.
Honeybees are an integral part of forests and their ecology. A healthy bee fauna is an indication
of healthy forest and its natural balance. This is so because bees and flowering plants have
evolved together as one biological unit over past million years. Hills and adjacent transitional
belts and hills and surrounding agricultural belts having mixture of forests and agriculture are
of the unique biological wealth that could be converted into economic wealth and can offer
livelihood on a substantial basis. These are the best areas for promotion of beekeeping industry.

Various development projects in the country, however, affected beekeeping industry adversely
due to deforestation, increasing land-use for agriculture, urbanization, tourism development etc. All
these factors reduce significantly the bee forage potential.

It is necessary to check this deterioration trend of the industry if this important income resource
to the rural and tribal population depending upon forests for their livelihood has to be maintained.
This is all the more necessary in view of the importance of honeybees as cross pollinators of various
agricultural and horticultural crops. This is possible by taking up extensive afforestation programme
in which multipurpose tree species useful to honeybees during their flowering and having other
economic utility should be included. Jamun, Soap nut, Shikekai, Amala, Harad, Karanj, Neem,
Drumstick, Eucalyptus are a few plant species to mention which have duel utility. The plant species
should be such selected that there is a staggered flowering and flora is available to the bees almost
round the year. This will support insect population, resulting into vibrant, lively and dynamic nature
of the forests.

2.The Importance of Bees in Agriculture

Bees are one of the most helpful little creatures on our planet, although more
commonly seen as a nuisance. In the United States, "Close to 100 crop
species…rely to some degree on pollination services provided by this one species—
collectively, these crops make up approximately 1/3 of the U. S. diet, including the
majority of high-value crops that contribute to healthy diets," states May Berenbaum,
professor at the University of Illinois. National Geographic estimates one in every
three bites a person eats is from a bee pollinated nut or flower.
Types of bees

There are hundreds of different types of bees, all with different habits, nests and
temperaments. The most commonly thought of bee is the honeybee, responsible for
most of the honey that we eat. Honeybees have three different job occupations:
workers, queens, and drones. Worker bees are all females and they are responsible
for collecting nectar from flowers and provide pollination for various plants. Queens
give birth to every bee within the hive and they eat the royal jelly, a secretion that is
used in the nutrition of larvae that is left behind in the cells from worker bees. Drones
are the male bees, responsible only for mating with the queen.

Honeybee hives can grow to hold up to 80,000 bees and they are known to have
very easy temperament, only stinging when they or their hive is in danger. When a
bee stings, its stinger is ripped out of its abdomen, causing the bee to die, that is why
bees are so hesitant to sting a predator. Bumblebees, like honeybees, live in hives,
but only house anywhere from few hundred bees to 2,000 bees and produce far less
honey than a honeybee.

There are bees that live in solitary homes as well, such as the carpenter bee, mason
bee and the ground bee. These bees are very peaceful, and most people do not
even know that they exist. Mason bees do not create honey or beeswax, but they
serve as the most effective pollinator. Mason bee’s vibrant blue-green color makes
them easily identifiable and makes them a favorite for gardeners.

Fig 2.7 Mason Bees

Pollination
Bees provide essential pollination for flowers that other winged insects cannot do as
effectively. Bees collect pollen using a unique technique known as "floral fidelity,"
meaning they only collect from one species of flower at a time. This helps plants
because it ensures the pollen the bees are carrying will be transported to the stigma,
or female reproductive system, of the same plant species. Individual bees will collect
from one particular flower species for a few days before changing to a new flower,
which is why you will not see bees in a small garden with a variety of flowers.

In addition to agricultural crops, the honeybee pollinates many of the native plants
that serve as habitat and food sources for our wildlife across the nation, helping
sustain the vigor and diversity of the environment. Food that is used in feeding
livestock, such as soybeans and buckwheat, also must be pollinated by bees. In this
way, bees are essential the meat industry.
Cotton is a bee-produced product as well. Each year the US produces about 21
million bales of cotton, with over a third of the production taking place in Arkansas,
Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri and Tennessee. Business revenues average $100
billion from cotton alone, making bees incredibly profitable.

Perhaps the most noteworthy contribution bees bring is their work in almonds. In
California each year, beekeepers bring their white box hives to pollinate California’s
white blossomed almond trees. California is responsible for producing 90% of the
world’s almonds, yielding an average of 1.5 billion pounds of nuts per year. Each
acre of almond trees requires approximately two hives to pollinate, and to produce a
single nut it takes about a dozen bee visits. People have tried different techniques to
try and pollinate these almonds, such as using helicopters to spread the pollen. Yet
the results are the same everywhere that bees are the most effective pollinators.

Pollinating Almond Fields

 Fig 2.8
Honeybees use nectar to make honey. Nectar is almost 80% water with some
complex sugars. They use their long, tube-like tongues like straws to suck the nectar
out of the flowers and then stored in their "honey stomachs". Bees actually have two
stomachs, their honey stomach which they use like a nectar backpack and their
regular stomach. The honey stomach holds almost 70 milligrams of nectar and when
full, it weighs almost as much as the bee does. Honeybees must visit between 100
and 1,500 flowers in order to fill their honey stomachs.

The honeybees return to the hive and pass the nectar onto other worker bees. These
bees suck the nectar from the honeybee's stomach through their mouths. These
"house bees" chew the nectar using enzymes to break down the complex sugars in
the nectar into simple sugars so that it is both more digestible for the bees and less
likely to be attacked by bacteria while it is stored within the hive. The bees then

spread the nectar throughout the honeycombs where water evaporates from it,
making it into a thicker syrup. The bees make the nectar dry even faster by fanning it
with their wings. Once the honey has had enough water evaporate from it, the bees
seal off the cell of the honeycomb with a plug of wax. The honey is stored until it is
eaten. In one year, a colony of bees eats between 120 and 200 pounds of honey, the
rest can be collected and used by beekeepers.

