Simulation of Waterflood Performance of Oil Reservoirs

M.Tech. Project
First Stage Report

Submitted by
Rahul Patil
(06302024)

Under the guidance of

Prof. Madhu Vinjamur

Department of Chemical Engg

Indian Institute of Technology
July, 2007.
Contents:

List of Figures ii
1 Introduction 1
2 Reservoir Properties 2
2.1 Porosity 2
2.2 Absolute Permeability 3
2.3 Effective Permeability 3
2.4 Relative Permeability 3
2.5 Fluid Saturation 4
2.6 Wettability 5
2.7 Mobility Ratio 6
3 Literature Review 7
3.1 Recovery Processes 7
3.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes 9
3.3 Bottom Water Reservoir 10
3.3.1 What is Bottom Water Reservoir? 10
3.3.2 What is coning? 10
3.3.3 Technical Solution 12
4 Reservoir Simulation 15
4.1 Reservoir Simulation 15
4.2 Governing Equation 16
5 Future Work Plan 19
6 References 20

i
List of figures:

Figure No. Title Page No.

2.1 Water-oil relative permeability curves 4
2.2 Oil-water contact angle 5
3.1 Water Conning Phenomena 10
3.2 Downhole Water Sink (DWS) Technology 11
4.1 Flow of fluid in single direction(x) 15
5.1 Flow visualization cell 18

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Chapter 1
Introduction

Petroleum oil is mixture of thousands of different hydrocarbons. It is removed from oil

reservoirs. Oil reservoirs are porous in nature, consist oil inside tiny pores. The amount of
oil that can be recovered from oil reservoir depends on the void volume of reservoir bed.
In the reservoir the forces acting on fluids are viscous forces, gravity sedimentation &
capillary forces. Petroleum Oil is the biggest source of energy worldwide & these sources
are limited. It is very important to remove oil efficiently & improve oil recovery as much
as possible under consideration of economical aspects using Enhanced Oil Recovery
(EOR) techniques.
Enhanced oil recovery techniques include maximum recovery of oil with the
minimizing the cost of production. Oil recovery process has been subdivided in three
stages: primary, secondary & tertiary. Historically primary production of oil is done
under the natural reservoir energy. Secondary production is implemented when the
primary is declined. Water flooding is used to remove out remaining oil present in the
reservoir bed increases oil recovery consider as secondary recovery stage. In the last one
decade expected oil recovery factor is increased by 5-6 % average by use of improved
and new technologies, where developments within drilling and well technology have
exceeded expectations. But still some type of reservoirs like Bottom Water Reservoir are
not having fully developed technologies ,still in that old fashioned flooding is used and
operation is not economical because of large water cut in earlier stage it self. So it is
required to find out different EOR techniques, which will be economically feasible and
giving good oil recovery under bottom water reservoir (1).

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Chapter 2
Reservoir Properties

Oil reservoirs are porous in nature & for the enhanced oil recovery study different
properties should be understand, some of these properties are discussed as follows (16):

2.1 Porosity ( φ ):
Porosity is the measure of void or pore space within a porous medium. It is defined as
ratio of volume of void space to the total volume of the medium. Porosity is expressed in
terms of percentage or fraction. It is described in two ways.

a) Absolute porosity ( φabs ):

It is the ratio of total void space or complete pore volume to the total volume of the
medium.
φabs = Total pore volume / Total bulk volume

b) Effective porosity ( φeff ):

Effective porosity is the ratio of volume of interconnected pores to the total bulk volume
of the medium. This property is very useful for the reservoir calculation because it
represents the volume occupied by mobile phase.
φeff = Volume of interconnected pores / Total bulk volume

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2.2 Absolute Permeability ( K ):
Permeability depends on the continuity of pores. It is the property of reservoir media that
allows fluid to flow through reservoir. It measures capacity of medium to transmit fluid.
Permeability term is used in Darcy’s law stated as follows.
⎡ KA ⎛ dP ⎞ ⎤
Q = −⎢ ⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣ μ ⎝ dx ⎠ ⎦
The equation given is for one dimensional incompressible fluid flow,
Where,
Q = Flow rate through medium (cc/min)
K = Absolute Permeability, (Darcy) or m2 relation: 1Darcy = 0.986923 µm²
A =Area of cross section normal to direction of fluid flow
⎛ dP ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = Pressure gradient in the direction of flow, (Pas/cm)
⎝ dx ⎠
μ = Dynamic viscosity, (Pas.min)
Darcy is very large unit for the measurement of permeability so permeability is normally
measured in terms of MiliDarcy (md).

