Report 147 ISSN: 0889-3144

Rubber Product
Failure

Roger P. Brown

Volume 13, Number 3, 2002

Rapra Review Reports

Expert overviews covering the science and
technology of rubber and plastics
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Item 1
Source of
Macromolecules
original article
33, No.6, 21st March 2000, p.2171-83
Title EFFECT OF THERMAL HISTORY ON THE RHEOLOGICAL
BEHAVIOR OF THERMOPLASTIC POLYURETHANES
Authors and
Pil Joong Yoon; Chang Dae Han affiliation
Akron,University
The effect of thermal history on the rheological behaviour of ester- and
ether-based commercial thermoplastic PUs (Estane 5701, 5707 and 5714
from B.F.Goodrich) was investigated. It was found that the injection
moulding temp. used for specimen preparation had a marked effect on the
variations of dynamic storage and loss moduli of specimens with time
observed during isothermal annealing. Analysis of FTIR spectra indicated
that variations in hydrogen bonding with time during isothermal annealing Abstract
very much resembled variations of dynamic storage modulus with time
during isothermal annealing. Isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiments
indicated that the thermoplastic PUs exhibited a hysteresis effect in the
heating and cooling processes. It was concluded that the microphase
separation transition or order-disorder transition in thermoplastic PUs could
not be determined from the isochronal dynamic temp. sweep experiment.
The plots of log dynamic storage modulus versus log loss modulus varied
with temp. over the entire range of temps. (110-190C) investigated. 57 refs. Companies or
GOODRICH B.F. organisations
Location USA mentioned
Accession no.771897

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Rubber Product
Failure

Roger P. Brown

ISBN 1-85957-330-4
 Rubber Product Failure

Contents
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3

2. Failure Analysis ........................................................................................................................................ 3

3. The Reasons for Failure .......................................................................................................................... 5

3.1 Design Error .................................................................................................................................... 5
3.2 Inappropriate Material .................................................................................................................... 5
3.3 Manufacturing Faults ...................................................................................................................... 6
3.4 Incorrect Installation ....................................................................................................................... 6
3.5 Unexpected Service Conditions ...................................................................................................... 6
3.6 Deliberate or Accidental Misuse ..................................................................................................... 7
3.7 Strategic Weakness ......................................................................................................................... 7

4. The Causes of Failure .............................................................................................................................. 7

4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................ 7
4.2 Temperature .................................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Effect of Fluids ............................................................................................................................... 9
4.4 Weathering .....................................................................................................................................11
4.5 Ionising Radiation ......................................................................................................................... 12
4.6 Biological Attack .......................................................................................................................... 12
4.7 Fatigue ........................................................................................................................................... 13
4.8 Set, Stress Relaxation and Creep .................................................................................................. 14
4.9 Abrasion ........................................................................................................................................ 14
4.10 Electrical Stress ............................................................................................................................. 14

5. Preventing Failure ................................................................................................................................. 15

5.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 15
5.2 Service Trials ................................................................................................................................ 15
5.3 Experience .................................................................................................................................... 16
5.4 Accelerated Testing ....................................................................................................................... 17
5.5 Quality Control ............................................................................................................................. 18

6. The Literature ........................................................................................................................................ 18

6.1 General .......................................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Tyres .............................................................................................................................................. 19
6.3 Seals .............................................................................................................................................. 19
6.4 Other Products .............................................................................................................................. 20

1
 Rubber Product Failure

7. Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................. 20

Additional References ................................................................................................................................... 20

Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database .......................................................................................... 21

Subject Index ................................................................................................................................................. 95

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2
 Rubber Product Failure
1 Introduction
It is only necessary to consider tyres to appreciate
that rubber compounds are used in demanding
applications. Over the last few decades the demand
for improved performance and the increase in severity
of service conditions over a wide range of rubber
products has been addressed by the introduction of
new materials, new compounding techniques and
more sophisticated design methodology. Older people
will well remember when both the tread life and the
road holding capability of a typical tyre were greatly
inferior to modern standards.
Whilst innovative materials and techniques are
generally well recorded in the literature there is still a
reluctance to publish accounts of failures. This is not
too surprising as the producers of products that have
failed are usually none too keen to advertise the fact
and those who diagnose the causes of failures are
generally prevented from revealing their results by
confidentiality agreements.
A major contribution to making accounts of the failure
of polymer products generally available has recently
been made by Wright in a compendium of case histories
covering both plastics and rubbers (9). There is also a
review in this series that is mostly concerned with
plastics but includes a few cases of rubber product
failure (71). This review report will not attempt to
systematically add to the detailed examples referred to
above but will consider the process of failure diagnosis
and the various causes of failures in service illustrated
with reference to particular cases. Many of these
examples of failures used for illustration are taken from
unpublished investigations carried out by the author.
The prime benefit of making accounts of failures public
is the opportunity to learn from the mistakes and
misfortunes of others. In contrast, the absence of
accounts of failures will only make it more probable
that others will repeat the same mistakes. When
considering the published accounts of failures, it is clear
that this has happened many times in practice as often
the cause of failure has been diagnosed as due to a
known problem or phenomena.
It will be appreciated that what constitutes failure has
to be defined. In the case of catastrophic failure, such
as the rupture of an elastic band, this is obvious but in
many cases there is no such clear end life. For example,
is the end point when a few ozone cracks have appeared
or when they have reached 5 mm in length? Broadly,
the definition of end point is the level of a property at
which it is thought to be not a good idea to carry on
using the product, which clearly could be some time
before complete failure. Campion and Morgan (48) give
a number of modes for failure definition from excessive
abrasion (worn out) to formation of cracks/blisters in
bulk due, for example, to explosive decompression.
What is considered a reasonable lifetime spans a wide
timescale. If a seal in a racing car engine lasts the race
everyone is happy but in a normal road car ten years
would be more reasonable. For products in the
construction industry decades of service may be
required. Short lifetimes in very low value products
are accepted; some modern elastic bands are essentially
one trip which defeats the misers who studiously
reclaim and horde them. It will be appreciated that
lifetime can be measured in time, number of cycles,
mileage, etc.
It is possible to dispute whether or not failure has
occurred. In the inspection of rubber flooring the
installer may believe it to be adequate whereas the
purchaser considers there are excessive gaps,
unevenness or debonding. Such instances are generally
concerned with faults due to poor quality control rather
than poor design or ageing.
Whilst the vast bulk of rubber products give good
service and satisfactory lifetimes, failures do occur.
Failures are at the very least expensive due to the
requirement to replace the parts, but generally the ill
will generated will be a greater penalty. The situation
is even more serious if the whole population of the
product is threatened and sometimes the result is
disaster. Clearly, it is sensible that every possible
precaution is taken to prevent failures occurring and
this should include study of past failures.
2 Failure Analysis
If used for long enough, it can be expected that all
products will eventually fail. A generalised model for
failure rate is that initially there is a relatively high
failure rate due to defective products followed by a
plateau region of low failure rate (random failures) and
finally an increasing high failure rate as the normal
lifetime expires. This is not the most satisfactory of
conditions, especially for safety critical products.
Consequently, manufacturers seek to minimise the
number of defective products and random failures
through careful quality control and thorough testing at
the design and prototypes stage to result in a very low
3
 Rubber Product Failure
failure rate up to the design lifetime. In principle, the
ideal of virtually no failures can be achieved by the
combination of 100% inspection and testing together
with replacement at intervals much less than the
expected life. This is the policy applied to electricians’
gloves for high voltage working where, additionally,
the user inspects the gloves before each occasion of
use. Another example of deliberate replacement is
critical seals in engines, whilst replacement of tyres is
legally required in the UK when the tread depth reaches
a particular level.
Generally, if the service life matches expectations
relatively little attention is paid to the failure -
although investigation could be valuable for future
design and hence potentially valuable information is
lost. When a product fails before its expected lifetime
it is probable that questions will be asked as to why it
failed. This information is required to know what steps
to take to prevent it happening again or to know who
to blame. The investigation of failed articles to deduce
the causes of failure is variously termed failure
analysis or failure diagnosis.
The cause of failure may be at least superficially
obvious - such as the abrading away of flooring or the
gross swelling of a seal. The more detailed cause of
the obvious failure is likely to be more important and
also is likely to be more difficult to deduce. This relates
to the two reasons for conducting a failure analysis -
future prevention and blame. In the latter case the
investigation need only go as far as establishing fault
and may not need to establish, for example, whether it
was poor design or poor quality control - the
manufacturer is at fault in either case.
The main impetus for undertaking failure analysis
should not be about blame but to find the root causes
and learn from the mistakes. In a very recent inspection
of an unsatisfactory floor installation, it would have
been all too easy to blame the floor layer for gaps
between tiles. However, it was primarily due to
variation in tile dimensions and the occurrence of gaps
would certainly continue to occur unless dimensional
tolerances were tightened.
There are three basic requirements for failure analysis:
• correct observation of evidence and gathering
of facts
• a logical sequence of measuring, reasoning and
deduction
• a knowledge of the material properties and
behaviour.
4
Inability to correctly diagnose the cause of failure can
come from a shortcoming in any of these three factors.
A considerable knowledge of material behaviour will
not always suffice if a piece of evidence is overlooked
or the sequence of reasoning has an illogical step. On
the other hand, meticulous observation and reasoning
will fall short of finding the correct answer without
appropriate material knowledge.
The analysis process can be defined in deceptively easy
steps from the collecting of all the evidence and facts
through examination and testing, to logical reasoning
to find what possible causes can be eliminated, to
arriving at conclusions. However, in many cases the
process will be far from easy with plenty of
opportunities for error. It is not appropriate here to
consider the details of the failure analysis process but
it needs to be recognised as an important discipline
that requires experience and training.
The following is a simplistic example of how the cause
of failure can be unexpected. Examination of a hot
water bottle showed that it had split with no signs of
damage from external sources. The outside of the bottle
gave the appearance of long use but it was claimed to
be only a few weeks old. It was decided to test to the
relevant British standard. The technician cut the bottle
to obtain test pieces and noticed that the inside was in
pristine condition. The technologist knows that bottles
normally deteriorate by oxidation of the rubber
accelerated by heat and perhaps trace metals in the
water. The inside should fare worst. It transpired that
the old lady who bought the bottle was filling it with
cold water and heating it in her gas oven.
Two ‘mistakes’ were made: nobody had the chance to
interview the user at the outset and the technologist
should have inspected the inside before deciding on
tests. The plus side was a very observant test technician.
It is also interesting to know that this failure was only
diagnosed because the hot water bottle supplier had a
policy at the time of replacing returned goods twice
but on the third return commissioning a full
investigation. The lady had previously cooked another
two bottles.
Experts investigating a failure do not always agree.
Experts for one side in a dispute over failed
polyurethane bound rubber crumb playground surfaces
were convinced it was due to the installer using too
low a ratio of binder. Consideration of the resin
supplier’s advice seemed to bear this out. However,
the other side’s experts could not reconcile this with
the installer having laid many other successful
installations using nominally the same ratio. Closer
 Rubber Product Failure
examination of the recommendations for resin showed
that there was some confusion between percent by
weight and percent by volume. When the density of
the EPDM granules was taken into account the ratio
used was lower than ideal but not unacceptable. Turning
attention to the granules supplied then ascertained that
there had been a change not notified to the purchaser,
which resulted in greater absorption of resin and in
consequence inadequate strength of the resin/rubber
granule matrix.
There were many lessons in this case and it indicates
that the conclusion will perhaps depend on the avenue
of investigation. All avenues need to be explored as
there may be more than one contribution to the problem,
for example:
(1) However reputable a supplier and long standing
his data sheets, they may still be misleading.
(2) You cannot guarantee that a supplier will tell you
of changes, particularly when he does not think
that they are important.
(3) It is not a good idea to run a process on the edge of
its viability.
(4) When there is no quality control testing of
incoming materials trouble is likely sooner or later.
3 The Reasons for Failure
The basic reasons why products fail can be stated as:
• Design error
• Inappropriate material
• Manufacturing fault
• Incorrect installation
• Unexpected service conditions
• Deliberate or accidental misuse.
3.1 Design Error
Intrinsic faults in the design of a product generally
imply a lack of appreciation of how the product is used
in service, and what it is subjected to. This includes
underestimating the stress or strain levels involved or
not understanding the detailed distribution of stresses
and strains. Increasingly, finite element analysis is used
as an aid to design and in theory at least one would
expect that it should reduce the incidence of design
mistakes – although it is still dependent on the quality
of input data. Design errors can also occur because the
engineers involved do not properly appreciate the
unique properties and behaviour of rubber which are
so different from metals.
It can of course be very difficult to predict the stress or
strain levels in service for some products. Many years
ago Rapra investigated brake hoses that had been
successful on a number of cars but fatigue failures were
experienced on a particular model. The details have
been lost but the problem was associated with the
particular geometry of the bending that the hose was
subjected to.
A different type of design error is where the product
fails in a business sense because it infringes
intellectual property rights or fails to comply with
legislation. The author has investigated a number of
cases where an artificial sports surface failed the
performance specification because the shock pad was
not designed with sufficient energy absorption. These
installations were usable but not acceptable to the
purchaser. In other cases of sports surfaces, design
faults have resulted in dimensional instability some
time after being put into use.
3.2 Inappropriate Material
Inappropriate choice of material arises for basically the
same reasons as poor design but in many cases it could
be argued that those responsible were in a position to
know better. Probably more than for the other reasons
for failure, wrong choice of material stems from
overlooking known problems and the experience of
others. Also, in many cases the problem with the
material selected would have been realised if adequate
testing had been carried out.
There are certainly cases where rubber components are
specified by the user for incorporation into a product
but the user’s expertise in the material is questionable.
Many years ago it amused staff at a rubber moulding
company that a prestigious car manufacturer had black
rubber written on the drawing as the material
specification. Nevertheless he was always provided
with the best quality.
5
 Rubber Product Failure
The author owned an outboard motor which was very
well engineered except that the rubber sparking plug cover
cracked in a matter of weeks. The company appeared
unaware that there was more than one type of rubber nor
that stress concentrations aided ozone cracking.
A case involving the failure of numerous central heating
radiator seals was basically caused by a material being
recommended without proper understanding of the
service conditions and the capability of the material. This
may seem rather silly but, “How many times has a non-
ozone resistant rubber been used in an application where
cracking was inevitable?” In the case of the radiator seals
the misguided recommendation was compounded by
lack of any proper evaluation of the new seals, which
would have quickly found the problem. Failures can
quite often be traced through a sequence of events. Here,
the material manufacturer’s literature was not exactly
helpful for the application in question, the moulder
thought the material would be suitable on the basis of
other applications, nobody did any tests and the radiator
manufacturer did not conduct any trials.
3.3 Manufacturing Faults
Manufacturing faults are taken to mean errors in the
composition of the material, mistakes during processing
and forming, and lapses in quality control. In one sense
they are all attributable to quality control as the control
procedures should detect compounding and processing
mistakes. Thus there is a good chance of failure if
quality control is lacking.
Aeration diffuser membranes made of EPDM were
found to have failed because of circumferential splits.
The design of these diffusers includes perforations
which result in the membranes being much stronger in
one direction than in the other so the investigation
involved testing mechanical properties in the two
directions. The analysis was made easy because
samples of new membranes were available and
previously both new and used membranes had been
tested for a different reason. It transpired that, although
the used membranes had deteriorated to some extent,
the most significant factor was that both the failed and
unused membranes had much lower strength and
elongation than the previously tested samples. It was
not possible to exactly diagnose the reason for the
change but it was clearly a control problem and most
probably associated with degree of cure.
Design and material selection errors are likely to affect
the whole population of the product whereas
6
manufacturing faults are in principle restricted to a
more modest number. However, this number can be
very significant and there is a rule that dictates it is
likely to happen where the consequences are most
serious. In an example of failed fuel hose the
consequences were made worse by the faulty
components being installed in ambulances.
3.4 Incorrect Installation
A perfectly good product can be ruined or have its life
curtailed by incorrect installation. If installation is by
the manufacturer this is a form of quality control lapse
whereas if installation is by the user or a third party it
could be considered misuse. In failure analysis, wrong
installation is often the first ‘defence’ from the supplier.
One of the arguments advanced when a largely
polymeric echo sounder unit was lost from the hull of
a yacht (resulting in sinking of the vessel) was that it
had not been attached properly. However, one would
expect it to have pushed inwards not outwards due to
water pressure.
3.5 Unexpected Service Conditions
Unexpected service conditions may be truly
unfortunate in that despite careful research the unlikely
still happened. In other instances the unexpected could
have been expected if sufficient study of the application
had been carried out. This problem is two sided in that
the designer may be required to assess the needs of the
application, but the user may fail to disclose vital
information. Many instances of ozone cracking fall into
the second category, but in one case involving cable
glands on an oil rig the original arrangement was for
them to be covered but this was changed at a later date.
This case was also interesting as regards what
constitutes failure - the cracks were really only a
cosmetic problem, being away from the part of the
gland doing the sealing.
Fat contaminated the polyurethane floor at a margarine
production factory causing it to break up. It is probable
that the floor material manufacturer was not aware of
the circumstances of use so that to him/her it would be
unexpected service conditions, whereas considering the
people who specified the floor it would be a case of
incorrect choice of material. Yet again, it could be that
the factory owner did not disclose the actual use of the
floor area in question. Because the investigators were
only required to prove damage from fat the actual
human errors involved are not known.
 Rubber Product Failure
3.6 Deliberate or Accidental Misuse
Deliberate or accidental misuse is generally a fault on
the part of the user – he or she is rather less likely to
understand the material and its capabilities - but the
supplier does need to make the limitations of the
product known. The public has blind faith in tyres
running under-inflated and probably a high percentage
of tyre problems are self inflicted.
With many products, failure due to accidental or
deliberate damage is fairly obvious. However, expert
examination is likely to be needed to establish whether
a tyre failure was misuse or a manufacturing fault and
diagnosis may be difficult. An investigation into leaking
ethylene-propylene roofing membrane demonstrated no
deficiencies in the material. Cuts and indentations were
considered to have been caused by a sharp instrument
and debris below the membrane respectively. It could
also be established that the cuts were made before or
during laying and hence not due to deliberate damage
later. Hence, in this case what started as suspected
deficient material moved to emphasis on misuse, but
in actual fact was an installation problem.
3.7 Strategic Weakness
With the possible exception of unexpected service
conditions, the root causes can all be attributed to
human error, even if in some cases the error was very
difficult to foresee. When the reasons for failures are
spelt out like this it all seems obvious but the fact is
that, however obvious the steps to prevention may
seem, failures happen.
Wright (9) illustrates what he terms strategic
weaknesses, which result in the wrong choice of
material or in design errors. Polymer producers
emphasise the good performance aspects of their
materials and the product manufacturer only publicises
successes. This may result in the poor properties of a
material being overlooked and, through the lack of
information, mistakes being made. Hence, it can be
argued that a large proportion of failures are basically
the result of lack of awareness, information that could
have prevented the problem not being available or not
heeded. When a lesson has been learnt after a failure it
is also necessary to appreciate that the knowledge is
valuable and has to be preserved to prevent the mistake
being repeated by others at a later date.
Wright gives an example which, although not involving
rubbers, is illuminating. Casings for storing mines in
readiness for war started to split. He quickly diagnosed
the problem as environmental stress cracking due to
silicone grease used as a lubricant. Changing lubricant
prevented the splitting. Ten years later he was called
to investigate the same problem and found they had
reverted to using silicone grease. All the staff had
changed and the knowledge had been lost.
It is not easy to apportion premature failures of rubbers
to the basic reasons listed above, but it is highly
probable that use of inappropriate materials outweighs
all the others, followed by poor design and processing
errors. Wright (9) considered some 5,000 failures of
plastics products and found 45% due to material mis-
selection and poor specification, 20% each due to poor
design and poor processing and 15% due to abuse. He
noted that the figures may underestimate failures due
to abuse or accident as these are often obvious and do
not invite high expenditure on independent
investigation, whilst failure modes that threaten the
whole population of a product may be overestimated.
The proportions for rubber would be expected to be
not dissimilar, although there are probably differences
for particular products. Tyres are particularly exposed
to misuse by the public and play and sports surfaces
have probably had a high proportion of failures due to
quality control.
4 The Causes of Failure
4.1 General
Leaving aside abuse and gross faults that result in
immediate failure, the cause of failure can be ascribed
to one or more of a number of ‘degradation agents’
covering both environmental and mechanical factors
as listed in Table 1.
During its lifetime a rubber product will be exposed to
one, or usually several, of these degradation agents.
The contribution of each of them is often complicated
to evaluate as they are generally interrelated, for
example stress relaxation is accelerated by thermal
degradation, and two agents may have a synergistic
effect in that their effect, in combination, is greater or
less than the sum of their individual effects.
Whilst many properties will change because of the
environment, they will change at different rates and
hence to different degrees. For example, fatigue life
often deteriorates more rapidly than tensile strength;
with many synthetic rubbers hardness and modulus can
rise appreciably whilst tensile strength remains virtually
7
 Rubber Product Failure

Table 1 Degradation agents (17)

Agent Type of ageing or effect
Temperature Thermo-oxidation, additive migration, crosslinking, crosslink loss (reversion)
Light Photo-oxidation
Ionising radiation Radio-oxidation, crosslinking
Humidity Hydrolysis
Fluids (gases, liquids, vapours) Chemical degradation, swelling, additive extraction, cracking
Bio-organisms Decomposition, mechanical attack
Mechanical stress Fatigue, creep, stress relaxation, set, abrasion, adhesive failure
Electrical stress Local rupture

the same; some fluids may cause little swelling but may
extract protective agents or cause chemical attack. In
many cases it will be possible to identify the critical or
most important degradation agent(s) for the particular
application, and material selection and design can be
appropriately focused. As a simple example, there is
not much point in compounding for maximum abrasion
resistance if failure in practice will occur from cracking
at low temperature.
rubber parts of a drug container into the drug, which is
unacceptable, and could be considered another
definition of failure. The presence of one plasticiser
was a design error but the other was present as a result
of contamination during processing.
4.2 Temperature

Assessing the critical factors is not always easy and
many instances of premature failure in service have
occurred because a critical factor had been overlooked.
Unfortunately, the longer a product is in service the
greater the risk of the unusual or unanticipated
occurring because over time there can be a change in
operating conditions or the environment.
Not surprisingly, experience of what most frequently
causes failure of rubber products depends somewhat
on the application. For products subjected to relatively
moderate stresses and normal ambient temperatures,
ozone cracking is very often the first problem whilst
in applications involving elevated temperatures, the
effect of thermal degradation on critical mechanical
properties is generally the most common cause. In seals
the combination of the effects of fluids and temperature
on stress relaxation is most likely to be the important
factor. In many of the cases of unexpected failure where
apparently reasonable choices of material had been
made the problem has been overlooking aspects of
service exposure which potentially could occur. Typical
of this is the acceleration of ageing through the presence
of metal ions.
Low temperatures cause stiffening and eventually
brittleness which in some applications can be the prime
cause of failure, if the service temperature turns out to
be lower than the glass transition temperature of the
rubber used. For rubbers which crystallise at particular
sub-ambient temperatures the long term effect of low
temperature may also need to be considered. A slightly
surprising case was found with soles of sandals made
in a country where low temperatures did not occur but
which cracked when used in frozen conditions.
Thermal expansion and contraction are reversible short
term effects of temperature which may be very
important in some applications. Repeated temperature
cycling is essentially a form of fatigue.
Large areas such as the shock pads of artificial sports
surfaces can experience very considerable dimensional
changes due to temperature. In one particularly baffling
case artificial grass appeared to expand and formed
waves when the temperature was lowered. The effect
was found to be a result of internal stresses and the
differential expansion between the grass and the rubber
shock pad.

Rubbers can indirectly be the cause of failure. Lewis Oxidative degradation is generally considered to be
(71) mentions a case of plasticisers migrating from the the most serious problem in the use of rubber at high

8
 Rubber Product Failure

temperatures, but it also proceeds slowly at ambient Table 2 Generic maximum continuous use
temperature so that in the very long term it will be a temperatures for rubbers (9)
factor for all products. Many of the failures which
are thermal degradation related are due to an MCUT
Material Designation
inappropriate rubber being used for the service (°C)
conditions, particularly where there is a synergistic Bromobutyl BIIR 120
effect with other agents. An example of metal ion
catalysis in central heating expansion joints is given Butadiene 60
later and copper in water supplies accounts for the Butyl IIR 100
early failure of many hot water bottles. Long term
Butyl (resin cured) IIR 130
predictions from accelerated heat ageing tests are
by no means easy but the problems are compounded Chlorinated PE CPE 120
if detailed knowledge of the service conditions is Chlorobutyl CIIR 120
not available.
Chloroprene CR 90
The difference in performance may be quite marked Chlorosulphonyl CSM 120
for modest temperature change. A flexible hose failed
through heat ageing and it was concluded that the Ebonite 80
nitrile/SBR blend used was only adequate for Epichlorohydrin CO 130
continuous service at about 70-80 °C whereas in
EPDM (sulphur cured) EPDM 120
practice 80 °C was reached. Less SBR in the blend
would probably have resulted in satisfactory service. EPDM (resin cured) EPDM 150
Ethylene vinyl acetate EVM 110
The Underwrites Laboratory (UL) index indicates
the safe temperature of use of a material in air for Ethyl acetate ACM 150
up to 100,000 hours (11.4 years). Maximum Fluoroelastomer FPM 210
continuous use temperatures for a range of rubbers
Fluorosilicone FVMQ 200
with minimal stabilisation are shown in Table 2.
Isoprene IR 60
The effect of ageing on reducing fatigue resistance Natural rubber NR 60
or increasing the degree of stress relaxation may be
rather more important than the changes produced in Nitrile (< 20% ACN) NBR 110
such basic properties as tensile strength, elongation Nitrile (> 20% ACN) NBR 120
at break and modulus. This illustrates that it is the
critical factor in service that needs to be evaluated Nitrile/PVC polyblend PNBR 90
and basic information in suppliers data sheets could Nitrile (carboxylated) XNBR 110
be misleading.
Nitrile (hydrogenated) HNBR 150
Because oxygen is used up in the ageing process it Perfluoroelastomer FFKM 260
follows that the rate of degradation is dependent on Styrene-butadiene SBR 70
the rate of oxygen supply. This means that the thicker
the product the greater the differential between the Urethane (ester) AU 75
ageing of the surface and the interior and this is Urethane (ether) EU 75
another complication to predicting lifetime. Massive
bridge bearings have given good service for decades
but a thin membrane of the same material may only
last a few years or even months.
4.3 Effect of Fluids
It should be noted that, in environmental exposure
tests, the changes in properties are normally Fluids encompass a whole range of chemicals, both
monitored at ambient temperature even when liquids and gases which can come into contact with
accelerated heat ageing tests have been used. rubber in various ways during service. Fluids can be
Temperature has a short term effect on properties absorbed and cause swelling of the rubber, or may
and where the service temperature is elevated the extract soluble constituents of the compound, or may
properties should be monitored at that temperature. catalyse oxidation or have direct chemical effects.

9
 Rubber Product Failure

Figure 1
Time-swelling curves for three different materials in contact with test fluid (17)

Tests in which rubbers are exposed to liquids are often
called swelling tests simply because the resulting
change in volume of the test pieces is by far the most
commonly used measure of the effect of the liquid. The
term oil ageing is also sometimes used because standard
grades of mineral oil are the liquids most often
specified. Figure 1 illustrates three different types of
material behaviour in contact with a test liquid.
Volume change is a very good measure of the general
resistance of a rubber to a liquid. A high degree of
swelling clearly indicates that the material is not
suitable for use in that environment, although in certain
applications, such as seals, a negative swelling
(extraction) could be equally bad as regards service.
Absorption of fluid is a reversible process and
consideration has to be given as to whether in service
fluid contact will be intermittent.
If chemical reactions take place, including the effect
of temperature, the degradation will continue long after
equilibrium absorption has been reached and volume
change alone will not be a sufficient measure of the
effect of the fluid.
There are numerous instances where failure was the
result of a rubber being used that was not sufficiently
resistant to liquids encountered, in some cases because
contact with the liquid in question had not been
expected. A particular form of this problem is when
the service liquid becomes contaminated, one case
being where water stops swelled because oil leaked in
during flooding.
Buried products, such as cable, may be exposed to soil
contaminants. In one case a ducted cable (see Figure 2)
disintegrated due to the effects of exposure to solvents

Figure 2
Schematic of waveconal cable (9)

10
 Rubber Product Failure
from a car respraying plant above it. The PVC sheath
swelled and cracked exposing the devulcanised rubber
underneath to similar attack (9).
The permeation of water into rubber is very slow
compared to organic liquids and even thin products
require a very long time to reach equilibrium. As an
illustration, it has been found that the effect of water
absorption on compression stress relaxation at ambient
temperature is not noticed until upwards of one year.
Apart from being absorbed and having a plasticising
effect, moisture can produce hydrolysis in some
materials, such as polyurethanes. Further, it can have a
synergistic effect with other agents, such as UV light.
The number of applications where gases (other than
air and ozone) are involved is relatively small compared
to liquids, but an extra consideration where high
pressures are involved is the possibility of explosive
decompression due to absorbed gas rupturing the rubber
when pressure is released. This was found to be the
cause of blisters in sleeves of gas line valves at one
particular installation. There had been many successful
installations but problems only occurred at particular
conditions of temperature and pressure and was hence
difficult to foresee. Nevertheless, the underlying cause
was thought to be associated with poor dispersion of
ingredients and the relatively low strength of the
material which could have been investigated earlier.
Although ozone exists in only very small quantities in
the atmosphere, it is important because less than 1 pphm
(part per hundred million) can severely attack non-
resistant rubbers in the strained condition. Indeed,
ozone attack can be the major factor as regards lifetime
when exposed to the atmosphere. The effect of ozone
is to produce clearly visible and mechanically very
damaging cracking of the rubber surface. It only attacks
rubber in the strained condition, although with the less
resistant rubbers the ‘threshold strain’ for attack may
be very low. Rubbers with unsaturated (C=C) bonds in
the main chain have very poor ozone resistance.
Time after time complaints, and, less often, serious
problems, arise because of ozone cracking due to an
insufficiently resistant rubber being selected. The
relative ozone resistance of a variety of rubbers in the
unstabilised state is shown in Table 3. It appears that
often the likelihood of cracking is overlooked for such
reasons as the degree of strain being underestimated
or simply through lack of knowledge. One factor is
that the relation of severity of cracking to strain is not
simple. By definition there are no cracks below the
threshold strain for any given exposure period. A few
cracks, often large, are found at strains slightly above
Table 3 Relative ozone resistance of
unstabilised rubbers (17)
Rubbers with very Diene rubbers (e.g., natural
poor resistance rubber, styrene butadiene rubber,
nitrile rubber, budadiene rubber)
Rubbers having Butyl rubber, hydrins,
some resistance hydrogenated nitrile rubber,
polythioethers, polychloroprene
Rubbers having Acrylics, chlorosulphonated
good resistance polyethylene, ethylene-
propylene rubbers, fluorocarbon
rubbers, silicone rubbers
the threshold and the cracks will become more
numerous and smaller at progressively higher strains.
It is quite possible for the cracks at very high strains to
be so small as to be invisible to the naked eye, although
after longer times they will coalesce.
4.4 Weathering
Weathering is taken to mean exposure to the
atmosphere which includes sunlight, temperature,
precipitation, ozone and any pollutants present.
However, particularly when accelerated testing is
considered the emphasis is on the effect of UV light.
Both the intensity and the spectral distribution of
sunlight vary with the location, time of year, the
atmospheric conditions and the angle of the sun.
Consequently, the apparent resistance of a material
will vary considerably depending on the installation
and even service trials could easily be misleading. It
also makes predicting weathering performance from
accelerated tests very difficult, particularly as there
is uncertainty in the match of the spectrum of the lamp
used to that of the sun. Acceleration factors are
calculated but they are approximate to say the very
least. However, as an example the author estimated
acceleration factors of 4.7 and 11 for a xenon lamp
with respect to exposure in Arizona and London. It
also implies that a material would last over twice as
long in London as in Arizona but that factor would
doubtless change when the temperature difference was
also considered.
The effect of light on rubbers has generally been
considered to be much less important than it is for
plastics. With any degradation being restricted to the
surface layer it is thought only of consequence for thin
11
 Rubber Product Failure
walled articles and coated fabrics, plus coloured
materials (the effect on pigments may be much greater
than on the rubber polymer).
This is probably a complacent view as back in 1970
Angert and Dubok (a.1) reported significant weathering
effects on both black and white filled compounds.
Recent experience at Rapra is that artificial weathering
in fluorescent tube apparatus at 45 °C produces quite
large changes in many compounds. Clearly, this will
include a contribution due to temperature and an
attempt was made to isolate the purely weathering
effect. This was achieved using the results of
accelerated ageing tests and applying a Williams-
Landel-Ferry (WLF) shift, so that inevitably the
uncertainties were very large. In many cases the
observed changes on weathering could be accounted
for by the effect of temperature, but in at least as many
cases there was evidence that the effect of weathering
was significant and, also, that in other cases the effects
of weathering and temperature were in opposite
directions. Despite the uncertainty, the evidence was
sufficient to suggest that the effects of weathering
should not be ignored.
Nevertheless, failures in rubbers attributed to UV light
do not seem to be numerous. The only cases seen by
the author involved chalking and colour change and as
one of the factors in the cracking of roofing membranes.
Even if the effect of UV light itself is not generally
serious, the temperature reached by light exposure in
outdoor exposure can be surprisingly high and cause
much greater effect. In sunlight, with an ambient
temperature of 26 °C a black rubber is likely to reach
50 °C and a white one 33 °C. With an insulated backing
this could rise to as high as 80 °C for a black material
and under glass temperatures can exceed 100 °C. Hence
the lifetimes could be expected to be very different
depending on the aspect of the product. This is seen in
the earlier failure of seals on the south side of buildings.
4.5 Ionising Radiation
Ionising radiation means atomic and nuclear particles,
i.e., gamma rays, electrons neutrons, etc. The intensity
of ionising radiation at the earth’s surface is not high
enough to significantly affect rubbers and hence radiation
exposure is only a consideration in connection with
applications in nuclear plant and possibly where radiation
is used to induce crosslinking or for sterilisation.
Each of the types of radiation has a characteristic way
of interacting with matter and transferring its energy.
12
Alpha radiation has the least penetrating power and its
effects are limited to the surface layers of a material so
it only needs to be considered when a surface is
contaminated by an alpha emitter. Beta radiation has a
range of up to a centimetre or two whilst X-ray, gamma
radiation and neutrons are very penetrating. Gamma
radiation is commonly used in sterilisation of medical
devices. The relative resistance of a range of rubbers
is shown in Table 4.
Table 4 Gamma radiation resistance of a
range of rubbers (17)
Rubber type Insignificant damage
(radiation dose, Gy)
Butyl rubber Up to 10,000
Acrylic rubber Up to 100,000
Silicone rubber Up to 100,000
Chlorosulphonated rubber Up to 100,000
Nitrile rubber Up to 100,000
Fluorocarbon rubber Up to 100,000
Polychloroprene rubber Up to 100,000
Styrene-butadiene rubber Up to 500,000
Ethylene-propylene rubber Up to 500,000
Polyurethane rubber Up to 500,000
Where radiation is a consideration it needs to be
appreciated that the effects can depend on dose rate.
Also it should be noted that temperature can have a
significant effect on the degradation as it controls both
the rate of oxygen diffusion into the material and the
rates of reaction of the products of the irradiation.
4.6 Biological Attack
Biological attack in service is relatively rare, although
rubbers and/or additives can prove attractive to living
organisms. Attack by animals or insects is only likely
to be a serious problem in tropical countries where
there have been reports of such things as bus window
seals being eaten. In Europe there has been
considerable concern that products such as rubber pipe
seals are susceptible to microbiological degradation.
Although actual cases of damage appear to be few,
the cost implications in underground pipe networks
are considerable and research has identified the
 Rubber Product Failure
polymers and compounds that should be avoided.
Another important area is in medical implants.
The other side to the coin of attack by living
organisms, particularly microorganisms, is when it is
welcomed. Increasingly, biodegradable polymers have
been introduced which are specially formulated so that
they are broken down by microorganisms relatively
quickly and hence their disposal after use causes no
environmental problems.
4.7 Fatigue
There are of course occasions when a rubber product
fails mechanically in an abrupt manner after little or
no service that could be said to have induced such
failure. Such failures must be associated with either
gross under design in terms of mechanical strength,
a serious manufacturing error, use with stresses in
excess of those expected or deliberate or accidental
damage. An example of the last situation was a fire
hose which burst during use injuring a fireman. The
failure analysis concluded that the hose had been
cut, most likely by being dragged over a piece of
glass. In another case the stopper of a hot water bottle
together with its threaded ferrule came out of the
bottle causing scalding of the user. There was no
bonding of the ferrule to the neck of the bottle nor
was there a mechanical arrangement to prevent its
removal and this was either a design error or
manufacturing fault.
A few years back there were a spate of early failures
of rubber playgrounds which were mostly a result
of poor installation practice or lack of quality control
of the rubber granules used. Sports and play surfaces
are a little unusual in that they are often
‘manufactured’ in situ. Hence, there is no chance of
quality control testing on the final product and
rejecting non-complying product before it reaches
the user.
More usually, mechanical failure occurs after a period
of service as a result of environmental degradation or
fatigue. Fatigue is taken here to mean the application
of repeated cyclic deformation which results in a
change in stiffness, a loss of mechanical strength and
ultimately rupture. The mechanisms which may
contribute to breakdown include thermal degradation,
oxidation and attack by ozone as well as the
propagation of cracks by tearing. The manner of
degradation will vary according to the geometry used,
the type of stressing and the environmental conditions.
For rubber products it is possible to distinguish
between two types of fatigue situation:
(1) Where the repeated cyclic deformation cause
heating of the rubber by the stressing process –
heat build up.
(2) Where cracks are induced and/or propagated without
significant heating – flex cracking or cut growth.
The first type generally occurs with bulky objects, such
as in tyres. The second type is by far the most common
and occurs with any product which is repeatedly
stressed, including tyres.
In the heat build up situation, as well as the temperature
rise there will be a change in stiffness and ultimately
the temperature can be so high that rupture of the
product occurs. It is not difficult to measure or compute
the temperature likely to be reached through dynamic
stressing and design to avoid excessive heating, but
for longer periods of use the associated ageing has to
be considered.
Excessive heat build up is particularly likely to occur
at flaws in the product and this was found to be a
problem in tank pads at the boundaries of multiple
blanks used to load the mould.
Cracks grow in nominally perfect mouldings from
minute flaws although any induced damage such as a
cut will be a potential failure site. The rate of growth
is, as would be expected, dependent on strain. In many
practical situations the flexing that a product is
subjected to is quite complex and it is important that
localised strains due to stress concentrations are
considered at the design stage. As well as the maximum
strain, the minimum strain experienced on each cycle
is very important as cycles passing through zero strain
are particularly severe. The traditional fatigue tests
which operate in a bending mode generally suffer from
poor definition of maximum, and particularly
minimum, strain. Tests in tensile mode with
interpretation using fracture mechanics principles are
more satisfactory. For such products as hose and
belting, product tests are devised that seek to simulate
the service movements.
With regards to the strains in service it is important to
distinguish situations where the applied deformation
is strain or stress amplitude controlled as clearly
materials of different stiffness will not behave the same.
This has been found to be the simple answer to why
one material lasted longer than another in a particular
dynamic application.
13
 Rubber Product Failure