Beeswax and honey offer a wide range of uses in everyday life. Beeswax can be
used in candles, cosmetics, lubricants, and even dental floss. Honey is used in a lot
of cosmetics, including lip balms and moisturizers.
Honey

Disappearance

Over the past few years, beekeepers have noticed a startling phenomenon that is
happening to bees. They’re disappearing. Entire populations of bees have vanished
from mid-air, leaving no signs of a struggle, and no bee corpses behind. They simply
just disappear. Researchers are examining possible causes for the disappearance,
but no definite conclusion has been found. Some suspect it is a pesticide problem,
others are not so sure. One thing is for certain though, if the United States were to
lose its entire bee population tomorrow, we would lose $15 billion in the foregone
foods such as almonds and cucumbers that require honey bees for pollination.

HONEY BEE PRODUCTS

In India, honeybees are generally equated with honey production. Even beeswax is considered
as a by-product and much attention is not given for its collection and processing, leave aside
collection of other bee products namely, bee collected pollen and propolis, royal jelly and bee
venom.
In the present global market, quality and competitive prices alone will govern the market
and the future of the industry. A beekeeper will therefore have to tap not only all the above bee
products but also provide his colonies on rental basis for pollination service and augment his
income. Such strategy alone can make the beekeeper self reliant and beekeeping a viable
industry in the competitive market.
It may however be remembered that all the bee products are used either as food or in
pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. For this reason, hygienic collection, handling,
processing, storage etc. and maintaining National and International purity standards are of
prime importance.
India is endowed with presence of three species of the genera Apis, namely, A.dorsata,
A.cerana, and A.florea and stingless honeybees of Trigona/Mellipona sp. Successful
introduction of European honeybees A. mellifera, in India, has given a new dimension to the
beekeeping industry in India.

Though large quantities of honey and beeswax are collected in India and methods of their
collection, processing etc. have been fairly standardized, methods of production of other bee
 products are yet to be standardized for commercial use. Standardization of methods of
collection and development of market for these products and for their value added products
will have to be simultaneously looked into.
1. Honey
In a single honeybee colony there are about ten thousand worker honeybees. Being social
bees, there is an highly evolved division of labour among these bees. Few scout bees, survey
the area within a radius of one Km. and collect the information about the direction, distance
and quality of food – nectar and pollen, available. By performing some dances, this information
is passed on to other honeybees. The honeybees then take a straight flight and land on the crop
for collecting nectar and pollen. The honeybees continue to visit this particular crop until its
flowering withers away. This peculiar behavior or the floral fidelity of honeybees makes it
possible to get honeys from predominantly a single plant source and thus we get unifloral
honeys like, Jamun honey, Mustard honey, Litchi honey etc. When density of a single plant
source is sparse in a particular area, then honeybees switch over to another plant species for
gathering nectar. Under these circumstances we get multi-floral honey.Each floral honey has a
peculiar colour, taste and flavour specific to the plant source. Except for these sensory tests,
unifloral and multifloral honeys have the same gross chemical composition.

2. Bees Wax:
In the process of evolution, honeybees appeared on the earth millions of years before
man made his appearance on this planet. As honey is said to be the first sweet substance known
to man, beeswax is said to be the first natural plastic known to man. The Egyptians in 4200
B.C. found numerous uses of beeswax. They used to preserve mummies, to seal the coffins etc.
Ship building industry was also a great consumer of Beeswax. Beeswax was used for
waterproofing the bottoms of the ships. The most important property of beeswax, is its stable
composition. Thousand year old beeswax cakes were recovered from the sunken ships. The
composition and properties of these wax cakes were unchanged over centuries.

3. Bee Collected Pollen

Honeybees collect nectar, convert it into honey and store it as their carbohydrate food.
Similarly a single bee colony collects 25 to 40 Kg of pollen grains every year as a source of
proteins, vitamins, minerals, oils and fats etc. Pollen grains contains all types of nutrients
required for the growth young once in a bee colony and hence considered by many as a
 ‘Complete food’. Pollen tablet are prepared as “food supplement” by some Pharmaceutical
Firms

4. Propolis
Honeybees collect gummy material secreted by leaf or flower buds of some plants such
as poplars, conifers. This substance is known as propolis. Propolis is collected by European
honeybees and not by Indian honeybees. Honeybees use this resinous material to fill up cracks,
crevices, and holes in the hive. The hive entrance is reduced using propolis to protect the colony
from intruders like wasps, lizards etc. Propolis has anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties and
it also acts as a repellent for many bee enemies. Propolis is used in some pharmaceutical
preparations.

5. Royal Jelly

Queen bee lays two types of eggs, unfertilized and fertilized. From unfertilized eggs
drones or male bees develop. From fertilized eggs, either worker bee (sterile female) or queen
bee develops. After hatching of the fertilized egg, for the first three days uniform and same
food is given to all the larvae. After three days, larvae to be developed into worker bees are
given courser type of food and the larvae to be developed into queen bee are given abundant
quantity of special food. This food brings miraculous changes in the body of the queen bee
and her life.
The bigger size of the queen, which is developed in short period, her the egg laying
capacity and the extended life span is attributed to the special food secreted from the
hypopharyngeal glands of the young worker bees. This food is more popularly known as
“Royal jelly” or “Miracle food” Royal jelly is used in many pharmaceutical preparations.
.