2.3 Effective Permeability ( K e ):

This is ability to transmit a particular fluid when two or more fluids are present in the
reservoir. This depends on the saturation of fluid as well as nature of reservoir. (e.g.
effective permeability of gas in a gas-water reservoir). Effective permeability is measured
in terms of Darcy’s.

2.4 Relative Permeability ( K r ):

It measures the ability of two or more fluid phases to pass through porous reservoir. It is
defined as ratio of effective permeability of a particular fluid at particular saturation to
absolute permeability. This is dimension less term. Oil reservoir contains two or three
phase fluid flow for their individual consideration relative permeability term is
introduced.

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 Ke
Kr =
K
Where,
K r is relative permeability for a particular fluid , K e is effective permeability for that
fluid at particular saturation , K is absolute permeability.
Darcy’s law for multiphase flow in x direction is given by,
⎡ KK rj ⎛ ∂Pj ⎞ ⎤
Qj = − ⎢ A⎜ ⎟⎥
⎣⎢ μ j ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎦⎥
Where, K rj is relative permeability of jth phase flowing through media, μ j is viscosity

⎛ ∂Pj ⎞
of that phase, ⎜ ⎟ is pressure gradient of phase j & Q j is flow rate of j phase.
⎝ ∂x ⎠

Water oil relative permeability curve

1
Relative permeability

0.8 Kro

0.6

0.4 Krw

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Water saturation

Figure 2.1 Water-oil relative permeability curves (16)

2.5 Fluid saturation:

Percentage volume of total void volume occupied by any phase is considered as
saturation of that phase.

a) Oil saturation ( So ):

So = (Volume occupied by oil / Total Volume of void) x100

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b)Water saturation ( S w ):

S w = (Volume occupied by water/ Total Volume of void) x100

c) Residual oil saturation ( Sor ):

Residual oil saturation is defined as the saturation of oil (displaced fluid) left, after
flooding the reservoir by the displacing fluid (water).
Sor = (Volume of oil left in reservoir after flooding/ total volume of void space)

d) Initial water saturation ( S wi ):

Initial water saturation is defined as saturation of water (connate) in the reservoir before
starting the water flooding.
S wi = (Volume of water in the reservoir prier to flooding/ Volume of void space) x100

2.6 Wettability:
Wettability describes the relative adhesiveness of two fluids to a solid surface. In porous
medium like petroleum rock that contains two or more immiscible fluids like oil & water.
Wettability measures the tendency of one of fluid to adhere or wet the surface of rock
(solid). Wettability in three-phase system (oil, water, rock) depends on intermolecular
forces in between solid surface & fluids. It is important to recognize the effect of the
surface properties of oil/rock, water/rock and, in combination, the interface oil/water. The
property is surface or interfacial tension.

Figure 2.2 Oil-water contact angle (16)

By Force balance at surface, σ cos θ = σ − σ (1)

ow c os ws

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Where, σ ow is Interfacial tension between the oil and water, σ os = Interfacial tension

between the oil and solid, σ ws = Interfacial tension between the water and solid, and

θ c = Contact angle between Water-oil surface with solid contact line.

Contact Angle( θ c ) Nature of Wettability

0-300 Strongly water wet

0 0
30 -90 Preferentially water wet
0
90 Neutral Wettability
900-1500 Preferentially oil wet
1500-1800 Strongly oil wet

The oil is recovered from the rock by spontaneous imbibition of water. The oil
recovery in case of oil wet and neutral wet reservoir is less as compare to water wet
reservoir. So to improve the oil displacement efficiency, Wettability alteration is needed.
About 80% of all known carbonate reservoir are classified as oil wet or neutral wet.

2.7 Mobility ratio:

Mobility ratio is a new dimension less parameter introduced to give the relation between
the displacing phase (water) & displaced phase (oil) viscosities & relative permeabilities.
This is given by,
⎛ K rw ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ μw ⎠
MR = (2)
⎛ K ro ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ μo ⎠
Where, M R = Mobility ratio

K rw = Relative Permeability of displacing phase (water)

μ w = Viscosity of displacing phase (water)

K ro =Relative Permeability of displaced phase (oil)

μo = Viscosity of displaced phase (oil)

For the good flooding condition in any reservoir favorable Mobility ratio is less then 1.
M ≤ 1 (Desirable condition)

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Chapter 3
Literature Review

3.1 Oil Recovery Process:

Petroleum oil is recovered from reservoir by following three stages.