Fatigue is often the cause of failure in bonded joints. 4.9 Abrasion

Although it is relatively easy to detect a bad joint by
using simple quasi static tests, such tests are not so Abrasion is clearly only an important factor in the failure
good at distinguishing between quite good and of particular products but then it can be the limit to useful
excellent bonds. The less than excellent bond may be life, as for example in shoe soles and rubber flooring.
prone to failure through repeated stressing.
The mechanisms by which wear of rubber occurs when
it is in moving contact with another material are
4.8 Set, Stress Relaxation and Creep complex but the principle factors involved are cutting
and fatigue. It is possible to categorise wear
mechanisms in various ways and commonly distinction
For seals and gaskets the most critical parameter is
is made between abrasive wear, fatigue wear and
generally the ability to maintain a seal. In most cases
adhesive wear. Additionally, wear by roll formation is
it is the ability to maintain the sealing force (stress
sometimes considered as a separate mechanism. There
relaxation) rather than the ability to recover
can also be corrosive wear due to direct chemical attack
dimensions (set) which is important. Set is more
on the surface and the term erosive wear is sometimes
frequently use to characterise materials because it
used for the action of particles in a liquid stream.
is easier to measure, but the relation between the
two is not always simple.
In any particular wear situation more than one
mechanism is usually involved but one may
The great majority of failures in seals is due to loss
predominate. Abrasive wear requires hard, sharp cutting
of sealing force and/or excessive set rather than the
edges and high friction. Fatigue abrasion occurs with
loss of mechanical strength. Even in temperate
rough but blunt surfaces and does not need high friction.
conditions when the effect of ageing may be small
Adhesion wear is much less common but can occur on
considerable set or stress relaxation will occur
smooth surfaces. The mechanism, and hence the rate
through physical processes. This was well illustrated
of wear, can change, perhaps quite suddenly, with the
by the Rapra long term ageing programme where
conditions such as contact pressure, speed and
thermal ageing was relatively small for many
temperature. In any practical circumstance the
materials even after 40 years exposure but well
mechanisms may be complex and critically dependent
before that time set of some materials was
on the conditions. Consequently, the critical factor as
approaching 100% (67). Nevertheless, the
regards estimating service life by laboratory tests is
environmental conditions, particularly temperature
that the test conditions must essentially reproduce the
and the presence of fluids, greatly influence the
service conditions if a good correlation is to be
degree of stress relaxation or set and, hence, the
obtained. Even a comparison between two rubbers may
useful life, and frequently the problems stem from
be invalid if the dominant mechanism is different in
the use of a material which is inadequate for the
test and service. The range of conditions and the
service conditions over the desired lifetime.
complexity encountered means that this is very difficult
or impossible to achieve.
Wright (9) cites a case of a flexible hose carrying hot
water where set under the end fittings resulted in
A great deal of research has been carried out for such
failure and the diagnosis was that the polymer used
very important applications as tyres and conveyor belts
was not suitable for the temperatures encountered
and there is a wealth of experience. It seems that
whereas it worked well with cold water. With careful
unexpected premature failures are mostly related to
selection of material and attention to design rubber
misuse.
seals can be made to perform for long times under
very severe conditions of temperature and in the
presence of oils in such products as motor engines,
but the wrong choice can result in catastrophic failure. 4.10 Electrical Stress

Creep is also related to set and stress relaxation but
the number of applications in which it is an important
factor is relatively few. Notable exceptions are anti-
vibration mountings and bearings and generally the
success of the component is very dependent on the
design used.
Clearly, electrical stress is only of concern in electrical
applications of rubbers and generally restricted to
incidences of high voltage or current. Relatively short
term premature failures due to breakdown will be due
to flaws in the product, assuming that the material has
been adequately evaluated. Hence, it is common for

14
 Rubber Product Failure
critical products such as electricians’ gloves to be 100%
proof tested.
In the longer term a particular area of concern is partial
discharges occurring within or at the surface of insulation.
If there are local flaws or voids, the local electrical stress
can exceed the breakdown level of the material at that
point. With an AC voltage, partial discharges occur at each
half cycle and the ‘electrical fatigue’ causes degradation
of the insulation and a conducting path.
Water treeing arises with polyethylene insulated cables
in wet conditions and at modest voltages where water
diffuses into the insulation and, under particular
conditions, forms fine channels. Wright (9) notes that
this has also been seen in EPDM rubbers and he also
cites a case of automotive cooling hose where a voltage
was apparently generated by electrochemical processes
between the coolant and metals in contact with the
coolant. This makes a good example of a case where
the most unexpected occurred.
Apart from the direct electrical stress, heating due to
the current or dielectric heating will result in thermal
ageing. Thermal or UV ageing will promote tracking
and may reduce breakdown strength.
5 Preventing Failure
5.1 General
It follows from most premature failures being
attributable to human error, that most such failures
could be prevented by appropriate action at the design,
material selection and production stages. Leaving aside
lapses in quality control, this means selecting materials
and a design that are satisfactory for the service
conditions, which in turn implies that an analysis needs
to be carried out to make predictions of the long term
performance of the product.
There are undoubtedly intrinsic problems in reliably
predicting service lifetime of rubbers due to the
uncertainty of, and variation in, the service conditions
and the timescales for which products are expected to
perform. However, the three basic approaches to
assessing service life are:
• Real (or simulated) service trials
• The use of experience
• Accelerated testing
5.2 Service Trials
Few would argue against real service trials being the
first choice, although in practice the conditions and
timescale required frequently rule it out completely.
Simulated service trials using test rigs are more widely
feasible and are often considered essential for critical
components.
Product tests are generally devised to suit a particular
product and application and the range of sophistication
is very wide. It can be very difficult to devise a
satisfactory test rig that adequately reproduces the
conditions of service and as they get more complicated
so the cost escalates. For this reason, rigs are often
designed to cover one aspect of service, for example
the mechanical stressing expected, with environmental
effects evaluated separately. Product test rigs
commonly operate with a degree of acceleration, for
example by increasing frequency in a fatigue test, which
means that the problems of extrapolation inherent in
accelerated testing apply.
Although a great number and diversity of product test
rigs have been used, the cost and difficulties have
restricted their application and it is fairly clear from
accounts of failures that there are many instances where
a service trial or rig test could have detected the problem
before it occurred in the field. For example, in the case
of radiator seals cited earlier the use of a relatively basic
test rig would have found the deficiencies in the
material chosen.
A different use of service trials is in the procedure of
simulated design life. The product is subjected to
environmental exposures which equate, with the
inevitable approximations, to a chosen design life and
then performance is assessed by operating the product.
The exposures normally have to involve accelerated
procedures and may comprise several environmental
agents applied simultaneously or sequentially.
The process can be illustrated by a very simplistic
example. It can be claimed that from accelerated ageing
and via the Arrhenius relation reaction rates for
mechanical properties of a rubber are known at least
approximately. From this, the product could be given
a simulated lifetime of, say, 10 years by heat ageing
and then actually operated under service conditions.
Using a tyre as an example, it might be found that
although the mechanical properties after a simulated
10 years were reasonable they deteriorated very rapidly
in heavy service because the additives used to protect
against high running temperatures had been depleted.
Hence one would be advised not to use tyres stored for
long periods even if they seemed intact.
15
 Rubber Product Failure

This was seen in practice with tyres on Green Goddess
fire engines kept for emergencies by the Home Office
in the UK, which were put into store for many years
and then put into service in an emergency. The tyres
looked fine but failures occurred because over the long
storage time the antioxidants were depleted and
degradation was then rapid at running temperatures.
Under tyre testing small ozone surface cracks grew
quite rapidly, which allowed oxygen and moisture to
reach the viscose rayon cords, which rapidly broke
down. Figure 3 shows the effects of 3,000 miles of
testing on surface cracking.
5.3 Experience
It is probable that the majority of rubber products are
designed largely on the basis of experience. A great
many product specifications do not include real
performance tests but are based on general material
properties using tests which do not yield fundamental
results. Products made to such specifications are
satisfactory in practice, essentially because experience
over many years has shown that materials meeting the
minimum requirements work, not because any
scientifically based predictions have been made. When

(a)

(b)

Figure 3
Surface cracking of stored tyres before (a) and after (b) 3,000 miles at 40 mph on a test drum (9)

16
 Rubber Product Failure
significantly different materials are introduced, new
products are envisaged or the conditions of service
change there are several sources of experience which
can be usefully tapped:
• Using data generated by others.
• General knowledge of materials.
• Knowledge of the same material in other applications.
• Knowledge of how other materials performed in
similar applications.
• Predicting from known performance to different
conditions.
• From comparison of new material with one proven.
In cases discussed by Wright (9), time and again it is
seen that knowledge was available that could have
prevented the failure but it was ignored or simply was
not available to the people concerned.
Expansion joints for a central heating system made
from a natural rubber/polychloroprene blend severely
degraded due to metal ions catalysing thermo-
oxidation. It is well known that many rubbers are
susceptible to this type of degradation and it is a distinct
possibility that a water supply will contain metal oxides.
The material had been chosen on the basis of cost and
resistance to water at 85 °C and there had been no direct
contact between the supplier and end customer.
Polyurethane oil seals failed due to hydrolytic
degradation which happened because over time the oil
became contaminated with water. All polyurethanes are
prone to hydrolysis and oil absorbs water during use.
If testing had been done in used oil the problem would
have been obvious. Eventually the material was
changed to EPDM.
Nitrile/PVC coated fabric diaphragms used in a fuel
lift pump suffered ozone cracking, those from one
supplier being much more badly affected than those
from a second supplier. It transpired that neither
compound contained an antiozonant and ozone attack
had not been considered a critical factor even though
one side of the diaphragm was exposed to air and
subject to tensile strain. The reason why one compound
cracked more badly was due to it being softer and hence
it was subjected to larger strains.
In these examples it is not unreasonable to suggest that
the inadequacy of the selected material for the service
conditions should have been avoided. However, it has
to be recognised that in some cases service conditions
can be quite unexpected. As an extreme example, the
use of an EPDM replacement hose in the fuel line of a
pleasure cruiser which resulted in the boat bursting into
flames could hardly be blamed on the (unknown)
manufacturer of the hose.
5.4 Accelerated Testing
Accelerated testing can be seen as the least attractive
option because of the inherent cost and difficulties of
making reliable predictions. Nevertheless, in a great
many circumstances accelerated tests have to be relied
on at least in part.
Regardless of how you go about making assessments,
service conditions are not constant and, with long
expected lifetimes, either the degree of extrapolation
is very large or even accelerated tests need
considerable timescales. In addition, there are
uncertainties associated with knowing the critical
degradation agents and the critical properties for the
application. The problems particular to accelerated
tests are related to the extrapolation process. It is
essential that extrapolation rules from the test
conditions to those of service are known and have
been verified such that they can be used with
confidence. In practice this is only an ideal as
extrapolation procedures have not generally been
comprehensively validated and almost certainly will
not give accurate predictions in all cases. The only
choice is to use the best techniques available and apply
them with caution.
An account of available prediction techniques is
included in the Practical Guide to the Assessment of
the Useful Life of Rubbers (17). In general there are
two stages to modelling the degradation process:
(1) Obtaining a function for the change of the
parameter(s) of interest with time.
(2) Obtaining a function for the rate of change of the
parameter(s) with the level of the degrading agent.
Using these relationships the change in property on
exposure to longer times and lower levels of the
degrading agent can be predicted. Clearly, the success
of the process is critically dependent on the validity
of the models used but, as mentioned above,
extrapolation models have not generally been
comprehensively validated.
17
 Rubber Product Failure
By far the best known model is the Arrhenius relation
which relates temperature and reaction rate through:
ln K (T ) = − E / RT + C
Where: K(T) is the reaction rate for the process
E is the reaction energy
R is the gas constant
T is absolute temperature
C is a constant.
A plot of ln K(T) against 1/T should yield a straight
line with slope E/R.
A general approach is to apply the time-temperature
superposition principle in which plots of the parameter
against time are shifted along the time axis to construct
a master curve and the WLF equation used to perform
the superposition:
a(T − T0 )
Log ( aT ) =
b + (T − T0 )
where, aT is the shift factor of an isotherm determined
at temperature T, in relation to the isotherm at the
reference temperature T0, and a and b are two adjustable
coefficients dependent upon the material. By definition
when T=T0, log(aT) = 0 and there is no shift to apply.
Any relation between degradation, acceleration and
time is only likely to be valid for a limited range of
acceleration because the degradation mechanism may
change with the level of the agent. The best results will
be obtained with the lowest acceleration levels but at
the cost of longer test times.
Where multiple degradation agents apply, the
extrapolation rules for each have to be combined in
such a way that synergistic actions are accounted for.
Such procedures are likely to be very complicated and
add greatly to the uncertainty.
Regardless of the validity of the extrapolation
procedure, the intrinsic experimental uncertainty of the
measurements will be magnified as the degree of
extrapolation increases so that predictions will always
be very far from precise.
In practice comprehensive accelerated test programmes
are often of limited scope or omitted altogether largely
because of the cost. This was probably the case for
examples of failure due to thermal ageing where general
18
knowledge of the performance of the material was relied
on, whereas accelerated tests to cover the actual service
conditions would have warned of the likelihood of failure.
5.5 Quality Control
It is self evident that mistakes in manufacture could
result in premature failure of the product and
consequently quality control in some form is essential.
Unfortunately, case histories show that sensible control
precautions are not always applied and in some
instances appear to be totally absent. There are
examples of inadequate control at all stages from
checking of incoming materials, through lack of testing
of the product to incorrect installation.
As one illustration of quality control lapses causing
failure, nitrile/PVC hoses analysed by the author failed
from ozone cracking. Although suitably formulated,
there had been a processing error and because the
quality assurance (QA) testing for ozone resistance had
not been carried out this went undetected. For this case,
there was in theory a control procedure which is one
stage better than no provisions for control, although
the result was the same.
One way in which break down of quality control occurs
is through misunderstanding of who is controlling a
material, the supplier or the purchaser. In this and other
aspects of quality control it would be hoped that the
very widespread adoption of accreditation to ISO 9000
standards will have lead to a general improvement in
the rubber industry.
6 The Literature
6.1 General
As said earlier, the literature is lacking in direct
accounts of specific failures. Almost all of the instances
mentioned that came from the author’s experience have
not been published simply because they were examined
in commercial circumstances. However, there are many
papers giving examples of measuring the degradation
of rubber materials in particular environments. As well
as giving results for changes caused by the degradation
agents (often accelerated), in many cases they provide
information on how performance can be improved by
selection of alternative materials. Despite it being
generally thought that data suitable for reliably
predicting service life is scarce, this has received many
times more attention than analysis of causes of failure.
 Rubber Product Failure
There are also many papers considering methodology
for prediction of lifetime from accelerated tests (for
example (50, 61, 62) and this has been considered
comprehensively in a guide to lifetime prediction (17).
Stevenson (54) refers to costly mistakes having been
made in critical offshore applications, from which the
appropriate lessons have not always been learned, and
considers some of the applications and the material
evaluation requirements.
A less common use of accelerated tests is to estimate
remaining lifetime. Heat ageing of two compounds and
applying the time temperature superposition principle
and models based on Miner’s rule of cumulative material
damage is described by Gillen and Celina (41). However,
Sun and co-workers (50) found that Miner’s rule did
not apply for fatigue of black filled NR and SBR.
Increasingly, computer modelling, or virtual testing, is
being developed to aid design of rubber components
to provide satisfactory service lifetime. Some studies
are briefly outlined by Chouchaoui (47, 79) where
problems of unsatisfactory products were solved by
modelling, which include the crimping of a hose,
several seals, a diaphragm, damping mountings, a
railway crossing pad and a valve.
The failure of rubber components subject to dynamic
conditions is frequently due to the development of
cracks and is generally termed fatigue. Several recent
papers consider the process of crack development and
the estimation of fatigue life. Zhoa and Ghebremeskel
(37) review the effects of polymer macro and micro
structure on the failure mechanisms of butadiene and
styrene-butadiene in considerable detail. Hawkes and
co-workers (161), for example, consider the tearing
energy approach whilst Mars (46) introduces the
concept of cracking energy density to aid prediction of
fatigue. Yeoh (118) demonstrates how finite element
analysis can be applied to compute tearing energy for
classical test pieces.
The literature on failures has been very significantly
added to, in fact probably doubled, by the case histories
given by Wright (9) and from which some examples
have been extracted. Apart from the case studies, this
book is also useful for the accounts of degradation
mechanisms that are included.
6.2 Tyres
Because of their importance from a safety angle, failure
of tyres receives considerable attention. In an overview
of possible causes of tyre failure Vance (32) highlights
the interest taken by the US authorities in any cases of
death or injury which may be related to tyre
performance and the resultant recall of tyres and court
proceedings. Interestingly, the tyre related incidences
of fatality are miniscule compared with the total number
of road related incidents.
Tyres are unusual in that they are used by the public in a
great variety of service conditions and are likely to be
subjected to abuse rather more than most rubber
components in typical engineering applications.
Consequently, it could be argued that it is surprising that
catastrophic failures are not more common and indicates
that generally the level of technology and quality control
is high. The problem of accumulated structural damage
resulting from running tyres under- or overinflated is
considered by Wagner (34). The conclusion of a report
into abnormal tread separation of particular brands of
tyres (39) was that various factors contributed, including
design, manufacturing factors and external factors such
as underinflation. Months later experts were disagreeing
(12 extra) as to whether failures were largely due to
design defects or to incorrect operating conditions.
Another report (72) cited increased speeds and poor
maintenance for an increase in the failure rate of lorry
tyres. A Chinese paper (105) apparently claims that
premature failure is mainly a result of underinflation.
6.3 Seals
Seals are perhaps one of the most severe applications
of rubber, often being subjected to harsh environments
in terms of temperature and chemicals and being
required to not only maintain mechanical integrity but
to also retain their sealing force. The essential property
of stress relaxation (change in sealing force) needs to
be measured under conditions that equate with service
and measurement continued or extrapolations made for
long times, which is often difficult to achieve.
Pannikottu and co-workers (45) describe a finite
element method for modelling stress decay which is
said to be consistent with experimental results.
The analysis of seal failure modes is discussed by Page
(63) who classifies causes of failure as structural
response (such factors as seal and housing design),
environmental response and human intervention
(including poor manufacture and fitting and the
inadequate dissemination of knowledge). Modification
of the standard compression set test is suggested to give
better correlation with stress relaxation. A review has
been given (66) of the Parker O-ring handbook which
is a manual detailing O-ring design.
19
 Rubber Product Failure
Probably the most famous of seal failures ever was the
Challenger disaster which has been described in some
detail by Lewis (71). This resulted from the effect of
overnight low temperature on Viton elastomer. Perhaps
most shocking is that this was a case where there had
been several warnings of potential failure.
6.4 Other Products
Failure of condoms would clearly be of concern and a
survey (165) appears to reveal a significant number of
failures. Other workers (25) have characterised defects
in condoms and investigated artificial defects.
The failure of silicone rubber in breast implants has
received plenty of coverage in the popular press and
several technical articles have been reviewed by Lewis
(71). It appears that there have been a number of failure
mechanisms but they all generally relate to lack of
thorough testing to cover the expected lifetime and all
service conditions. For cases of failed tissue expanders
he suggests the causes were a combination of poor
design and poor manufacturing.
Lewis also cites investigations of problems with
synthetic heart valves and implanted pacemaker leads,
including mechanical inadequacy, cure variations and
biodegradation. Such medical products are subject to
apparently exhaustive testing but despite the
precautions taken failures have still occurred.
Problems with leaking under-bonnet hoses have been
investigated but only brief details were published (80).
Lewis (71) mentions the case of ozone cracking of fuel
lines on Fiat cars which resulted in fires.
Summaries of papers presented at a RILEM symposium
on the durability of building sealants have been
published (129), which include case studies on the
inspection of failed joint systems.
Stress analysis of failures in the form of cracks in cord
rubber composites as a result of fatigue has been carried
out which is said to be of help in estimating the severity
of local failures (35).
A detailed investigation was made into the failure of
rigid polyurethane foams of different densities that had
been deliberately formed with elongation of the cells
in the longitudinal direction (36). It was found that the
failure mode changed with change of density but in a
different manner to that found previously for materials
foamed in the vertical direction.
20
There have been a number of Japanese papers on
fatigue failure of rubber products but translations
have not been found in most cases other than a wide
ranging review (100) and a study on failure of timing
belts (156).
7 Conclusions
It is essentially self evident that the study of failures is
essential to successful design and the prevention of re-
occurrence. It follows that it is important that accounts
of failures are published so that the experience is of
value to others. The practice is that relatively little has
been published although there are indications that this
situation is improving.
Many of the case studies of failures demonstrate the
frequency with which the failure could have been
prevented if existing knowledge had been available to
or had been heeded by the people concerned. This
unavailability or disregard of knowledge is not
restricted to small companies and even very prestigious
establishments could be called guilty.
Deficiencies in design, material selection and control
may have far reaching implications. In some cases a
seemingly small lapse has been disastrous or at least
very expensive.
In contrast to the number of reports of failure case
studies, there are many papers on the measurement
of degradation in various environments. Although the
process of predicting lifetime is undoubtedly difficult
and testing is expensive, it is essential that
performance is fully evaluated at the design stage and
quality routinely maintained by testing. It appears that
too often these essential steps are omitted or
inadequately carried out.
Generally, it must be concluded that in too many cases
service trials were deemed not feasible, sufficient
knowledge or experience was not available and
accelerated testing was thought too expensive.
Additional References
a.1 L.G. Angert and N.N. Dubok, Soviet Rubber
Technology, 1970, 11, November, 29.
 References and Abstracts
Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database
Item 1
Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe
54, No.12, Dec. 2001, p.816-26
German
SEALS AND JOINTS IN FUEL CIRCUITS - HOW
TO MINIMIZE EMISSIONS
Streit G P; Achenbach M
Parker Hannifin GmbH
Ways of reducing the emission of volatile organic
compounds from the fuel systems of passenger cars and
trucks are discussed. Rubber hoses and seals, particularly
those with quick connectors and the fuel rail, are all
responsible for the emission of VOCs due to permeation
and/or leakage. The need for a special elastomer
compound which gives low emission rates over the whole
temperature application range is emphasised, in addition
to requirements for a new, patented geometry which helps
to fulfil future requirements as regulated by the various
government bodies. Permeability data are presented for
grades of Viton, HNBR, and FVMQ. 31 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.846497
Item 2
Polymer Testing
21, No.2, 2002, p.187-93
ENHANCED RESISTANCE OF POLYURETHANE
SEALANTS AGAINST COHESIVE FAILURE
UNDER PROLONGED COMBINATION OF
WATER AND HEAT
Chew M Y L; Zhou X
Singapore, National University
Cohesive failure was shown to arise for currently-used
commercial PU sealants under extreme conditions of
combined water and heat. A formulation was developed
for a two-component PU sealant which was resistant to
cohesive failure under prolonged exposure to combined
water and heat. The newly-developed sealant exhibited
retention of TS, hardness and elastic recovery after
prolonged 70C water immersion. A test package was
designed for evaluation of cohesion under these
conditions. 12 refs.
SINGAPORE
Accession no.845972
Item 3
160th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2001.
Cleveland, Oh., 16th-18th October 2001, Paper 86,
pp.33, 012
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION DAMAGE IN
ELASTOMERIC FLEXIBLE CONNECTIONS
Kumar A; Hogan M E; Riggs D C
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
AK Consulting Engineers; Oil States Industries Inc.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The behaviour of elastomeric flexible connections
(FlexJoint) in offshore pipelines transporting hydrocarbon
fluid/gas mixture under high pressure (10-25 MPa) and
temp. (100C) was studied by means of small-scale testing
corroborated by non-linear finite element analysis. Under
sustained high pressure and temp., rubber layers absorbed
hydrocarbon gases. When the internal pressure was
rapidly decreased (due to shutdown or other emergencies),
the explosive expansion of the absorbed gases within the
elastomer caused internal rupture of the elastomer
structure (also known as explosive decompression
damage(EDD) that could gradually affect the load-bearing
capacity of the connection. A new test method was
developed to identify the principal design variables that
affected the extent and nature of EDD. Small-scale
specimens representing full-scale connections were
designed with the aid of non-linear finite element analyses.
The specimens were tested in a specially designed
pressure vessel representing the extreme environment and
exposure that were encountered in offshore oil production.
The results showed that EDD could adversely affect the
performance of an elastomeric connection. Under similar
environmental and loading conditions, thicker rubber
layers were more susceptible to EDD. With adequate
confinement of rubber, the effects of EDD could be
reduced to acceptable levels. 10 refs.
USA
Accession no.843010
Item 4
160th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2001.
Cleveland, Oh., 16th-18th October 2001, Paper 21,
pp.13, 012
COMPOUND VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES
AND FRACTURE MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR
IN TRUCK TIRE DURABILITY PREDICTION
Moneypenny H G; Mowdood S K; Nahmias M
Moneypenny Tire & Rubber Consultants; Pirelli Tire
LLC; Pirelli Settore Pneumatici
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Truck tyre durability is discussed with reference to the
importance of identifying the mode, initiation point,
propagation and cause of failure. The process is illustrated
for two possible types of failure mode, i.e. tread separation
and breaker/ply ending separation. In the development
of new compounds, it is important to consider the
operating conditions (strain/stress/temp. levels) of the
component in the running tyre. The use of compound
fracture mechanical behaviour measurements in the
development of sidewall compound with improved cut
initiation/propagation resistance is described. The
retreadability of the truck tyres is also considered with
21
 References and Abstracts
reference to the stability of the various tyre components
to mechanical excitation, heat and oxidative ageing. 5 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY;
NETHERLANDS; USA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.842959
Item 5
Gummibereifung
76, No.10, 2000, p.58-9
German
TYRE TESTING SYSTEMS
Mutz K-H
As the market leader, the specialist tyre testing firm SDS
Systemstechnik GmbH makes tyre defects visible through
opto-electronics. Methods of testing new and remoulded
tyres are described. A new ‘Interferometric Tire Tester
System’ is discussed, including measurement of belting,
inner liners, pressure distortion and broken fibres. Also
examined are efficiency and savings on staff costs as well
as examples of defects that have been detected.
SDS SYSTEMTECHNIK GMBH
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.838562
Item 6
Structural Adhesives in Engineering VI. Conference
Proceedings.
Bristol, 4th-6th July 2001, p.211-4, 012
AERODYNAMIC HEATING OF ROCKET
MOTOR ADHESIVE BONDS
Wylie P D; Hobman C E; Tod D A
DERA
(IOM Communications Ltd.)
The effect of temp. and stress on the bond strength
between insulating liner (Hypalon chlorosulphonated PE)
and solid rocket propellant (hydroxy-terminated
polybutadiene) was studied. Initial failure stresses at
temps. ranging from 20 to 160C at 20C intervals were
determined and samples were then loaded to a percentage
of the determined failure strength at each temp. and their
time to failure was recorded. The results obtained showed
that there was a significant reduction in the strength of
the propellant and the strength of the propellant-liner
interface at high temps., particularly over 100C. Evidence
was also found to suggest that some thermal degradation
of the test samples occurred during constant load testing.
Apart from the temp., the time under load was critical in
predicting the suitability for service of these bonds. 1 ref.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.838228
Item 7
International Polymer Science and Technology
28, No.12, 2001, p.T/15-7
22
ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF SERVICE
PROPERTIES OF TYRES PRODUCED BY THE
CIS AND PROBLEMS OF THEIR
IMPROVEMENT
Putankin K S; Kalinkovskii
NIIShP
The level of service characteristics of tyres was assessed
by the analysis of data on the life of over 50, 000 tyres
used and recorded in the Moscow region in the period
from 1995 to 1999, the results of laboratory road testing
of tyres, results of bench tests of different manufacturers,
and the study of the design and materials of tyres by
different tyre works in the CIS and the leading foreign
companies. The tyres were assessed from criteria of
international priority requirements: safety (grip properties,
stability and controllability, speed properties, reliability,
aquaplaning speed), comfort (external noise, non-
uniformity, stability at high speeds), and economy (service
life, coefficient of rolling resistance, repairability, and
mass). Results are discussed. (Article translated from
Kauchuk i Rezina, No.2, 2001, pp.18-20).
CIS; COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
Accession no.838102
Item 8
Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2001, pp.148. 30
cms. Rapra Review Rept. Vol.12, No.7, 2001;
NALOAN
RUBBER ANALYSIS - POLYMERS,
COMPOUNDS AND PRODUCTS
Forrest M J
Rapra Technology Ltd.
Edited by: Ward S
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Rapra.Review Rept. No.139
A number of elemental, spectroscopic, chromatographic
and thermal techniques are described for the analysis of
rubber compounds and products. This review aims to
provide an introduction to the techniques and methods
that are used to carry out quality control work on rubbers,
to investigate the failure of rubber products and to
deformulate rubber compounds. 379 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.838077
Item 9
Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2001, pp.xii, 400,
26cm, 9
FAILURE OF PLASTIC AND RUBBER
PRODUCTS - CAUSES, EFFECTS AND ACES
STUDIES INVOLVING DEGRADATION
WRIGHT D
Rapra Technology Ltd.
This book describes mechanisms of polymer degradation
for the following reasons: Thermo-oxidation; Photo-
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
oxidation; Degradation due to ionising radiation;
Chemical attack; Environmental stress cracking; Other
miscellaneous effects, including treeing, electrochemical
degradation and biodegradation. Each failure mechanism
is illustrated with a number of case studies, many of which
are based on Dr. Wright’s own experiences whilst working
at Rapra. In each case he describes the circumstances of
the failure, and discusses both the consequences of the
failure and the lessons that may be learned from it. Each
chapter is well referenced.
UK, DEPARTMENT OF TRADE & INDUSTRY
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.837010
Item 10
Materials World
9, No.5, May 2001, p.14-5
TYRE-D OUT?
Hill S
CSIRO and Monash University have developed a simple
technique for nondestructively testing the internal
condition of the material in rubber components in service.
The technique is based on NMR technology. It is claimed
the technique will give earlier warning if a rubber part
such as a conveyor belt is degrading or losing elasticity,
so that the part can be replaced well before failure occurs.
It should be equally suitable to other rubber products such
as vehicle tyres.
CSIRO
AUSTRALIA
Accession no.834605
Item 11
Gummibereifung
77, No.8, Aug.2001, p.78-9
CONCORDE IS TO TAKE OFF AGAIN
Mutz K
Engineers at Michelin have recently developed a new
aircraft technology using a high-modulus reinforcement
material developed by the company in 1999. The new
tyre technology is called “Near Zero Growth” or NZG,
and offers high damage-resistance - a key quality in the
field of aviation. This article reports on damage tests
carried out in Spain an NZG radial tyre and a bias tyre,
where the former produced excellent results, meeting all
the specifications in regard to damage resistance. The
Concorde is shortly to be equipped with these new tyres.
MICHELIN; EADS; CEAT
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE; WORLD
Accession no.833850
Item 12
Tire Technology International
Annual Review, 2001, p.158-62
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
IMPACT SIMULATIONS IN THE LAB
Bolden G C; Smith J M; Flood T R
Standards Testing Laboratories Inc.
A report is presented on STL’s road hazard impact testing
machine for tyre/wheel assemblies, which was developed
using SAE J1981, as a starting point. STL’s testing
protocols and data quantification are described and its
applicability to forensic tyre analysis for revealing and
validating failure modes is discussed. Some cautions with
regard to significant changes in parameters, which may
give rise to different results and conclusions to those
obtained using a specific range of parameters, are noted.
SAE
USA
Accession no.833109
Item 13
Rubber and Plastics News
31, No.4, 17th Sept.2001, p.6
ASSOCIATIONS GIVE INPUT ON TIRE
MONITOR PROPOSAL
Stumpf T
This article explains the US National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration’s proposed regulations mandating
tyre pressure monitoring systems in new passenger
vehicles by model-year 2004. It also presents the
comments and suggestions in response to the proposals
from three major US tyre-related associations: the Rubber
Manufacturers Association, the Tire Association of North
America, and the International Tire & Rubber Association.
RUBBER MANUFACTURERS’ ASSN.; NORTH
AMERICA, TIRE ASSOCIATION;
INTERNATIONAL TIRE & RUBBER
ASSOCIATION; US, NATIONAL HIGHWAY
TRAFFIC SAFETY ADMINISTRATION; FORD
MOTOR CO.; FIRESTONE
USA
Accession no.832638
Item 14
International Polymer Science and Technology
28, No.9, 2001, p.T/20-2
PERFORMANCE OF BUS TYRES
Gudkov V A; Tarnovskii V N; Ganzin S V
Volgograd, State Technical University
A statistical analysis is made of the service life of bus
tyres and the economy of various tyres under different
bus service conditions, including urban, suburban and
intercity routes, with reference to tyres produced at the
Bobruisk, Belotserkovsk, and Nizhenkamsk works, prior
to withdrawal from service. Factors affecting the service
life of tyres mean that tyres fail at different stages of their
life. An analysis of the causes of failure indicate that 70-
90% of tyres fail due to treadwear. 3 refs. (Article
translated from Kauchuk i Rezina, No.1, 2001, p.21).
RUSSIA
Accession no.831538
23
 References and Abstracts
Item 15
Industria della Gomma
44, No.10, Dec.2000, p.16-22
Italian
GUIDE TO THE SOLUTION OF RUBBER-TO-
METAL BONDING PROBLEMS
Peters D
Par Chemie
Consideration is given to the different steps involved in
rubber-to-metal bonding, including surface preparation
of metal substrates, the application of primers and
adhesives, and moulding, vulcanisation, curing and post-
treatment processes. Factors which can lead to weak
adhesion and bond failure are discussed, and approaches
to the identification and correction of such problems are
outlined.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.828666
Item 16
Rubber to Metal Bonding. Proceedings of a one-day
seminar held Shawbury, 30th January 1997..
Shawbury, 1997, paper 5, pp. 5. 012
PROBLEM SOLVING IN RUBBER TO METAL
BONDING
Worthington K
Compounding Ingredients Ltd.
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Typical applications are examined in which rubber to
metal bonding failures are possible, and possible solutions
are examined. Examples of problem solving include
glycol resistance in a hydromount test, and fuel resistance
of a turbo injection inlet manifold gasket. Retreading a
tyre with a PU precured tread is examined, with reference
to the selection of a suitable bonding agent. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.827807
Item 17
Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2001, pp.vi, 156,
25cm, 93
PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE ASSESSMENT OF
THE USEFUL LIFE OF RUBBERS
Brown R P
This book provides practical guidance on assessing the
useful service life of elastomers. It covers test procedures
and extrapolation techniques together with the inherent
limitations and problems. The information can be applied
to help maximise the effectiveness of a durability testing
programme. The results of a project studying 40 years of
natural rubber ageing and an accelerated testing
programme conducted by Rapra have been drawn on to
indicate the limiting factors for particular materials and
methods. The book is split into three parts. The main
24
headings in Part One - Basics are: Introduction; The
problems; The choice of approaches; Degradation agents;
Degradation mechanisms; Time dependent limitations;
Critical factors; Parameters to monitor degradation;
Preparation of test pieces. The main headings in Part Two
- Product Tests and Experience are: Simulating service;
Experience; Principles of product testing. The main
headings for Part Three - Accelerated Tests are:
Fundamental problems; Designing an accelerated test
programme; Effect of temperature; Effect of liquids;
Effect of gasses; Weathering; Fatigue; Abrasion; Other
degradation agents; Service conditions; Prediction
techniques; Limitations and pitfalls in accelerated testing.
(35 refs.)
RAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.826524
Item 18
IRC 2001. Proceedings of a conference held
Birmingham, 12th.-14th. June.
Birmingham, IOM Communications, 2001, p.596-607.
012
NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS OF
FABRIC REINFORCED DIAPHRAGMS
Daley J R; Ellaway T M; Mays S
TISPP UK Ltd.; Dowty Engineered Seals
(Institute of Materials)
Fabric reinforced elastomer diaphragms are critical
components in valves, pressure regulators, actuators,
pressure switches, expansion chambers and pumps used
in a variety of end-use industries. They need to be able to
withstand operating environments with extreme pressures
and service temperatures, and in order to design reliable
diaphragms, realistic prediction techniques are required
to enable better models of seal behaviour and failure. One
such technique, Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis
(NLFEA) is examined in this paper. An example of
modelling a fabric reinforced diaphragm is demonstrated
through the use of beam elements in combination with
solid elements. The material properties and weave of the
fabric are shown to be critical in the prediction of the
failure mode and the behaviour of the diaphragm during
the stroke cycle. The paper concludes that FEA can help
limit the stress diaphragms are exposed to, predict
potential wear areas and reduce prototype costs. 4 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.820090
Item 19
IRC 2001. Proceedings of a conference held
Birmingham, 12th.-14th. June.
Birmingham, IOM Communications, 2001, p.334-346.
012
USE OF ELASTOMERS FOR AUTOMOTIVE
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
FUEL AND AIR CONDITIONING FLUID
CONTAINMENT
Harrison C; Campion R P
(Institute of Materials)
The use of elastomers as seals, hoses and diaphragms in
automotive air conditioning and fuel operating systems
is examined, and the environmental concerns relating to
emissions which has made fluid loss prevention
increasingly important. In addition, in recent years, the
use of higher pressures for both types of system has also
added to the difficulties of containment. Fluid loss can
be due to permeation through the elastomer (e.g. through
seals or hose walls), or through flaws, and/or can be by
leakage past the seal. An example where the latter
becomes most important is with modern snap-fit or barb
connectors, especially in dynamic situations. This paper
enlarges upon these matters, describes equipment and
procedures developed for making relevant measurements,
and provides data. Details are also given of equipment
capable of operating at realistically high pressures both
for permeation measurements and for seal leakage testing
under vibrating conditions appropriate to automotive
service. Test data obtained include permeation rates and
related coefficients, and numbers of cycles to leakage
onset for several automotive service-realistic elastomer/
fluid (gas or liquid) combinations. Rationales are outlined.
Some extreme forms of elastomer service failure modes,
such as explosive decompression fracturing, or extrusion
of the seal into the adjacent housing, are briefly
mentioned. 8 refs.
MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY LTD.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.820066
Item 20
Tire Business
18, No.22, 12th Feb.2001, p.1/18
TREAD ACT COULD AFFECT, ELIMINATE
SOME TIRE LINES
Fisher P J
Fleet Tire Consulting
US legislation, the TREAD Act, which was passed in
October 2000 after the Firestone tyre recall, establishes
early-earning reporting requirements of safety-related tyre
and automotive defects, and criminal penalties for
falsifying or withholding information on vehicle safety-
related defects. This article examines in detail the impact
this new legislation will have on businesses in the US,
products sold, and how the law could even affect a
company’s survival.
FIRESTONE; US, RUBBER MFRS.’ASSN.; US,
NATIONAL HIGHWAY TRAFFIC SAFETY
ADMINISTRATION
USA
Accession no.818276
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 21
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
74, No.1, March/April 2001, p.79-88
AGEING OF NATURAL RUBBER IN AIR AND
SEAWATER
Mott P H; Roland C M
US, Naval Research Laboratory
Accelerated ageing experiments are carried out on an NR
vulcanisate exposed to air and to seawater. Failure strain,
shown to correlate well with the fatigue lifetime, is used
to monitor the extent of degradation. The effect of
temperature on the rate of ageing follows an Arrhenius
law, with activation energies equal to 90 + or -4 and 63 +
or -3 kJ/mol for air and seawater ageing, respectively.
The difference can be accounted for by the difference in
oxygen concentration for the two environments. 35 refs.
USA
Accession no.818146
Item 22
Rubber Asia
15, No.3, May/June 2001, p.81-2
RESISTANCE TO AIR PERMEATION - WATER
LEAKAGE
Bader H F
Akron Rubber Development Laboratory Inc.
A manufacturer of natural latex sports ball bladders seeks
an improvement in air permeation. As an alternative to
total replacement of the NR latex, it is suggested that an
over dip is applied of another latex polymer at a thickness
which does not adversely affect the bounce. Information
concerning water leakage testing of examination gloves
and condoms is presented. A toy balloon maker seeks a
solution to losses due to tears when removing the balloon
from the dip form. Whether the low temperatures
encountered in unheated cargo planes can affect nitrile
gloves is considered.
USA
Accession no.816968
Item 23
Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 1997, pp.96. 30
cms., 1/6/01. Rapra Review Rept. Vol. 8, No. 12, 1997.
NALOAN
POLYMERIC SEALS AND SEALING
TECHNOLOGY
Hickman J A
St.Clair (Polymers) Ltd.
Edited by: Dolbey R
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Rapra.Review Rept. No. 96
This review of polymeric seals and sealing technology
covers the types of seals available and the elastomer
materials used for their manufacture. The properties of
specific materials chosen for seal design are outlined, and
minimum and maximum usage temperatures are
25
 References and Abstracts
indicated. Applications of these seals in heat exchangers,
EMI/RFI shielding, explosive decompression, suspension
units, and in high-power mechanical hammers are
described. The failure of seals is discussed, and a case
history is included to illustrate the failure of a seal, and
its subsequent redesign. Seal materials examined include
NR, EPM, EPDM, IIR, CR, NBR, ECO, HNBR, ACM,
AEM, silicone rubber, fluorosilicone rubber, fluorocarbon
rubbers, polysulphide rubber, polyurethane rubber, and
PTFE. 400 refs. Photocopies and loans of this document
are not available from Rapra.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.815494
Item 24
Tire Business
18, No.23, 26th Feb.2001, p.1/20
BFS RECALLS 98, 500 FIREHAWKS
Moore M
For the second time in six months, Bridgestone/Firestone
is recalling tyres. The company will voluntarily recall
approximately 98, 500 Firestone Firehawk GTA-02 tyres,
size P205/55R16 for what is described as a ‘design issue’.
Some 88, 000 of the tyres were fitted as original equipment
on 22, 000 Nissan Altima SE sports models, while the
rest went to the replacement market. The bulk of the
vehicles and tyres were sold in the USA. The tyres
featured an extra-wide steel belt which left insufficient
distance between the steel belt edge and the tread surface,
leaving potential for a crack to develop at the bottom of
the circumferential shoulder groove, and progress to the
edge of the steel belt. No accidents, injuries, lawsuits or
defect claims are involved. The DOT identification
numbers of the tyres subject to recall are listed.
BRIDGESTONE/FIRESTONE INC.; NISSAN
USA
Accession no.815354
Item 25
Journal of Testing & Evaluation
29, No.2, March 2001, p.214-9
CHARACTERIZATION AND CREATION OF
DEFECTS IN CONDOMS
Kerr L N; Chaput M P; Boyd S M; Galevi E A;
Millward P A
US, Food & Drug Administration
Defects in condoms were examined, characterised and
compared with defects introduced using various
techniques. Eighty-five percent of the condom defects
examined were classified as either a hole (void in
material) or a slit (puncture). Laser drilling and
puncturing with a 160 micrometre diameter
acupuncture needle artificially introduced similar types
of defects. Microscopic examination of the created
defects, before and after FDA water leak testing,
26
showed that this test method did not increase the size
of pre-existing microscopic defects. Examination also
showed that these creation techniques generated
reproducible defects within a condom type, with the
size of acupuncture needle defects varying less than
laser-drilled defects. Results of water leak testing
showed that the leakage characteristics of defects were
affected by the material type, the condom shape and
size, the type of defect and the defect size, and the
presence of lubricant. 9 refs.
USA
Accession no.813791
Item 26
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
73, No.10, 2000, p.555-61
Japanese
EXAMPLES OF TROUBLES WITH ACRYLIC
RUBBER AND COUNTERMEASURES
Kubota I
Information is presented on mixing of acrylic rubbers,
with details on tackiness, content of other materials,
carbon black dispersion and dispersion of other fillers,
and processing and vulcanisation of acrylic rubbers. 6
refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for
translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced
International Polymer Science and Technology.
Accession no.813618
Item 27
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
73, No.10, 2000, p.548-54
Japanese
TROUBLE-SHOOTING OF NBR AND HNBR
Komatsu K
A discussion is presented of the structure of NBR type
rubbers and their basic properties and processing, the non-
rubber components present, ways of avoiding processing
problems, and some examples of defects in commercially
available NBR. 8 refs. Articles from this journal can be
requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra
produced International Polymer Science and Technology.
Accession no.813617
Item 28
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
73, No.10, 2000, p.541-7
Japanese
TROUBLE-SHOOTING OF
FLUOROELASTOMERS
Nagasawa A
Examples are given of problems arising during processing
of fluororubbers, e.g. roll tackiness during milling,
impurities on the roll, curing faults, splitting during
demoulding. Articles from this journal can be requested
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced Crusader Chemical Co.