1. Bee Venom

Most of the people know honeybees for the honey they produce so also they know that
honeybees are armed with sting which they use for the defense of the colony. Bee venom is
now known to have some medicinal properties. Methods have been standardized to collect
bee-venom
 2. Apitherapy

From ancient times, man has exploited honeybees throughout the world, first for their
sweet honey and then for their protein rich brood and pollen. The use of beeswax came later
and followed by other bee products propolis, royal jelly and venom.
In early 20th century, cane sugar was produced commercially. Technology of
commercial production of glucose was also developed. Since recently, fructose rich syrup
from corn, using enzymatic process, is being manufactured. All these developments have
replaced honey as world’s main sweetener. Similarly, with the development of petro-
chemical industry, variety of waxes, lubricants and other synthetic products have replaced
beeswax from many uses.
In order to keep pace with changing times, beekeepers and their organizations started
looking for other avenues to augment their income. As a result, traditional old therapy of
using other bee products was revived and from 1960 onwards methods were developed for
commercial collection of pollen, propolis and venom and production of royal jelly from bee
colonies. Followed by these achievements, extensive research was done on all the six bee
products for their food and medicinal values and came into existence a new branch of
medicine ‘Apitherapy’ i.e. use of bee products for treating various ailments.

MARKETING OF BEE PRODUCTS

The Beekeeping Directorate concentrated its efforts on extension, research and training
aspects alone. Marketing of honey was looked after by the Beekeepers’ cooperatives
themselves. The Beekeeping Directorate undertook marketing activity as a departmental
activity since 1971 following a glut in honey market. After successful introduction of European
honeybees in northern belts of India, large quantity of honey produced by the European
honeybees is also available for sale. In addition to above apiary honeys, large quantities of
forest or wild honey mainly produced from Apisdorsata honeybees, is also available in the
market. It is estimated that wild honey contributes to nearly 70 per cent of the total Indian
honey production.

Honey Production in India

 In India we have two indigenous species of honeybees producing large quantities of
honey. These are Apisdorsata or the wild honeybees and Apiscerana the domesticable hive bee.
In addition to these Indian honeybees, European honeybees Apismellifera have been
introduced in India.

Honey Market

All tropical honeys including Indian honeys contain high moisture content (20 to 25 %), low
enzymatic value and high Hydroxy-methyl-furfurol (HMF) content, compared to European
honeys. Honeys with higher moisture content are liable to ferment quickly. Low enzyme and
high HMF contents are indicative of over-heating during processing or long storage. The
European, FAO and WHO standards give special emphasis on values of above contents and
India honeys generally fail in these standards. Special care will have to be taken to collect,
process and pack Indian honeys to conform to International specifications.

a) Internal market:
Compared to traditional wild honey, production of apiary honey is less and price-wise it is
more costly than wild honey. Apiary honey has therefore market in big cities and in
pharmaceutical industries, while wild honey finds market in small cities, villages, Aurvedic
preparations etc.

b) International market:
During 19th century hundreds of European honeybee colonies were migrated to North
America, South America, Australia, New Zealand etc. These European honeybees are well
established in these countries and are being harnessed for production of honey, beeswax, royal
jelly, pollen, propolis and bee-venom. There are about 2 crore European honeybee colonies all
over the world, producing nearly 12 lakh Tons of honey annually. As against this, in India, we
have 8 lakh bee colonies producing about 8000 tons of apiary honey. FAO, WHO and European
Common Market have laid down purity specifications for honey based on the composition of
Apismellifera honeys. In developed countries honey is mainly used as food, in food products,
in bakery products and in breweries.
THE MAJOR CONSTRAINTS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF BEEKEEPING IN

INDIA ARE AS FOLLOWS

 Using the Correct Species for Beekeeping

 Availability of Genetically Superior Queens for Increased Honey Production

 Lack of Technical Knowledge for Efficient Management of Colonies for High Honey

Yields

 Lack of Infrastructure at the Grass Roots and National Level for Beekeeping

 Poor Quality Control for the Production of Honey

 Emphasis on Production of Honey Instead of other Bee Products

CONCLUTION:

From many viewpoints viz. employment generation among rural youths and tribal
population, producing valuable products like, honey, beeswax, pollen, propolis, venom and
royal jelly and above all increasing the yields qualitatively and quantitatively, of various
agricultural and horticultural crops, beekeeping has to be developed on priority basis.
Apiculture and Agriculture are interdependent and cannot develop in isolation. Integration
between Apiculture and Agriculture is therefore essential for mutual benefits and development.

Because of the peculiar nature of beekeeping industry, simultaneous attention is

required to be given to different disciplines of biological sciences. For implementing extension,
research, training and marketing programmes, Bagban Gram Youdok should work in close
co-ordination. Such integrated approach alone will result into rapid development of this
important agro- and forest based industry. Different Committees may have to be formed,
drawing representatives from above mentioned Departments for planning, preparation of Road
Map, monitoring and reviewing etc.
 UNIT III
AGRO-BASED INDUSTRY
(FRUIT PRESERVATION & PROCESSING)
 FRUIT PRESERVATION

INTRODUCTION:-
Food preservation prevents the growth of microorganisms (such as yeasts), or other
microorganisms (although some methods work by introducing benign bacteria or fungi to the
food), as well as slowing the oxidation of fats that cause rancidity. Food preservation may also
include processes that inhibit visual deterioration, such as the enzymatic browning reaction in
apples after they are cut during food preparation.

Many processes designed to preserve food involve more than one food preservation method.
Preserving fruit by turning it into jam, for example, involves boiling (to reduce the fruit’s moisture
content and to kill bacteria, etc.), sugaring (to prevent their re-growth) and sealing within an
airtight jar (to prevent recontamination). Some traditional methods of preserving food have been
shown to have a lower energy input and carbon footprint, when compared to modern
methods.[1]

Some methods of food preservation are known to create carcinogens. In 2015, the International
Agency for Research on Cancer of the World Health Organization classified processed meat,
i.e. meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermenting, and smoking, as "carcinogenic to
humans”.
Maintaining or creating nutritional value, texture and flavor is an important aspect of food
preservation.