• Primary oil recovery:

• Secondary oil recovery:
• Tertiary oil recovery:
Historically these stages described the production from a reservoir in a
chronological sense. Primary production resulted from the displacement energy naturally
existing in a reservoir; Pressure built up in side the reservoir gives the primary recovery.
Secondary production is started after the primary recovery is declined & not economical.
Traditionally, Secondary recovery is obtained by injecting water or gas to built
pressure inside the reservoir & force reservoir fluid (oil &gas) to remove through
production well. Secondary recovery processes were water flooding and gas injection, but
now a days water flooding is most preferable injection process as secondary stage.
Tertiary recovery is that which is performed after water flooding (or whatever secondary
process is used).
Tertiary process use chemicals like surfactants, or polymers or thermal energy
(steam injection) to displace additional oil after secondary recovery process become
uneconomical. Injecting fluids in such a manner that will give maximum recovery with
less expense is part of EOR process .This stage consists Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
techniques. These techniques result in lower IFT’s, oil viscosity reduction, wettability
modification or favorable phase behavior. For the thermal process typically steam or hot
water is used (1, 18).

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 3.2 Enhanced Oil Recovery Processes:

• Chemical process:
Chemical processes involve the injection of specific liquid chemical that effectively
displace oil because of their phase behavior properties, which result in decreasing the IFT
between displacing liquid and oil. Chemicals such as surfactant or alkaline agents are
used to increase displacement efficiency (1, 18).

• Mobility control process:

Mobility control processes are in which favorable mobility ratio in the reservoir is
controlled by injecting polymeric fluid. This process increases volumetric displacement
efficiency. Example is thickening of water with polymer (Polyacrylamide polymer) in
case of bottom water reservoir (1, 18).

• Thermal process:
Thermal processes are very useful when the oil viscosity is high. In these processes hot
water or steam is injected it consists thermal energy & improves oil recovery (1, 18).

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3.3 Bottom Water Reservoir:

3.3.1 What is bottom water reservoir?

A number of reservoirs have been partially invaded by Bottom water; this bottom water
zone is present just below the oil zone & a sharp interface is present between oil and
water. Majority of this type of reservoir is observed in Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast,
(4)
South China Sea . It is observed that in this type of reservoirs water flooding is not
economical, water sweep efficiency is very less. The two main reasons obtained for this
are: (2)
1) This is due to large mobility of water in bottom water zone
2) Good vertical permeability.

During water flooding as water is injected from injection well due to large vertical
permeability & high mobility of water in the bottom water region more amount of
injected water enters to the bottom water zone results less volumetric sweep efficiency.
And at the production well coning effect is observed, it again reduces oil recovery &
gives large water cut. Oil recovery in case of heavy oils is very less as compare to
medium oils due to large cone formation. Removal of Large amount of water creates
problem for several operation as follows:
• High rate water production reduces the utility of pipeline facility and increase pipe
line facilities and increase cost of water handling,
• Disposal of oil contaminated water creates environmental hazards, so after some
treatment this water is reinjected & used for further flooding.
• Separation of large amount of water from oil (3).

3.3.2 What is water coning?

Water-oil interface forms a cone shape in case of vertical wells called as “Coning
Problem”. Water coning has been regarded as the biggest problem during the oil
production from a reservoir with bottom water. As the flow rate increases Coning

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 (5)
increases. The theory of water coning has been discussed by Smith, C.L. .Water is
injected from injection well most of water enters to bottom water zone because of more
mobility & at production well pressure gradient develops. Bottom water is at high
pressure then that of oil region. The tendency of the water to cone is partially offset by
gravity forces since the water has a higher specific gravity than the oil. A balance then
exists between two forces “gravitational forces” arising from the difference in specific
gravities of the oil and water, and the “pressure gradients” causing the flow of fluids to
the production well bore. If the pressure gradient exceeds the gravitational force, water
coning to the well bore will occur and large water cut (water production) results (5).