International Polymer Science and Technology.
A general overview is presented of possible causes of tyre
Accession no.813616 failure in its various forms. Following the Bridgestone/
Firestone recall of 4.8 million tyres, the US Senate has
Item 29 passed the Transportation Recall Enhancement and
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi Documentation Act (TREAD Act). Induced by the
73, No.10, 2000, p.533-40 massive recall of BFS tyres, this legislation requires car,
Japanese tyre and parts manufacturers to make changes to ensure
EXAMPLES OF FABRICATION TROUBLES OF public safety. New cars will include dashboard low
SILICONE RUBBER AND COUNTERMEASURES pressure warning systems for tyres. Tyre manufacturers
Sumimura S will be bound by a reporting system to establish an early
warning reporting system to assist the NHTSA in
A discussion is presented of troubles that can occur with identifying safety-related defects, to update passenger car
the properties (permeability, heat resistance, contact tyre testing standards, and to develop a dynamic roll-over
obstacles and impurities, foreign bodies) and processing test, enaction of regulations to assist consumers in
of silicone rubber. 6 refs. Articles from this journal can identifying tyres subject to a recall and to notify the
be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra NHTSA of any foreign government safety tyre recalls on
produced International Polymer Science and Technology. a motor vehicle or its parts. The effect of the TREAD Act
Accession no.813615 on the tyre industry is considered.
USA
Item 30 Accession no.811222
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
73, No.10, 2000, p.524-32 Item 33
Japanese Pigment & Resin Technology
TROUBLE-SHOOTING OF RUBBER PRODUCTS 30, No.2, 2001, p.109-13
Ohtake Y ANALYSIS OF BLEACHING PROCESSES IN
Trouble shooting in the case of products made from ALUMINIUM PIGMENTED CHLORINATED
fluororubbers, polyurethane rubbers, hydrogenated nitrile RUBBER COATINGS UNDER OSMOTIC
rubber and silicone rubbers is explained. 2 refs. Articles EFFECT
from this journal can be requested for translation by Cayuela F; Morcillo M
subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer Basque Country, University; CSIC
Science and Technology. Aluminium pigmented chlorinated rubber coatings,
Accession no.813614 widely used for steel ship protection, can be bleached
when exposed to total immersion conditions. A deep study
Item 31 on the development of the decolouration processes of
International Polymer Science and Technology these coatings, applied on rolled steel specimens exposed
28, No.2, 2001, p.T/43-53 to total immersion conditions in aqueous solutions with
ELASTOMER-GAS SYSTEMS different salinity, is carried out. The relationship between
Zuev Y S external salinity and contamination by sodium chloride
NIIEMI Open Joint Stock Co. of the steel/coating interface in the bleaching processes
is analysed. The influence of the osmotic processes in
Factors determining the solubility, diffusion and the coating bleaching is also established. Periodic visual
permeability of gases in elastomers, and the influence of inspections of the coating films, together with a deep
high temperatures and pressures on these processes are analysis of the coating microstructure, by means of optical
examined, together with a study of the possibility of microscopy and scanning electron microscopy provided
increasing the working life of seals under these conditions. with microsonde analysis, are used. The bleaching
46 refs. (Translated from Kauchuk i Rezina, No.4, 2000, processes of the coatings mainly depend on the salinity
p.36) of the external solution, while the influence of the steel/
RUSSIA coating interface contamination is not relevant. 7 refs.
Accession no.811261 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;
WESTERN EUROPE

Item 32 Accession no.811148

Rubber Asia
15, No.2, March/April 2001, p.23-4 Item 34
WHAT CAUSES TYRE FAILURES? Modern Tire Dealer
Vance P 81, No.11, Nov.2000, p.16-7

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 27

 References and Abstracts
MTD ANSWERS THE BURNING QUESTION:
WHY DO SOME RADIAL TYRE TREADS PEEL?
Wagner E
Tire Technical Services Inc.
In the absence of faulty tyre production, which is quite
rare, the problem of tread peels may lie in “accumulated
tyre structure damage”. Running tyres overloaded, at
sustained high speeds or underinflated can and do
contribute to a structural breakdown within the internal
confines of the tyre body. For example, a tyre operated
significantly underinflated for a specific load can result
in the weakening of bonding material strength due to
excessive heat generation and resultant deterioration of
constituent materials. Another instance of accumulated
tyre structure damage can occur when a radial truck tyre,
for example, strikes a rock or curb with sufficient speed
and force to severely impact the shoulder area where steel
belts and body ply meet.
USA
Accession no.810120
Item 35
Polymers & Polymer Composites
9, No.1, 2001, p.15-24
STRESS ANALYSIS OF FAILURES IN CORD-
RUBBER COMPOSITES
Pidaparti R M V; May A W
Purdue University
Stress analysis of failures in the form of cracks due to
fatigue of cord-rubber composites was carried out using
micromechanical 2D and 3D finite element analysis. The
von Mises-Tresca stresses were computed from the results
of finite element analysis and compared. Results show
that crack type, loading and crack size have a strong effect
on the values of the von Mises-Tresca stress. Use of the
results of the von Mises-Tresca stress should help in
estimating the severity of local failures in cord-rubber
composites, it is proposed. 12 refs.
USA
Accession no.808305
Item 36
International Journal of Damage Mechanics
10, No.1, Jan.2001, p.3-42
FAILURE MODES OF FOAMS: INFLUENCE OF
ORIENTATION OF VOIDS
Theocaris P S; Sokolis D P
Athens, National Academy
An experimental investigation was undertaken to assess
the failure behaviour of a series of PU foams of variable
specific density. All the foam materials examined were
transversely isotropic materials, whose axis of symmetry
was, however, the weak axis of the medium. Simple
uniaxial tension and compression tests were executed and
the experimental data were introduced into the elliptic
28
paraboloid failure surface criterion. This condition was
used for the comparison of the failure loci, associated
with primary failure, of the PU foams of different
porosities. The results obtained indicated that the
dependence of the failure modes of a mixed foam upon
the specific densities of its strong and weak-axis elements,
as well as upon their relative proportions, was expressed
in terms of a smooth transformation of its failure
behaviour from the ordinary C-strong one to the irregular
T-strong one. 17 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.807150
Item 37
Rubber and Plastics News
30, No.9, 27th Nov.2000, p.14/21
REVIEWING FRACTURE AND FATIGUE
FACTORS
Zhoa J; Ghebremeskel G
Ameripol Synpol Corp.
It is explained that most rubber products due to the
development of cracks, as a result of being subjected to
environmental factors. This paper reviews in depth the
underlying failure mechanisms, and discusses ways and
means of minimising them. It presents the effects of
polymer molecular weight, the styrene content of SBR,
and the diene microstructure on fracture and fatigue life
of the vulcanisates. It also discusses the role played by
carbon black and vulcanising systems on fracture and
fatigue. 56 refs.
MONSANTO
USA
Accession no.804735
Item 38
Your Ticket to Outstanding Color and Additives.
RETEC 2000. Conference proceedings.
Washington, D.C., 17th-19th Sept.2000, paper 12
DURABILITY?
Coleman E
CP Technology Inc.
(SPE)
The concept of durability is discussed with reference to
rubber and plastic products. The level of durability
achieved depends on a complex interaction of ingredients,
formulation, fabrication, and assembly, and the
environmental influences and physical, chemical,
electrical and mechanical stresses imposed on the finished
product. Some of the basic scientific processes involved
in durability are discussed, with practical applications in
the form of case histories in which the use of additives
played a part in enhancing durability.
USA
Accession no.804346
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

Item 39 temperature environments is demonstrated. Analyses of

Rubber and Plastics News experimental wear-out results for a nitrile rubber where
30, No.12, 8th Jan.2001, p.3 time-temperature superposition is valid and for EPDM
REPORT TIES TYRE PROBLEMS TO DESIGN, where it is invalid are presented and discussed. 18 refs.
MANUFACTURING USA
Collins C Accession no.796617
An internal probe by experts at Bridgestone/Firestone has
concluded that there was no single factor that caused the Item 42
abnormal rate of tread separations in P235/75R15 European Rubber Journal
Firestone Radial ATX, ATX II and Wilderness AT tyres 182, No.11, Nov.2000, p.22/8
that led the firm to voluntarily recall 6.5 million of them. EPDM COMPOUNDS FOR COOLANT HOSE
The company has concluded that a combination of design UNDER SCRUTINY
factors, external factors such as low inflation pressure White L
and certain manufacturing factors at the company’s
Decatur, Ill., plant, in extreme cases and working together, This article is actually one long article and several smaller
have contributed to the phenomenon. ones, all relating to automotive coolant hoses. They
discuss: EPDM as the material of choice, sulphur curing,
BRIDGESTONE/FIRESTONE INC.
peroxide cured coolant hoses, electrochemical
USA
degradation (ECD), peroxide evaluations, ECD testing,
Accession no.803708 coagents and peroxides needed to meet VW specification,
carbon black morphology, and problem areas in peroxide
Item 40 curing.
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe DSM ELASTOMERS BV; AKZO NOBEL POLYMER
53, No.12, Dec. 2000, p.694/700 CHEMICALS; AVON RUBBER; CABOT CORP.;
INSTRUMENT TO EVALUATE DAMAGE IN SARTOMER CO.
STEEL BELTED RADIAL TRUCK TIRES EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND;
dos Reis H L M; Golko P J NETHERLANDS; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE
Illinois University at Urbana-Champaign Accession no.795699
The acousto-ultrasonic approach to damage detection in
tyres is described, with reference to the development of Item 43
an air-coupled transducer, which replaces a contact 158th. ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2000.
ultrasonic rolling transducer in the evaluation and Conference preprints.
detection of ply cord fatigue damage in steel-belted radial Cincinnati, Oh., 17th.-19th. Oct. 2000, paper 101
truck tyres. Such damage, known in the retreading SOLVING PROBLEMS IN RUBBER
industry as zipper failure mode occurs around the radius FORMULATIONS WITH ANALYTICAL
of the tyre in the sidewall flex area. By reducing the CHEMISTRY
number of moving parts in the sensing unit, the instrument Dlunzneski P R
increased its robustness to better endure the environment Hercules Inc.
of a new tyre or retreading facility for on-line inspection (ACS, Rubber Div.)
of new and used tyres. Results are given of a feasibility
Analytical techniques available to the rubber compounder
study involving two tyres, - one with seeded defects, and
are reviewed. Such techniques can be used in
the other with field fatigue damage. 27 refs.
troubleshooting problems and formulation
USA
experimentation. The various spectroscopic,
Accession no.799299 chromatographic, and thermo-analytical techniques are
described, with details of how they can be applied to solve
Item 41 problems in rubber compounding.
Polymer Degradation and Stability USA
71, No.1, 2001, p.15-30 Accession no.794199
WEAR-OUT APPROACH FOR PREDICTING
THE REMAINING LIFETIME OF MATERIALS
Item 44
Gillen K T; Celina M
158th. ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2000.
Sandia National Laboratories
Conference preprints.
The principles underlying the above wear-out approach, Cincinnati, Oh., 17th.-19th. Oct. 2000, paper 82
which is based on the Palmgren-Miner concept that RADIAL SEAL FORCE RETENTION. PART 1:
degradation is cumulative and that failure results directly METHODOLOGY
from the accumulation of damage with time, are reviewed Clark R C; Getz N; Witte J
and the application of these principles to materials in SHAMBAN Seals

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 29

 References and Abstracts

(ACS, Rubber Div.) predict the effects of such complex strain histories on
fatigue life is therefore seen as crucial in the design of
Details are given of a test method, developed to meet the
rubber components. A new parameter, the cracking energy
more demanding requirements of seals used in aerospace
density, representing the available energy density of a
applications, with particular reference to the effects of low
given strain state and crack orientation, has been proposed
density phosphate ester hydraulic fluids and red oils over a
as an at-a-point parameter for correlating fatigue crack
long period. These fluids can cause excessive swelling or
initiation life. This paper presents results of cyclic,
shrinkage of O-rings or custom seals in their glands, which
combined tension/torsion fatigue experiments, and
may result in a gain or loss of retained seal force that over
compares them with prediction based on this new
time may pose a critical failure mechanism. This paper
parameter. The ability of cracking energy density to
presents an applied approach incorporating ‘radial seal
predict the fatigue life and cracking plane is evaluated
force’ to obtain uniformly consistent, performance-capable
for both in-phase and out-of-phase histories of combined
materials in O-ring and custom configurations.
axial and shear strain. 16 refs.
USA
USA
Accession no.794181
Accession no.794169

Item 45
Item 47
158th. ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2000.
158th. ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2000.
Conference preprints.
Conference preprints.
Cincinnati, Oh., 17th.-19th. Oct. 2000, paper 80
Cincinnati, Oh., 17th.-19th. Oct. 2000, paper 47
NON-LINEAR FINITE ELEMENT MODELING
OPTIMIZING RUBBER PRODUCTS VIA
OF ELASTOMER SEALS
COMPOUND CHARACTERIZATION AND
Pannikottu A; Sadon S; Karmakar U
COMPUTER MODELING
Akron Rubber Development Laboratory Inc.
Chouchaoui B
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Windsor Industrial Development Laboratory Inc.
A new continuous compression stress relaxation test (ACS, Rubber Div.)
method has been developed for evaluating elastomeric
This paper describes some tests on rubber, which are
materials for sealing applications. During a test, the
necessary to build computer models which can be used
elastomer component is compressed at various strain
to simulate the performance of finished rubber goods. It
levels under precise displacement control. The sealing
also presents several analytical studies successfully
force is recorded continuously at a finite time interval.
carried out by WIDL on behalf of rubber moulders in
The measurement technique is claimed to be suitable for
Canada and the USA. These examples demonstrate the
diagnosing seal failure. The stress decay of sealant
usefulness and accuracy of virtual testing. Tests are also
materials is modelled using finite element method for both
presented which are aimed to ensure the accuracy of
constant and cyclic temperature conditions. The time-
virtual prototypes based on finite element analysis. 14
dependent elastic behaviour of sealant materials is
refs.
modelled using the finite-strain viscoelasticity theory. The
USA
stress relaxation results from FEA are shown to be
consistent with the experimental measurements. Materials Accession no.794152
tested include fluoroelastomers, polybutadiene, EPDM,
and hydrogenated nitrile rubber which were compounded Item 48
for seal and gasket applications. 4 refs. High Performance Elastomers 2000. Conference
USA proceedings.
Accession no.794180 Berlin, Germany, 10th-11th Oct.2000, paper 4
ELASTOMERS IN HOSTILE ENVIRONMENTS
Campion R P; Morgan G J
Item 46
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory Ltd.
158th. ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 2000.
(Rapra Technology Ltd.; European Rubber Journal)
Conference preprints.
Cincinnati, Oh., 17th.-19th. Oct. 2000, paper 67 For most applications involving elastomeric components,
CRACKING ENERGY DENSITY AS A successful service of the elastomer will depend on
PREDICTOR OF FATIGUE LIFE UNDER different overriding factors concerning deformation mode
MULTIAXIAL CONDITIONS and environment, as will any approaches to life prediction
Mars W V with regard to material or component. Such predictions
Cooper Tire & Rubber Co. are required because elastomers can deteriorate in hostile
(ACS, Rubber Div.) environments, but the degree of deterioration varies
immensely between different elastomers. However, it may
Rubber parts in service often experience complex strain
not always be possible to predict the time to ultimate
histories that can cause mechanical failure. The ability to