PRINCIPAL OF PRESERVATION

PRINCIPLES OF PRESERVATION Principles of Food Preservation A good method of food

preservation is one that slows down or prevents altogether the action of the agents of
spoilage. Also, during the process of food preservation, the food should not be damaged. In
order to achieve this, certain basic methods were applied on different types of foods. For
example in earlier days, in very cold weather condition, ice was used to preserve foods. Thus,
very low temperature became an efficient method for preventing food spoilage. Let us now
list the principles of food preservation. 1. Removal of micro-organisms or inactivating them:
This is done by removing air, water (moisture), lowering or increasing temperature,
increasing the concentration of salt or sugar or acid in foods. If you want to preserve green
leafy vegetables, you have to remove the water from the leaves so that micro organisms
cannot survive. You do this by drying the green leaves till all the moisture evaporates. 2.
Inactivating enzymes: Enzymes found in foods can be inactivated by changing their
conditions such as temperature and moisture, when you preserve peas, one of the methods of
preservations is to put them for a few minutes in boiling water. This method also known as
blanching inactivates enzymes and thus, helps in preserving the food. 3. Removal of insects,
worms and rats: By storing foods in dry, air tight containers the insects, worms or rats are
prevented from destroying it. Control Control of microorganisms • Heat • Cold • Drying •
Acids • Sugar and salt • Oxygen concentration • Smoke • Radiation • Chemicals
(preservatives) Control of enzymes • Heat • Oxygen removal • Acids • Chemicals
(antioxidants) Control of Other factors • Protective packaging • Sanitation Preservation
methods 1. Thermal processing • Application of heat • Inactivate enzymes • Kill
microorganisms. Most bacteria are killed in the range 82-93°c. Spores are not destroyed even
by boiling water at 100°c for 30 min. o To ensure sterility (total microbial destruction,
including spores), a temperature of 121°c must be maintained for 15 min or longer. Various
methods are - a. Blanching b. Pasteurization c. Sterilization d. Boiling e. Steam under
pressure 2. Removal of heat (cold processing) • Lowering temperature of food • Decreases
the rate of enzymatic, chemical and microbial reactions in food • Storage life is extended
Various methods are - a. Refrigeration b. Freezing 3. Control of water content (drying) •
Microorganisms require free water • Free water is removed from the food and therefore, is
unavailable to microbial cells • Multiplication will stop • Water unavailable for
chemical/biochemical reactions • Storage life extended Various methods are - a. Freezing b.
Physical removal of water from food (dehydration) c. Removal of some of the water from
food (concentration) d. Addition of substances that bind water in food, making it unavailable
(sugar, salts) 4. Radiation • Ionizing radiation • Inactivate microorganisms in food • Destroy
storage pests • Inactivate enzymes Various methods are - a. Infrared radiation b. Ultraviolet
radiation 5. Atmosphere composition • Removal of oxygen • Inhibits o2-dependant enzymatic
and chemical reactions • Inhibits growth of aerobic microorganisms Various methods are - a.
Paraffin wax b. Nitrogen backflushed bags (potato chips) c. Controlled atmosphere storage d.
Vacuum packaging of fresh food (cured meats) 6. Fermentation • Specific microorganisms
are used (starter cultures) • Facilitate desirable chemical changes • Longer storage life •
Produce acids, alcohol that will prevent growth of undesirable microorganisms • Produce
antimicrobial substances 2. Addition of chemicals Various chemicals used are - a. Acids
(inhibit microbial growth and enzymatic reactions) b. Organic acids (acetic, citric, tartaric
acids) c. Inorganic acids (hydrochloric, phosphoric acids) d. Food grade, comply
w/regulations e. Antioxidants (to delay oxidative rancidity) f. Antimicrobial agents: o sodium
propionate (mould inhibitor) o sodium benzoate (antibacterial) o sugar and salt (high
concentrations) 8. Smoke • Contains preservative chemicals (eg. formaldehyde) from the
burning wood • Heat also helps destroy microorganisms • Heat dries the food 9. Curing (Salt
and Sugar) • Salt binds with water molecules and thus acts as a dehydrating agent in foods. •
Impair the conditions under which pathogens cannot survive. • Curing is used with certain
fruits and vegetables. ( sauerkraut, pickles), • Meats can be submerged in a salt solution
known as brine PRESERVATION BY USING CHEMICALS A preservative is defined as
only substance which is capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth of
microorganisms. Microbial spoilage of food products is also controlled by using chemical
preservatives. The inhibitory action of preservatives is due to their interfering with the
mechanism of cell division, permeability of cell membrane and activity of enzymes.
Pasteurized squashes, cordials and crushes have a cooked flavour. After the container is
opened, they ferment and spoil within a short period, particularly in a tropical climate. To
avoid this, it is necessary to use chemical preservatives. Chemically preserved squashes and
crushes can be kept for a fairly long time even after opening the seal of the bottle. It is
however, essential that the use of chemicals is properly controlled, as their indiscriminate use
is likely to be harmful. The preservative used should not be injurious to health and should be
non-irritant. It should be easy to detect and estimate. Two important chemical preservatives
are permitted to beverages according to the FPO (1955). 1. Sulphur dioxide and 2. Benzoic
acid SULPHUR DIOXIDE It is widely used throughout the world in the preservation of
juice, pulp, nectar, squash, crush, cordial and other products. It has good preserving action
against bacteria and moulds and inhibits enzymes, etc. In addition, it acts as an antioxidant
and bleaching agent. These properties help in the retention of ascorbic acid, carotene and
other oxidizable compounds. It also retards the development of nonenzymatic browning or
discolouration of the product. It is generally used in the form of its salts such as sulphite,
bisulphate and metabisulphite. Potassium metabisulphite (K2O 2So2 (or) K2S2O5) is
commonly used as a stable source of So2. Being a solid, it is easier to use than liquid (or)
gaseous So2.It is fairly stable in neutral (or) alkaline media but decomposed by weak acids
like carbonic, citric, tartaric acid and malic acids. When added to fruit juice (or) squash it
reacts with the acid in the juice forming the potassium salt and So2, which is liberated and
forms sulphurous acid with the water of the juice. The reactions involved are as follows
Potassium Potassium Sulphur Meta bisulphate + Citric acid → Citrate + dioxide + H2O SO2
+ H2O → H2SO3 (Sulphurous acid) SO2 has a better preservative action than sodium
benzoate against bacteria and moulds. It also retards the development of yeasts in juice, but
cannot arrest their multiplication, once their number has reached a high value. It is well
known that fruit juices with high acidity do not undergo fermentation readily. The
preservative action of the fruit acid its due to is hydrogen ion concentration. The pH for the