Figure 3.1: Water Conning Phenomena (6)

(6)
Islam M. R. carried out experiments for water flooding in bottom water
reservoir (model) & he found that different properties & factor those affect coning or oil
recovery are:
• Viscosity of oil or Mobility ratio.
• Ratio of oil bed to bottom water thickness.
• Absolute permeability ratio of oil zones to bottom water zone.
• Ratio of horizontal to vertical permeability.
• As flow rate increases coning effect increases.

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3.3.3 Technical Solutions:
Coning problem has received more attention in last three decades and several techniques
have been proposed to conquer coning & give economic operation. Some useful
techniques are:

1) Downhole Water Sink (DWS) Technology:

(7)
Dai S. observed the effect of downhole sink in production well. In this production
well consists two sinks one for oil removal present in oil zone and another for water
removal in bottom water zone. Since the occurrence of water coning is caused by
pressure gradients resulting from the sink (in oil zone) over the oil-water contact (OWC),
pressure gradients in the whole formation can be also modified by a water sink down the
OWC shown in Figure 3.2, when gravity forces are not high enough to offset the pressure
gradients induced by the sink over the OWC. Therefore, the mutual action of the pressure
gradients induced by two sinks and gravity forces control the occurrence of water coning
and determines the shape of water coning. This method is useful for light & medium
gravity oil reservoirs to improve water flooding performance.

Figure 3.2: Downhole Water Sink (DWS) Technology (7).

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2) Injection of Viscous Slugs or Polymer:
(2)
Barnes A.L. performed experiments to decrease mobility of water in bottom water
reservoir. Injection of viscous slug as additive with water during water flooding increases
oil recovery by increasing volumetric sweep efficiency & decreases water cut. Treatment
of reservoirs with a polymer solution should reduce the effective permeability of water to
a greater extent with out much disturbing or decreasing effective permeability of oil.
(2)
Polymer used for flooding was Polyacrylamide. Barnes studied effect of different
concentration of viscous slug in injection water, variation of injection rates on oil
recovery. Advantages of this process are increase in ultimate oil recovery & reduction in
lifting cost. Limitations of this process are:
• It reduces maximum rate of injection.
• Use of viscous slug should be economical.

3) Horizontal well configuration:

Horizontal wells have been traditionally used for thin reservoir and reservoir
containing heavy oil and bitumen. How ever the recent development in horizontal well
technology resulted in extending application of horizontal wells to thick and bottom
water drive conventional fractured and unfractured reservoir. Horizontal well associates
large contact area as compared to vertical well, this results more volumetric sweep
efficiency. In horizontal well also high water cut can be observed under the Water
Cresting.
(9)
Permadi P. has experimentally studied water crest behavior under horizontal
well in bottom water reservoir. At a low draw down, a horizontal well can have a larger
capacity to produce oil as compared to a conventional vertical well. Thus, the critical
injection rate, below which flat surface of oil-water interface will not deform. In case of
horizontal well critical rate is higher than that in a vertical well. Permadi (9) studied effect
of varying viscosity, thickness of bottom water region and well length on water cresting
under horizontal well.
(8)
Mohamed A.A. has conducted an experimental investigation to study the
production performance of horizontal wells in bottom water reservoir with & with out
fractures, and well production performance had been observed. A scaled three

12
dimensional model of bottom water reservoir is used. The model is packed with glass
beads yielding porosity of 0.36 and 400 Darcies. Kerosene and distilled water were used
(8)
to represent the fluids. Mohamed found the results that horizontal well performs well
and increases the recovery at water breakthrough.
(17)
Hongyin Z. analyzed a practical production experience in Huizhou 21-1,
Huizhou 26-1, Huizhou 11-1 oil fields in the South China Sea under eight horizontal
sidetracks. Initially oil recovery is done by vertical wells. & later on for middle & later
production period or high water cut period for mature oil field horizontal side track
technology is used. In this sidetracks are bored in the same vertical well to increase the
volumetric sweep efficiency this decreases the unswept area present in reservoir (17).