30 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
failure. Instead one might foretell from accelerated test
observations a time when a known, acceptable, key
property level still applies to the elastomer at service
conditions. Detailed descriptions of a range of approaches
to life prediction for elastomers both from a general
viewpoint in a variety of environments and using various
case studies have previously been given. By selecting
from the previous descriptions and presenting further
relevant data, an attempt is made to focus on factors
involved when the environments surrounding the
elastomers are hostile, and to indicate possible approaches
for making reasonable estimations of how long adequate
levels of relevant properties might be retained during
service. It is helpful to be aware of the basic molecular
structure of these materials. 19 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.792366
Item 49
International Polymer Science and Technology
27, No.9, 2000, p.T/33-40
DEGRADATION AND LIFETIME OF RUBBER
VIBRATION INSULATORS FOR VEHICLES
Akema T
The need for a method of predicting degradation in rubber
products is discussed, with particular reference to
automotive engine mounts. Current warranty periods
worldwide are summarised to provide a basis for
anticipated failure rates of automotive components. In
particular, predicted thermal degradation lifetime and
reliability evaluation techniques are examined which
focus on the relationship between various rubber
components and other typical degradative factors in the
automotive environment, and which take into
consideration the combined degradation by heat and
vibration in engine mounts. 2 refs. Translation of Nippon
Gomu Kyokaishi, No.11, 1998, p.703.
JAPAN
Accession no.791816
Item 50
Tire Science and Technology
28, No.3, July-Sept. 2000, p.196-208
EFFECT OF FATIGUE STEP LOADING
SEQUENCE ON RESIDUAL STRENGTH
Sun C; Gent A; Marteny P
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
The applicability of Miner’s rule to typical rubber
compounds subjected to repeated tensile strains was
evaluated. Tests were carried out on NR and SBR filled
with carbon black to determine the effects of loading
sequence on residual energy to break, breaking elongation
and flaw growth. A model is proposed to predict flaw
(crack) growth under mixed strain cycles and the influence
of loading sequence on the order of durability rankings
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
of the rubber materials investigated. It was found that
Miner’s rule did not hold for the fatigue failure of these
rubber compounds but the relative rankings of the rubber
compounds remained the same in both step-up and step-
down strain sequences. (Eighteenth annual conference of
the Tire Society, Akron, Ohio, 27-28 April, 1999). 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.791577
Item 51
Industria della Gomma
44, No.4, May 2000, p.19-20
Italian
ARTIFICIAL VISION, REAL CONTROL
Salva D
Doss
An examination is made of the use in quality control of
artificial vision techniques using a video camera and
image processor. Applications in the inspection of rubber
seals are described.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.790898
Item 52
Rubber and Plastics News
30, No.3, 4th Sept. 2000, p.54
NYLON TIRE CAP PLIES DRAW MORE
SCRUTINY
Moore M
The function and necessity of nylon cap plies is discussed,
with reference to the recent recall of Bridgestone/
Firestone’s ATX, ATX II and Wilderness tyres following
a spate of accidents involving tread separation. According
to the company, nylon cap plies are used almost
exclusively on high speed-rated tyres. However, the
dispute continues, especially since the company is accused
of mislabelling the Wilderness tyres for Ford Motor Co
in Venezuela, as having the cap plies requested by Ford.
An earlier court case is referred to when the driver,
rendered quadriplegic by an accident in which the tread
separated, was awarded 6.8 million US dollars against
Continental AG. The Wisconsin court in this case
described a cap ply as ‘an additional adhesive to prevent
belt separation’. Other opinions relating to the use of cap
plies are reported.
BRIDGESTONE/FIRESTONE INC.
USA; VENEZUELA
Accession no.788988
Item 53
Rubber and Plastics News
30, No.3, 4th Sept. 2000, p.1/60
COUNTING ON SAFETY. AIRCRAFT TIRES
MEET STRINGENT STANDARDS
Dawson B
31
 References and Abstracts
Comments are reported from companies involved in the
aircraft tyre industry, which aim to reassure the user about
the safety of such tyres following the recent Air France
Concorde crash which resulted from tyre debris
puncturing the plane’s fuel tank. Test and inspection
methods used, the use of retreaded tyres, and the trend
towards the use of radial tyres are discussed.
AIR FRANCE INDUSTRIE; US, FEDERAL
AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
USA
Accession no.788963
Item 54
IRC 2000. Conference proceedings.
Helsinki, Finland, 13th-15th June 2000, paper 65
FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN MATERIALS
EVALUATIONS FOR CRITICAL OFFSHORE
APPLICATIONS
Stevenson A
(Nordic Council of Rubber Technology)
Elastomeric components are finding increasingly critical
use in a number of applications in offshore oil and gas
engineering projects. These include load bearing
applications, such as flexelements for deepwater tension
leg platforms, hoses and swivel joints in floating production
systems, wellhead sealing and downhole sealing. It is
increasingly unacceptable to experience unexpected failure
due to the cost of downtime and maintenance operations.
Qualification of materials is therefore of concern and there
have been some costly mistakes in the past, from which
the appropriate lessons have not always been learned. Some
of the applications and the materials evaluation
requirements for long and safe life are discussed. 7 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.787099
Item 55
Tire Technology International
2000, p.59-66
IN FULL BLOOM - FINDING ALTERNATIVES
TO WAXING OVER THE CRACKS
Hong S W; Greene P K; Lin C
Uniroyal Chemical Co.
Substitutes for wax to provide protection of tyre sidewalls
against static ozone cracking are examined. The use of
low levels of wax or its complete elimination in the tyre
sidewall by combinations with dialkyl paraphenylene
diamine (77PD) or 2, 4, 6-tris - (N-1, 4 dimethyl pentyl-
p-phenylene diamino) 1, 3, 5 triazine (TAPDT) is
discussed for the long term resistance to dynamic ozone
crack resistance. In addition, a mechanism is proposed to
explain how ozone reacts with antiozonants, which
involves a scavenging function. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.785679
32
Item 56
Tire Business
18, No.9, 17th July 2000, p.10
NEW FOR THE 21ST CENTURY: IT’S A GAS
Fisher P J
It is claimed that the new technological advancement in
tyres may be the use of nitrogen instead of air to inflate
tyres. As air migrates through the tyre liner at a rate of
about 2psi per month, it is carrying moisture with it which
contaminates the steel and initiates the growth of rust in
the steel body plies. Oxygen also reacts with rubber,
oxidizes it and can make it less flexible and weaker.
Nitrogen permeates the tyre 30-40% slower than the
oxygen in the air and does not carry any water. It is
chemically inert and does not react with rubber. All that
is required to make nitrogen is an air compressor with a
membrane system to separate out the oxygen, water
vapour and carbon dioxide. Today, several companies are
marketing affordable systems to produce nitrogen using
a conventional air compressor.
USA
Accession no.785010
Item 57
Rubber World
222, No.2, May 2000, p.25/7
DEDICATED, AUTOMATIC TIRE SIDEWALL
INSPECTION
O’Neil E
Bytewise Measurement Systems USA
A US manufacturer of precise non-contact product and
process measurement systems, Bytewise Measurement
Systems, has introduced a dedicated tyre sidewall bulge/
dent inspection system. Full details are given under the
headings: why measure tyre sidewalls?, principle of
operation, benefits of laser measurement technology, letter
elimination software, and summary.
USA
Accession no.783618
Item 58
Rubber and Plastics News
29, No.22, 29th May 2000, p.12-4
REDUCING IRIDESCENCE IN EPDM
WEATHERSTRIPPING
Larson L C; Danilowicz P A
Struktol Co.of America
Automotive manufacturers continue to demand
improvements in the colour stability of their
weatherstripping. The iridescence sheen phenomenon
occurs particularly in EPDM when the fabricated articles
are exposed to UV light and ozone. Recently a unique
new filler called “Neuburg siliceous earth” has arrived in
the North American marketplace from Europe. This study
compares the influence of these unique fillers with those
presently used in North America. This study will also
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
provide compounders with key compounding suggestions
that will aid in the reduction of iridescence, improve
profile aesthetics and increase plant productivity. 4 refs.
USA
Accession no.780107
Item 59
Rubber India
52, No.4, April 2000, p.17-22
PROCESSING CHALLENGES TO ACHIEVE
QUALITY, PRODUCTIVITY AND VALUE FOR
THE PRODUCT
Ramdas S
Fenner India Ltd.
Consideration is given to factors affecting the quality,
productivity and value of rubber products with reference
to processing methods. In particular, mixing, extrusion,
moulding, transfer moulding, metal to rubber bonding,
process control, FMEA, value engineering, quick tool
changes, and prototyping are discussed.
INDIA
Accession no.778560
Item 60
Journal of Testing & Evaluation
27, No.4, July 1999, p.249-65
NEW DYNAMIC WIND LOAD CYCLE TO
EVALUATE MECHANICALLY ATTACHED
FLEXIBLE MEMBRANE ROOFS
Baskaran A; Yin Chen; Vilaipornsawai U
Canada, National Research Council
A report is presented on progress towards developing test
procedures for certifying roofing systems under dynamic
wind loads by the National Research Council of Canada’s
Special Interest Group for Dynamic Evaluation of Roofing
Systems(SIGDERS). Wind tunnel investigations were
carried out using two flexible roofing membranes, PVC
and EPDM. Using the wind tunnel pressure records as
source data and comparing the membrane responses of
PVC with EPDM, SIGDERS developed a dynamic load
cycle. With input from industries, building owners and
roofing associations, the developed load cycle was
generalised and extended to evaluate the ultimate strength
of flexible membrane roofs. To validate the newly-
developed load cycle, several membrane roofing systems
were investigated and then reported separately. The
SIGDERS load cycle in a laboratory mimicked failure
modes similar to those observed in the field. 23 refs.
CANADA
Accession no.776393
Item 61
157th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Spring 2000.
Preprints.
Dallas, Tex., 4th-6th April 2000, paper 40
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
ADVANCES AND CHALLENGES IN LONG-
TERM SERVICE LIFE PREDICTION OF
ELASTOMERIC ENGINEERING COMPONENTS
Harris J A; Hawkes J R; Campion R P; Derham C J
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory Ltd.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Various mechanisms that may dictate the service life of
elastomeric engineering components are identified and
discussed. For life prediction, predictive modelling and
accelerated testing are required. Predictive models currently
available for crack growth, creep/stress relaxation, fluid
compatibility and chemical ageing are discussed. Case
studies are used to illustrate the use of predictive models
and accelerated testing for various types of component.
These include the use of a fracture mechanics approach
for crack growth prediction in an automotive type mount
and the Arrhenius approach and other factors on sealing
systems for oil and gas. The challenge is to develop life
prediction methodology to account for some of the complex
aspects of real service environments. 16 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.771678
Item 62
157th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Spring 2000.
Preprints.
Dallas, Tex., 4th-6th April 2000, paper 38
REVIEW OF POLYMER LIFE ESTIMATION
USING VARIABLE TEMPERATURE/STRESS
ACCELERATION METHODS
Vicic J; Maligas M; Jones W; Janoff D
Cameron; FMC Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Elastomers are used in many critical service applications
that require long, trouble-free life such as seals, gaskets,
bridge pads, tyres, medical components and rocket fuel
binders. An estimate of long-term durability or the time
to failure for materials and components presents a
challenge to both scientists and technologists that work
with these materials. Interest in this area is high as
evidenced by the fact that the American Petroleum
Institute Committee 6 and the National Association of
Corrosion Engineers Committee T1-G have task groups
working on developing accelerated life estimation tests
for elastomer seals. It is shown how thermal acceleration
tests based on Arrhenius’ theory and modifications by
other researchers such as Zhurkov that include the effect
of applied stress may be used to estimate the long-term
property changes in elastomers. A brief historical
background of work in this area and its implications are
included. Current industrial practices that use thermal
acceleration are reviewed. Some examples of thermal
acceleration techniques applied to failure life estimation
for actual components are examined. 19 refs.
USA
Accession no.771676
33
 References and Abstracts
Item 63
157th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Spring 2000.
Preprints.
Dallas, Tex., 4th-6th April 2000, paper 37
SEAL LIFE IN REAL LIFE
Page N
Walker J., & Co.Ltd.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The practical analysis of seal failure modes and
mechanisms has previously been described. Firstly, failure
modes are summarised, followed by describing the
remedial actions which may be taken to avert failures such
as those caused through housing, application and other
non-time/temperature dependent effects. Secondly, a
method for the prediction of time/temperature dependent
elastomer degradation is presented and its practicality is
discussed. Finally ‘good practice’ is shown to be an
essential tool for maximising seal performance against a
background that the majority of seal failure is still
unpredictable, although in many cases avoidable.
Pragmatic and predictive approaches to minimising seal
failure are compared. 2 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.771675
Item 64
Rubber World
221, No.5, Feb.2000, p.55-8
REVERSION RESISTANCE OF ENGINE
MOUNTS
Graf H J; Sayej E
Cooper Standard Automotive
Reversion is defined as the softening and weakening of
natural rubber vulcanisate when the curing operation has
been continued too long. This article describes
experimentation carried out on a natural rubber engine
mount with a reversion-resistant polychloroprene coating.
Materials and methods are detailed, results are presented
and discussed, and conclusions drawn. 18 refs.
USA
Accession no.770976
Item 65
Rubberchem ’99. Conference proceedings.
Antwerp, Belgium, 22nd-23rd Nov.1999, paper 14
AMINIC ANTIDEGRADANTS: DISCOLOURING
TRANSFORMATION PRODUCTS AS ACTIVE
COMPONENTS IN THE INTEGRAL
STABILISING MECHANISM IN RUBBER
Prosisil J; Habicher W D; Nespurek S
Czech Republic, Academy of Sciences; Dresden,
Technische Universitat
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Aromatic amines and diamines and planar heterocyclic
amines rank among the most important rubber chemicals.
34
Depending on their structure (inherent chemical
efficiency), they act as efficient antioxidants, antifatigue
agents and/or antiozonants. Some of them combine these
activities in one molecule. The unique antidegradant
properties are based on the presence of the secondary
amine functional group greater than NH in the parent
additive and amine transformation products. Sacrificial
consumption of amines accounting for these
transformation products is a consequence of active
stabilisation of the rubber matrix by amines (scavenging)
of ROO. radicals, contribution to deactivation of
hydroperoxides ROOH, and reaction with ozone and/or
ozonides. Transformation products are mostly coloured
derivatives of quinone imine and more complicated
compounds derived from them. Their formation cannot
be avoided. Quinone imines contribute to the overall
stabilisation performance of amines by scavenging
carbon-centred free radicals. This unique property is
important for the antifatigue effect. Moreover, the reaction
is associated with a partial regeneration of the secondary
amine moiety greater than NH. The integral mechanism
of sacrificial transformations of amines is outlined. 9 refs.
CZECH REPUBLIC; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN
UNION; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.769256
Item 66
Machine Design
72, No.6, 23rd March 2000, p.98
HANDBOOK GUIDES O-RING DESIGN
A review is presented of the Parker O-Ring Handbook, a
manual detailing o-ring design over 11 chapters. Technical
information is provided on topics such as chemical
compatibility, O-ring specifications, and sizes and tutorial
chapters include O-ring elastomers, applications and static
and dynamic sealing. Other topics covered include
material selection, installation, the effects of friction and
O-ring failure analysis.
PARKER HANNIFIN CORP., O-RING DIV.
USA
Accession no.768062
Item 67
Shawbury, 2000, pp.ii, 170. 30cms. 11/4/00. 93T
NATURAL AGEING OF RUBBER - CHANGES IN
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OVER 40 YEARS
Brown R P; Butler T
Rapra Technology Ltd.
This report is an output from the Weathering of Elastomers
and Sealants project which forms part of the UK
government’s Department of Trade and Industry’s
Degradation of Materials in Aggressive Environments
Programme. Rapra Technology Limited has just
completed a comprehensive natural ageing and physical
testing programme on 19 rubber compounds, stored in
controlled conditions, for a period of 40 years. This is
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
believed to be the most extensive such study ever carried
out. The results of this unique programme are published
in this report.
Accession no.766772
Item 68
Rubber Technology International
1999, p.48-51
KRATON IR, A PURE ALTERNATIVE
Migchels P
Shell Chemicals
Kraton synthetic isoprene rubbers are offered as an
alternative to natural rubber products, and provide an
option for use in applications requiring no discolouration,
odour and a high degree of purity. The benefits are
described of two currently available synthetic isoprene
processing technologies, - Kraton anionically polymerised
IR marketed by Shell and Ziegler-Natta IR, with reference
to their ability to reduce problems of discolouration, odour
and adverse skin reactions, and to improve the overall
quality and performance of finished products without
sacrificing the traditional benefits of NR. 2 refs.
Accession no.763106
Item 69
Adhesion ’99. Conference Proceedings.
Cambridge, UK, 15th-17th Sept.1999, p.55-60
TIME DEPENDENT MECHANICAL FAILURE
OF STRONG ELASTOMER-TO-METAL BONDS:
CHEMICAL OR PHYSICAL MECHANISM?
Albihn P; Chapman A V; Lake G J; Lawrence C C
Swedish Institute for Fibre & Polymer Research;
Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Assn.; East
London, University
(IOM Communications Ltd.)
Studies were made of chemical and physical factors
influencing time dependent near-bond failure in NR/steel
bonded joints. Chemical studies revealed no evidence to
indicate that chemical modifications were substantially
weakening the rubber adjacent to the bond. Video
observations suggested that a cavitation-like process,
probably arising from dilatational components in the
stresses near an interface, could lead to time dependent
mechanical failure near the bond. 10 refs.
TUN ABDUL RAZAK RESEARCH CENTRE
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;
SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.761623
Item 70
156th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1999.
Conference preprints.
Orlando, Fl., 21st-23rd Sept.1999, paper 70
CRACKING WHILE CURING IN SILICONE
SEALANTS
Pujol J-M
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Rhodia Silicones
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The cracking of silicone sealants during cure is studied.
These elastomers cure slowly at room temperature by
diffusion of water vapour from the atmosphere, which
initiates hydrolysis and condensation crosslinking
reactions. Sealants are used as waterproofing seals in
construction. Joint movement due to thermal expansion
of building materials lead to extension of seals during
cure. Cracks in the seal may appear for movement lower
than 10% and may cause seal failure. The effect of
movement is examined and characterised for several
sealant types. The elongation at the time where the cracks
appear varies during the cure. It quickly drops to a low
value during the first minutes of curing. While the cure
continues, it increases to reach the elongation at break of
the cured elastomer. The cracking is related to brittleness
of the network obtained during the first crosslinking steps.
A model based on water vapour diffusion, hydrolysis and
condensation reactions is developed. This model can
explain the cracks observed. The crosslinking rate plays
a major influence on the curing sealant capability to
tolerate movement. 8 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.759664
Item 71
Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2000, pp.104. 30
cms. 17/12/99. Rapra Review Rept.111, Vol.10, No.3,
2000. NALOAN
POLYMER PRODUCT FAILURE
Lewis P R
Open University
Edited by: Dolbey R
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Rapra.Review Rept.No.11
Case studies are used to demonstrate failures in polymer
products. Aspects of defect analysis considered include
the occurrence of recrystallisation, surface contamination,
frozen-in strain, mixing efficiency, and formulation
problems. Case histories examined include those
involving pipes and fittings, storage tanks, and medical
products. 383 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.759543
Item 72
Tire Business
16, No.25, 29th March 1999, p.3/19
“GATOR” HUNTING
Davis B
This article provides information on lorry tyre failure in
the USA, with figures taken from a recently-published
report by a tyre industry task force. The reports states
35
 References and Abstracts
that both new and retread lorry tyres are failing at a faster
rate than four years ago, partly because of the increased
speeds allowed in some states, and partly because of low
pressure resulting from poor maintenance.
BRIDGESTONE/FIRESTONE INC.; CONTINENTAL
GENERAL TIRE; GOODYEAR; HAWKINSON
COMPANIES; HERCULES TIRE & RUBBER CO.;
MICHELIN NORTH AMERICA; OLIVER RUBBER
CO.; TEKNOR APEX CO.; US, TIRE RETREAD
INFORMATION BUREAU; YOKOHAMA TIRE
CORP.
USA
Accession no.759395
Item 73
156th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1999.
Conference preprints.
Orlando, Fl., 21st-23rd Sept.1999, paper 65
HOW TO AVOID OZONE CRACKING - A
SOLUTION FOR WHITE AND COLOURED
RUBBER GOODS
Jeske W
Bayer AG
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The demand for white and coloured rubber articles for
various applications is steadily growing. Rubbers are,
depending on their content of olefinic double bonds, very
sensitive to ozone, and hence effective antiozonants are
necessary. Due to their discolouring and staining effect,
para-phenylenediamine antiozonants cannot be used in
compounds for white or coloured articles. A survey of
the effectiveness of Vulkazon AFS, a cyclic acetal
providing excellent ozone protection in coloured
compounds based on various elastomers, is presented. The
effectiveness of the cyclic acetal is compared with
paraphenylenediamine antiozonants in chloroprene, butyl
and halobutyl compounds. The effect in diene rubbers,
where the cyclic acetal has to be used in combination
with waxes, is investigated. Cyclic acetals do not affect
the peroxide cure like other antiozonants and hence the
material has also been tested in peroxide-cured cable
jacket compounds based on a saturated elastomer. 2 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.758359
Item 74
156th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1999.
Conference preprints.
Orlando, Fl., 21st-23rd Sept.1999, paper 62
OZONE DETECTION BY CRACK-INDUCED
OPACITY IN RUBBER
Mott P H; Roland C M
US, Naval Research Laboratory
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Initially transparent polybutadiene develops micron-sized
surface cracks when stretched and exposed to ozone. The
36
consequent reduction in the transparency of the rubber
provides a facile method for quantifying the ambient
ozone concentration. The rate at which opacity develops
is linearly dependent on the amount of ozone, and
increases with increasing strain. This method of detecting
atmospheric ozone has high sensitivity (1 ppb), a broad
dynamic range, and is unaffected by the presence of other
chemicals. The surface morphology of exposed material
can be interpreted in terms of crack nucleation and growth.
31 refs.
USA
Accession no.758356
Item 75
International Polymer Science and Technology
26, No.3, 1999, p.7-14
CRACK FORMATION AND GROWTH UNDER
THE INFLUENCE OF HIGH GROUND SURFACE
OZONE CONCENTRATION
Ehrhardt D
The influence of ozone on the weathering of tensile-
stressed, carbon black-filled and unfilled natural rubber,
styrene-butadiene rubber and butadiene acrylonitrile
rubber, some of which contained a protective agent based
on N, N’ substituted p-phenylene diamines and a
microcrystalline wax, was determined under conditions
of continuous weathering, with the samples being exposed
for the entire period May to September/October; and under
high-pressure weathering, where the daily maximum for
the half-hour values of ozone concentration was at least
80 mg/cu m, the maximum daily air temperature was at
least 18C, and the total daily sunshine duration at least
10 h. The samples were evaluated from considerations of
the initial elongation, the number of cracks, and the crack
depth. It was concluded that only those materials with an
effective protective system or based on ozone-resistant
rubbers could withstand effects of ozone during episodes
of summer smog. 20 refs. Translation of Gummi Fasern
Kunststoffe, No.2, 1999, p.109.
Accession no.756152
Item 76
Rubber and Plastics News 2
21, No.2, 25th Oct.1999, p.6
STEER-AXLE RETREAD BAN SOUGHT
Mikolajczyk S J
In May, an accident in Montana caused by a tyre blow-
out on a concrete mixer truck resulted in the death of two
women. A lawsuit is being filed on behalf of the victims’
husbands seeking unspecified damages for negligence and
product liability. The retreaded tyre was fitted on the steer
axle of the truck and when the tyre blew, the driver lost
control of the vehicle and it collided head-on with the
women’s car. The attorneys handling the case hope it will
spur efforts nationwide to get retreaded tyres banned from
use on commercial vehicles’ steer axles.
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
LES SCHWAB TIRE CENTERS INC.
USA
Accession no.754185
Item 77
Gummibereifung
73, No.8, Aug.1997, p.65-6
German
TRADE SUMMIT MEETS AT STAHLGRUBER
Mutz K
In 1997 the tyre firm Tip Top Stahlgruber and the
Stahlgruber Stiftung (Foundation) hosted the third
round-table conference for a pool of specialist
representatives from the German tyre industry and its
trade associations for an exchange of experiences and
ideas. Topics covered damage to tyres, involvement of
customers, repair to damaged tyres, mobile tyre repair
support call-out services and aspects of retreads
regarding tyre damage, as well as the use of steel cord
patches, blow-outs and assistance in handling punctures,
including mobile puncture sets like the Mercedes Benz
Tirefit which should replace the spare tyre in the future.
The numerous world-wide tyre firms contributing to this
exchange are listed.
TIP TOP STAHLGRUBER; STAHLGRUBER
STIFTUNG
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.753826
Item 78
Gummibereifung
73, No.7, July 1997, p.78
German
TYRE CHECK CAN SAVE LIVES
Mutz K
Statistical evidence for road deaths in Germany resulting
from faulty tyres is examined as background to regular
momentary tyre checks advocated by Germany’s
Bundesverband Reifenhandel und Vulkaniseur-Handwerk
e.V. (BRV). Issues include low tyre pressure, tyre damage,
indentations in the running surface or bits of rubber
separated off. The BRV along with the TUeV for
Rhineland have published free safety information on tyre
care and many tyres traders offer free tyre safety checks.
BUNDESVERBAND REIFENHANDEL UND
VULKANISEURHANDWERK E.V.; TUEV
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.752478
Item 79
Rubber World
220, No.6, Sept.1999, p.27-30
MORE ADVANCED WAY TO DESIGNING
RUBBER PRODUCTS
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Chouchaoui B
Windsor Industrial Development Laboratory
An alternative to trial and error in designing rubber
products is virtual testing, the computer testing of products
and processes. This article describes testing rubber
towards building computer models. Studies completed
include leakage of crimp on a composite hose, a cracked
T-joint in a piping system, the closure of an electrical
connector, collapse of an underhood latch, dampening a
tractor cab, design of a pad for rail crossings and
optimisation of a dishwasher seal. 14 refs.
CANADA
Accession no.751229
Item 80
Rubber and Plastics News 2
20, No.23, 16th Aug.1999, p.7
INVESTIGATION BEGINS ON POSSIBLE FUEL
HOSE LEAKAGE
Moore M
Problems with leaking under-the-bonnet hose or hose
fittings on the 1993-1997 Mercury Villagers minivans and
Ford SVT Mustang Cobra model years 1994-98 are
reported. The NHTSA is investigating complaints of fuel
leaks in the former and problems with incompatibility of
OE front brake hoses and aftermarket high speed front
brake linings on the Cobras. Brief details are given.
MERCURY VILLAGES; US, NATIONAL HIGHWAY
TRAFFIC SAFETY ADMINISTRATION
USA
Accession no.750794
Item 81
155th ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1999.
Conference Preprints.
Chicago, Il., 13th-16th April 1999, Paper 59, pp.38
INFLUENCE OF COMPOUNDING MATERIALS
ON TIRE DURABILITY
Niziolek A W; Jones R H; Neilsen J G
Bayer Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The influence of polymers and additives on the service
life of non-tread tyre components is discussed on the basis
of results obtained from studies of inner liner, belt and
sidewall compounds. The effects of the bromine content
of bromobutyl rubbers on the performance of inner liners,
and of sulphenamide accelerators on the adhesion of NR
belt compounds to brass coated steel cords were
investigated. The mechanical properties and ageing and
ozone resistance of black sidewall compounds consisting
of NR blends with neodymium catalysed polybutadiene
protected with different antioxidants and antiozonants
were also evaluated. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.749872
37
 References and Abstracts
Item 82
155th ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1999.
Conference Preprints.
Chicago, Il., 13th-16th April 1999, Paper 56, pp.20
STRESS-INDUCED PHENOMENA IN
ELASTOMERS, AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON
DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE OF O-RINGS
Morgan G J; Campion R P; Derham C J
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The effects of stresses and associated strains on O-rings
used in sealing pressurised fluids are discussed. Results
are presented of studies of ageing and property changes of
stressed and unstressed elastomers exposed to a hot aqueous
solution of ethylene diamine, transient effects of
temperature on sealing force, and the influence of memory
effects on gas induced fracture by explosive decompression.
Materials examined included fluoroelastomers, nitrile
rubber and hydrogenated nitrile rubber. 7 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.749869
Item 83
155th ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1999.
Conference Preprints.
Chicago, Il., 13th-16th April 1999, Paper 42, pp.8
AUTOMATIC X-RAY INSPECTION FOR THE
TIRE INDUSTRY
Neuhaus T
Yxlon International Inc., LumenX Div.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Automatic X-ray inspection using linear diode array
imaging systems is discussed as a quality control method
for tyres.
LUMENX
USA
Accession no.749858
Item 84
155th ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1999.
Conference Preprints.
Chicago, Il., 13th-16th April 1999, Paper 40, pp.24
APPLICATIONS OF ULTRA-HIGH
RESOLUTION EVANESCENT MICROWAVE
IMAGING PROBE IN TIRE AND RUBBER
MEASUREMENTS
Tabib-Azar M; Mowdood S K; LeClair S
Case Western Reserve University; Pirelli Tire LLC; US,
Air Force Research Laboratory
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The use of evanescent microwave probes for imaging non-
uniformities in a variety of materials is discussed.
Applications of this technique are illustrated by a number
of examples, including the study of the surface structure
of EPM samples and damage detection in tyres. 25 refs.
38
WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR FORCE BASE
USA
Accession no.749856
Item 85
155th ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1999.
Conference Preprints.
Chicago, Il., 13th-16th April 1999, Paper 39, pp.19
INSTRUMENT TO EVALUATE DAMAGE IN
STEEL BELTED RADIAL TRUCK TIRES
dos Reis H L M; Golko P J
Illinois, University
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Details are given of a prototype instrument which uses
an acousto-ultrasonic approach to detect and evaluate ply
cord fatigue damage, a likely cause of the zipper mode of
failure in steel belted radial truck tyres. Using an ultrasonic
roller transducer as the sending transducer and an air
coupled receiving transducer, the instrument is capable
of producing colour coded scans, thereby reducing the
possibility of operator error which could result in damaged
tyres being placed in service. Results are presented for
the application of the instrument to damage detection in
a new tyre having seeded defects in the sidewall area and
a used tyre with field fatigue damage. 26 refs.
USA
Accession no.749855
Item 86
Rubber and Plastics News
28, No.26, 26th July 1999, p.1/10
SYNTHETIC FUTURE
Moore M
NR latex has long been the barrier protection of choice
for physicians, nurses, dentists and other healthcare
professionals. However, estimates of the prevalence of
latex allergies and sensitisation among healthcare workers
ranges from 5 to 17%. Comfort and cost are the main
reasons latex remains dominant in the barrier protection
market. However, in a small but growing number of
hospitals, the idea of an eventual latex-free environment
has taken root and those institutions are replacing natural
with synthetic rubber in more and more applications.
JOHNS HOPKINS MEDICAL INSTITUTION
USA
Accession no.747150
Item 87
Tire Technology International
Sept.1999, p.46/53
CRASH!
Newland G
Newlaw Associates
Tyres are arguably the most important feature on a vehicle
for ensuring the safety of drivers, passengers and all road
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
users. They are the vehicle’s only contact with the road
surface for acceleration, cornering and braking, yet they
are the most consistently abused and neglected part of a
vehicle. Accurate forensic examination of tyres after a
car crash requires more than just a rudimentary
understanding of how they are made. With experience,
important clues as to the causes of crashes can be found.
Such examination requires knowledge of the
manufacturing processes and materials involved, and the
way each component works in relation to the other
components. It requires knowledge of all the external
factors that affect tyre performance, and how a tyre
behaves when these other influences are brought to bear.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.745577
Item 88
Rubber and Plastics News
28, No.24, 28th June 1999, p.1/21
STUDY FINDS BREAST IMPLANTS DON’T
CAUSE ILLNESS
Moore M
Silicone gel breast implants do not cause cancer or
systemic disease in women, according to a government-
funded study. But other complications, such as implant
rupture and deflation or contraction of the fibrous tissue
around the breast, are fairly common and need to be
studied further, concluded the three-member panel
organised under the auspices of the Institute of Medicine,
the medical arm of the National Academy of Sciences.
Dow Corning, inventor of silicone implants, said the
report ‘provides additional solid evidence that breast
implants do not cause disease’. The panelists, who have
no connection with any parties in the silicone implant
dispute and worked without compensation, reviewed more
than 3, 000 publications on implants, giving particular
weight to peer-reviewed scientific articles. All the
evidence indicates that rupture, tissue contraction and
other local complications resulting in pain, disfigurement
or infection are the main problems with silicone implants,
according to the study. Details are given.
US, NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES; US,
INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE; DOW CORNING CORP.
USA
Accession no.745570
Item 89
International Polymer Science and Technology
26, No.1, 1999, p.T/38-41
PROBLEMS WITH THE USE OF PMTP-150
PIPELINES WITH BELL AND SPIGOT JOINTS
IN A COLD CLIMATE
Petrova N N; Popova A F; Cherskii I N; Kovalenko N A
Russian Academy of Sciences
In 1996, the Talakan-Vitim oil pipeline was built and
put into service. The PMTP-150 long-distance pipeline
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
consists of pipes of 6 m length, joined with bell and
spigot joints sealed with rubber sealing rings. A pipeline
design of this kind determines its main advantage - the
possibility of mechanised assembly at high speed with
a minimum number of engineering personnel. All joints
are detachable; the use of welding methods is eliminated.
The construction of the Talakan-Vitim oil pipeline was
preceded by a long preparatory period, in the course of
which the question of the possible use of PMTP-150
pipelines in conditions of the Sakha Republic was
tackled. Analysis of design and technical decisions
showed that the main obstacle to the use of the pipeline
in a cold climate is the inadequate cold resistance of the
sealing materials used. The sealing rings regulated by
specifications TU 38.105.1962-90 for the sealing of pipe
joints are intended for service at temperatures ranging
from -40 to +80 deg.C. Storage and transportation of
the seals are permitted at temperatures no lower than -
30 deg.C. This level of cold resistance of the rubber
sealing rings is unacceptable for reliable service in
conditions of the Far North. Furthermore, in connection
with expiry of the permissible storage times,
considerable reduction in the mechanical properties of
seals intended for pipeline assembly was found, and
therefore the decision was taken to manufacture new
sealing elements from rubbers with increased cold
resistance. It was proposed that vulcanisate V-14 based
on SKN-18 acrylonitrile butadiene rubber be used for
the manufacture of sealing rings. 4 refs.
RUSSIA
Accession no.745523
Item 90
International Polymer Science and Technology
26, No.1, 1999, p.t/10-2
DETERMINATION OF THE ACTIVATION
ENERGY OF HEAT AGEING OF VULCANISATE
FROM THE CHANGE IN ITS ELECTRICAL
PARAMETERS
Meshchaninov S K
Ukranian Academy of Sciences
Until recently the main factor in the breakdown of
solids was considered to be the mechanical load.
However, the dilaton theory of strength which has
appeared in the past decade has altered these concepts
radically. From this point of view, the mechanical load
plays only the role of supplier of the energy ‘pumped’
into the dilaton and causing thermal expansion of the
bonds up to their breakdown. Thus, the difference
between mechanical and other forms of breakdown of
solids is removed. The heat ageing of a vulcanisate is
one of the most common causes of failure of structural
elements manufactured from it. In the general case the
heat ageing of a material can be described by a first-
order reaction. 8 refs.
RUSSIA
Accession no.745516
39
 References and Abstracts
Item 91
Tire Business
17, No.2, 26th April 1999, p.11
RETREADING’S VERY SURVIVAL
THREATENED
Fisher P
This article supplies details of the issues discussed at the
annual meeting of the Maintenance Council of American
Trucking Association. The article focuses on the latest
activities by safety activates to restrict and regulate truck
tyre retreads. A study in 1998 of tyre failures revealed
that 85% were retreads. An Association of Citizens for
Reliable and Safe Highways (CRASH), has launched a
major campaign against truck tyre retreads. The article
supplies details of the campaign, together with possible
repercussions on the truck tyre retread market.
AMERICAN TRUCKING ASSOCIATION
MAINTENANCE COUNCIL; CRASH
USA
Accession no.742250
Item 92
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
No.775, March 1999, p.57-62
French
DEFECTS IN THE EXTRUSION OF PROFILES
Del Peso R; Karam S; Aubin C
IFOCA; LRCCP
Results are presented of a study undertaken by LRCCP to
determine the influence of extrusion parameters such as
die temperature, length, diameter and entry angle on the
occurrence of surface defects on EPDM profiles. 2 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.740628
Item 93
Rubber World
220, No.3, June 1999, p.38-40
EP POLYMER SELECTION AND COMPOUND
CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHLORAMINE
RESISTANCE
Mitchell J M
The failure of rubber parts used in domestic water applications
has been reported from several US states. The complaints
involved swelling and cracking and are related to nitrile and
ethylene-propylene copolymer type compounds. The failure
of the rubber parts coincides with the implementation and use
of chloramines as a method of water purification. This
investigation was designed to determine if EPDM composition
variables influenced resistance to chloramines. Also evaluated
were peroxide vs sulphur cure systems, the effect of
antioxidants and whether practical compounds can be
developed for water systems. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.739158
40
Item 94
Chemie Ingenieur Technik
68, No.3, March 1996, p.219-27
German
LEAK RATES OF GASKETS FOR FLANGE
CONNECTIONS: INFLUENCING
PARAMETERS, REQUIREMENTS, MEASURING
TECHNIQUES AND LEAK RATE RELATED
GASKET CHARACTERISTICS
Kockelmann H
Stuttgart, University
The use of flow theories in determining the fundamental
interrelationships between the leak rate of gaskets for
flange connections and the relevant influencing
parameters is discussed. The derivation of the basic rule
for the transfer of results obtained for special boundary
conditions to other conditions is considered and it is shown
that the effort involved in gasket testing can be reduced.
The relationships between the leak rate of gaskets on the
one hand and the internal pressure, temp., medium and
gasket thickness on the other hand are presented. The
effect of the gasket stress and thickness can be determined
only from experimental investigations. The requirements
placed on gaskets, the leak rate-related gasket
characteristics defined in various standards and the
measuring techniques for their determination are
discussed. 15 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.739042
Item 95
Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe
52, No.2, 1999, p.109-15
German
CRACK FORMATION AND GROWTH UNDER
THE INFLUENCE OF HIGH GROUND SURFACE
OZONE CONCENTRATION
Ehrhardt D
Information is given on the frequency, level and formation
of ground surface ozone concentrations in Central Europe,
and a study is described of the weathering behaviour of
various rubber materials (crack initiation and growth)
under the effect of ozone. 20 refs. Articles from this
journal can be requested for translation by subscribers to
the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and
Technology.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.738743
Item 96
Rubber World
220, No.2, May 1999, p.50-3
INCREASING THE LIFE OF NR PIPE JOINT
RINGS
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Hills D A
Materials & Quality Consultancy Ltd.
The microbiological degradation of NR pipe joint rings
was first reported by Leeflang in 1963 and has since been
found to be a worldwide problem. This article describes
a recent recent research project on the topic. The project
was intended to assess the condition of rubber joint rings
from many parts of New Zealand, establish the likely life
of the improved (post-1970s) rings, and examine the in
situ chemical modification of exposed surfaces of the pre-
1970s rings to increase their longevity. 12 refs.
NEW ZEALAND
Accession no.734158
Item 97
Rubber and Plastics News
28, No.17, 22nd March 1999, p.16/9
ANTI-REVERSION AGENTS WORK
TOGETHER
Kuebler T P
Kumho Tire Co.Inc.
It is explained that if extreme heat builds up in aircraft
tyres it can lead to reversion of the compounds and tyre
failure. This paper traces the development of work done
in which the combination of two anti-reversion agents
used in an aircraft carcass compound provided a
synergistic improvement in reversion resistance. Materials
and methods are detailed, results are presented and
discussed, and conclusions drawn.
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING &
MATERIALS; FLEXSYS
USA
Accession no.733809
Item 98
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
No.771, Oct.1998, p.98/104
French
AGEING OF DIENE ELASTOMERS
Lemaire J
Blaise Pascal, Universite
Approaches to the prediction of the long-term ageing
behaviour of vulcanised diene rubbers are discussed, and
studies of the photooxidative and ozone degradation of
polybutadiene, polyisoprene, SBR and nitrile rubber under
accelerated artificial ageing conditions are reported. 12
refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.732497
Item 99
Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering
38, No.2, 1999, p.341-50
ABRASION PROPERTY OF EPOXIDISED
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
NATURAL RUBBER
Poh B T; Razai M J B
Sains Malaysia, University
The abrasion resistance of two grades of epoxidised NR
(ENR 25 and ENR 50) and one grade of SBR is studied
using an Akron abrasion tester. An accelerated sulphur
vulcanisation system with 2-mercaptobenzothiazole
(MBT) as the accelerator is used. Carbon black (N 330),
precipitated silica and calcium carbonate are chosen as
the fillers. The range of sulphur and filler loadings is
from 1 to 5 phr and 10 to 50 phr, respectively. Mixing is
done on a two-roll mill. Results obtained show that for
all the rubbers studied, the volume loss due to abrasion
decreases with increasing sulphur loading and passes
through a minimum at about 3 phr of sulphur. This
observation is attributed to the changes of crosslink types
from monosulphidic to polysulphidic crosslink as
sulphur concentration is increased. However, further
sulphur loading would cause a ‘tight’ cure, thus
increasing the abrasion loss. For sulphur loading less
than 3 phr, ENR 25 indicates the highest abrasion loss,
followed by SBR and ENR 50. For the filled stock,
minimum loss is observed at about 35-40 phr of filler.
Reinforcing filler such as carbon black exhibits better
abrasion resistance than calcium carbonate, a non-
reinforcing filler. The abrasion loss increases at higher
filler loading due to the dilution effect of fillers. Ozone
plays an important role in the abrasion properties of
unsaturated rubbers, as reflected by the higher abrasion
loss in the presence of ozone. 17 refs.
MALAYSIA
Accession no.732334
Item 100
International Polymer Science and Technology
25, No.9, 1998, p.T/51-7
FATIGUE FAILURE OF ELASTOMERS
Fukahari Y
The main points of a previous review are given and
augmented a discussion of later developments,
particularly those reported by the author and co-workers.
Topics covered are (1) failure-initiating processes; (2) the
size of microcracks; (3) analysis of stress in the vicinity
of latent defects in large deformation; (4) limiting negative
pressure for microcrack initiation; (5) the crack growth
process (fracture mechanical treatment); (6) fracture
mechanical treatment of growth initiation; (7) fracture
mechanical treatment of fatigue failure; (8) the final step
in failure (formation) of irregularities in the fracture
surface; (9) simulation of fracture by molecular dynamics;
(10) finite element simulation of fracture surface
irregularity; (11) synergistic effect of loading and
deterioration in fatigue failure; and (12) size of decrease
in activation energy due to loading. 32 refs.
JAPAN
Accession no.729169
41
 References and Abstracts