growth of moulds ranges from 1.5 to 8.5, that of yeasts from 2.5-8.0, and of bacteria from 4.0
to 7.5.As fruit beverage like citrus squashes and cordials have generally a pH of 2.5 to 3.5,
the growth of moulds and yeasts in them cannot be prevented by acidity alone. Bacteria,
however, cannot grow. The pH is therefore, of great importance in the preservation of food
product and by regulating it, one or more kinds of microorganisms in the beverage can be
eliminated. The concentration of So2 required preventing the growth of mirgroorganism at
different pH levels are as under. pH S.ellipsoideus (yeasts) Mucor (mold) Penicillium (mold)
Mixed bacteria 2.5 200 200 300 100 3.5 800 600 600 300 7.0 Above 5000 Above 5000
Above 5000 Above 1000 The toxicity of So2 increases at high temperature. Hence its
effectiveness depends on the acidity, pH, temperature and substances present in fruit juice.
According to FPO, the maximum amount of So2 allowed in fruit juice is 700 ppm, in squash,
crush and cordial 350 ppm and in RTS and nectar 100 ppm. The advantages of using So2 are
a) It has a better preserving action than sodium benzoate against bacterial fermentation b) it
helps to retain the colour of the beverage for a longer time than sodium benzoate ( c) being a
gas, it helps in preserving the surface layer of juices also (d) being highly soluble in juices
and squashes, it ensures better mixing and hence their preservation and (e) any excess of So2
present can be removed either by heating the juice to about 71o C or by passing air through it
or by subjecting the juice to vacuum. This causes some loss of the flavouring materials due to
volatilization, which can be compensated by adding flavours. Disadvantages (or) limitations
a. It cannot be used in the case of some naturally coloured juices like those of jamun,
pomegranate, strawberry, coloured grapes, plum etc. on account of its bleaching action. b. It
cannot also be used for juices which are to be packed in tin containers because it not only
corrodes the tin causing pinholes, but also forms H2S which has a disagreeable smell and
reacts with the iron of the tin container to form a black compound, both of which are highly
undesirable and c. So2 gives a slight taste and colour to freshly prepared beverages but these
are not serious defects if the beverage is diluted before drinking. II. Benzoic acid It is only
partially soluble in H2O hence its salt, sodium benzoate is used. One part of sodium benzoate
is soluble in 1.8 parts of water at ordinary temperature, whereas only 0.34 parts of benzoic
acid is soluble in 100 parts of water. Sodium benzoate is thus nearly 170 times as soluble as
benzoic acid, pure sodium benzoate is tasteless and odourless. The antibacterial action of
benzoic acid is increased in the presence of Co2 and acid e.g. Bacillus subtilis cannot survive
in benzoic acid solution in the presence of Co2. Benzoic acid is more effective against yeasts
than against moulds. It does not stop lactic acid and acetic acid fermentation. The quantity of
benzoic acid required depends on the nature of the product to be preserved, particularly its
acidity. In case of juices having a pH of 3.5-4.0, which is the range of a majority of fruit
juices, addition of 0.06 to 0.10% of sodium benzoate has been found to be sufficient. In case
of less acid juices such as grape juice atleast 0.3% is necessary. The action of benzoic acid is
reduced considerably at pH 5.0. Sodium benzoate is excess of 0.1% may produce a
disagreeable burning taste. According to FPO its permitted level in RTS and nectar is 100
ppm and in squash, crush and cordial 600 ppm. In the long run benzoic acid may darken the
product. It is, therefore, mostly used in coloured products of tomato, jamun, pomegranate,
plum, watermelon, strawberry, coloured grapes etc. Preservation by Using Radiation
Radiation may be defined as the emission and propagation of energy through space or
through a material medium. The type of radiation of primary interest in food preservation is
electromagnetic. Initially, the destruction of microorganisms in foods by ionizing radiation
was referred to by terminology brought over from heat and chemical destruction of
microorganisms. Although microorganisms can indeed be destroyed by chemicals, heat, and
radiation, there is, nevertheless, a lack of precision in the use of this terminology for
radiation-treated foods. Consequently, in 1964 an international group of microbiologists
suggested the following terminology for radiation treatment of foods.24 Radappertization Is
equivalent to radiation sterilization or "commercial sterility," as it is understood in the
canning industry. Typical levels of irradiation are 3(MK) kGy. Radicidation Is equivalent to
pasteurization— of milk, for example. Specifically, it refers to the reduction of the number of
viable specific nonsporeforming pathogens, other than viruses, so that none is detectable by
any standard method. Typical levels to achieve this process are 2.5-10 kGy. Radurization
May be considered equivalent to pasteurization. It refers to the enhancement of the keeping
quality of a food by causing substantial reduction in the numbers of viable specific spoilage
microbes by radiation. Common dose levels are 0.75-2.5 kGy for fresh meats, poultry,
seafood, fruits, vegetables, and cereal grains. Radappertization Radappertization of any foods
may be achieved by application of the proper dose of radiation under the proper conditions.
Preservation by Using High temperature The use of high temperatures to preserve food is
based on their destructive effects on microorganisms. By high temperatures are meant any
and all temperatures above ambient. With respect to food preservation, there are two
temperature categories in common use: pasteurization and sterilization. Pasteurization: by use
of heat implies either the destruction of all disease-producing organisms (for example,
pasteurization of milk) or the destruction or reduction in the number of spoilage organisms in
certain foods, as in the pasteurization of vinegar. The pasteurization of milk is achieved by
heating as follows: 145°F (63°C) for 30 minutes (low temperature, long time [LTLT]) 1610F
(72°C) for 15 seconds (primary high temperature, short time [HTST] method) 191°F(89°C)
for 1.0 second, 194°F (900C) for 0.5 second, 201°F(94°C)for0.1 second, 212°F (1000C) for
0.01 second. These treatments are equivalent and are sufficient to destroy the most heat
resistant of the nonsporeforming pathogenic organisms—Mycobacterium tuberculosis and
Coxiella burnetii. When six different strains of M. paratuberculosis were added to milk at
levels from 40 to 100,000 colonyforming units (cfu)/mL followed by pasteurization by LTLT
or HTST, no survivors survivors were detected on suitable culture media incubated for 4
months. Milk pasteurization temperatures are sufficient to destroy, in addition, all yeasts,
molds, gram negative bacteria, and many gram positives. The two groups of organisms that
survive milk pasteurization are placed into one of two groups: thermodurics and
thermophiles. Thermoduric organisms are those that can survive exposure to relatively high
temperatures but do not necessarily grow at these temperatures. The nonsporeforming
organisms that survive milk pasteurization generally belong to the genera Streptococcus and
Lactobacillus, and sometimes to other genera. Thermophilic organisms are those that not only