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Chapter 4
Reservoir Simulation

4.1 Reservoir Simulation

Reservoir simulation is tool that allows engineer to predict the behavior of reservoir
performance in future and to plan production strategies. It is very important to know the
reservoir behavior from point of view of economic feasibility. Classic reservoir
engineering deals with the reservoir on a gross average basis and account adequately for
the variations in reservoir and fluid parameters in space and time. The engineering
approach to derive fluid flow equations involves three steps:
i) Discritization of reservoir into blocks,
ii) Derivation of the algebraic flow equation in general blocks using material balance,
energy and Darcy’s law (momentum balance) gives partial differential equations,
iii) Approximation of time integrals in the algebraic equation derived in second step.
Petroleum reservoir simulation, on computer, involves the numerical solution of
mass conservation equations governing fluid flow in reservoirs. This tool allows for a
detailed study of a reservoir by dividing the reservoir into number of small block, and
applying fundamental equations of flow through porous media to each block. These
fundamental laws are based on mass, momentum and energy conservation. For practical
purposes, Darcy’s law, a semi empirical approach is employed instead of the momentum
equation. In black oil simulator, multiphase flow is approximated by oil phase (consist
mixture of different hydrocarbon), gas phase and water phase. This fluid approximation
of model is acceptable by very large number of reservoirs (10).

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4.2 Governing Balance Equations:
Governing balance equations of multiphase flow through porous reservoir media can be
obtained by writing; Consider that heat transfer in reservoir is very less, but in case of
steam flooding this equation plays very important role (11, 10).
• Mass balance equation
• Rate equation
• State equation

Mass balance equation:

Mass balance equation is derived by considering a control volume as shown in figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Flow of fluid in single direction(x)

If mx x
is mass flux of fluid in x direction enters to control volume of Δx thickness. And

mass flux at outlet of control volume is mx x +Δx

in x direction over the time interval of Δt .

The mass balance equation for this control volume can be written as:

⎡∂ ⎤ ~
( mx x − mx x +Δx
) AΔ t = ⎢⎣ ∂t ( ρφΔ V ) ⎥⎦ Δ t + q AΔxΔt (1)

Where,
ρ density of fluid flowing through control volume,
φ porosity of porous medium,
ΔV volume of control volume or can be written as AΔx ,
~
q rate of depletion per unit volume,
v is velocity (unidirectional flow),

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After dividing it equation-1 by ΔV Δt we will get,

Mass balance equation for unidirectional flow is:

⎛ ∂ ( ρ v ) ⎞ ∂ ( ρφ ) ~
−⎜ ⎟= +q (2)
⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂t

And for three dimensional flow, the equation becomes:

⎡ ∂ ( ρ vx ) ∂ ( ρ v y ) ∂ ( ρ vz ) ⎤ ∂ ( ρφ ) ~
−⎢ + + ⎥= +q (3)
⎢⎣ ∂x ∂y ∂z ⎥
⎦
∂t

After simplification above equation can be written as (10),

∂ ~
−∇.ρ v = ( ρφ ) + q (4)
∂t

Rate equation:
The rate equation or momentum equation for porous medium is given by Darcy’s law.
Darcy’s Law is an empirical relation that describes the relation between the fluxes and
the individual phase pressures. Since its discovery last century it has been derived from
the momentum balance equations by Dullien F.A (12). The generalized multiphase Darcy’s
law,

qα = −
kk r α
μα
(∇ p α
− ρα g ) (5)

Where, k permeability tensor, krα is relative permeability of α phase, μα is viscosity, of

α phase fluid, ρα is density of α phase , g is gravity acceleration and , Pα is pressure for

α phase, qα is volumetric flow rate of α phase.

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State equation:
The equation of state is required to express the density of compressible fluid with in
terms of pressure. Reservoir fluids are compressible in nature. And in reservoir density of
oil and gas varies much as pressure changes from point to point.

ρ = ρ 0ec(P−P 0 )
(6)

Where, ρ density at pressure P

ρ0 density at pressure P0
1 ⎛ dV ⎞
C isothermal compressibility factor , C = − ⎜ ⎟
V ⎝ dP ⎠T
These equations can be written for multi phase fluid flow and solved using suitable
boundary conditions.