Item 101 Item 104

152nd ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1997. Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
Reprints. 71, No.11, 1998, p.654-61
Cleveland, Oh., 21st-24th Oct.1997, paper XXV Japanese
STANDARDS FOR SOME LATEX MEDICAL FATIGUE FAILURE OF ELASTOMERS
DEVICES Fukahori Y
Simon T R Bridgestone KK
TANDA Associates
Fundamentals of the mechanics of fatigue failure of
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
elastomers are discussed, and new developments in
National and international standards on surgical and fatigue failure research are reviewed. 32 refs. Articles
examination gloves, condoms and diaphragms are crucial from this journal can be requested for translation by
in the manufacture of quality products designed to prevent subscribers to the Rapra produced International Polymer
the spread of infectious diseases or to act as efficient Science and Technology.
mechanical contraceptives.This article discusses the JAPAN
requirements covered by these standards, such as basic
Accession no.720518
material, dimensions, strength and barrier properties, and
the appropriate test methods to determine these
characteristics. Also discussed are the differing Item 105
approaches to sampling methods for these testing Luntai Gongye
procedures as well as the acceptable quality levels for 19, No.1, 1999, p.37-9
some typical attributes and conflicting features between Chinese
certain standards. Outlines for possible future IMPORTANCE OF CORRECT TIRE INFLATION
developments in the standardisation of these medical PRESSURE
devices are given. 20 refs. Gao Dongping; Li Chengmin
CANADA Hualin Group Corp.Ltd.
Accession no.721171 Premature failure of tyres was thought to be mainly a
result of running at under-inflation pressure. Load tests
Item 102 of 9.00-20 16PR and 9.00R20 16PR tyres at different
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi inflation pressures were carried out. The results
71, No.11, 1998, p.690-5 obtained showed that the effect of under-inflation was
Japanese equivalent to that of overload. The combination of
FATIGUE PHENOMENA OF RUBBER ROLLS overload and under-inflation would result in fatal
Soumiya S damage to the tyre.
A discussion is presented of the mechanisms involved in CHINA
fatigue phenomena of rubber rolls, and of the Accession no.716382
determination of the causes and sites of fatigue failure. 8
refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for Item 106
translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced Rubber World
International Polymer Science and Technology. 219, No.4, Jan.1999, p.20-1
JAPAN AUTOMATIC INSPECTION OF SURFACE
Accession no.720523 IMPERFECTIONS AND DIMENSIONS ON
ROTATIONAL SYMMETRIC MASS PRODUCTS
Item 103 Fuss M; Wulff P
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi Basler Systemtechnik GmbH
71, No.11, 1998, p.683-9
The technology is available now for flexible and modular
Japanese
automatic inspection systems which make it possible to
FATIGUE LIFE OF AUTOMOTIVE
SYNCHRONOUS BELTS inspect rotational symmetric mass-produced articles with
Iizuka H high throughput for surface defects and dimensions. The
Yamagata, University handling system of the Basler 03 is able to quickly and
reliably separate and convey round parts of different sizes
The mechanism of fatigue failure of synchronous rubber precisely to the sensor units. The optical inspection of
belts is discussed. 20 refs. Articles from this journal can engineered seals includes the inspection of geometrical
be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra properties and surface defects.
produced International Polymer Science and Technology. EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
JAPAN WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.720522 Accession no.714427

42 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts

Item 107 of tearing energy/J-integral. The results of the stress

Rubber Chemistry and Technology distributions and J-integral should aid in understanding
71, No.3, July/Aug.1998, p.619-36 delamination-type failures in elastomeric composite
POWER TRANSMISSION BELT laminates. 23 refs.
PERFORMANCE AND FAILURE USA
Dalgarno K W Accession no.713461
Leeds, University
A review is presented of the literature on the performance Item 110
and failure of synchronous and V-ribbed belts in order to Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
develop an overall picture of the way in which the 70, No.12, 1997, p.715-21
understanding of belt materials, mechanics and failure Japanese
mechanisms has progressed in recent years. 66 refs. FAILURE MECHANISM OF SYNCHRONOUS
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; BELTS
WESTERN EUROPE Iizuka H
Accession no.713769 Yamagata, University
The author describes a procedure involving a
Item 108 consideration of the type of failure, the amount of
Rubber Chemistry and Technology deformation, analysis of the dynamics of failure, and
71, No.3, July/Aug.1998, p.590-618 estimation of the service life of the belts and ways of
TIRE BLACK SIDEWALL SURFACE reinforcing them. 22 refs. Articles from this journal can
DISCOLORATION AND NON-STAINING be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra
TECHNOLOGY: A REVIEW produced International Polymer Science and Technology.
Waddell W H JAPAN
Exxon Chemical Co.
Accession no.713271
A review is presented of the literature describing the
surface discolouration problem of tyre black sidewalls
Item 111
and approaches to the formulation of a black sidewall
Rubber Technology International
compound to eliminate this surface discolouration upon
1998, p.75/80
exposure to ozone. Methods include use of non-staining
NEW NON-STAINING ANTIOXIDANTS FOR
antiozonants and use of elastomers with saturated
DRY RUBBER APPLICATIONS
backbones such as EPDM, halobutyl rubbers and
Stuck B
brominated isobutylene-co-para-methylstyrene. 67 refs.
Sovereign Chemical Co.
USA
Accession no.713768 The objective of this laboratory study was to evaluate
several new antioxidants versus two control antioxidants
in a natural rubber/polybutadiene-based white rubber
Item 109 compound. The results showed several new antioxidants
Polymers & Polymer Composites were developed with improved heat resistance, colour
5, No.7, 1998, p.439-45 properties and economics over traditional control
FRACTURE ANALYSIS OF DELAMINATION antioxidants.
FAILURE IN ANGLE-PLY ELASTOMER USA
COMPOSITES
Accession no.713209
Pidaparti R M V; Kakarla V
Purdue University
Item 112
Fracture analysis of delamination-type cracks in angle-
Rubber Technology International
ply elastomeric laminates was carried out using three-
1998, p.22-5
dimensional finite element analysis. The fracture
SILICONE RUBBER FOR ELECTRICAL
parameter, tearing energy/J-integral that characterised
INSULATORS
delamination failure in elastomer composites, was
Goudie J
computed from the finite element results of stresses and
Dow Corning Corp.
strains, and compared with existing analytical results
using three different methods. The results obtained were The market for composite insulators is growing steadily.
validated with existing analytical methods in the literature. Composite designs generally employ a fibreglass rod or
Numerical results of stress distributions and J-integral hollow core for mechanical strength, with an outer
values are presented for various cord orientations and housing made from either silicone rubber, EPDM or EPR.
crack sizes. The results obtained showed that cord Insulator service life can be affected by electrical,
orientation and crack size had a strong effect on the values mechanical and environmental stresses. One of the biggest

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 43

 References and Abstracts

problems in outdoor applications is airborne Item 116

contamination that settles on the insulator surface. The Journal of Testing & Evaluation
surface of a silicone elastomer has a unique ability to 26, No.1, Jan.1998, p.10-4
interact with the contaminant and control leakage currents. ABILITY OF QUALITY ASSURANCE TESTS TO
6 refs. DETECT PUNCTURED LATEX CONDOMS
USA WITH POTENTIAL FOR VIRUS PENETRATION
Accession no.713200 Pierdominici V J B; Doucette J M; Coyne L; Cyr W H;
Thomas D P; Lytle C D
US, Food & Drugs Administration
Item 113
Rubber Technology International Defective condoms were created by puncturing with small
1998, p.18-21 acupuncture needles and were then tested by three quality
CLEAN ASSEMBLIES MINIMISE HYDRAULIC assurance tests (the water leak test, a proposed electrical
SYSTEM CONTAMINATION test, and the air burst) and by a virus penetration test. 13
Lough S refs.
Gates Rubber Co. USA

Hydraulic system contamination can arise from a number Accession no.703387

of sources, including accumulation of debris that results
from the hose assembly process itself. A number of
methods are available to manufacturers to allow them to
quantify the level of contaminants in such systems and
optimise their production processes.
USA
Accession no.713199
Item 114
Polimeri
17, Nos.5-6, 1996, p.258-60
Croatian
FAILURE OF AUTOMOBILE TYRES
Markun B
Sava Semperit
Failure of automobile tyres, possibilities of its
determination and its consequences are analysed from
different standpoints. Some ideas are suggested for
increasing traffic safety. 5 refs. Articles from this journal
can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra
produced International Polymer Science and Technology.
SLOVENIA
Accession no.712027
Item 115
European Rubber Journal
180, No.11, Nov.1998, p.38/42
NEW COMPOUNDS FOR HOTTER USES
Knoedgen M
This article explores developments in automotive hoses,
which require expensive high-performance rubbers,
especially in air conditioning units and fuel systems where
more aggressive fluids are being used.
BAYER AG; VERITAS AG; ELF ATOCHEM;
TROESTER P., MASCHINENFABRIK; ZEON
EUROPE GMBH
EUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN
UNION; GERMANY; JAPAN; USA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.703496
Item 117
154th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1998.
Conference preprints.
Nashville, Tn., 29th Sept.-2nd Oct.1998, paper 23. 012
ETHYLENE PROPYLENE POLYMER
SELECTION AND COMPOUND
CONSIDERATIONS FOR CHLORAMINE
RESISTANCE
Mitchell J M
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Rubber gaskets, seals, solar tubing and membranes used
in today’s water systems must resist the strong oxidising
effect of water treatments. Chloramines, a combination
of chlorine and ammonium hydroxide, is commonly used
to control bacteria in most water systems. The
concentration of chloramines and the exposure
temperature may vary, but the rubber parts must resist
degradation for long periods of time. In the laboratory,
60 ppm chloramines and 60 deg.C. are used to accelerate
the oxidising effect on rubber parts. A volume change of
less than 5% after exposure for 1000 hours is accepted in
the industry for water systems. EPDM is commonly used
and preferred by rubber parts manufacturers because these
polymers are known to have excellent resistance to harsh
environments. EPDM polymer selection along with
compound considerations are important to achieve
chloramine resistance. The polymer characteristics, cure
systems filler selection and the effect of antioxidants are
described. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.701860
Item 118
154th ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Fall 1998.
Conference preprints.
Nashville, Tn., 29th Sept.-2nd Oct.1998, paper 2. 012
STRAIN ENERGY RELEASE RATES FOR SOME
CLASSICAL RUBBER TEST PIECES BY FINITE
ELEMENT ANALYSIS

44 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
Yeoh O H
Lord Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Strain energy release rate or tearing energy has proved to
be a valid failure criterion for a variety of rubber failure
phenomena. However, apart from a small number of
classical test pieces, it is difficult to calculate the tearing
energy. This hampers the wider use of this criterion in
failure analysis. Finite element analysis may be used to
compute the tearing energy. Indeed, it has been used for
this very purpose since the early 1970s. Therefore, it is
perhaps surprising to find that there are basic questions
relating to these classical test pieces that can be readily
addressed using finite element analysis, and yet remain
unanswered. Some classical rubber test pieces consisting
of cracked strips and cylinders in tension are described.
11 refs.
USA
Accession no.701843
Item 119
ITEC ’96 Select. Conference proceedings..
Akron, Oh., 1996, p.246-8. 6T
CHANGES IN PRODUCT LIABILITY LAWS
IMPACT FUTURE OF TIRE INDUSTRY
Weinstein A S
Weinstein Associates
(Rubber & Plastics News)
A detailed review of the product liability laws in the
US is presented, with particular reference to the ways
in which it affects tyre producers. The law imposes on
the manufacturer the duty to reasonably foresee the
hazards arising from all aspects of product use. Among
the considerations, are hazards arising from shipping,
assembly, installation, testing, instructions, warnings,
intended uses, misuses, inspection, maintenance,
service and disposal. A procedure for system design
safety is suggested.
USA
Accession no.701562
Item 120
Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe
48, No.3, March 1995, p.159-65
German
INTEGRATED QUALITY CONTROL
Sticher J; Ghomiem M
MSG Gummiformtechnik GmbH
The paper details the basic assumptions, the approach and
the results of implementing ISO 9002 in a medium-sized
enterprise specialising in the production of rubber
products. The authors describe the experience gained
during intensive work by all members of the organisation.
7 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for
translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced
International Polymer Science and Technology.
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.700430
Item 121
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
67, No.10, 1994, p.714-20
Japanese
MECHANISMS OF TEETH SHEARING IN
SYNCHRONOUS BELTS
Iizuka H; Tsutsumi S; Watanabe K; Mashimo S
Yamagata, University; Mitsuboshi Belting Ltd.
The morphologies of tooth shearing in synchronous belts
were examined after three types of fatigue tests. The belts
investigated in this paper were constructed from fibre-
reinforced rubber composite materials. The belts consisted
of rubber, fibre cords and facing fabrics. The cord was
made of glass fibre and a processing compound. The teeth
were made of hydrogenated nitrile-butadiene rubber (H-
NBR) while the facing fabric was made of nylon. Two
modes of failure initiation were observed. One was cord
failure initiated under various conditions, and the other
mode was crack initiation which was observed under a
relatively high loading on the mating flank of the belt
tooth. 11 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested
for translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced
International Polymer Science and Technology.
JAPAN
Accession no.700397
Item 122
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
67, No.10, 1994, p.670-5
Japanese
BREAKDOWN OF NATURAL RUBBER
PRODUCTS BY MICRO-ORGANISMS
Tsuchii A
Shomei Industrial Technology Research Centre
A brief history of research into the breakdown of natural
rubber by micro-organisms is followed by a description
of the nature of micro-organisms attacking rubber
products, and of the stages of breakdown of the rubber
products. The effect of compounding and curing
conditions is discussed. 14 refs. Articles from this journal
can be requested for translation by subscribers to the Rapra
produced International Polymer Science and Technology.
JAPAN
Accession no.700392
Item 123
Luntai Gongye
18, No.9, 1998, p.515-9
Chinese
STUDY ON DISCOLOURATION OF TYRE
SURFACE
Lu Shangbin
45
 References and Abstracts
Yinchuan China Strategy (Great Wall) Rubber Co.Ltd.
It was found through the compounding test and weather
test that under sunlight the black compound with
antioxidant 4010NA turned red, the one with antioxidant
D and BLE discoloured slightly and the one with
antioxidant RD, antioxidant 4020 and wax did not
discolour. The tread and sidewall compounds with
antioxidant RD/antioxidant 4020/wax/microcrystalline
wax showed excellent physical and ageing properties and
good discolouration resistance.
CHINA
Accession no.697285
Item 124
Polymer Testing ’97. Day 4: Durability of Rubber.
Conference proceedings.
Shawbury, 7th-11th April 1997, Paper 3. 9T
ELASTOMERIC SEALING IN OFFSHORE
ENVIRONMENTS
Morgan G J
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory Ltd.
(Rapra Technology Ltd.; Plastics & Rubber Weekly;
European Plastics News)
Elastomers are frequently used in critical offshore
situations particularly in applications that require scaling
of liquids and gases. Their use as a seal material is mainly
dictated by their ability to absorb wide tolerances and
misalignments in metalwork and still maintain sealability
better than other materials such as thermoplastics and
metal itself. The means of examining the properties of an
elastomer relevant to its functioning as a seal are
described, together with methods developed in a recent
joint industry project for assessing the lifetime of a seal
in service in potentially hostile environments such as
occur offshore. 2 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.694720
Item 125
NRC 98 - Nordic Rubber Conference 1998. Conference
proceedings.
Halmstad, Sweden, 4th-5th June 1998, paper 10. 012
USE OF ELASTOMERIC SEALS OFFSHORE
Olsen A
Norsk Hydro Research Center
(Sveriges Gummitekniska Forening; NGTR)
This paper concerns the use of elastomeric seals offshore.
General properties and fluid compatibility for five most
common elastomeric types used in oil and gas are
described. These are NBR, HNBR, fluorocarbon
elastomers, perfluoroelastomers and tetrafluoroethylene-
propylene.
SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.692116
46
Item 126
Rubber Asia
12, No.4, July/Aug.1998, p.131-5
WHY LIFE PREDICTION OF ELASTOMERS IS
IMPORTANT
Pannikottu A
Akron Rubber Development Laboratory Inc.
Service life prediction is of both practical and scientific
interest. The service life of an elastomer sets a limit to
engineering design. Therefore, life prediction of
elastomers should be part of the engineering design
process. Elastomer properties are sensitive to heat,
moisture, light, fluids and mechanical stress. Elastomers
can undergo changes in properties large enough to cause
product failure. Most elastomeric parts in engineering
applications are intended to be in service for several years.
Hence, the engineer or the developing scientist cannot
wait that long to evaluate the ageing process in actual
service conditions. The three major engineering tasks in
elastomer applications are to determine the shelf life,
service life and remaining useful life (part already in use).
A practical usable methods for quantitative life prediction
of elastomers is outlined.
USA
Accession no.690164
Item 127
Tire Technology International
1998, p.286-90
TYRE SIDEWALL INSPECTION
Harris M
Bytewise Measurement Systems
Effective final inspection prior to delivery to customers
is a key element of a successful operation. This
comprehensive article supplies details of the operation,
advantages and features of a sidewall monitoring system
from Bytewise Measurement Systems of the USA.
Applying laser triangulation to sidewall measurement has
resulted in a system that offers high accuracy, simple
operation and easy integration into existing inspection
systems. The company also claim major savings from the
use of the system, with some plants finding their savings
to be over one million US dollars annually.
USA
Accession no.685107
Item 128
153rd ACS Rubber Division Meeting - Spring 1998.
Conference preprints.
Indianapolis, In., 5th-8th May, 1998. Paper 23. 012
MICROSCOPIC IMAGE ANALYSIS OF
ELASTOMERS CAN INFER PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
DiFoggio R; McElrath K O; Tisler A L; Ball J W
Exxon Chemical Co.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Immiscible elastomers are often blended together. The
ways in which the elastomer ingredients are mixed
together and how they are cured make a big difference
in the resulting morphologies of the microscopic
elastomer domains, even if one starts out with the same
set of ingredients. Distinct micron-sized elastomer
domains can be observed for such blends by using
transmission electron microscopy or atomic force
microscopy. By applying image analysis techniques, the
number, shapes and areas of these domains can be
quantified. Good correlations are found between these
quantitative image parameters and physical properties
such as Shore A, adhesion, DeMattia crack length and
fatigue to failure. These correlations demonstrate the
importance of microscopic morphology to the
performance of elastomer blends. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.683241
Item 129
Adhesives Age
41, No.5, May 1998, p.44/8
RILEM DISCUSSES DURABILITY
Wolf A
Dow Corning Corp.
Synopses are presented of papers given at the RILEM
Symposium on the Durability of Building Sealants. Topics
covered include the long term stability of elastomeric
building sealants; case studies on the inspection and
resealing of failed joint systems; the prediction of service
lives of joint sealants; comparative evaluation of silicone
sealants under various accelerated weathering regimes;
the effects of joint geometry on the engineering properties
of elastomeric structural sealants and adhesives; and the
further development of a universal test standard for sealant
durability and in-service strength.
USA
Accession no.682508
Item 130
Rubber World
217, No.5, Feb.1998, p.41-5
ELASTOMER BLEND APPROACH TO EXTEND
HEAT LIFE OF NATURAL RUBBER BASED
ENGINE MOUNTS
Measmer M B; McElrath K O
Exxon Chemical Co.
Natural rubber has been used for many years in engine
mounts, but there have been some failures in recent years
as the underhood temperatures of certain car models have
risen. Previous work has shown that brominated
isobutylene-p-methylstyrene rubber, when blended at
concentrations of 20-30phr with NR, result in compounds
with favourably low spring rates and significantly
improved hot air ageing performance. This article presents
some dynamic property data for rubber compounds of
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
varying compositions and the change in these properties
as the compounds are subjected to hot air ageing. 2 refs.
USA
Accession no.677100
Item 131
Rubber and Plastics News
27, No.11, 12th Jan.1998, p.14-5
INTRINSIC DEFECT EFFECTS ON NR
PERMEABILITY
Roland C M; Choi I S; Schroeder M J
US, Naval Research Laboratory; US, Naval Academy
Recent evidence of the ability of viral-sized particles to
pass through ostensibly intact latex rubber films calls into
question the ability of latex rubber gloves and condoms
to function effectively as prophylactics. The origin of this
permeability is presently unknown. This comprehensive
article examines the size of the intrinsic flaws in natural
rubber of varying grades and in guayule rubber.
Experiments measuring the permeation of micron- and
submicron-size particles through latex rubber films are
also described. 21 refs.
USA
Accession no.672799
Item 132
Rubber and Plastics News
27, No.3, 8th Sept.1997, p.6
OSHA CITES DARTMOUTH COLLEGE IN
GLOVE DEATH
Campanelli J
It is reported that in the USA, the Occupational Safety &
Health Administration has cited Dartmouth College for
failing to warn its laboratory researchers about the
limitations of latex gloves and for other safety violations.
This follows the tragic death of Professor Karen
Wetterhahn, who died after spilling dimethyl mercury on
her gloves at the college.
US, OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH
ADMINISTRATION; DARTMOUTH COLLEGE
USA
Accession no.665006
Item 133
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
No.743, Sept.1995, p.74-6
French
STUDY OF THE THERMAL AGEING OF
CHLOROSULPHONATED POLYETHYLENE
Audouin L; Gueguen V; Verdu J; Pinel B
ENSAM; EDF/DER
Samples of chlorosulphonated PE were thermally aged in
ventilated ovens at temperatures between 70 and 135C.
The ageing process was studied by tensile tests, equilibrium
swelling measurements and gravimetric analysis of the loss
47
 References and Abstracts
of volatile substances. The results revealed the existence
of three different processes, i.e. loss of plasticisers and other
volatile substances, crosslinking and dehydrochlorination
after consumption of stabilisers. 6 refs.
DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I., & CO.INC.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
USA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.663451
Item 134
152nd ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Fall 1997.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 21st-24th Oct.1997, Paper 65, pp.19.
012
IMPROVEMENT OF TIRE SIDEWALL
APPEARANCE USING HIGHLY SATURATED
POLYMERS: ORIGIN OF SIDEWALL
CRACKING
Mouri H; Tonosaki Y
Bridgestone Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A study was made of the fatigue life of black tyre sidewall
compounds based on NR/polybutadiene blends with highly
saturated polymers, i.e. EPDM or a brominated isobutylene-
paramethylstyrene copolymer. The major factor responsible
for fatigue failure was found to be the size of flaws in the
specimens caused by poor polymer dispersion, resulting
from incompatibility or poor mixing quality associated with
highly saturated polymers. The size of initial flaws deduced
from fatigue to failure testing was in line with the polymer
dispersion ranking. It was concluded that crack growth in
sidewalls containing highly saturated polymers is driven
primarily by the size of intrinsic defects, rather than by the
crack growth rate of the polymer. 9 refs.
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.659514
Item 135
152nd ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Fall 1997.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 21st-24th Oct.1997, Paper 62, pp.55.
012
TIRE BLACK SIDEWALL SURFACE
DISCOLORATION: A REVIEW
Waddell W H
Exxon Chemical Co.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A review is made of the literature describing the surface
discolouration of black tyre sidewalls caused by exposure
to ozone and formulation studies undertaken to overcome
this problem. Methods examined include the use of non-
staining antiozonants and blending inherently ozone
resistant rubbers such as EPDM, halobutyl rubbers and
brominated isobutylene-paramethylstyrene copolymers
with NR and/or polybutadiene. 67 refs.
USA
Accession no.659512
48
Item 136
152nd ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Fall 1997.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 21st-24th Oct.1997, Paper 59, pp.11.
012
SCIENCE OF MIXING OF RUBBER: MATERIAL
PROBLEMS
Yamaguchi Y
Yokohama Rubber Co.Ltd.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Some problems associated with rubber mixing are
examined, including scorching due to stagnation, edge
roughness of sheeted rubber and inhomogeneous
dispersion of carbon black. These phenomena are
discussed in relation to the deformation behaviour,
fracture characteristics and rheological properties of
compounds. 6 refs.
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.659509
Item 137
Rubber World
216, No.6, Sept.1997, p.31/77
EFFECT OF FLAWS ON FATIGUE LIFE IN
BUSHINGS
Sommer J G
Elastech Inc.
Silentbloc bushings have a long history of successful use
in automotive suspension systems where good fatigue life
is essential. Earlier work has shown that the addition of
0.5pphr of sand halved the fatigue life of an NR
vulcanisate. This study extends this earlier work by
examining a range of silica particle diameters at the
0.5pphr level on fatigue life in NR bushings. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.659297
Item 138
IRC ’97. Conference proceedings.
Kuala Lumpur, 6th-9th Oct.1997, p.370-5. 012
BENEFITS VERSUS RISK OF USING NATURAL
RUBBER LATEX GLOVES
Lai Pin Fah
Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia
(Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia)
The most important reason why personnel in the
healthcare industry wears gloves is to prevent
transmission of micro-organisms to and from the patient.
With the onset of HIV and the fear among healthcare
providers about cross contamination (patient-to-
healthcare provider), the use of gloves, particularly NR
latex gloves, has proliferated. The lives of a great many
doctors and nurses have been saved because of this.
However, in recent years, the major preoccupation of the
western mass media covering glove usage has been on
the negative aspects of NR latex gloves. They have been
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
portrayed as causing more harm than good to users. There
is hardly any discernible coverage of the immense benefits
of these gloves. The many articles written in journals,
magazines and the Internet centre almost entirely on the
latex allergy problem and the risks associated with it. A
balanced view of the allergy problem and the
advantageous characteristics of latex gloves are presented.
21 refs.
MALAYSIA
Accession no.658905
Item 139
152nd ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Fall 1997.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 21st-24th Oct.1997, Paper 34, pp.16.
012
APPLICATION OF FRACTURE MECHANICS TO
FAILURE IN RUBBER-CORD LAMINATES
Lake G J
East London, University
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The use of a fracture mechanics approach based on the
strain energy release rate to assess failure in rubber-cord
laminated structures is reviewed. The mechanics of crack
propagation are considered for cracking either between
the plies or around individual cords, and also for crack
initiation and growth near cord ends. The ability of the
approach to predict the effects of various design and
construction parameters on laminate failure is also
discussed. 9 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.658288
Item 140
Rubber Technology International
1997, p.28-34
SUPERCHARGER BELT FAILURES - STUDY
Shepherd J
Gates Rubber Co.
Gates Rubber has devoted considerable engineering
resources to understanding and solving the problem of
broken supercharger drive belts on racing engines in the
Top Fuel and Funny car classes. Since the late 1950s,
supercharger drive belts have been used on various drag-
racing cars - many of the first units were driven directly
off the front of the engine. A typical run for a dragster at
that time was 8.5 seconds at 150mph, compared to today’s
records that exceed 300mph and fall well into the four-
second range. Modem blowers are on top of the engine
and driven by a rubber timing belt. The size of the blower
has at least doubled from earlier models and blower speed
now is as much as 1.6 times the engine rpm. Belts for top-
mounted blowers have changed from a 1.5in-wide H (0.5in
pitch) Gilmer belt to a 2in rubber HTD belt, and more
recently to a 75mm-wide, 14mm-pitch HTDO profile
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
special-construction Poly Chain GTO belt. The Poly Chain
belt is made of a highly compounded PU material and has
more than twice the horsepower capacity of a rubber belt.
Aspects covered include field observations, failed belt
analysis, engineering analysis, laboratory tests, general
findings and changes resulting from the test programme.
USA
Accession no.657636
Item 141
Rubber Technology International
1997, p.25-7
ACHIEVING SEAL OF APPROVAL
Hickson J S
St.Clair (Polymers) Ltd.
Seals themselves are relatively small and cheap but some of
the wide range of applications they are found in are highly
critical. Seal failure can involve very high costs, and even
loss of life. Failure can be catastrophic, when a seal condition
steadily weakens the seal until failure suddenly occurs, or
more usually by a slowly increasing rate of leakage up to a
specified maximum used to define failure. Preventative
maintenance can avoid the latter type of failure. The effect
of failure should be considered at an early stage in the design
or selection of the seal type to be used - this is also a good
time to consider the problem of installation of the seal in the
first place. A simple example of a propeller shaft seal on a
large ship illustrates the cost of failure. When leakage
becomes unacceptable the ship is out of commission until
dry-docked and a replacement fitted. The total costs can thus
be extremely high. The essential properties of rubber that
are important in sealing are low modulus, elasticity, low
compressibility, high coefficient of friction, high strength
and fluid resistance. Some emphasis is replaced on the
material requirements of O-rings.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.657635
Item 142
Luntai Gongye
17, No.8, 1997, p.500-2
Chinese
CAUSES OF BLISTERS ON INNER SIDE OF
TRUCK TYRE AND THEIR PRECAUTIONS
Chongcai Y
1 ref.
CHINA
Accession no.651042
Item 143
NRC ’96. Conference proceedings.
Helsinki, 23rd-24th May, 1996, paper 6. 8
CHARACTERISATION OF NATURAL RUBBER -
LITERATURE SURVEY AND EXPERIMENTAL
STUDY
49
 References and Abstracts
Asplund J; Bengtsson A; Stenberg B
Trelleborg Industri AB; KTH
(Finnish Association for Rubber Technology; Nordic
Council of Rubber Technology)
Many sources can cause chemical or structural variations
in NR. To obtain NR with constant mechanical properties,
it is very important to keep all factors uniform during
raw rubber production. To ensure as little variations as
possible of the rubber, the specification for NR grades
should prescribe how a certain grade is to be produced. A
literature survey and experimental study are presented. A
number of chemical, structural and mechanical properties
of nine samples of three different natural rubber materials
are analysed. The characterisation includes
chemiluminescence, acetone extraction, gel content, gel
permeation chromatography, pyrolysis-gas
chromatography, IR spectroscopy, thermogravimetric
analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, dynamic
mechanical analysis and rheology. Large variations are
found in concentration of hydrogen peroxide, gel content,
amount and composition of acetone-extractable material,
average molecular weight and molecular weight
distribution.
SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.641385
Item 144
151st ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1997,
Conference Preprints.
Anaheim, Ca., 6th-9th May 1997, Paper 97, pp.39. 012
QUALITY ASSURANCE OF NATURAL RUBBER
USING THE RUBBER PROCESS ANALYZER
Dick J S; Harmon C; Vare A
Alpha Technologies; Cooper Tire & Rubber Co.;
Michelin North America
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Results are presented of high strain testing for the
characterisation and quality assurance of NR using the
RPA 2000 rubber process analyser. Such testing was found
to be more effective in detecting processability differences
than traditional processing tests such as Mooney viscosity
or Wallace plasticity. 24 refs.
USA
Accession no.639074
Item 145
151st ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1997,
Conference Preprints.
Anaheim, Ca., 6th-9th May 1997, Paper 96, pp.27. 012
INTRINSIC FLAWS IN NATURAL RUBBER
Roland C M; Choi I S
US, Naval Research Laboratory
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A comparison was made of the room temperature strain
crystallisation of naturally occurring cis-1, 4-
polyisoprenes with varying non-rubber contents, i.e. NR
50
grades of different purity, a deproteinised NR and a
guayule rubber. Crystallisation was assessed by stress
relaxation and optical birefringence measurements and
IR spectroscopy. The results showed that the strain
required to induce crystallisation was less for polymers
having larger concentrations of impurities. Thus guayule
rubber crystallised at lower strains than NR, and
deproteinised NR required the highest strain to induce
crystallisation. The propensity for strain crystallisation
correlated with the relative failure properties of the
rubbers. 62 refs.
USA
Accession no.639073
Item 146
151st ACS Rubber Division Meeting, Spring 1997,
Conference Preprints.
Anaheim, Ca., 6th-9th May 1997, Paper 30, pp.15. 012
ELASTOMER BLEND APPROACH TO EXTEND
HEAT LIFE OF NATURAL RUBBER BASED
ENGINE MOUNTS
Measmer M B; McElrath K O
Exxon Chemical Co.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The heat ageing resistance of NR compounds for
automotive engine mounting applications was improved
by blending with a brominated isobutylene-p-
methylstyrene copolymer (BIMS). The effects of BIMS
microstructure and antidegradants on heat ageing
resistance were examined. The compounds showed
excellent stability of dynamic properties (less than 10%
change) up to 210 hours’ ageing at 125C. Optimum
resistance to ozone cracking was obtained for blends
containing 30 phr of BIMS. 2 refs.
USA
Accession no.636040
Item 147
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
50, No.4, April 1997, p.299-303
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF ELASTOMER
COMPOUNDS IN SYNCHRONOUS AND V-
RIBBED BELTS
Dalgarno K W; Childs T H C; Day A J; Hojjati M H;
Moore R B; Yu D Q
Leeds, University; Bradford, University
Work carried out to identify how the performance of
power transmission belts may be improved is described.
An examination is made of which mechanical properties
of the elastomer compound are of significance in
determining belt performance, and to identify how the
significant elastomer compound properties may be
changed to improve belt performance. This work
encompasses the examination of belt failure and
modelling of belt operation to ensure that the current limits
of belt performance are fully understood. It is concluded
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

that such an approach can be of value in improving belt
performance. 9 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.635691
Item 148
Journal of Applied Polymer Science
64, No.3, 18th April 1997, p.553-66
PERMEABILITY AND MATERIAL
CHARACTERISTICS OF VULCANIZED LATEX
FILM DURING AND FOLLOWING CYCLIC
FATIGUE IN A SALINE ENVIRONMENT
Dillon J G; Schroeder L W
US, Food & Drug Administration
STUDY ON IMPROVING PERFORMANCE OF
NYLON TRUCK TYRE AT HIGH SPEED
Shenyan L; Xirong L; Shiyan Y; Honghua L; Bo G;
Liying M; Yan Z
Beijing, Institute of Rubber Research & Design
The causes of nylon truck tyre to fail on the highway were
analysed. The several technical measures for improving
the performance of the tyre at high speed were taken to
make the overall performance of an 11.00-20 16PR test
tyre in accordance with the targets set in the project for
tackling key problems. The endurance tests showed that
the maximum bench life of the test tyre at a standard test
speed of 65km/h reached 158.72h; the tyre passed the
test at the speed of 110km/h for 2h. 12 refs.
CHINA

A test apparatus was constructed which allowed the Accession no.631904

monitoring of ion permeability and electrical
properties of vulcanised latex glove material during Item 152
cyclic fatigue in a saline environment. The results Journal of Biomedical Materials Research
obtained showed that glove latex failure, under these 34, No.3, 5th March 1997, p.371-9
test conditions, began nearly 10 min before POLYURETHANE HEART VALVES: FATIGUE
catastrophic rupture. Sodium ion permeation did not FAILURE, CALCIFICATION AND
occur until the time of rupture, indicating that true POLYURETHANE STRUCTURE
pores existed only at the time of catastrophic failure. Bernacca G M; Mackay T G; Wilkinson R; Wheatley D J
SEM of the fatigued membrane showed stress and Glasgow, Royal Infirmary; Strathclyde, University
rupture of the fibril network surrounding the
individual latex particles. The fatigue lifetime of the Long-term fatigue and calcification testing was conducted
latex glove material was found to be about 2 h under on six flexible-leaflet prosthetic heart valves fabricated
stress similar to actual use. 32 refs. from a polyether-urethane-urea. Three valves exceeded 800
million cycles without failure, while three valves failed at
USA
775, 460 and 544 million cycles, respectively. Calcification
Accession no.632487 was observed with and without associated failure in regions
of high strain. Comparison was made with valves prepared
Item 149 from polyether-urethane. The results indicated that PU
Luntai Gongye valves could achieve the durabilities required of an
17, No.2, 1997, p.119-20 implantable prosthetic valve, equalling the fatigue life of
Chinese currently-available bioprosthetic valves. 14 refs.
INVESTIGATION ON COMMON ABNORMAL EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
FAILURES OF TYRE WESTERN EUROPE
Guangxiang P; Xianjie G Accession no.631089
CHINA
Accession no.631924
Item 153
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research
Item 150 34, No.4, 15th March 1997, p.519-30
Luntai Gongye ROLE OF OXYGEN IN BIODEGRADATION OF
17, No.1, 1997, p.56-7 POLY(ETHERURETHANE UREA)
Chinese ELASTOMERS
CHARACTERISTICS AND CAUSE OF TYRE Schubert M A; Wiggins M J; Anderson J M; Hiltner A
FAILURE Case Western Reserve University
Yanquan Z This work demonstrates that PEUU degradation is a
CHINA
surface phenomenon resulting from a classical
Accession no.631911 autooxidation mechanism. By modelling the depth of the
surface degraded layer with a diffusion-reaction model,
Item 151 it was shown that PEUU degradation was controlled by
Luntai Gongye diffusion of oxygen into the polymer. 25 refs.
17, No.1, 1997, p.3-12 USA
Chinese Accession no.629085