survive relatively high temperatures but require high temperatures for their growth and
metabolic activities. The genera Bacillus and Clostridium contain the thermophiles of greatest
importance in foods. Pasteurization (to destroy spoilage biota) of beers in the brewing
industry is carried out usually for 8-15 minutes at 600C. Sterilization: means the destruction
of all viable organisms as may be measured by an appropriate plating or enumerating
technique. Canned foods are sometimes called "commercially sterile" to indicate that no
viable organisms can be detected by the usual cultural methods employed or that the number
of survivors is so low as to be of no significance under the conditions of canning and storage.
Also, microorganisms may be present in canned foods that cannot grow in the product by
reason of undesirable pH, oxidation-reduction potential (Eh), or temperature of storage.
Preservation by Using Low temperature The use of low temperatures to preserve foods is
based on the fact that the activities of food borne microorganisms can be slowed at
temperatures above freezing and generally stopped at subfreezing temperatures. The reason is
that all metabolic reactions of microorganisms are enzyme catalyzed and that the rate of
enzyme catalyzed reactions is dependent on temperature. With a rise in temperature, there is
an increase in reaction rate. The temperature coefficient (Q10) may be generally defined as
follows: Qio= : (Velocity at a given temp. + 100C Velocity at T The Qi0 for most biological
systems is 1.5-2.5, so that for each 100C rise in temperature within the suitable range, there is
a twofold increase in the rate of reaction. For every 100C decrease in temperature, the reverse
is true. The term psychrophile was coined by Schmidt- Nielsen in 1902 for microorganisms
that grow at O0C.30 This term is now applied to organisms that grow over the range of
subzero to 200C, with an optimum range of 10-150C.44 Around 1960, the term psychrotroph
(psychros, cold, and trephein, to nourish or to develop) was suggested for organisms able to
grow at 5°C or below.1147 It is now widely accepted among food microbiologists that a
psychrotroph is an organism that can grow at temperatures between 00C and 7°C and
produce visible colonies (or turbidity) within 7-10 days. Because some psychrotrophs can
grow at temperatures at least as high as 430C, they are, in fact, mesophiles. By these
definitions, psychrophiles would be expected to occur only on products from oceanic waters
or from extremely cold climes. The organisms that cause the spoilage of meats, poultry, and
vegetables in the 0-50C range would be expected to be psychrotrophs. Methods of freezing
There are various methods of freezing 1. Sharp Freezing (Slow freezing) This technique, first
used in 1861, involves freezing by circulation of air, either naturally or with the aid of fans.
The temperature may vary from –15 to –29o C and freezing may take from 3 to 72 hours. The
ice crystals formed one large and rupture the cells. The thawed tissue cannot regain its
original water content. The first products to be sharp frozen were meat and butter. Now-a-
days freezer rooms are maintained at –23 to –29o C or even lower, in contrast to the earlier
temperature of –18o C. 2. Quick freezing In this process the food attains the temperature of
maximum ice crystal formation (0 to – 4o C) in 30 min or less. Such a speed results in
formation of very small ice crystals and hence minimum disturbance of cell structure. Most
foods are quick frozen by one of the following three methods: a) By direct immersion Since
liquids are good heat conductors food can be frozen rapidly by direct immersion in a liquid
such as brine or sugar solution at low temperature. Berries in sugar solution packed fruit
juices and concentrates are frozen in this manner. The refrigeration medium must be edible
and capable of remaining unfrozen at –18o C and slightly below. Direct immersion
equipments such as ottenson Brine freezer, Zarotschenzeff ‘Fog’ freezer, T.V.A. freezer,
Bartlett freezer etc. of commercial importance earlier are not used today. Advantages 1.
There is perfect contact between the refrigerating medium and the product, hence the rate of
heat transfer is very high. 2. Fruits are frozen with a coating of syrup which preserves the
colour and flavour during storage. 3. The frozen product is not a solid block piece is separate.
Disadvantages 1. Brine is a good refrigerating medium but it cannot be used for fruits. 2. It is
difficult to make a syrup that will not become viscous at low temperature. 3. The refrigeration
temperature must be carefully controlled, as at high temperature the medium will enter the
product by osmosis and at low temperature the medium may freeze solid. 4. It is very difficult
to maintain the medium at a definite concentration and also to keep it free from dirt and
contamination. b) By indirect contact with refrigerant Indirect freeing may be defined as
freezing by contact of the product with a metal surface which is itself cooled by freezing
brine or other refrigerating media. This is an old method of freezing in which the food or
package is kept in contact with the passage through the refrigerant at –18 to -46o C flows.
Knowles Automatic Package feezer, Patterson continuous plate freezer, FMC continuous can
freezer and Birds eye freezers are based on this principle. c) By air blast In this method,
refrigerated air at –18 to –34o C is blown across the material to be frozen. The advantages
claimed for quick freezing over slow freezing (sharp freezing) are (1) smaller (size) ice
crystals are formed, hence there is less mechanical destruction of intact cells of the food (2)
period for ice formation is shorter, therefore, there is less time for diffusion of soluble
material and for separation of ice (3) more rapid preservation of microbial growth and (4)
more rapid slowing down of enzyme action. 3) Cryogenic freezing Although most foods
retain their quality when quick frozen by the above methods, a few require ultrafast freezing.
Such materials are subjected to cryogenic freezing which is defined as freezing at very low
temperature (below –60o C). The refrigerant used at present in cryogenic freeing are liquid
nitrogen and liquid CO2. In the former case, freezing may be achieved by immersion in the
liquid, spraying of liquid or circulation of its vapour over the product to be frozen. 4.
Dehydro-freezing This is a process where freezing is proceded by partial dehydration. In case
of some fruits and vegetables about 50% of the moisture is removed by dehydration prior to
freezing. This has been found to improve the quality of the food. Dehydration does not cause
deterioration and dehydro frozen foods are relatively more stable. 5. Freeze drying In this
process food is first frozen at –18o C on trays in the lower chamber of a freeze drier and the
frozen material dried (initially at 30o C for 24 hrs and then at 20o C). Under high vacuum
(0.1 mm Hg) in the upper chamber. Direct sublimation of the ice takes place without passing
through the intermediate liquid stage. The product is highly hygroscopic, excellent in taste
and flavour and can be reconstituted readily. Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate, passion
fruit juice and guava pulp are dehyderated by this method.