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Chapter 5
Future Work Plan

Future work of this project will consist of experiments and simulation as described
below,

Experimentation:
Experimentation for understanding the behavior of bottom water reservoir,

Figure 5.1 Flow visualization cell

For experiments a flow visualization cell will be used as given in figure 5.1 with
sand or glass bids (as reservoir solid porous media) and kerosene-water represent
reservoir fluids. Bottom water condition will be created in flow visualization cell. And
behavior of bottom water reservoir is observed for different types of well configuration:
1) Vertical Injection-Vertical Production (VI-VP)
2) Vertical Injection- Horizontal Production (VI-HP)
3) Horizontal Injection-Vertical Production (HI-VP)
4) Horizontal Injection-Horizontal Production (HI-HP)
Analysis of oil recovery and water cut with respect to time will give behavior of
bottom water reservoir .Flow pattern is also observed, by digital camera. After this, effect
of change in other reservoir properties independently: viscosity of oil, effect of bottom
water region thickness, & effect of high permeability and low permeability of oil region
on earlier water cuts. And find out which configuration is useful in what types of

18
conditions & give most suitable configuration for a normal bottom water conditions
exists in most of oil fields.

Simulation:
ECLIPSE black oil simulator is used as simulation tool for the validation of experimental
performed with different well configuration & different reservoir properties. Reservoir
simulation will give the change in saturation profile (Oil &Water) and pressure profile in
reservoir with respect to time as water flooding occurs. Result Parameters those can be
observed during simulation are: Oil Efficiency (FOE), Oil Saturation (FSAT), Oil
Production Rate (FOPR), Production Total (FPT), Water Cut (FWC), Well Bottom Hole
Pressure (WBHP), Water Saturation (FWSAT) etc with respect to time.
And find out which configuration is useful in what kinds of conditions & give
most suitable configuration for a normal bottom water reservoir condition exists in most
of oil fields.

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References:
1) Green D.W., Willhite G.P.: “Enhanced Oil Recovery”, SPE (1998) 6, 1-20.
2) Barnes A. L.: “The Use of Viscous Slug to Improve Waterflood Efficiency in a
Reservoir Partially Invaded by Bottom water”, SPE (1963) 334, 1147-1153.
3) Inikori S. O., Wojtanowicz A.K.: “Contaminated Water Production in Oil Fields with
Downhole Water Separation: Effects of Capillary Pressures and Relative Permeability
Hysterisis” SPE (2001) 66536, 1-12.
4) Hogyin Z., Peimao Z.: “Improved Oil Recovery of Edge and Bottom Water Reservoir
by drilling Horizontal Sidetracks” SPE (2000) 64511, 1-10.
5) Smith C.R.: “Water Coning Control in Oil Wells by Fluid Injection” SPE (1963) 613,
314-326.
6) Islam M.R., Farouqali S. M.: “Use of Silica Gel for Improving Water Flooding
Performance of Bottom-Water Reservoirs” Journal of Petroleum Science and
Engineering (1993) 8, 303-313.
7) Ju B., Dai S., Fan T., & Wu H.: “An Effective Method to Improve Recovery of Heavy
Oil Reservoir with Bottom-Water Drive” SPE (2005) 10521, 1-8.
8) Mohamed A.A., Kandil A.A.: “Experimental Study of Horizontal Well Performance in
Fractured Reservoirs with Bottom-Water Drive”, Petroleum Science and Technology
(2001) 19, 933–947.
9) Permadi P., Lee R.L., & Kartoatmodji RST: “Behavior of Water Cresting Under
Horizontal Wells”, SPE (1995) 30743, 431-438.
10) Balasubramanian S.R.: “Black Oil Reservoir Simulation and Application”, Thesis
from University of Utah (2003) 1-204.
11) Abou-Kassem J.H., Farouqali S.M. & Islam M.R.: “Petroleum Reservoir Simulation”
Gulf Publishing Company (2006) 1-10.
12) Dullien, F.A.L.: “Porous Media Fluid Transport and Pore Structure”, Academic Press
(1979) New York.
13) Miller R.T., Rogers W.L.: “Performance of Oil Wells in Bottom-Water Drive
Reservoirs”, SPE (1973) 4633, 1-18.
14) Eclipse reference manual 2005a. Geoquest. Schlumberger.
15) Eclipse technical description 2005a. Geoquest. Schlumberger.

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16) Dandekar A.Y.: “Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties”, Taylor & Francis
Group (2006), 1-54.
17) Hongyin Z., Peimao Z.: “Improved Oil Recovery of Edge Water or Bottom Water
Reservoir by Drilling Horizontal Sidetracks”, SPE (2000) 64511, 1-10.
18) Willhite G.P.: “Waterflooding”, SPE (1986) 3, 1-10.

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