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 51

 References and Abstracts
Item 154
Industria della Gomma
39, No.10, Oct.1995, p.16-20
Italian
ELECTROCHEMICAL DEGRADATION OF
EPDM COOLER HOSES
Vroomen G; Verhoef H
DSM Elastomers Europe; DSM Research BV
Results are presented of studies by DSM of the mechanism
of electrochemical degradation of EPDM automotive
cooler hoses in contact with water/ethylene glycol
coolants, and of the cracking occurring after different
exposure times. The resistance to electrochemical
corrosion was influenced by the composition of the EPDM
compounds. Vulcanisates in which electrical conductivity
was reduced by partly replacing carbon black with calcium
carbonate were resistant for longer periods than
vulcanisates filled with carbon black alone. The degree
of crosslinking and type of curing agent used also
influenced the resistance of the vulcanisates to
degradation. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;
NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.621093
Item 155
China Synthetic Rubber Industry
19, No.6, 1996, p.325-30
Chinese
DEVELOPMENT OF RESEARCH ON TANK
TRACK RUBBER PADS
Liquin Z; Haiping G; Song C; Xiaobing M; Xiaodong S
Beijing, University of Chemical Technology; Beijing,
Research & Design Inst.of Rubber Ind.; China,
National Defence Science Technology & Industry
Committee
The mechanisms and model of damage of tank track
rubber pads and the development of research of these pads
from rubber compound and property tests are reviewed.
Some proposals for the development of these pads are
presented. 37 refs.
CHINA
Accession no.616985
Item 156
International Polymer Science and Technology
23, No.7, 1996, p.T/75-80
FATIGUE FAILURE OF TIMING BELT CORD
Iizuka H; Mashimo S; Osako N
To elucidate the mechanism of failure in timing belts,
measurements of the displacement in the cord and its
vicinity were made and fatigue tests were carried out on
the cord. The timing belt was of the rounded tooth STPD
type. The study investigated which of the components of
cyclic deformation belt interior in the belt interior initiate
and promote cord failure. In particular, the curvature
52
developed in the cord was measured and its relevance to
the pattern of failure was investigated. 11 refs. Translation
of Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi, No.8, 1995, p.559
JAPAN
Accession no.614560
Item 157
Modern Tire Dealer
77, No.11, Oct.1996, p.45/8
SPEED KILLS TRUCK TIRE EFFECTIVENESS
Wagner E J
Tire Technical Services Inc.
This article, from the president of Tire Technical Services
Inc. of the USA, investigates the reducing of effectiveness
of lorry tyres by increased speed. The following are all
covered: speed limits, tyre loads, tyre revolutions, tyre
temperature, fatigue, centrifugal force, fuel efficiency and
tyre wear.
USA
Accession no.612210
Item 158
150th ACS Rubber Division Meeting. Fall 1996.
Conference Preprints.
Louisville, Ky., 8th-11th Oct.1996, Paper 66, pp.75.
012
STRESSES, SLIP AND ABRASION OF RUBBER
COVERED CONVEYOR ROLLERS: A REVIEW
Metlikovic P; Meinecke E A
Sava Rubber Industry; Akron, University, Institute of
Polym.Science
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Aspects of pressure, shear stress, friction and abrasion in
rubber covered conveyor rollers are reviewed. A model
is presented for predicting the effect of belt pressure on
the deformation of the lagging, and equations are
developed for predicting stresses, slip and abrasion.
Experimental results are compared with theoretical
predictions. Guidelines are given for the design of rollers
with longer service life. 111 refs.
SLOVENIA; USA
Accession no.611824
Item 159
Journal of Biomaterials Applications
11, No.2, Oct.1996, p.121-34
RESISTANCE TO BIODEGRADATIVE STRESS
CRACKING IN MICROPOROUS VASCULAR
ACCESS GRAFTS
Carson R J; Edwards A; Szycher M
CardioTech International
The in-vitro test developed for comparative evaluation
of microporous vascular grafts provided an aggressive
oxidising environment which was known to cause
degradation of a polyether-urethane, similar to that
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
observed in an in-vivo situation. The systems showed an
acceleration factor of about 9 times over in-vivo trials
(for the Estane 5714 F1 polyether-urethane material) with
catastrophic failure occurring in week 6 of the in-vitro
test and in week 52 during in-vivo trials. The new
generation polycarbonate-based PU, ChronoFlex,
however, displayed outstanding resistance against
environmental stress cracking, maintaining its structure
throughout the test period of 35 weeks. 23 refs.
USA
Accession no.610683
Item 160
IRC ’96. International Rubber Conference. Conference
proceedings.
Manchester, 17th-21st June 1996, paper 8. 012
ASPECTS OF FAILURE IN RUBBER
COMPONENTS
Busfield J J C; Davies C K L; Thomas A G
London, University; Queen Mary & Westfield College
(Institute of Materials)
A methodology to predict failure of rubber components
under repeated stressing is discussed. A fracture
mechanics approach is adopted, which has been shown
to work with simple plane stress geometries. The use of
finite element techniques allows the solution of fracture
problems for more complex three-dimensional
geometries at large deformations. At large strains the
material behaves in a very non-linear manner and this
requires the use of suitable stored energy functions, to
give a realistic approximation of the behaviour. The
crack growth behaviour of a penny shaped flaw caused
by hydrostatic tensile stresses is particularly described.
This type of failure is common in some bonded
components, due to the stresses induced by thermal
contraction from the moulding temperatures. This
phenomenon is similar to that of explosive
decompression, observed in off-shore industrial
applications, when rubber seals are raised from the sea
bed, and the internal pressure is dramatically reduced.
Comparison is made with a small strain solution and
agreement is excellent. 21 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.610024
Item 161
IRC ’96. International Rubber Conference. Conference
proceedings.
Manchester, 17th-21st June 1996, paper 5. 012
FATIGUE LIFE PREDICTIONS FOR
ELASTOMERIC COMPONENTS
Hawkes J; Harris J; Stevenson A; Samulak M; Hansen P;
Becker E; Miller T; McMullen R
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory; Mechanics
Software Inc.
(Institute of Materials)
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
In the majority of elastomeric components, failure is not
usually due to a large static load resulting in catastrophic
failure, but to much smaller cyclic fatigue loads. Hence, it
is this latter mode of failure that should be used as the
criteria when designing a component. This can be achieved
by applying a fracture mechanics approach and determining
the level of tearing energies generated in the component
due to the fatigue loads, and then this in turn can be related
to a crack growth rate for the relevant elastomer.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.610021
Item 162
International Polymer Science and Technology
23, No.5, 1996, p.T/39-40
CALCULATION AND PREDICTION OF
FATIGUE CHARACTERISTICS OF
VULCANISATES AND RUBBER-CORD
COMPOSITES
Zhbakov B I
A report is presented on the derivation of a relationship
between log N (where N is the number of cycles to fatigue
failure) and log alpha (where alpha is the mechanical
fatigue parameter) for vulcanisates and rubber-cord
composites under cyclic fatigue conditions. It is shown
that, based on new theories and on the proposed equation,
a simple method can be developed which ensures more
objective and accurate calculation and prediction of the
fatigue characteristics of vulcanisates and rubber-cord
composites from the fatigue strength indices in the region
of low-cycle fatigue. This approach is said to reduce
labour costs and the time spent on preliminary tests by
several orders of magnitude. 5 refs. (Full translation of
Kauch.i Rezina, No.5, 1995, p.31)
CIS; COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES
Accession no.608095
Item 163
Rubber World
214, No.5, Aug.1996, p.15/84
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND THEIR
MEANING
Sommer J G
Elastech Inc.
This article, the third instalment of a seven-part series,
examines vulcanised properties of rubber, including
hardness, stress-strain properties and uniaxial tension.
Tensile testing merits considerable attention because it is
done so extensively in the rubber industry. Results from
tensile tests are sensitive to manufacturing errors such as
state of cure, dispersion of ingredients and presence of
foreign material, and these limitations should be recognised.
Tensile properties of rubber demonstrate little if any relation
to serviceability of most rubber products. 26 refs.
USA
Accession no.606709
53
 References and Abstracts
Item 164
Materials World
4, No.5, May 1996, p.255-8
CONDOMS IN THE AGE OF AIDS
Hill D M; Larque S J; Lyszkowski A D L; Porter M;
Potter W D; Solanki S L; White N D; Williams T H
London International Group
The history of the development of condoms precedes a
review of the use of natural latex rubber condoms, with
details of some of the problems encountered by users,
and the subsequent development of a polyurethane
condom by London International Group. The use of
condoms for both pregnancy prevention and as a barrier
to sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS, is
discussed, and the effectiveness of both latex and PU for
this purpose. The use of polyurethane condoms as an
alternative to latex by those experiencing latex sensitivity,
either due to the protein in the rubber or vulcanising agents
is proposed, since polyurethane has been shown to be non-
allergenic. Test methods for condoms are examined, and
results of in-use studies of the Avanti condom made from
Duron brand PU are discussed. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.592380
Item 165
Contraception
53, No.3, 1996, p.155-8
DOES ADDITIONAL LUBRICATION REDUCE
CONDOM FAILURE?
Gabbay M; Gibbs A
Manchester, University
A report is presented on a questionnaire-based study which
investigated the use of additional lubrication with
condoms amongst 525 female students presenting for
post-coital contraception and the current and past
experience of condom and additional lubrication use
amongst 481 controls attending the same health centre.
Of those requesting post-coital contraception, 83%
claimed condom failure as the cause, with 66% of the
control group having also experienced condom failure at
some time. The use of additional water-based lubrication
was significantly associated with lower condom failure
rates. Gender, regularity of use of condoms and use of
oil-based lubricants were not associated with higher
failure rates. Additional lubricant use was not significantly
associated with increased condom slippage. 23 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.591327
Item 166
International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives
16, No.2, May 1996, p.105-7
ESSENTIAL ROLE PLAYED BY ADHESION IN
54
THE TECHNOLOGY OF NEUROLOGICAL
PROSTHESES
Donaldson P E K
Early implanted microelectronic devices for neurological
prostheses, including the cardiac pacemaker, suffered
premature encapsulation failures, probably because the
function of the encapsulant had received insufficient
thought. Subsequent research, conducted at the Medical
Research Council, showed that the important property
required of an encapsulant was not impermeability, as
had been assumed, but adhesion. It was shown that bonds
could be made between rubber and alumina or between
rubber and titanium which could withstand boiling at pHs
between 4 and 10 for at least 200 days. This was thought
to correspond to a life of about 50 years, at 37C, in a
patient. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.591304
Item 167
Contraception
53, No.4, 1996, p.221-9
LATEX RUBBER CONDOMS: PREDICTING
AND EXTENDING SHELF LIFE
Free M J; Srisamang V; Vail J; Mercer D; Kotz R;
Marlowe D E
US, Program for Appropriate Technol.in Health; US,
Food & Drug Administration
Condoms from five manufacturers were subjected to
controlled exposures of heat, humidity and air and to
different natural environments in five countries. Under
aerobic conditions (condoms in permeable packages or
unpackaged), stress properties declined. The relationship
between rate of decline as a function of temperature was
quadratic. Under oxygen-restricted conditions (foil-
wrapped packages) at average storage temperatures of
30C and lower, strain properties declined with little or no
significant change in stress properties. The effect is to
cause condoms to become stiffer; high-breakage rates in
use have been correlated with product stiffening. A new
rationale for accelerated ageing tests to predict condom
shelf stability is suggested, including a test to control the
trend of condoms to stiffen. Silicone lubricant,
impermeable packaging and inclusion of antioxidants in
the condom formulations can prevent or minimise aerobic
breakdown of latex condoms. Specifying low-modulus
condoms can prevent excessive stiffening. 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.590542
Item 168
International Polymer Science and Technology
22, No.12, 1995, p.T/47-57
DEGRADATION MECHANISMS OF RUBBERS
Saito Y
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
A review of the literature on degradation mechanisms of
rubbers is presented, covering thermooxidative
degradation, thermal decomposition, radiation degradation,
UV radiation degradation (weather resistance) and ozone
degradation. 66 refs. (Full translation of Nippon Gomu
Kyokaishi, No.5, 1995, p.284)
JAPAN
Accession no.590011
Item 169
International Polymer Science and Technology
22, No.11, 1995, p.T/24-8
INFLUENCE OF DESIGN FACTORS ON THE
FAILURE RESISTANCE OF VULCANISATES IN
PRODUCTS
Zuev Y S; Kaporovskii V M; Yurtsev N N
Design optimisation factors to be borne in mind when
designing multi-component products containing rubber
in conjunction with metals, fabrics, cord or plastics, are
considered in order to increase the failure resistance of
rubbers. Two groups of factors are considered: the first
involves rubbers as part of a design which includes
considerations such as limitation of deformation of the
rubber as a result of its being joined to rigid material by
bonding; direct vulcanisation, or contact with fittings; and
the scale factor in which changes in the size of the rubber
part of the product are taken into account. Secondly,
rubbers as materials, in which consideration is given to
reduction or elimination of tensile stresses, the increase
in amount of dispersed energy as proportion of total
amount of energy produced by rubber during deformation;
reduction in influence of changes in temperature; and
increase in resistance to corrosive media. 27 refs.
Translation of Kauchuk i Rezina, No.3, 1995, p.5.
RUSSIA
Accession no.588415
Item 170
Indian Rubber Journal
Vol.17, Jan-Feb.1996, p.74-6
RUBBER AND RUBBER PRODUCTS: NEED FOR
QUALITY IMPROVEMENTS
Thomas K K; Matthew N M; Thomas E V
A review is presented of discussions which took place at
the International Seminar on ISO 9000 for Rubber and
Rubber Products held at Ooty, India, December 1995.
Discussed are the four primary uses for ISO 9000 as a
guidance for quality management, contractual agreement,
second party approval or registration and third party
certification or registration, and the use of quality records
to provide evidence to demonstrate conformity. Details
are given of the number of rubber companies in Malaysia,
Indonesia, Thailand, Sri Lanka and India who have
obtained certification.
ASIA; INDIA
Accession no.587055
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 171
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
68, No.5, Nov-Dec.1995, p.804-14
CORRELATION BETWEEN LABORATORY AND
ROAD RUBBER WEAR TESTS
Krishnan V; Ramakrishnan R; Donovan J A
Massachusetts, University
The wear resistance ranking of three rubber compounds
(SBR(40% styrene/SBR(23% styrene), SBR(23%
styrene)/cis-polybutadiene and NR/SBR(15% styrene)/
SBR(33% styrene) measured in the laboratory at medium
to high slip on sharp silicon carbide grinding wheels was
similar to that determined by road tests at Pecos, Texas.
The wear resistance ranking of the three compounds
changed on blunt alumina grinding wheels compared with
rankings on sharp SiC grinding wheels. The change was
probably due to a change of mechanism from mainly
cutting on sharp surfaces to predominantly fatigue on
blunt surfaces. For these three compounds, a change in
the ambient temp. from 23 to 75C during laboratory
testing had no effect on the wear resistance ranking. The
wear of the rubber compounds on the abrasive grinding
wheels and during road tests followed Zapp’s relation in
which the wear was proportional to the ratio of dynamic
modulus to rupture energy. 15 refs. (ACS Rubber Div.,
Spring Meeting, Philadelphia, May 1995)
USA
Accession no.586557
Item 172
IRC ’95 Kobe International Rubber Conference.
Conference proceedings.
Kobe, 23rd-27th Oct.1995, p.160-3. 012
FATIGUE FAILURE OF SYNCHRONOUS BELTS
Izuka H; Tsutsumi S; Watanabe K; Mashimo S; Ohsako N
Yamagata, University; Mitsuboshi Belting Ltd.
(Japan, Society of Rubber Industry)
Fatigue failure mechanism of synchronous belting is
investigated. Firstly, damage morphology is observed by
the following fatigue tests. The fatigue initiation site is at
the centre of belt cord. The failure is then propagated into
the outer rubber layer. The cord is damaged mainly by
the bending fatigue. The curvature of the cord is therefore
measured when the belt is bent around the pulley, and the
effects of belt tension and radius of pulley on the curvature
are discussed. 5 refs.
JAPAN
Accession no.586145
Item 173
Euradh ’94. Conference Proceedings.
Mulhouse, 12th-15th Sept.1994, p.482-5. 9(12)4
ADHESION OF HIGHLY FILLED
POLYURETHANE NETWORKS
Bessaha N; Vallat M F; Schultz J; Combette C;
Maucourt J
55
 References and Abstracts
Centre de Recherches sur Physico-Chimie Surf.Sol.;
Societe Nationale des Poudres et Explosifs
(Societe Francaise du Vide; Institute of Materials;
Dechema Institut)
Adhesion between the propellant and the case in solid
rocket fuel propellants was studied. The adhesion
mechanisms between an inert propellant (a highly filled
PU, based on hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene
prepolymer, diisocyanate and inert loadings) and a liner
of the same nature of prepolymer, diisocyanate, chain
extenders and carbon black were investigated. The
interfacial properties were found to be influenced by the
properties of the prepolymer used. The adhesion of the
assembly was only slightly affected by the state of cure
of the liner before propellant coating. In peel tests,
cohesive failure occurred in the propellant near the
interface, IR spectrometry of the propellant surface after
separation showed the formation of an interphase in the
propellant, dependant on the prepolymer. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.584903
Item 174
Trends in Polymer Science
4, No.2, Feb.1996, p.36-7
SILICONE IMPLANTS: QUESTIONS AND STILL
MORE QUESTIONS
Hawthorne W
Elsevier Trends Journals
The current situation with regard to silicone breast
implants is discussed, with reference to claims that women
have suffered physical injury from deterioration of, or
leakage from, the devices. Legal and scientific questions
and causal questions are briefly considered. 1 ref.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.582507
Item 175
Biomaterials
17, No.5, 1996, p.517-22
STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF LATEX GLOVES
IN DENTAL PRACTICE
Tucci M G; Belmonte M M; Toschi E; Pelliccioni G A;
Checchi L; Castaldini C; Biagini G; Piana G
Ancona, University; Bologna, Universita
Using SEM, the morphology and structural features of
various types of disposable latex gloves commonly used
in Italian dental practice (Biogel D, Trend, Pagni, J&J,
Latechnics. Pehasoft, Bantex) were studied. None of the
brands examined was free from morphological flaws, but
in some of these only slight depressions were found
(Biogel D, Trend), while in others there was a marked
lack of homogeneity in the latex structure or real holes
(Pehasoft). The results of this study emphasised the
56
current difficulties faced by dentists in the search for safe
working conditions. 15 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.582466
Item 176
148th ACS Rubber Division Meeting. Fall 1995.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 17th-20th Oct.1995, Paper 71, pp.20. 012
RUBBER ELASTICITY: THE MAIN
CHARACTERISTIC FOR DYNAMIC SHAFT
SEALS
Dinzburg B
Chicago Rawhide Mfg.Co.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A study was made of rubber properties responsible for seal
lip followability, or the ability of a shaft seal to follow the
shaft wobbling due to eccentricity, as a main factor in seal
leakage. The recovery from bending method was used to
measure the change of elasticity of various rubbers during
ageing in oil, and the results were correlated with seal life.
A seal life index including two major properties, elasticity
and resistance to lubricated wear, was introduced and shown
to give satisfactory correlation with seal life. 24 refs.
CR INDUSTRIES
USA
Accession no.580254
Item 177
148th ACS Rubber Division Meeting. Fall 1995.
Conference Preprints.
Cleveland, Oh., 17th-20th Oct.1995, Paper 67, pp.37. 012
FURTHER DEVELOPMENTS IN CRACK
GROWTH ANALYSIS OF TYRE COMPOUNDS
USING THE BAYER TEAR ANALYSER
Sumner A J M; Kelbch S A; Eisele U G
Bayer AG
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The Bayer Tear Analyser is described, and examples are
presented of its use in predicting the cut growth
performance of rubber compounds for high performance
car tyre treads, car and truck tyre breakers, radial truck
tyre treads and truck tyre inner liners. Good correlation
between the test results and the service performance of
various tyre components is demonstrated. The application
of the machine in optimising tyre inner liner formulations
based on bromobutyl rubber and blends of bromobutyl
and butyl rubber is also described. 6 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
USA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.580250
Item 178
148th ACS Rubber Division Meeting. Fall 1995.
Conference Preprints.
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Cleveland, Oh., 17th-20th Oct.1995, Paper 22, pp.28. 012
POROSITY IN RUBBER: A REVIEW
Kasner A I; Meinecke E A
Akron, University
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
This review of porosity in rubber considers the physics
of bubble formation in melts and crosslinked rubbers, the
origins of volatile materials, the effects of compounding,
mixing and processing, the detection and prevention of
porosity, and the effects of porosity on mechanical
properties. 174 refs.
USA
Accession no.580209
Item 179
Polymat ’94 - Polymers in Extreme Environments II.
Conference proceedings.
London, 19th-22nd Sept.1994, p.72-5. 93
GAS DIFFUSION INDUCED RUPTURE OF
ELASTOMERS
Briscoe B J; Savvas T; Kelly C T; Shih W-Y
London, Imperial College of Science & Technology
(Institute of Materials)
Pneumatic stress-induced failures of elastomers are
simulated in the laboratory. The samples,
polydimethylsiloxane, are saturated with carbon dioxide
gas at high pressure and the ambient pressure is rapidly
reduced while the processes damage initiation and
propagation are monitored visually. In some cases, there
appears to be a relation between the failure mechanism
and the diffusion of the gas from the sample to the
ambient. The reasons for this effect are not clear, although
some speculations are provided. 7 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.579609
Item 180
Journal of Adhesion
53, No.3-4, 1995, p.183-99
MECHANICS OF RUBBER-TO-METAL BOND
FAILURE
Ansarifar M A; Lake G J
Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Assn.
In many applications rubber is bonded to metal for fixing
purposes or in order to alter the stiffness, and the integrity
of the bond is often vital for maintenance of the required
stiffness characteristics and to ensure adequate life. The
mechanics of bond failure were studied for various types
of deformation. Provided that the tests were carried out
under suitable loading conditions, time-dependent failure
with a similar locus was observed in peeling at 90 or 180
degrees, pure shear and various combinations of simple
shear and compression. There were indications that an
energetics approach could enable results from different
geometries to be quantitatively interrelated. Cavitation-
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
like processes observed in the rubber in the bond region
were thought to result from the constraint imposed by
the metal and could be the cause of the time-dependent
failure. 15 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.566630
Item 181
Rubber and Plastics News
24, No.19, 10th April 1995, p.6
OPEL ASTRA FIRES LEAD TO STUDY OF
MICHELIN’S SILICA-BASED TIRES
Davis B
This article reports that insufficient conductivity of
Michelin’s “green” tyres is being investigated as a possible
cause of an electrostatic build-up on Opel Astra compacts,
that has led to flash fires during fuelling, all of which
have occurred in Germany. Details of the situation are
provided.
MICHELIN; MICHELIN NORTH AMERICA; OPEL AG
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.561248
Item 182
Rubbercon ’95. Conference Preprints.
Gothenburg, 9th-12th May 1995, Paper E4, pp.14. 012
FATIGUE LIFE CALCULATIONS FOR
ELASTOMERIC ENGINEERING COMPONENTS
Stevenson A; Harris J A; Hawkes J; Becker E; Miller T;
McMullen R
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory Ltd.;
Mechanics Software Inc.
(Nordic Council of Rubber Technology)
The use of the FLEXPAC finite element code for fatigue
life predictions of rubber components is described.
Materials models are input for elasticity, stress softening
and fatigue crack growth behaviour, and solutions are
obtained for cracks growing within rubber layers under
different modes of deformation. These solutions give
tearing energy values associated with the growth of cracks
in various locations. The materials fatigue model, an input
fatigue spectrum and solutions for tearing energy are then
used to compute the amount of crack growth as a function
of cycle number or time. An example of the fatigue
calculations is presented for a model bearing under a
biaxial combination of shear and compression
deformations. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;
SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; USA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.560450
Item 183
Rubbercon ’95. Conference Preprints.
Gothenburg, 9th-12th May 1995, Paper E1, pp.20. 012
57
 References and Abstracts
MATERIALS DATA FOR DESIGN
Coveney V A; Jamil S
West of England, University
(Nordic Council of Rubber Technology)
Based on work undertaken in the UK within the
Engineering with Elastomers project of the Design Data
Initiative for Polymeric Materials, a study is made of
mechanical properties data requirements for the design
of rubber products. Results are presented of a survey
among UK rubber products manufacturers of test methods
used. These show that although a significant number
perform dynamic tests, the proportion using the British
Standard for such tests is much lower. Comparison of the
findings of this survey with those of a previous study
suggests that some BS 903 tests may be redundant. Work
on the analysis of double shear test specimen
arrangements and servohydraulic test machines is
outlined. 25 refs.
BRMA; BPF; UK, DEPT.OF TRADE & IND.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;
SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.560447
Item 184
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
68, No.2, May-June 1995, p.197-211
FRACTURE OF ELASTOMERS BY GAS
DECOMPRESSION
Stevenson A; Morgan G
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory
A study was made of gas decompression failures in
elastomeric seals using a fracture mechanics approach
with considerations of gas permeation. An equation is
proposed for the tearing energy associated with crack
growth from internal gas bubbles in a finite thickness
elastic media. The effects of gas pressure, temperature,
rate of decompression and mechanical strain were studied
for a range of elastomers used in oil and gas sealing
applications. A theoretical treatment is presented based
on a fracture mechanics criterion for fracture from an
internal disc shaped flaw in a thick elastic medium.
Permeation theory provides a quantification of the amount
of gas available internally to initiate failures. 21 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.559811
Item 185
International Polymer Science and Technology
22, No.3, 1995, p.T/74-83
ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL RUBBER PARTS:
STUDIES OF THERMAL ANALYSIS FOR
INDUSTRIAL TROUBLE SHOOTING
Ohtake Y; Furukawa M
The potential of thermal analysis is reviewed, particularly
TGA and DSC, presenting actual examples of analysis
58
with reference to faults that have actually occurred in
industrial rubber components. 23 refs. Translation of
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi, No.12, 1993, p.895
JAPAN
Accession no.558233
Item 186
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
48, No.6, June 1995, p.423-9
APPLICATION OF FEA ON TEXTILE
REINFORCED RUBBER STRUCTURES AS
USED IN AIR SPRINGS
Massmann C
ContiTech Luftfedersysteme GmbH
The deformation behaviour of rolling lobe air springs was
investigated by applying finite element analysis on
different modelling levels. Correlations are given between
calculated data for stress-strain states and observed
lifetimes and failure phenomena of samples. 3 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.554893
Item 187
China Synthetic Rubber Industry
18, No.3, 1995, p.162-3
Chinese
ADHESION FAILURE OF RUBBER-BASED
PRESSURE-SENSITIVE ADHESIVE
Gangzhi J; Zhaowei L; Ancheng P; Zuoshu W;
Zhongqin S
Lanzhou Chemical Industry Corp.
The causes of the adhesion failure of rubber-based
pressure-sensitive adhesives were studied. The results
showed that the resistance of adhesion failure decreased
with increase in the amount of tackifier. The resistance
of adhesion failure increased on addition of 0.5 to 1.0 phr
of polyphenol antioxidant. The synergistic effect of
oxygen and/or ozone in the atmosphere with UV light
also led to failure of the adhesives.
CHINA
Accession no.552653
Item 188
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
No.734, Sept.1994, p.68-70
French
SURFACE DEFECTS AND MICROSTRUCTURE
OF HEAT CURABLE SILICONE ELASTOMERS
Varlet J; Pouchelon A; Bourrain P; Joachim F
Rhone-Poulenc SA
Results are presented of a capillary rheometer study of
the influence of extrusion conditions and rheological
properties on defects occurring on the surface of heat
curable polydimethyl siloxane extrudates. 4 refs.
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.552429
Item 189
Industria della Gomma
38, No.5, May 1994, p.40-3
Italian
CAR TYRES. V.
Assogomma
Procedures for the maintenance of car tyres in service
and in storage are presented, and aspects of tyre
performance and types and causes of irregular wear and
accidental damage are discussed.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.552404
Item 190
147th Meeting, Spring 1995, Conference Preprints.
Philadelphia, Pa., 2nd-5th May 1995, Paper 8, pp.14.
012
EFFECT OF TORSIONAL STIFFNESS ON THE
FATIGUE LIFE OF MILITARY TRACK
BUSHINGS
Ruonavaara N; Simula G; Hedberg D; Saxon M
Michigan, Technological University; US, Army
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The relationship between torsional stiffness, aspect ratio
and compression ratio and the fatigue life of rubber
bushings for military vehicle track systems is discussed.
Results are presented of tests conducted on traditional
and prototype bushing designs using a laboratory
endurance simulation machine, and which suggest that
the endurance life is more sensitive to changes in torsional
stiffness (shear strain) than radial stiffness (compressive
stress). 5 refs.
USA
Accession no.552348
Item 191
147th Meeting, Spring 1995, Conference Preprints.
Philadelphia, Pa., 2nd-5th May 1995, Paper 2, pp.24.
012
CUMULATIVE DAMAGE AND FATIGUE
FAILURE CRITERIA OF CORD-RUBBER
COMPOSITES
Lee B L; Ku B; Liu D S
Pennsylvania, State University
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The effect of minimum stress on fatigue life at a given
stress range was assessed for angle-ply steel wire-
reinforced rubber composites representing radial tyre
belts. A series of S-N curves was generated with the
minimum stress kept constant. The levels of minimum
stress ranged up to 50% of the ultimate tensile strength
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
of the composites. The level of strain to failure and the
rate of cyclic strain increase were also measured in order
to establish the fatigue failure criteria. 16 refs.
USA
Accession no.552345
Item 192
Rubber and Plastics News
24, No.18, 27th March 1995, p.30-1
POLYURETHANES: ACHIEVING TOP
PERFORMANCE
Oster K R
Air Products & Chemicals Inc., PU Specialty Prod.Div.
The manufacture of polyurethane prepolymers is
discussed, and details are included of their storage, shelf
life, melt time, heat stability, curing agents, and levels of
curative. The machinability of polyurethane elastomers,
design suggestions, use in food handling applications, and
common causes of failure are also examined.
USA
Accession no.549770
Item 193
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
67, No.5, Nov/Dec.1994, p.892-903
ELASTOMERIC EJECTION SYSTEM
Choi I S; Roland C M; Bissonnette L C
US, Naval Research Laboratory; US, Navy, Undersea
Warfare Center
The material requirements for an elastomeric torpedo
launcher were examined, most of the considerations being
relevant to energy storage devices in general. The main
properties governing an elastomer’s performance in this
regard were the magnitude of elastic (recoverable) energy
which, together with geometry, governed the attainable
power, the propensity of the rubber to creep, which
depleted the stored energy, and the failure properties,
which determined the device’s lifetime. Resistance to
deterioration by seawater was also studied. 41 refs. (ACS
Rubber Division Fall Meeting, Pittsburgh, Oct.1994)
USA
Accession no.547321
Item 194
Biomaterials
16, No.4, 1995, p.279-85
CALCIFICATION AND FATIGUE FAILURE IN A
POLYURETHANE HEART VALVE
Bernacca G M; Mackay T G; Wilkinson R; Wheatley D J
Glasgow, Royal Infirmary; Strathclyde, University
Prosthetic heart valves were fabricated from a PU
containing a 4, 4'-diphenylmethane diisocyanate hard
segment, chain-extended with butanediol and with a
polyether soft segment. The rate of calcification of these
PU heart valves was much slower in a dynamic in vitro
59
 References and Abstracts

test system than similar bioprosthetic heart valves. The GENERAL FEATURES AND APPLICATIONS OF
calcified deposits were located exclusively at regions of PERCOLATION THEORY FOR RUBBER
material failure. FTIR spectroscopy indicated the PHYSICS. V. USE OF DIRECTED
involvement of the polyether soft segments of the polymer PERCOLATION IN RUBBER PHYSICS
directly in the calcification process. Calcification of Baricza K
polymer fractions also suggested that small molec.wt. Hungarian Academy of Sciences
extractable components were accelerating factors in the
The author explains how, in the case of crack growth on
calcification process. 24 refs.
the surface of rubber products, the failure is a totally
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
directed percolation problem. Gas transport in rubbers
WESTERN EUROPE
can be described by a dynamically interpreted partly
Accession no.545742 directed edge percolation, where the specific direction is
determined by the pressure gradient causing the gas flow.
Item 195 2 refs. Articles from this journal can be requested for
Rubber World translation by subscribers to the Rapra produced
211, No.5, Feb.1995, p.22-6 International Polymer Science and Technology.
PREVENTING POLYMER DEGRADATION EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY
DURING MIXING Accession no.542427
Mazzeo R A
Uniroyal Chemical Co.Inc.
Item 198
Elastomers are subject to atmospheric oxidation, even at Kauchuk i Rezina (USSR)
moderate temperatures. The ease of susceptibility to No.2, 1994, p.44-6
degradation depends, to a large degree, upon structure Russian
and environmental exposure. This article deals primarily IMPROVING THE DESIGN OF THE RUBBER
with the prevention of polymer degradation during mixing ELEMENT OF A DIAPHRAGM VALVE
and examines the effects of oxygen, ozone and shear, heat, Kaporovskii B M; Azarkh M Z; Yurtsev N N
light and weathering, metals and fatigue. Antioxidants
do not completely eliminate oxidative degradation, but Analysis is presented of the operation of two types of
they markedly retard the rate of autoxidation by interfering diaphragm valves normally made of rubber or rubber
with radical propagation. Depending on the types and combined with a fabric, which are subjected to the effect
combinations used, antioxidants can provide suitable of high temperatures (415C) when used in the food
polymer protection during the phases of its life cycle. The industry or biotechnology. The effect of high temperatures
two categories of antioxidants, primary and secondary, on the failure of the rubber is explained and suggestions
are discussed. 3 refs. are given for improvement of the design. Articles from
this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers
USA
to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and
Accession no.545435 Technology.
RUSSIA
Item 196 Accession no.542402
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
67, No.5, 1994, p.339-47
Japanese Item 199
O-RINGS Journal of Inorganic & Organometallic Polymers
Tsuda F 4, No.4, Dec.1994, p.425-30
NOK Corp. IMPROVEMENT OF THE ADHESION OF
SILICONE TO ALUMINIUM USING PLASMA
A brief categorisation is given of the different types of
POLYMERISATION
seals in use, and a description is given of the properties,
Costantino G; Zeik D B; Clarson S J
mode of operation and causes of failure of O-rings. 5 refs.
Cincinnati, University
Articles from this journal can be requested for translation
by subscribers to the Rapra produced International The adhesion-in-peel test was used to determine peel
Polymer Science and Technology. strength and adhesion characteristics of a cured-in-place
JAPAN silicone elastomeric joint sealant on aluminium substrates.
Accession no.542429 The sealant used was Dow Corning Type 3145 RTV
Adhesive Sealant. The results showed that the silicone
sealant had poor adhesive bonding to the untreated
Item 197 aluminium. Plasma polymerisation of hexamethyl-
Muanyag es Gumi disiloxane(HMDS) onto the aluminium was shown to
31, No.5, 1994, p.133-6 move the locus of adhesive failure to between the plasma
Hungarian film and the silicone. Plasma polymerisation of HMDS