PRESERVATION OF JAM

A product of moderately thick consistency prepared by boiling the whole

fruit and sugar without retaining the shape of the fruit is termed as
“Jam”. It is semi-solid and non transparent. It is also rich in flavour
because ripe fruits are used in its preparation. Pectin in the fruit gives it a
good set. High concentration of sugar facilitates preservation.

A. Preparation of Papaya Jam:

Fig 3.1
Material:

Ripe papaya fruits, sugar, citric acid, churner, paraffin wax.

Procedure of Jam Preparation:

1. Select ripe papaya fruits and after washing them thoroughly, cut the
fruit into two halves and removes the seeds. Squeeze out the pulp and
pass it through churner to make a homogeneous mass.

2. For every one kg of the pulp take ¾ to 1 kg of sugar and 10 gm of

citric acid. Dissolve them in water and heat the mixture to nearly 60 0C
and strain in through muslin cloth and mix it thoroughly with the pulp.

3. The fruit and sugar mixture is then boiled to concentrate the soluble
solids to about 68.5 %. Remove the scum during cooking. Occasional
stirring of the mass is essential till the temperature reaches 104 to 109
0C.

4. Soon after the end point is reached the jam is cooled in a cooling pan
to about 200 0F and filled into previously sterilized bottles and allow it to
set over night.

5. Next day pour a layer of melted paraffin wax on the surface of the jam
and glass bottles are sealed and stored in a cool dry place.

Important Hints in Jam Preparation:

1. The process of Jam making should be done very rapidly and prolonged
boiling should be avoided as it deteriorates the flavour and colour both.

2. To avoid excessive frothing during boiling, a little butter may be added

to the jam.

3. While cooking, the ingredients should be stirred properly, otherwise it

may char and may result in the spoilage of the whole product.

4. The final product should not contain less than 45 percent of fruits and
68.5 percent soluble solids when cold.

5. The finished product shall have a heavy consistency.

6. It shall have the flavour of the organism fruit and shall be free from
burnt or other objectionable flavours, crystallization, mould growth and
shall show no sign of fermentation.

TECHNOLOGYCAL FLOW SHEET FOR PROCESSING JAM

Fig 3.2
 PROBLEM OF PRODUCTION

Soft spread is tough or stiff.

 This can happen when there’s too much natural pectin in the fruit. The solution is to
make sure fruit is fully ripe, not under-ripe.
 Another possible cause is cooking the jam or jelly too long. If you are not adding
commercial pectin, use a gel stage test to check doneness before filling jars.
 You may have used too much sugar. If commercial pectin is not used, 3/4 cup to 1
cup sugar for each 1 cup of juice or fruit should be adequate. Use standard dry
measuring cups and level sugar even with the top edge of the cup.

Soft spread ferments (bubbles are apparent in or on top of spread).

 This is usually caused by not bringing the soft spread to the correct temperature
before filling jars and/or under-processing, which prevents spoilage microorganisms
such as yeasts from being destroyed. Always bring soft spread to a full rolling boil
when using commercial pectin or to 220°F when preparing a recipe with no added
pectin. Fill jars and apply and adjust lids and screw bands once at a time. Process in
a boiling water canner. Refer to recipe for correct processing time.

Soft spread weeps (liquid forms at the top).

 Syneresis, or “weeping,” occurs in quick-setting soft spreads and is due to an

imbalance of acid and pectin in fruit mixture or the quality of pectin in the fruit. There
is no way to prevent or solve for it.
 Another cause of weeping is a lack of ideal storage conditions. Store soft spreads in
a dry, dark place between 50 and 70°F.