60 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
with oxygen carrier gas produced good adhesion and
cohesive failure in the silicone was observed. 17 refs.
DOW CORNING CORP.
USA
Accession no.538312
Item 200
146th Meeting, Fall 1994, Conference Proceedings.
Pittsburgh, Pa., 11th-14th Oct.1994, Paper 82, pp.12.
012
RUBBER FOOTWEAR: APPLICATIONS AND
MANUFACTURE
Devasthali P
Norcross Footwear Inc.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
An examination is made of the manufacture, properties
and testing of rubber footwear, particularly safety
footwear. 4 refs.
USA
Accession no.535556
Item 201
146th Meeting, Fall 1994, Conference Proceedings.
Pittsburgh, Pa., 11th-14th Oct.1994, Paper 66, pp.37.
012
MIXING OF RUBBER AND VISCOELASTICITY.
IV. VISCOELASTIC CHARACTERISATION OF
COMPOUND
Nakajima N
Akron, University, Inst.of Polym.Engineering
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Viscoelastic methods for the characterisation of gum
rubbers are extended to rubber compounds, and the ways
in which the viscoelastic properties of gum rubbers are
manifested in the properties of the corresponding
compounds are examined. The development of a method
for evaluating strain amplification and strain rate
amplification is described. Examples are presented of the
characterisation of compounds with respect to variations
in gum rubbers and carbon black grades, and consideration
is given to the unique characteristics of compounds which
are not observed in gum rubbers. Quality control tests for
gum rubbers and compounds based on viscoelasticity are
reviewed. 32 refs.
USA
Accession no.535540
Item 202
146th Meeting, Fall 1994, Conference Proceedings.
Pittsburgh, Pa., 11th-14th Oct.1994, Paper 60, pp.18. 012
GAS-INDUCED EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION
IN ELASTOMERS
Stevenson A
Materials Engineering Research Laboratory Ltd.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Explosive decompression failures in nitrile rubber,
fluoroelastomer and tetrafluoroethylene-propylene
copolymer seals for the oil industry were studied by a
fracture mechanics approach and considerations of gas
permeation. An equation was proposed for the tearing
energy associated with internal blisters in a finite thickness
elastic medium. When applied to a model experiment
where an internal flaw of known size was pressurised up
to failure, the equation correctly predicted the catastrophic
fracture stage. A series of seals were subjected to high
gas pressures at a range of temperatures and the amount
of crack growth after decompression was determined. The
trends in failure pressure were correctly accounted for
when appropriate tearing energy values were used for the
temperature of decompression. The effects of mechanical
boundary constraint and decompression rate were also
examined. 14 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.535534
Item 203
146th Meeting, Fall 1994, Conference Proceedings.
Pittsburgh, Pa., 11th-14th Oct.1994, Paper 58, pp.18.
012
NITRILE RUBBER: PAST, PRESENT AND
FUTURE
Hertz D L; Bussem H; Ray T W
Seals Eastern Inc.; Halliburton Energy Services Inc.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Studies of chemical attack on nitrile rubber by fluids
encountered in sealing applications in the oil industry are
reported. The results showed that excessive hardening of
nitrile rubber in the downhole oilfield environment occurs
at the acrylonitrile sites, and that it could be due to either
hydrolysis or reduction of the cyano group. Hydrolysis is
driven by Bronsted acids (proton donors) and reduction
by Lewis acids (electron donors). Catalysis by metal ions
could possibly cause these reactions to occur at a greatly
reduced activation energy. Oxidative attack at the
butadiene sites is the primary cause of hardening in above-
ground applications of nitrile rubber. 12 refs.
USA
Accession no.535532
Item 204
146th Meeting, Fall 1994, Conference Proceedings.
Pittsburgh, Pa., 11th-14th Oct.1994, Paper 57, pp.15. 012
WHAT DO END USERS OF OILFIELD
ELASTOMER SEALS REALLY WANT?
Abrams P I
Exxon Production Research Co.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Service requirements for rubber seals used in the oil
industry are examined, and examples are presented of
costs incurred as a result of seal failure or poor
61
 References and Abstracts
performance. The involvement of end users of such seals
in materials selection and testing is discussed. 6 refs.
USA
Accession no.535531
Item 205
Journal of Adhesion
47, No.1-3, 1994, p.51-64
INTERFACIAL CHEMISTRY OF AN
ALUMINIUM-TO-EPDM BONDING SYSTEM
Hemminger C S
Aerospace Corp.
During recent examinations of ageing in aluminium-to-
rubber bonds on stored solid rocket motors, corrosion
and minor insulator debonds were observed. A test was
conducted to study the progressive effect of exposure
to high humidity of the bondline, elevated temp. being
used to accelerate the ageing. In a parallel test, samples
were held at elevated temp. in a dry atmosphere. The
test results were compared with the analyses of corroded
and non-corroded hardware samples. The predominant
corrosion product detected at the bondlines was
aluminium oxide/hydroxide. In general, there was a very
good correlation between the Cl:Al atomic percent ratio
calculated from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
analysis of the ruptured bondline surfaces and the visual
characterisation of the extent of corrosion. The Cl:Al
ratio, which represented the ratio of primer to corrosion
product at the locus of failure, varied from 0.4 to 47.
The implications for metal-to-rubber bond fabrication
and storage are discussed. 3 refs. (Adhesion Society Inc.,
16th Annual Meeting, Williamsburg, Virginia, USA,
Feb.1993)
USA
Accession no.532160
Item 206
International Polymer Science and Technology
21, No.7, 1994, p.T/1-13
DESIGN OF REINFORCED HIGH-
PERFORMANCE HOSES
Hufenbach W; Kroll L; Holste C
The design of reinforced high-performance hoses is
discussed with reference to stress-adapted hose structures,
reinforced elastomer hoses, calculations for hose
structures with anisotropic reinforcement, examples of
calculations (calculations for asymmetric hose structures,
calculating the maximum stress for cord-reinforced
elastomer layers, calculation of the maximum normal and
shear stresses in relation to the thread orientation), failure
mechanisms in anisotropic layer composite structures, and
finite element calculations. 33 refs. (Full translation of
Gummi Fas.Kunst., No.3, 1994, p.158)
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.532122
62
Item 207
Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering
33, No.5, 1994, p.537-50
MODELLING OF CHANGES IN
CROSSLINKING FOR STRUCTURAL SILICONE
SEALANTS SUBJECTED TO MOISTURE AND
SUNLIGHT
Keshavaraj R; Tock R W
Texas, Technical University
The effects of moisture and solar radiation on a structural
silicone sealant were correlated through crosslinking
changes. A typical weathering event consisted of exposing
sets of test coupons to moisture having different pH levels
ranging from 3 to 11, simulating acid rain (pH 3) and
cleaning solutions (pH 11). The exposure to moisture was
followed by drying outdoors in the sunlight. The
experimental data suggested that moisture alone can
trigger additional crosslinking in silicone sealants, but that
the simultaneous effect of moisture with sunlight can be
detrimental. As a result of exposure, a gradual
deterioration of the physical properties of the sealants
were observed. A chemical-kinetic model of the degree
of crosslinking as a function of exposure time was
developed to predict the onset of failure due to these
ageing factors. A semiempirical approach was used to
estimate the chemical-kinetic rates and other parameters
from the experimental data. The development of the
hypothetical mechanism used for modelling the time
variations in crosslink density is described. 16 refs.
USA
Accession no.529911
Item 208
BHR Group News
Summer 1994, p.4
SOFTWARE PREDICTS ELASTOMERIC SEAL
LIFE
This article reports on new unique seal life prediction
software, developed by BHR Group to predict explosive
decompression and material degradation. Successful
application to a 140mm diameter seal in a down-hole
flapper valve in service in the North Sea is described.
BHR GROUP
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;
WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.523192
Item 209
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research
28, No.7, July 1994, p.819-29
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF IN-VIVO
MACROPHAGE ADHESION AND FOREIGN
BODY GIANT CELL FORMATION ON
STRAINED POLY(ETHERURETHANE UREA)
ELASTOMERS
Kao W J; Hiltner A; Anderson J M; Lodoen G A
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

Case Western Reserve University samples as a function of time of exposure to the different
variables. 12 refs.
To correlate the kinetics of foreign body giant cell
USA
formation on polyether urethane surfaces and the extent
of environmental stress cracking, a theoretical model was Accession no.512806
applied to strained polyether urethanes containing an
antioxidant and an antifume agent. Through low voltage Item 212
SEM, environmental stress cracking phenomena were European Rubber Journal
observed, semiquantified, and correlated with theoretical 176, No.5, May 1994, p.26
analysis. The morphology of the adherent cells provided HNBR ATTACKS THE OIL FIELD SECTOR
further information on the state of cellular activity. Shaw D
Alterations in polyether urethane surface topography at
the cell-polymer interface were used to assess the effects Manufacturers of hydrogenated nitrile rubbers are seeking
of adherent cells on environment stress cracking. 35 refs. new applications in down-hole seals for oil wells. Nippon
USA Zeon claims the superior strength and compounding
flexibility of HNBR yields better in-service performance
Accession no.517163
than more expensive, but relatively weak
fluoroelastomers. Its Zetol range of HNBR elastomers
Item 210 are compatible with typical oilfield chemicals and strong.
Archives of Environmental Health Strength is important in these applications because of the
49, No.3, May/June 1994, p.151-3 risk of explosive decompression.
SILICONE BREAST IMPLANTS AND
NIPPON ZEON CO.LTD.
AUTOIMMUNITY: CAUSATION OR MYTH? USA
Brautbar N; Vojdani A; Campbell A
Accession no.512685
Southern California, University; Drew University;
Center for Immune, Environmental & Toxic Disorders
Item 213
This detailed paper explores the possible connection
145th Meeting, Spring 1994. Conference Proceedings.
between silicone breast implants and autoimmunity. It
Chicago, Il., 19th-22nd April 1994, Paper 31, pp.37.
considers animal data, human data, evidence that implants
012
leak, and evidence that silicone is immunogenic. It is
FUNCTIONS AND MECHANISMS OF
concluded that clinical studies, patient reports,
ANTIDEGRADANTS TO PREVENT POLYMER
immunological studies, and experimental studies show a
DEGRADATION
definite causation between silicone and the disease
Mazzeo R A; Boisseau N A; Hong S W; Wheeler E L
process. 28 refs.
Uniroyal Chemical Co.Inc.
US, FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION (ACS, Rubber Div.)
USA
Accession no.516039 An examination is made of the mechanisms of rubber
degradation, types of antiozonants and antioxidants used
in rubbers, and the mechanisms by which they prevent
Item 211
polymer degradation. 10 refs.
Advances in Polymer Technology
USA
13, No.2, Summer 1994, p.149-56
OXIDATIVE EFFECTS OF OZONE ON THE Accession no.511437
AGEING OF STRUCTURAL SILICONE
ELASTOMERS Item 214
Keshavaraj R; Tock R W Eureka
Texas, Technical University 14, No.2, Feb.1994, p.57-8
The changes in the physical properties of three different DESIGNING YOUR WAY TO RELIABLE SHAFT
silicone sealants used in structural glazing applications SEALS
were monitored as a function of various ageing factors. Barrett J
The variables included simultaneous exposure to ozone The causes of hydraulic seal failure are analysed and some
and moisture in which the pH of the moisture was design advice is offered. The causes discussed include
maintained at discrete levels of 3 and 11. The extremes unsuitable surfaces, gap extrusion, back pressure,
of the pH range represented recorded values for acid cavitation, installation and start-up, gaseous contaminants,
rain and basic cleaning solutions. The effect of loading dieswelling, solids contamination, effects of
on the sealant performance was also investigated. An contamination, wear due to adhesion, wear due to abrasion
Instron tester was used to measure the changes in the and wear due to erosion.
engineering properties such as Young’s modulus,
relaxation time and ultimate tensile stress of the test Accession no.506118

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 63

 References and Abstracts
Item 215
IRC ’93/144th Meeting, Fall 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Orlando, Fl., 26th-29th Oct.1993, Paper 96, pp.28. 012
STUDY FOR THE PREDICTION OF THE LONG-
TERM DURABILITY OF SEISMIC ISOLATORS.
II.
Fujita T; Ishida K; Mazda T; Sueyasu T; Nishikawa I
Tokyo, University; Japan, Central Res.Inst.of the
Electric Power Ind.; Bridgestone Corp.; Showa Electric
Wire & Cable Co.Ltd.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Test methods for assessing the long-term durability of
NR vibration dampers for earthquake protection were
investigated. Since heat aged NR blocks showed evidence
of heterogeneous degradation, with one area near the
surface where oxidative degradation produced large
changes in properties and another in the interior where
thermal degradation resulted in only small property
changes, difficulties were experienced in predicting
durability by conventional methods. An accelerated
ageing method was proposed, and techniques for
simulating the property profile were considered. An
indirect method using a shift of time, temperature and
distance and a direct method for estimating the distribution
of properties both gave good simulation results. 8 refs.
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.505672
Item 216
IRC ’93/144th Meeting, Fall 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Orlando, Fl., 26th-29th Oct.1993, Paper 95, pp.23. 012
STUDY FOR THE PREDICTION OF THE LONG-
TERM DURABILITY OF SEISMIC ISOLATORS. I.
Fujita T; Mazda T; Muramatsu Y; Hamanaka T;
Yoshizawa T
Tokyo, University; Japan, Central Res.Inst.of the
Electric Power Ind.; Showa Electric Wire & Cable
Co.Ltd.; Bridgestone Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
In order to develop a test method for the durability of
vibration dampers for earthquake protection, a study was
made of the depth-dependent profiles of tensile properties
in thick NR blocks after heat ageing at 60-100C. The blocks
showed evidence of heterogeneous degradation, i.e. an
oxidatively degraded area near the surface showing large
changes in properties, and a thermally degraded area in the
interior showing small property changes. The depth of
oxidation showed temperature dependence, with a greater
depth at lower temperatures. There was also a linear
relationship between the logarithm of the oxidation depth
and the reciprocal of the absolute temperature. The activation
energy held a fixed value independent of depth. 7 refs.
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.505671
64
Item 217
IRC ’93/144th Meeting, Fall 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Orlando, Fl., 26th-29th Oct.1993, Paper 89, pp.19. 012
CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT IN THE
COMPOUNDING OF SILICONE RUBBER
Eloph C E; Nesler D M
Dow Corning STI Midwest
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Details are given of quality control procedures used by
Dow Corning STI Midwest in silicone rubber
compounding.
USA
Accession no.505667
Item 218
IRC ’93/144th Meeting, Fall 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Orlando, Fl., 26th-29th Oct.1993, Paper 83, pp.29. 012
CHLORAMINE EFFECTS ON ELASTOMER
DEGRADATION
Reiber S
HDR Engineering Inc.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A study was made of the effects of chloramine
disinfectants and free chlorine in water on rubber
mechanical parts used in water distribution systems. Tests
were undertaken to investigate swelling, surface cracking
and loss of elasticity and tensile strength of specimens
based on NR, SBR, polychloroprene, nitrile rubber,
EPDM, butyl rubber, fluoroelastomers and silicone
rubbers. 9 refs.
USA
Accession no.505662
Item 219
IRC ’93/144th Meeting, Fall 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Orlando, Fl., 26th-29th Oct.1993, Paper 63, pp.31. 012
DEVELOPMENT OF NEW HNBR ELASTOMERS
FOR USE IN REFRIGERANT R-134A
Aimura Y; Recchio M; Konno T; Jones M; Hayashi S
Nippon Zeon Co.Ltd.; Zeon Chemicals Inc.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Hydrogenated nitrile rubbers were evaluated for use in
seals and hoses for automotive air conditioning systems.
Studies were made of the resistance of these materials to
hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants and polyalkylene glycol
and mineral oil based lubricants, and permeation
resistance, explosive decompression and low temperature
performance characteristics were investigated. Designed
experiments were undertaken to study the effect of
compounding techniques on permeation and explosive
decompression. 4 refs.
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.505651
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Item 220
Plastics & Rubber & Composites Processing &
Applications
19, No.4, 1993, p.245-54
DEVELOPMENT AND FIELD PERFORMANCE
OF TANK TRACK PAD COMPOUNDS
Thavamani P; Khastgir D K; Bhowmick A K
Indian Institute of Technology
The development of suitable compounds by optimising
critical properties, manufacturing, field testing, failure
analysis and mechanism of wear of tank track pads for a
battle tank are described. Four compounds based on NR,
SBR, NR/SBR and hydrogenated nitrile rubber were
developed with optimum physical properties. 19 refs.
INDIA
Accession no.505518
Item 221
Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi
66, No.12, 1993, p.847-55
Japanese
A GENERAL INTRODUCTION: BASIC
APPROACHES AND CURRENT STATE OF
PROBLEM ANALYSIS OF RUBBER PRODUCTS
Nakauchi H
Bridgestone Industries Ltd.
Tables are given listing categories of rubber mix
ingredients and analysis methods, together with types of
analysis of problems in end products. 3 refs. Articles from
this journal can be requested for translation by subscribers
to the Rapra produced International Polymer Science and
Technology.
JAPAN
Accession no.503820
Item 222
Adhesives Age
37, No.1, Jan.1994, p.26-7
SWITCHING SEALANTS ENHANCES VAN
CONVERTER’S IMAGE
Explorer Van Co. has recently switched to Norton
Performance Plastics’ Norex butyl-coated foam (BCF)
tape as the primary sealant between the fibreglass roof
caps and bodies on all its custom-made vans. Previously
the company sealed with solid butyl tape backed with
silicone caulk. Before the switch in sealants, an average
of three vans a month were returned for warranty repairs
because of leaky caps. Besides reducing the warranty
repair expense, the company only uses half as much
silicone caulk, saving about 10 US dollars per vehicle in
materials and labour.
NORTON PERFORMANCE PLASTICS CORP.;
EXPLORER VAN CO.
USA
Accession no.503489
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 223
Polyurethanes World Congress 1993. Conference
Proceedings.
Vancouver, B.C., 10th-13th Oct.1993, p.279-87. 43C6
UNDERSTANDING THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
FORCED COOLING IN THE PRODUCTION OF
BLOWING AGENT FREE FLEXIBLE
SLABSTOCK POLYURETHANE FOAMS
McAfee C D; Wiltz E P; Skorpenske R G; Ridgway D
H; McClusky J V
Dow Chemical Co.
(SPI, Polyurethane Div.; SPI Canada Inc.; European
Isocyanate Producers Assn.)
Results of forced cooling experiments on water blown
PU foam on the Varimax half scale pilot line are presented,
with emphasis on avoiding discolouration and
degradation. As well as optimising procedures, some
formulation improvements were discovered, i.e. novel
polyols, modifiers and catalysts. 9 refs.
USA
Accession no.502768
Item 224
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
70, No.727, Nov.1993, p.78-83
French
RUBBER COMPOUNDS IN CONTACT WITH
WATER
Harmsworth N
Bayer AG
Tests for the resistance to microbiological attack of
rubbers in water contact applications are examined, with
reference to standards in the UK and Germany. The
influence of rubber type, additives and vulcanisation
processes on microbiological resistance is discussed, and
requirements for rubber components in contact with
potable water are also reviewed. 5 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; UK; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.501140
Item 225
Rubber World
208, No.6, Sept.1993, p.22-4
ELASTOMERS IN AUTOMOTIVE FUELS, OILS
AND FLUIDS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES
Hertz D L
Seals Eastern Inc.
The effects of automotive fuels, oils and fluids on different
elastomers when subjected to the various operating
environments including fuels, engine lubricants,
automatic transmission fluids, power steering fluids,
engine coolants and refrigerants, are discussed. The
chemical and physical responses of the basic elastomers
and the elastomer compounds are not only logical but
also predictable. It is claimed better test methods utilising
65
 References and Abstracts

ion analysis, infrared spectroscopy, physical testing and Morris M D; Pendle T D

dynamic mechanical rheological testing should be Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Assn.
considered. 15 refs.
Details are presented of the evidence for and against the
USA
pore hypothesis in condoms. This follows an article by
Accession no.497277 C.M.Roland discussing the barrier performance of latex
rubber (Rubber World, 208, No.3, June 1993, p.15-8).
Item 226 Briefly mentioned is the testing of condoms for holes. 6
Rubber World refs.
208, No.6, Sept.1993, p.16-7 MALAYSIA
STUDY OF USAF AIRCRAFT FUEL/SEAL Accession no.488869
LEAKAGE
Fletcher A; Lawless G W
Dayton, University, Research Institute; US, Air Force Item 229
Materials Laboratory Rubber World
208, No.3, June 1993, p.15-8
This article discusses in brief and general terms the BARRIER PERFORMANCE OF LATEX RUBBER
application of the o-ring as an aircraft fuel seal. Traditional Roland C M
o-rings generally work quite well as aircraft fuel seals, US, Naval Research Laboratory
but the varieties of different fuels and flight conditions
do present a spectrum of shifting demands. For many years A review is presented of the use of condoms in the
either the nitrile or the fluorosilicone elastomer has been prevention of spreading sexually transmitted diseases. The
used for aircraft fuel seals and both of these elastomers, testing of condoms for leakage is discussed as well as the
from a physical property/fuel compatibility point of view, testing of defects in latex rubber used in condoms and
offer the possibility of successful sealing. It is the sudden gloves. 57 refs.
change from one fuel media to another, referred to as USA
“switch loading”, that is thought to be especially Accession no.488868
troublesome as different environments of chemistry and
physics are rapidly presented to the seal. Item 230
USA Eureka
Accession no.497276 13, No.4, April 1993, p.7
RUBBER BEARING SEAL FILTERS FINE
Item 227 PARTICLES
Plaste und Kautschuk A new type of rubber bearing seal has been developed by
39, No.6, June 1992, p.199-202
NSK Bearings, to combat the problem of premature failing
German
of bearings caused by surface fatigue. The Sealed Clean
MECHANICAL DESTRUCTION OF RUBBERS
concept is designed more as a filter than an oil seal. The
DURING PROCESSING
seal geometry allows small amounts of transmission oil
Vol’fson S I; Karp M G; Meissmer K
to enter the bearing, but filters out any foreign particles
Merseburg, Technische Hochschule; Kasan,
that are in suspension.
Chemicotechnological Institute
NSK BEARINGS
This paper discusses the extrusion of isoprene rubber, EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
where mechanical destruction processes predominate at Accession no.479064
lower temperatures and thermooxidation destruction
processes predominate at higher temperatures. As a result
of these destruction processes, the molecular weight at Item 231
the end of the mixing process is an important factor in Biomaterials
determining the processing- and end-use properties. A 14, No.6, May 1993, p.459-64
series of SKI-3 compounds were tested to investigate the BIODETERIORATION OF MEDICAL-GRADE
effect on their molecular weight. SILICONE RUBBER USED FOR VOICE
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; RUSSIA; WESTERN PROSTHESES: A SEM STUDY
EUROPE Neu T R; Van der Mei H C; Busscher H J; Dijk F;
Accession no.490295 Verkerke G J
Groningen, University; Netherlands, Biomedical
Technology Centre
Item 228
Rubber World Silicone voice prostheses used for rehabilitation of speech
208, No.3, June 1993, p.19/32 after total laryngectomy are inserted in a non-sterile
LATEX FILMS ARE BARRIERS TO VIRUSES habitat. Deposits on explanted Groningen Button voice

66 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
prostheses revealed a biofilm, the result of colonisation
of the silicone surface by bacteria and yeasts. Furthermore,
it was shown by SEM on sectioned explants that the
silicone material was degraded by filamentous and
vegetative yeast cells. The different explants showed a
variety of sharp-edged, discrete yeast colonies. The yeasts
grew just under the silicone surface and up to 700 microns
into the silicone material. Nine different types of defect
in the silicone material created by the yeasts are described.
This degradation of the silicone by yeasts appeared to be
the main cause of failure and of the need for frequent
replacement of the prostheses. 10 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.478732
Item 232
Journal of Thermal Insulation
Vol.16, Jan.1993, p.293-300
SAMPLE POLYURETHANE FOAM ROOFS
Morrison R V
North Carolina Foam Industries
The three common methods of sampling foam roofs, i.e. slit
sampling, core sampling and modified core sampling, are
described and the use of foam sampling to determine
thicknesses of the foam passes or coatings, adhesion of the
sprayed foam to the substrate, foam-to-foam knit lines and
quality of the cellular structure of the foam itself is discussed.
USA
Accession no.478666
Item 233
Progress in Organic Coatings
21, No.4, 15th March 1993, p.315-25
ACCELERATED DEGRADATION OF A
CHLORINATED RUBBER PAINT SYSTEM
APPLIED OVER RUSTED STEEL
Morcillo M; Simancas J; Fierro J L G; Feliu S; Galvan J C
Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Metalurgicas
A study was made of the premature failure of a chlorinated
rubber system applied directly over contaminated rusted
steel. The accelerated formation of rust at the steel/paint
interface rapidly resulted in complete degradation of the
organic coating. Interfacial rust appeared to catalyse the
cleavage of the C-Cl covalent bonds in the polymer,
giving rise to the formation of chloride ions, which had
a dramatic accelerating effect on the corrosion of the
base steel. 24 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; SPAIN; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.478419
Item 234
European Rubber Journal
175, No.5, May 1993, p.31
ED AND HOW TO AVOID IT
Shaw D
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Explosive decompression is a failure mode in elastomers
- usually seals - in which large bubbles of gas suddenly
swell up in the middle of elastomeric materials, often
causing gross, catastrophic failure of the component.
Good design and compounding, however, can alleviate
the problem. An outline of papers presented at a recent
seminar covering this topic at the Imperial College of
Science, Technology & Medicine in London is given.
AKRON, UNIVERSITY, INST.OF
POLYM.ENGINEERING; MATERIALS
ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORY LTD.;
BP CHEMICALS LTD.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.477625
Item 235
International Seminar on Elastomers. Seminar
Proceedings.
Kurume, 7th-9th Oct.1990, p.359-67. 012
LIFE TIME-AFFECTING FACTORS OF RUBBER
PRODUCTS, SUCH AS HOSES
Samay G; Palotas L; Nagy T; Seregely Z
Taurus Hungarian Rubber Works
Edited by: White J L; Murakami K
(Akron, University; Teikyo, University)
Applied Polymer Symposium 50
The various methods for lifetime prediction are reviewed
and the key deteriorating factors identified as
environmental and mechanical effects. The breaking
energy is shown to be a good measure of the extent of
environmental ageing for various rubbers under very
different conditions, such as weathering and ageing in
sea water, oil and H2S. If fatigue of the reinforcement is
the lifetime limiting factor, an exact stress analysis is
required for lifetime prediction. 7 refs.
EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY
Accession no.476073
Item 236
International Seminar on Elastomers. Seminar
Proceedings.
Kurume, 7th-9th Oct.1990, p.295-307. 012
RUPTURE OF FILLER-LOADED RUBBER
VULCANISATE
Yamada E; Inagaki S; Okamoto H; Furukawa J
Aichi, Institute of Technology
Edited by: White J L; Murakami K
(Akron, University; Teikyo, University)
Applied Polymer Symposium 50
The effects of vulcanisation on the elasticity and strength
of rubber are considered in terms of both chemical and
pseudocrosslinks. The rupture of rubber vulcanisates is
examined, using, as a basis, the theory of failure of
polymeric materials in association with the
pseudocrosslink model. Rupture of rubber vulcanisates
compounded with fillers, such as carbon black and
67
 References and Abstracts
calcium carbonate is discussed by extending the theory
of rupture. 3 refs.
JAPAN
Accession no.476069
Item 237
Eureka
13, No.3, March 1993, p.43/5
SOFTWARE MODELS SEAL’S FUTURE
Barrett J
To overcome present problems associated with the life
prediction of seals, a collaborative research project was
initiated at British Hydraulics Research Group. The scope
of the research included the determination of basic
parameters using test specimens; development of a
computer program to apply these results to actual seals;
and performance tests on 500 seals under controlled
conditions. In addition, a Seal Life Prediction
Methodology is being compiled for a predictive tool for
use in the assessment of the suitability of elastomers for
particular applications. Details are given.
BRITISH HYDRAULICS RESEARCH GROUP
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.474168
Item 238
Polymers in Extreme Environments. Conference
Proceedings.
Nottingham, 9th-10th July 1991, Paper 20. 93
SEALING IN EXTREME ENVIRONMENTS
De Silva R; Eastwood B G
Greene, Tweed & Co.Ltd.
(PRI)
An overview is presented of the design processes required
to address industry’s need to provide long-term integrity
sealing in extremes of temperature, pressure and chemical
environments. Examples drawn from the offshore oil and
gas market are used to illustrate the consideration of
explosive decompression and fluid attack to elastomers.
Examples are also used to illustrate various modes of failure
in conventional seal types. The way in which newly
developed perfluoroelastomers has brought significant
performance improvements in biomedical, pharmaceutical
and semi-conductor industries is demonstrated.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.474125
Item 239
Polymers in Extreme Environments. Conference
Proceedings.
Nottingham, 9th-10th July 1991, Paper 19. 93
BEHAVIOUR OF ELASTOMERS UNDER HIGH
PRESSURE CONDITIONS
Seregely Z I
Taurus Hungarian Rubber Works
(PRI)
68
The results are reported of a study of the effects of gaseous
oil, gaseous sour oil, oily gas and dry gas at different
temperatures and pressures on several elastomers. These
elastomers were CR, NBR, hydrogenated NBR, FKM and
EPDM. 13 refs.
EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY
Accession no.474122
Item 240
Polymers in Extreme Environments. Conference
Proceedings.
Nottingham, 9th-10th July 1991, Paper 18. 93
DURABILITY OF TFE/P AND OTHER
FLUORINATED ELASTOMERS EMPLOYED
FOR SEALING PURPOSES IN HOSTILE
ENVIRONMENTS AT HIGH PRESSURES
Abrams P I; Campion R P
Exxon Production Research Co.; Materials Engineering
Research Laboratory Ltd.
(PRI)
It is possible for elastomers based on tetrafluoroethylene-
propylene copolymer, when used for sealing purposes,
to withstand extreme conditions of temperature, pressure
and environment, provided that design of material recipe
and housing geometry, etc. is optimised. If reductions
in mechanical properties occur during exposure to
extreme environments, they are much more likely to
happen as a result of physical attack by fluids rather
than chemical attack. A theoretical background is
provided and data from laboratory experiments on liquid
uptake, high pressure gas permeation and explosive
decompression measurements are used to support the
above conclusions. 10 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.474121
Item 241
Polymers in Extreme Environments. Conference
Proceedings.
Nottingham, 9th-10th July 1991, Paper 3. 93
DELETERIOUS EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC
ENVIRONMENTS ON RUBBER-RUBBER
ADHESION
Corish P J
Corish P.J., & Associates
(PRI)
The effects of ozone, UV irradiation and sunlight on the
peel adhesion of NR-based compounds were investigated
and methods of preventing and/or overcoming poor
interfacial adhesion evaluated. These methods included
simple protection of the rubber surface, compounding
variations, use of particulate-type adhesives and solvent
scrubbing of the rubber surfaces. 7 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.474106
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Item 242
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
44, No.11, Nov.1991, p.1029-32
ASPECTS OF ELASTOMER PRODUCT
ANALYSIS IN INDUSTRIAL
TROUBLESHOOTING
Loadman M J R
Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Assn.
Product analysis is an essential part of industrial
troubleshooting which enables the reasons for a product
failure to be understood and explained to the end user. For
a number of years, analytical procedures have been
developed at the Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research
Assn. in answer to specific problems experienced by rubber
product manufacturers. This paper discusses some of the
less common techniques, or novel uses of established
techniques in the context of real-life problem solving.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.472504
Item 243
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
44, No.7, July 1991, p.659-62
German
PREDICTION OF THE FATIGUE-LIFE OF
RUBBER-METAL PARTS BY USE OF FEM
Caspers M; Barth T; Schenk R
Freudenberg Carl
Experimental test results and theoretical calculations were used
together to predict the fatigue life of rubber-metal components.
The goal was to achieve design rules based on stress cycle
curves. Design curves for different failure criteria were
evaluated to predict the fatigue life for an automotive clutch,
consisting of a NR compound. Various failure criteria were
compared and discussed. For two of the criteria, the agreement
between the predictions and the fatigue tests was very good.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.472448
Item 244
International Polymer Science and Technology
19, No.11, 1993, p.T/43-6
RELIABILITY OF AIRCRAFT TYRES WITH
MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE MECHANICAL
DAMAGE
Gitmeier L I; Titov V S; Moskalenko V N
Up to 40% of all aircraft tyres have to be taken out of
service on account of mechanical damage. Up to now there
has been practically no analysis of the effectiveness and
level of reliability of tyres with widened tolerances in
respect of mechanical damage, and this has led to a study
of the fatigue life and service life and service reliability
of such tyres, leading to considerable financial savings. 4
refs.Translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.4, 1992, p.12
RUSSIA
Accession no.472387
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 245
Gummibereifung
68, No.7, July 1992, p.74/80
German
TO HAVE CONFIDENCE IS GOOD, BUT TUV
CONTROL IS BETTER
After a survey of the problem of scrap tyres in Germany,
a description is given of AIR and TUV Bayern’s quality
assurance system for retreading tyres. This involves
testing the carcass as well as the various stages of the
retreading process. The increased cost is justified by the
classification of the retreads in the 160-190 km/h range
and the consequent improved reputation of the product.
A.I.R.; REIFEN IHLE GMBH; REST GMBH; REIFF
GMBH; REIFEN SCHWARZ; VERGOELST GMBH;
TUV BAYERN; BUV
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.470947
Item 246
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
45, No.4, April 1992, p.296-323
German
MANUFACTURING OF RUBBER MOULDINGS
ORIENTED TO QUALITIES: MATERIAL-
MOULDING-PROCESS
Gernot T; Harms R; Kretzschmar G; Sunder J
Institut fuer Kunststoffverarbeitung
Two kneader control units, for the manufacture of rubber
mouldings to tight tolerances are discussed. The viscosity
control concept smooths out fluctuations in raw materials,
particularly in the case of NR. The viscosity can be kept
within tight tolerances by this system. The second concept
increases reproducibility by controlling the movements
of the floating weight. A new numerical process is
presented which describes the effect of the chemical
processes involved in processing crosslinking moulding
compounds on the heat balance in the moulded part.
Heating times can thus be established precisely and
thermal relationships in the mould can be optimised. The
CAD-MOULD-3D program system and the MESTRO-E
stream line module are described, which supply data for
injection mould layout in rheological and thermal terms
and for allowance for the reaction kinetics of the moulding
compound. Finally, an approach is presented which allows
statements to be made on the quality of moulded parts at
the production stage. 69 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.470931
Item 247
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
45, No.4, April 1992, p.288-94
German
EFFECT OF STORAGE CONDITIONS AND
STABILISATION OF RAW RUBBER AND ITS
69
 References and Abstracts
PROCESSING BEHAVIOUR ON THE
PROPERTIES OF UNCURED AND CURED
COMPOUNDS
Knobloch G
Ciba-Geigy AG
The effect of simulated warehouse ageing on stability
during subsequent processing and compounding was
examined in low-cis polybutadiene and solution
polymerised SBR. The elastomers were aged in
recirculating air ovens at 70C and changes of Mooney
viscosity (MV) and gel content were evaluated. Samples
were further evaluated using short-term, high-
temperature test conditions and torque/time plots were
recorded. The torque/time plot may change dramatically,
though the elastomer used for compounding had an
unchanged MV. The resulting compound was, thus, of
low homogeneity leading to a low quality vulcanisate,
or it was even unserviceable. Antioxidant addition during
compounding could not prevent the damage. MV change
or gel content after low temperature storage does not
always correlate with high temperature processing
stability after storage. Predamage due to storage
conditions can be minimised by using suitable
antioxidants for the elastomers. 2 refs.
SWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.470930
Item 248
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research
27, No.3, March 1993, p.345-56
DEGRADATION OF MEDICAL-GRADE
POLYURETHANE ELASTOMERS: EFFECT OF
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE IN VITRO
Meijs G F; McCarthy S J; Rizzardo E; Chen Y C;
Chatelier R C; Brandwood A; Schindhelm K
CSIRO; New South Wales, University
Treatment of Pellethane 2363-80A, a medical-grade
poly(tetramethylene oxide)-based PU elastomer, with
25% (w/w) hydrogen peroxide at 100C for times
ranging from 24 h to 336 h was shown to lead to
significant decreases in ultimate tensile properties and
decreases in molec.wt., both at the surface and in the
bulk. IR spectral changes were similar to those
observed after degradation in vivo. DSC showed that
hydrogen peroxide-induced degradation was associated
with greater order in the hard domain and greater
mobility in the soft domain. Studies conducted with
low molec.wt. model compounds for the hard and soft
segments confirmed that methylene groups adjacent to
oxygen were susceptible towards oxidation. The extent
of degradation of a series of commercial PUs on
treatment with hydrogen peroxide (25%, 24 h, 100C)
correlated well with their reported susceptibility to
environmental stress cracking in vivo. 38 refs.
AUSTRALIA
Accession no.470598
70
Item 249
Journal of Natural Rubber Research
7, No.3, 1992, p.195-205
MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF NATURAL
RUBBER
Low F C; Tan A M; John C K
Until recently, most reports of biodegradation of NR
had been on vulcanised rubber and rubber products.
The microbial degradation of raw and purified rubber
from Hevea brasiliensis Muell Arg. by several micro-
organisms is described. The degradation was
accompanied by an increase in pH of the medium and
a decrease in the rubber, nitrogen and protein contents.
Screening of micro-organisms capable of utilising NR
for growth is carried out by incubating each test
organism in (1:10, 000) diluted sterile latex, followed
by assessment on the ability of the organism to clear
the milky rubber solution. 32 refs.
RUBBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF MALAYSIA
MALAYSIA
Accession no.470120
Item 250
Tyres & Accessories
No.1, 1993, p.88/90
RUBBER ON THE ROAD - TRL STUDY
The Transport Research Laboratory is reported to have
recently carried out an investigation into the incidence of
tyre debris on the M4 motorway. The Department of
Transport says that it receives correspondence from the
general public concerning tyre debris and many are firmly
of the opinion that the rubber littering roads comes from
retreads. Details of a study commissioned to discover the
origins of tyre debris are presented.
UK, TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.467981
Item 251
Asia-Pacific Chemicals
3, No.5, Oct.1992, p.20-1
PERFLUOROCARBONS OFFER THE SEAL OF
SUCCESS
This comprehensive article highlights to problems that
occur due to failure of pump seals and valve seats and the
consequent costs to the plant operators. The article
highlights particularly Kalrez perfluoroelastomer from Du
Pont, which combines chemical resistance and resilience
and so extends the use of elastomers into areas where
rubbers had previously failed. The article supplies full
details of the material and its properties.
DU PONT DE NEMOURS GMBH
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.467283
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Item 252
142nd Meeting, Fall 1992, Conference Proceedings.
Nashville, Tn., 3rd-6th Nov.1992, Paper 79, pp.33. 012
EFFECT OF STORAGE CONDITIONS AND
STABILISATION OF RAW RUBBER ON ITS
PROCESSING BEHAVIOUR AND ON THE
PROPERTIES OF UNCURED AND CURED
COMPOUNDS
Earhart N J; Thomas R W; Vrudny F
Ciba-Geigy Corp.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Samples of raw SBR and polybutadiene heat aged to
simulate extended storage were examined to determine
whether storage-induced damage is inflicted on rubber
which cannot be identified by specification data such as
Mooney viscosity and gel content, and which may change
processing behaviour and the properties and quality of
compounds and vulcanisates. Such damage could be
identified through processing-analogous high temperature
exposure in silicone oil ageing or hot shearing tests. The
occurrence of the critical pre-damage conditions could
be avoided, or at least delayed, by the use of stabilisers
prior to storage. Addition of anti-ageing agents during
mixing could not correct changes already caused by pre-
damage. 2 refs.
USA
Accession no.465609
Item 253
Plastics and Rubber International
17, No.4, Aug/Sept.1992, p.8-9
OXIDATION PROFILING METHODS: THE
HARWELL EXPERIENCE
Nelson K; Hepburn C
AEA Technology; Ulster, University
Oxidation profiling techniques and methods of predicting
the behaviour of rubber under complex operating
conditions are described with the object of predicting
service life of rubber components.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.463437
Item 254
Rubber World
207, No.1, Oct.1992, p.16-7
TROUBLE-SHOOTING O-RING FAILURES
Hawkes S
Apple Rubber Products Inc.
This comprehensive article describes the use of o-rings
and the mechanical and chemical causes of failure of an
o-ring seal. The article also set out a number of seal failure
prevention strategies, including visual inspection, o-ring
sizing and material selection. 6 refs.
USA
Accession no.463116
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 255
Rubber India
44, No.8, Aug.1992, p.23-6
NEED OF QUALITY CONTROL SYSTEM FOR
CELLULAR PRODUCTS
The technology to manufacture sponge or expanded
rubber is not so critical, but long retention of product
quality is very difficult, unless a strict process control
system is adopted. This paper highlights a process control
system to be followed at all stages in production of
expanded rubbers.
INDIA
Accession no.461855
Item 256
Journal of Materials Science
27, No.13, 1st July 1992, p.3424-34
WATER ABSORPTION, SWELLING, RUPTURE
AND SALT RELEASE IN SALT-SILICONE
RUBBER COMPOUNDS
Schirrer R;Thepin P;Torres G
ICS(CRM-EAHP); RHONE-POULENC SA
The study revealed that water vapour diffused rapidly in
silicone rubber and that in a PDMS-salt compound
surrounded by water, the water that entered the rubber
was absorbed by the salt particles, creating an osmotic
pressure in the rubber. This pressure gave rise to internal
cracks in the rubber, which eventually percolated and
resulted in a salt exchange between the rubber-salt
compound and the surrounding pure water. Equations
describing the onset and propagation of the microcracks
in the silicone were derived as a function of rubber fracture
toughness, tensile modulus and osmotic pressure of the
salt. 22 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.461434
Item 257
Journal of Natural Rubber Research
7, No.1, 1992, p.1-13
OZONE CRACKING AND PROTECTION OF
ELASTOMERS AT HIGH AND LOW
TEMPERATURES
Lake G J;Mente P G
MALAYSIAN RUBBER PRODUCERS’ RESEARCH
ASSN.
A study was made of ozone attack on several elastomers
(NR, epoxidised NR and two nitrile rubbers) varying in
their Tgs by about 50C over a range of temps from -20C
to +70C. Varying protective systems were employed,
including chemical antiozonants or waxes alone and wax/
antiozonant combinations. It was found that if the ambient
temp. was low, the rate of crack growth due to ozone may
be reduced by the high internal viscosity of the material.
However, diffusion of chemical antiozonants or waxes
71
 References and Abstracts
which confer protection by forming a layer on the rubber
surface, may also be slowed down. 11 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.461335
Item 258
Contraception
46, No.3, Sept.1992, p.279-88
STUDY TO DETERMINE THE CORRELATION
BETWEEN CONDOM BREAKAGE IN HUMAN
USE AND LABORATORY TEST RESULTS
Steiner M;Foldesy R;Cole D;Carter E
FAMILY HEALTH INTERNATIONAL
The value of laboratory tests in predicting condom
breakage was examined for twenty lots of latex condoms
which differed in age, storage history and laboratory test
performance. The statistical predictor models, separately
using ultimate elongation from the tensile test, the
Condom Quality Index from the airburst volume test, and
the percent of condoms failing the airburst volume test
as the independent variables and the condom breakage
rate as the dependent variable, all appeared to have a high
level of accuracy in predicting condom breakage in use.
16 refs.
USA
Accession no.461125
Item 259
Journal of Natural Rubber Research
7, No.1, 1992, p.14-37
PROPERTIES OF RUBBER COMPOUNDS FOR
ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS
Muhr A H
MALAYSIAN RUBBER PRODUCERS’ RESEARCH
ASSN.
The relationship between the properties of rubber and the
performance of the resulting engineering component is
discussed in depth. Consideration is given to stress strain
behaviour (quasi-static force-deformation behaviour of
mounts, dynamic stiffness and dynamic to static ratio,
damping, creep and stress relaxation), environmental
effects (swelling by oils, oxidation, ozone attack,
hysteretic heating/heat build-up and the effects of water
and temp.) and mechanical failure (crack propagation,
fatigue and cavitation. 41 refs.
MALAYSIA
Accession no.460910
Item 260
Eureka
12, No.7, July 1992, p.37/9
DESIGNING FOR ZERO LEAKAGE
Barrett J
The use of rotating mechanical seals to prevent leakage
from rotating machinery such as pumps and valves is
72
discussed. With current legislation, the user of such
equipment is urged to limit the amount of VOCs and
VHAPs released, and designers are shown to have to meet
or exceed the legislative pressure which will eventually
be instated. The selection of an appropriate seal design,
material and construction is facilitated by selection
guidelines offered and which have been established by
the WG-3 Emissions Work Group. Details are included
on the basic seal technology with regard to the specific
gravity of the fluid being sealed, and the emission level
requirements.
USA
Accession no.459712
Item 261
International Polymer Science and Technology
19, No.4, 1992, p.T/41-56
SELECTING DAMPING MATERIALS (SERVICE
ENVIRONMENT, STRAIN AND ENDURANCE)
Yamashita S
Full translation of Nippon Gomu Kyokaishi, No.12, p.752.
74 refs.
JAPAN
Accession no.459648
Item 262
Polymer Preprints.
32, No.1, April 1991, p.648-9
IMAGING OF AUTOXIDATION INDUCED
CHEMILUMINESCENCE
Fleming R H;Craig A Y
EVANS C., & ASSOCIATES
The chemiluminescence imaging equipment developed
by Charles Evans & Associates is described and an
example is given of the ageing-induced image obtained
from a sample of hydroxy-terminated polybutadiene cured
with isophorone diisocyanate (a material used as a binder
in solid fuel rocket motors). It is demonstrated that the
sites of material failures and possibly the sites of incipient
failures can be located and studied using
chemiluminescence imaging. 1 ref. (ACS, Div of Polymer
Chemistry, Atlanta, Georgia, April 1991)
USA
Accession no.458857
Item 263
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
65, No.2, May-June 1992, p.350-73
INTERNAL CRACK SYMMETRY PHENOMENA
DURING GAS-INDUCED RUPTURE OF
ELASTOMERS
Briscoe B J;Liatsis D
LONDON, UNIVERSITY, IMPERIAL COLLEGE
An experimental and analytical investigation was
conducted of the consequences of removing a high
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