Soft spread contains glass-like particles (crystals in grape spreads).

 This can occur when you use too much sugar. Be sure to follow recipe instructions
and sugar measurements. Use standard dry measuring cups and level sugar even
with the top edge of the cup.
 Another possible cause for this is undercooking the mixture. When the cooking time
is too short, sugar does not dissolve completely and does not mix thoroughly with the
juice or fruit. It’s important to follow cooking instructions closely.
 You may have cooked the mixture too slowly or for too long. Long, slow cooking
results in too much evaporation of the water content of the fruit. Again, follow
cooking instructions closely for best results.
 Undissolved sugar that was sticking to the pan may have washed into the soft
spread as it was poured. To avoid that, carefully wipe the side of the pan free of
sugar crystals with a spatula during cooking or with a damp cloth before filling jars.
Instead of pouring, ladle soft spread into jars.
 When this happens with grape products, crystals are formed by tartaric acid, a
natural substance in grapes from which cream of tartar is made. Allow grape juice to
stand in the refrigerator for 12 to 24 hours. Ladle juice from bowl, being careful not to
disturb sediment that may have settled on the bottom, and strain through a
dampened jelly bag or several layers of dampened cheesecloth.

Soft spread made with no added pectin is too soft.

 This can be caused by an imbalance of your proportions of sugar, juice or fruit, acid
and pectin. Make sure to follow instructions precisely for soft spreads with no added
pectin.
 This can also happen when you make too large a batch all at once. Never make a
double batch; use no more than 4 to 6 cups of juice or fruit in each batch.
 Your fruit may have been too ripe. Select fruit that is fully ripe but not over-ripe.
Using some slightly under-ripe (but not green) fruit will help because it has more
natural pectin to aid with gelling.
 You may not have boiled the soft spread to the correct temperature. Use a gel stage
test to check doneness before packing jars.

Soft spread is cloudy.

 The fruit may have been too green or under-ripe. Fruit should be firm and fully ripe.
 You may have cooked the fruit too long before straining it to collect juice. Fruit
should be cooked only until it is tender.
 Some fruit pulp may have been extracted when juice was squeezed from the fruit. To
obtain the clearest jelly possible, let juice drain through a dampened jelly bag or
several layers of dampened cheesecloth. Do not squeeze jelly bag.
 You may have ladled the soft spread into jars too slowly or allowed it to stand before
ladling it into the jars. When cooking time is complete, work quickly to fill jars before
your soft spread starts to set and process immediately.

Fruit floats in soft spread: mixture gels, but fruit solids and clear jelly separate
into layers.
 This can occur when you use immature fruit or porous, textured fruit. Be sure to use
fully ripe, freshly picked fruit and berries, either fresh or frozen. Some imported out-
of-season fruits are firm textured and tend to float more easily.
 Another cause could be that the sugar content of your soft spread was too high. Be
sure to measure carefully and cook mixture at a full rolling boil for the time indicated
in the recipe before filling jars.
 The cause could also be air in the fruit, which can be dependent on the growing
season. There is no solution if this is the case.

B) PREPARATION OF JELLY

A primary goal in jelly is to obtain a product of uniform and desirable

colour, flavour, firmness, texture, and cleanness. A perfect jelly should be
transparent, well set, but not too stiff and should have the original flavour
of the fruit. It should be of attractive colour and should keep its shape
when removed from the mould. When cut it should retain its shape and
show a clean cut surface.

Pectin, sugar, acid and water which are the four necessary constituents
for jelly making, must be present approximately in the following
proportions:

Pectin: 1%
Sugar: 60 to 65 %
Fruit acid: 1%
Water: 33 – 38%

Preparation of Mango Jelly:

Materials:

Guava fruits, sugar, citric acid, Muslin cloth, paraffin wax, Glass bottles,
Jel meter, knife, etc.

Procedure Preparation of Mango Jelly:

1. Select just ripe, firm and sound fruits.

2. Wash the fruits thoroughly under cold running water and cut in to the
slices with a stainless steel knife.
3. Cook the fruit with an equal weight of water containing 1 % citric acid,
for 30 -35 minutes, unit it becomes tender and the pectin comes out in
the water.

4. The juice should be extracted by hand press through a thick muslin

cloth by putting the soft fruit piece and water in the cloth. The cleaner the
juice the brighter the finished products.

5. The juice thus obtained should be finally tested for pectin content. This
can be done by using Jel meter, or by Alcohol Test.

6. To every 1 kg of extract add ¾ kg of sugar.

7. The mixture is boiled rapidly till the setting point is reached.

8. The scum which comes out on the surface during boiling should be
removed and the boiling should be continued till the temperature reaches
221 0F or when it gives a “ Sheeting Test” ( i.e if hold in the spoon starts
dropping down into film position and does not dissolve in water). it is the
end point at which the jelly must be removed from the fire.

9. The jelly then poured into previously sterilized glass bottles, allow it to
cool and set.

10. Pour a thin layer of melted paraffin wax on the surface of the jelly and
sealed the bottles air tight.

11. Label and store the bottles in a cool dry place.

Important Hints for Preparation of Mango Jelly:

1. The final should contain minimum of 45% fruit.

2. Total soluble solids (TSS) should not be less than 65%.

3. Add artificial pectin if fruits are poor in pectin.

4. Permitted colours can be added, if necessary.

5. Jelly should not be sticky, gummy syrupy.

6. Rapid boiling is essential as prolonged boiling results in loss of flavour

destroying jellying property of pectin.

7. Good jelly should be gelatinous, clean, sparkling, transparent and of an

attractive colour. It should also retain original flavour and aroma of the
fruit.
TECHNOLOGYCAL FLOW SHEET FOR PROCESSING JELLY