ambient gas pressure environment from a number of RUBBER CRAFTERS INC.

elastomers after they had been allowed to equilibrate
under high gas pressure. The elastomers were shown to
be irreversibly damaged and the phenomenology of this
damage was examined. One particular type of damage,
the formation of internal symmetrical cracks whose
geometry was the same as that of the sample, was studied
in detail and the experimental data were interpreted using
two models. It was suggested that ruptures arose as a result
of the combined effects of an overall hydrostatic tension
and a localised tensile field which was created by the
effusion of gas from the polymer. The severity of the latter
was shown to be a function of the gas transport properties
of the elastomer under the conditions which prevailed
during the gas desorption process. 22 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.457692
Item 264
International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives
12, No.2, April 1992, p.111-6
SCANNING AND ENVIRONMENTAL
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY STUDIES OF
SILICONE RELEASE COATINGS
Stein J;Bolon R B;Porta M L;Robertson C D;Grenoble
ME
GE SILICONES; GENERAL ELECTRIC CO., RES.&
DEV.CENTER
SEM and environmental SEM were used to characterise
silicone release coatings on a variety of paper substrates
exhibiting different release values. A sectioning procedure
was developed to measure coating thickness and
penetration data. A 180 degree peel sub-stage was
constructed for environmental SEM and used to observe
and record the microdeformation occurring at the parting
interface. The results of this study showed that the applied
coating flowed to fill in depressions on rough substrates,
leaving thin, easily damaged layers on the high areas after
cure. Such defect sites changed the peel mechanism. 7 refs.
USA
Accession no.457492
Item 265
Rubber and Plastics News 2
13, No.12, 6th April 1992, p.2
COURT DELAYS CASE AGAINST RUBBER
CRAFTERS
Moore M
This article provides a detailed account of charges laid
against Rubber Crafters Inc. It is alleged that the company
knowingly supplied the US Navy with defective MK-6
rubber lifeboats. The trial has been postponed pending
the outcome of a related case involving one of the
defendants . Of 500 boats supplied by the company, and
tested by the Navy for possible defects, 82.5% failed
automatically.
USA
Accession no.455981
Item 266
141st Meeting, Spring 1992, Conference Proceedings.
Louisville, Ky., 19th-22nd May 1992, Paper 73, pp.15.
012
ELECTROCHEMICAL DEGRADATION OF
COOLANT HOSES
Schneider H;Tucker H;Seo E T
GATES RUBBER CO.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A report is presented of research undertaken by Gates
Rubber Co. into the causes of coolant hose failure, which
shows that the primary cause of almost all such failures
is an electrochemical attack on the tube compound,
leading to cracks, leaks or rupture of the hose. In vehicle
applications, the engine and radiator fittings act as the
anode, the liquid coolant as the electrolyte, and the hose
(containing oxygen) as the positive electrode. Heat
accelerates the degradation reaction, but compounding
for maximum heat resistance in the traditional sense does
not improve electrochemical resistance, and can in fact
make it worse.
USA
Accession no.453101
Item 267
141st Meeting, Spring 1992, Conference Proceedings.
Louisville, Ky., 19th-22nd May 1992, Paper 56, pp.18.
012
FATIGUE BEHAVIOUR OF CORD-
REINFORCED RUBBER COMPOSITES
Borowczak M;Causa A G
GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The use of fracture mechanics in the study of fatigue failure
in cord-reinforced rubber composites is discussed, with
reference to the findings of some published studies. 9 refs.
USA
Accession no.452961
Item 268
140th Meeting, Fall 1991, Conference Proceedings.
Detroit, Mi., 8th-11th Oct.1991, Paper 17, pp.39. 012
RELATING THE PROPERTIES OF POLAR AND
NON-POLAR LIQUIDS TO THE SWELLING OF
NITRILE RUBBER VULCANISATES BY THESE
LIQUIDS. II. SWELLING CURVES
Starmer P H
ZEON CHEMICALS USA INC.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A study was made to determine whether any of the
parameters describing the polarity of liquids relate to the
swelling of nitrile rubber vulcanisates. A Gaussian curve

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 73

 References and Abstracts
was obtained to describe the swelling, by various liquids,
of a series of rubbers containing from 0 to 50% bound
acrylonitrile. The only parameter having a good
correlation was the polarity index obtained by liquid
chromatography. 26 refs.
USA
Accession no.452494
Item 269
140th Meeting, Fall 1991, Conference Proceedings.
Detroit, Mi., 8th-11th Oct.1991, Paper 12, pp.7. 012
APPLICATION OF MECHANICAL TESTING
AND SPECTROSCOPY IN SOLVING ROOFING
PROBLEMS
Paroli R M;Dutt O;Lavallee C
CANADA, NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Fourier transform IR spectroscopy, SEM, energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and tensile testing were
used to characterise a fully adhered EPDM roofing
membrane which had exhibited surface degradation in
the form of brownish staining and subsequent failure.
The results suggested that the cause of the staining and
failure could be attributed to the rubberised asphalt
adhesive. 6 refs.
CANADA; USA
Accession no.452341
Item 270
British Plastics and Rubber
No.3, March 1992, p.23
PLANNING FOR WHAT COULD GO WRONG
CAN STOP PROBLEMS BEFORE THEY START
The Halesowen Microcentre’s FMEA (Failure Mode and
Effect Analysis) software provides a logical methodology
to determine all possible ways in which a part or assembly
might fail to meet its specifications. Possible failure modes
are then analysed according to effect on customer,
seriousness of this, potential cause of failure and its likely
frequency, and the probability that it will be detected by
existing quality checks. The FMEA information is then
transferred to a control plan, which is generated by the
software, and which sets out how checks are to be
implemented.
HALESOWEN MICROCENTRE
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.446320
Item 271
Journal of Testing & Evaluation
18, No.5, Sept.1990, p.352-8
INFLUENCE OF CONTACT ANGLE ON THE
LEAKAGE OF LATEX CONDOMS
Davis G ;Schroeder L W
US, FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION
74
The contact angle properties of latex condoms were
investigated under various conditions, including neutral
and acidic solutions, hot and old water and bovine serum,
and the relationship between these properties and the
sensitivity of various water leakage tests examined. The
results obtained indicated that the biological environments
encountered upon actual use are likely to promote leakage
and that by using a surfactant solution instead of water to
fill the condom, the sensitivity of the leakage test could
be improved. 19 refs.
USA
Accession no.443297
Item 272
International Rubber
Conference:Communications.Conference Proceedings.
Paris, 12th-14th June 1990, p.347-9. 012
BEHAVIOUR OF RUBBER VULCANISATES
UNDER HIGH PRESSURE GAS CONDITIONS
(INCLUDING EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION)
Seregely Z I
TAURUS HUNGARIAN RUBBER WORKS
(AFICEP)
Factors involved in failure mechanisms in elastomers
(particularly hydrogenated NBR) subjected to gas
exposures at high pressures and at various temps. are
discussed. The prediction of the behaviour of rubbers
under gas service is considered.
EASTERN EUROPE; HUNGARY
Accession no.441598
Item 273
International Rubber
Conference:Communications.Conference Proceedings.
Paris, 12th-14th June 1990, p.81-2. 012
FOURIER TRANSFORM IR INVESTIGATIONS
OF THE DEGRADATION OF UNSATURATED
POLYMERS IN REACTIVE GASES
Vogel L;Gross D
BUNDESANSTALT FUER
MATERIALFORSCHUNG & -PRUEFUNG
(AFICEP)
A brief report is presented on studies of the ozonolysis of
unsaturated rubbers, e.g. NR and chloroprene rubber,
carried out by means of FTIR spectroscopy.
GERMANY
Accession no.441544
Item 274
International Rubber
Conference:Communications.Conference Proceedings.
Paris, 12th-14th June 1990, p.286-7. 012
HOMOGENEITY OF THE SURFACE OF A
PRODUCT MADE BY EXTRUSION STRIP
WINDING
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Laurila T
FINLAND, RUBBER TECHNOLOGY
ASSOCIATION
(AFICEP)
Results are presented of studies, carried out using a cavity
transfer mixer, of means of avoiding the defect of extruder
marking in extrusion strip winding of large rubber articles.
FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.441406
Item 275
Tire Business
9, No.15, 4th Nov.1991, p.5
TYRE INFLATORS CAUSING INJURIES,
DESPITE WARNINGS
Mikolajczyk S J
An explosion occurred during the repair of a tyre which
had previously been inflated using a sealant-type tyre
inflator. The result of the ensuing legal action is reported,
together with summaries of other similar explosions/fires,
collated by the victim’s lawyer. The volatility threshold
appears to be reached at very low concentrations.
USA
Accession no.437185
Item 276
Elastomerics
123-No.11, Nov.1991, p.9-10
RAPRA MEETING EXAMINES THE FUTURE OF
ELASTOMERS IN OIL FIELD APPLICATIONS
Bowtell M
Challenges and potential solutions associated with
elastomeric components inoil field applications was the
topic of a recent conference sponsored by Rapra
Technology. The conference reviewed such subjects as
developments in materials, product evaluation, installation
and maintenance, as well as specific challenges associated
with aggressive environments and explosive
decompression.
RAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.437159
Item 277
138th Meeting Fall 1990.Preprints.
Washington, DC, 9th-12th Oct.1990, Paper 51. 012
INVESTIGATION OF RUBBER/METAL BOND
FAILURES BY SURFACE ANALYSIS
TECHNIQUES
Madura A R
LORD CORP.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Various types of failures encountered in rubber/metal
bonding are illustrated to demonstrate the potential effects
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
of extraneous contamination, specifically silicone
material, on bonding properties. The effectiveness of
multiple surface analysis techniques are demonstrated for
the detailed evaluation of bond failures. Reference is made
to SEM, energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry, X-ray
photoelectron spectrometry, secondary ion mass
spectrometry and ion scattering spectrometry. Bond
testing by peel strength was used. 12 refs.
USA
Accession no.436720
Item 278
138th Meeting Fall 1990.Preprints.
Washington, DC, 9th-12th Oct.1990, Paper 69. 012
INITIATION OF VOIDS IN REINFORCED
RUBBER FABRIC BY MECHANICAL FLEXURE
Nagode J B;Poranski C F;Greenawald E C
GEO-CENTERS INC.; US, NAVAL RESEARCH
LABORATORY
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Static wick test results on a ‘wickproof’ steel cord
reinforced neoprene rubber fabric for sonar dome rubber
windows (SDRWs) on US navy vessels are presented. A
dynamic water wicking test was developed to model actual
operating conditions of the SDRWs. All fabric samples
believed to be wickproof failed this test. The effects of
mechanical flexure on other mechanical properties of steel
reinforced rubber fabric are discussed. 11 refs.
USA
Accession no.436073
Item 279
138th Meeting Fall 1990.Preprints.
Washington, DC, 9th-12th Oct.1990, Paper 46. 012
EFFECTS OF EXTRACTING HYDROLYTIC
STABILISERS ON URETHANE PERFORMANCE
Feuer H O;Touchet P
BELVOIR RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT &
ENGNG.CENTER; RUBBER & COATED FABRICS
RESEARCH GROUP
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Results of tests are reported to prove that collapsible fuel
tank failures are due to diesel fuel extracting out the
protective ingredients in the PU elastomer coatings, in
particular, the hydrolytic stabiliser, aromatic
polycarbodiimide. The elastomer’s degradation was
monitored by the degree of deterioration of physical
properties.
USA
Accession no.436025
Item 280
Rubber Southern Africa
7, No.2, Sept/Oct.1991, p.8
HEAT SHORTENS TYRE LIFE-BANDAG STUDY
75
 References and Abstracts
A study has been carried out by Bandag on the effects of
precured retread curing temperatures on truck tyre life.
The company claims that tyres cured at 100 ∞C averaged
about a 30 to 35% longer life on the road wheel.
Retreaders attending the ARA show in April protested
that releasing the test information would be damaging to
the retread industry and specifically to those using the
higher cure temperatures.
BANDAG INC.
USA
Accession no.435337
Item 281
Elastomers in Oil Recovery.Seminar Proceedings.
Manchester, 9th Sept.1991, Paper 4. 63Pet
HOSE FAILURES: DESIGN, MANUFACTURE
OR SERVICE CONDITIONS
Hindmarch R S
RAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD.
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Causes of failure on many different hoses over a 15 year
period are investigated. Each examination was treated as
part of a continuing study so that fundamental modes of
failure could be identified, and dealt with at a design,
manufacturing or in-service stage. Attempts were made
to identify non-destructive in-service monitoring to
ascertain length of service limits.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.435320
Item 282
Elastomers in Oil Recovery.Seminar Proceedings.
Manchester, 9th Sept.1991, Paper 1. 63Pet
EVALUATION OF HNBR IN SEVERE OILFIELD
ENVIRONMENTS
Moore J;Ridland J
POLYSAR RUBBER CORP.
(Rapra Technology Ltd.)
Two demanding environments are considered; explosive
decompression and hydrogen sulphide exposure. A brief
review of previous data is given for the former, comparing
different polymer types. An attempt is also made to establish
a compounding baseline to optimise HNBR performance by
examining formulation variables and their effects. For the latter,
a comparison of HNBR with NBR, FKM fluoroelastomer
and TFE/P is made, as well as a brief look at the effect of
ACN (acrylonitrile) content on performance. 4 refs.
CANADA
Accession no.435266
Item 283
International Rubber Conference.Summaries.
Essen, 24th-27th June 1991, p.127-8. 012
ASPECTS OF ELASTOMER PRODUCT
ANALYSIS IN INDUSTRIAL TROUBLE-
76
SHOOTING
Loadman M J R
MALAYSIAN RUBBER PRODUCERS’ RESEARCH
ASSN.
(Deutsche Kautschuk Ges.)
Long abstract only.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.435043
Item 284
Shawbury, 1991, 8 Papers. LS.50. 12ins. 5/11/91. 63Pet
ELASTOMERS IN OIL RECOVERY.
PROCEEDINGS OF A SEMINAR HELD
MANCHESTER, 9TH SEPT.1991
RAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD.
Eight papers, presented at this one-day seminar, are
published examining aspects of elastomer component use
in the oil recovery industry. Topics under discussion
include an evaluation of HNBR in severe oilfield
environments; hose failure and the implications for design,
manufacture and service conditions; elastomeric seal life
prediction; and polymer coated fabrics in the oil industry.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.434499
Item 285
Journal of Rheology
35, No.6, Aug.1991, p.985-98
SHARKSKIN DEFECTS OF POLYMER MELTS:
ROLE OF COHESION AND ADHESION
Tremblay B
CANADA, INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
An explanation is given for the surface defect, commonly
referred to as sharkskin, which occurs at the die exit. Using
a simulation of the flow of a linear polydimethylsiloxane
melt, which showed significant sharkskin, through a
capillary, it is shown numerically that large negative
pressures can exist at the die exit. Furthermore, a series
of photographs indicates that the cracks on the surface of
the extrudate originate at the die exit and not further down
the extrudate. It is postulated that negative pressure
cavitates the polymer melt very close to the die lip at the
die exit on the surface of the die or in the bulk of the
polymer, depending on the respective strengths of
adhesion to the die surface at the exit or of the cohesion
of the bulk of the polymer. The growth or coalescence of
these voids would then lead to cracks (sharkskin) at the
die exit. 19 refs.
CANADA
Accession no.433843
Item 286
Tire Business
9, No.10, 26th Aug.1991, p.1/22
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
GROUPS FAULT 16-INCH TYRES IN DEATHS,
INJURIES
Slaybaugh C S
An estimated 2000 to 3000 people have been killed over
the last twenty years, when 16 inch tyres mounted on
wrong sized rims, have exploded, after being inflated.
Up to 30 million such tyres are said to have defective
failure-prone beads. The hazard does not exist in every
16 inch tyre, but as many as three quarters of the 16 inch
tyres currently on the road do not have fail-safe beads.
This comprehensive article supplies the details.
USA
Accession no.432136
Item 287
International Polymer Science and Technology
17, No.11, 1990, p.T/18-20
PREDICTING THE SERVICE PROPERTIES OF A
VULCANISATE AND OF SEALING RUBBER
COMPONENTS
Yurtsev N N;Kuznetsova I A;Sedov V
Full translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.4, 1990, p.23. 23 refs.
EASTERN EUROPE; USSR
Accession no.431542
Item 288
Deformation, Yield and Fracture of
Polymers.Conference Proceedings.
Cambridge, 8th-11th April 1991, p.116/1-116/5. 951
EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN ON
FRACTURE IN VULCANISED ELASTOMERS
Lake G J
Malaysian Rubber Producers’ Research Assn.
(PRI)
The influence of atmospheric oxygen on the fracture of
NR vulcanisates subjected to tensile failure, creep and
stress relaxation testing. It was found that the vulcanisates
failed in a time-dependent manner at high stresses within
the range 10 to 30 MPa. Such failure occurred under
constant load or at constant deformation or could be
revealed by a rate dependence of the strength in constant
rate tests. The effects were attributed to the influence of
atmospheric oxygen, which, following reaction, lowered
the strength of the elastomer backbone chains. 12 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.430768
Item 289
International Polymer Science and Technology
17, No.10, 1990, p.T/16-7
DESIGN AND MONITORING OF RELIABILITY
OF INDUSTRIAL RUBBER GOODS
Karbasov O G
Full translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.4, 1990, p.21. 5 refs.
EASTERN EUROPE; USSR
Accession no.428863
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Item 290
Cellular Polymers
9, No.3, 1990, p.206-28
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION IN
ELASTOMERS. INTERNAL BLISTERING AND
FRACTURING IN RUBBERS AFTER HIGH
PRESSURE EXPOSURE TO GASES
Campion R P
MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY LTD.
Factors and theory involved in the gas ingress and
decompression stages occurring in rubbers exposed to gas
at high pressures are discussed and the results of tests
performed on several engineering elastomers (NBR, CR,
chlorinated PE, FKM and a transparent cis-polyisoprene)
are reported. Deviations from simple predictions and
several forms of failure are shown and important
parameters are identified, namely the solubility coefficient
of the gas in the elastomer at the actual pressure and
moduli and tearing energy of the elastomer. 14 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.427865
Item 291
International Seminar on Elastomers.Symposium
Proceedings.
Akron, Oh., 26th-28th Oct.1988, p.255-62. 012
BLOW-OUT OF RUBBER BLOCKS DUE TO
INTERNAL HEATING
Gent A N;Hindi M
AKRON, UNIVERSITY
Edited by: White J L;Murakami K
(Akron, University;Tohoku, University)
Applied Polymer Symposium 44
A study was made of blow-out of rubbers subjected to
repeated compression, heated in a microwave oven or
heated by passing an electric current through a copper
wire embedded in the sample before vulcanisation. Blow-
out temps. for a range of rubbers (NR, SBR, BR, IIR and
NBR) were determined and the possible nature of volatiles
causing blow-out examined. 7 refs.
USA
Accession no.426039
Item 292
Plastics Southern Africa
20, No.9, March 1991, p.32
STEAM TURBINES SEALED TIGHT WITH
JOHN CRANE 28
An ethylene manufacturing plant had experienced bearing
failure on a number of small steam turbines used to drive
the cooling fans. The seals used on the turbines originally
were of the floating carbon ring type, but leakage was a
problem. A lower duty variant of the John Crane type 28
spiral-grooved dry gas seal was developed. A special grade
of perfluoroelastomer O-rings was fitted to resist the high-
77
 References and Abstracts

pressure steam. Since their installation, the seals have (Paper given to the DKG Eastern Group, October 1990).
operated without measurable leakage. Various aspects of quality control are discussed and an
CRANE J., INC. attempt made to assess what will be required in the future.
SOUTH AFRICA 15 refs.
Accession no.424978 BERGER R., & PARTNER
GERMANY

Item 293 Accession no.422683

Tire Business
9, No.3, 20th May 1991, p.9 Item 296
EXAMINE ROUTINE TYRE FAILURES TO Polymers and Polymer Composites in Construction.
AVERT LAWSUITS London, Thomas Telford, 1990, p.183-203. 63ECi
Ball C A STRUCTURAL ELASTOMERIC BEARINGS AND
RESILIENT SEATINGS
Despite improved technology, the pneumatic tyre is said
Grootenhuis P
to remain a most unsatisfactory vehicle component: it can
IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE &
and will fail in the most inconvenient place at the most
TECHNOLOGY
inconvenient time. The legal doctrine of strict liability is
Edited by: Hollaway L C
expanding, which means that an injured person may (Institution of Civil Engineers)
recover against the manufacturer or seller of a defective
product, even though the manufacturer was not negligent Design considerations for supporting structures on rubber
and even though the injured party had no dealings with bearings are discussed as applied for isolation from ground
the manufacturer or the seller. borne vibration but excluding earthquakes. Subject
USA headings are: trends in development and construction;
human sensitivity to vibration; vibration damage of
Accession no.423778
structures; basic facts of isolation; location of resilient
bearings; selection and performance of elastomeric
Item 294 bearings; and, applications of composite construction for
China Rubber Industry vibration isolation and movement control. 19 refs.
38, No.3, 1991, p.155-60 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Chinese Accession no.421273
APPLICATION OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
IN PNEUMATIC TYRE RESEARCH
Xiaomei H;Lizhen C;Shouzhi L;Lijun X Item 297
BEIJING, RESEARCH & DESIGN INST.OF Building Sealants:Materials, Properties and
RUBBER IND. Performance.ASTM STP 1069.Symposium
Proceedings.
Pneumatic tyre structure mechanics were analysed using Fort Lauderdale, Fl., 31st Jan-1st Feb.1990, p.122-40.
non-linear finite element analysis. The deformation and 6A2
stress-strain of all the components under inflation pressure EXPERIMENTAL WORK CARRIED OUT IN
of the tyre were predicted and the effects of three different SUPPORT OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN
bead structures on tyre performance were studied. It was INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ON MOVEMENT
found that stress concentration was the main cause of bead CAPABILITY OF SEALANTS
burst, separation and wear and that the tendency of the Wolf A T
tyre to undergo early damage increased with decrease in DOW CORNING EUROPE SA
bead rigidity. The study showed that the finite element Edited by: O’Conner T F
method was an effective means of optimising tyre (American Society for Testing and Materials)
structure. 7 refs. ASTM STP 1069
CHINA
The results of different laboratory tests, suggested during
Accession no.423300 the development of an ISO standard on sealant durability,
were compared with those obtained from outdoor
Item 295 weathering under mechanical strain. The comparison
Gummi Fasern Kunststoffe revealed that the 70C compression test, as included in
44, No.4, April 1991, p.179-86 ASTM C-719, was helpful in identifying sealants which
German fail due to high compression set. The heat compression
QUALITY INCLUDED - QUALITY CONTROL UP test, however, did not rule out sealants that tend to post-
TO 2000 AD cure or embrittle upon ageing. The best correlation was
Strothenk H obtained if the sealants were allowed to fully cure prior
CONTINENTAL AG to laboratory testing. 6 refs.

78 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts

INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANISATION performance; characteristics of metal adherend surfaces;

BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WESTERN EUROPE effect of water on adhesive-bonded structures; bond-joint
Accession no.420317 durability as a function of surface pretreatment; test
environments for determining the durability of bonded
structures; durability of structural joints assembled with
Item 298
combinations of joining procedures; and durability of
Building Sealants:Materials, Properties, and
dissimilar materials structures. 199 refs.
Performance.ASTM STP 1069.Symposium
USA
Proceedings.
Fort Lauderdale, Fl., 31st Jan-1st Feb.1990, p.315-26. 6A2 Accession no.419598
WHY CONSTRUCTION SEALANTS FAIL - AN
OVERVIEW Item 301
Warseck K L Adhesive Bonding.
BUILDING DIAGNOSTICS ASSOCIATES New York, Plenum Press, 1991, p.139-73. 9(12)4
Edited by: O’Conner T F CHARACTERISATION OF SURFACES
(American Society for Testing and Materials) Davis G D
ASTM STP 1069 MARTIN MARIETTA LABORATORIES
An overview is presented of the reasons for construction Edited by: Lee L H
sealants failing in the ‘real world’. These reasons are (Xerox Webster Research Center)
categorised by design errors, such as improper joints Surface-sensitive techniques for use in the study of
sizing, application errors, such as lack of surface adhesive bonding are discussed, including X-ray
preparation, and lastly material failures. 1 ref. photoelectron spectroscopy and auger electron
USA spectroscopy/scanning auger microscopy. Data analysis
Accession no.420304 is considered, with reference to quantification, chemical-
state information, depth-distribution information and
Item 299 surface-behaviour diagrams. Applications to adhesive
Building Sealants:Materials, Properties, and bonding are described, particularly failure analysis,
Performance.ASTM STP 1069.Symposium hydration of phosphoric acid-anodised aluminium and
Proceedings. adsorption of hydration inhibitors. 100 refs.
Fort Lauderdale, Fl., 31st Jan-1st Feb.1990, p.303-14. 6A2 USA
SEALANT USAGE FOR EXTERIOR Accession no.419596
INSULATION AND FINISH SYSTEMS
Williams M F;Williams B L Item 302
KENNEY/WILLIAMS/WILLIAMS INC.
12th International Conference on Fluid
Edited by: O’Conner T F
Sealing.Conference Proceedings.
(American Society for Testing and Materials)
Brighton, 10th-12th May 1989, p.367-80. 6J
ASTM STP 1069
REVIEW OF EXPERIENCES WITH
General design, specification and application procedures MECHANICAL SEALS IN AN OPERATING
for sealant joints on Exterior Insulation and Finish REFINERY
Systems are discussed with specific recommendations for Roos E
avoiding sealant joint failure due to finish coat ESSO NEDERLAND BV
delamination. (BHRA Fluid Engineering)
USA
Information gathered during two years of operation with
Accession no.420303 newly designed and revamped mechanical seals is
presented together with information concerning the use
Item 300 of the PF-value for troubleshooting and design, spare part
Adhesive Bonding. quality statistics, installation requirements and pre-lapping
New York, Plenum Press, 1991, p.239-90. 9(12)4 of mechanical seal rings. Real field data is provided to
DURABILITY EVALUATION OF ADHESIVE support statements and conclusions. 7 refs.
BONDED STRUCTURES EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERN
Minford J D EUROPE
Edited by: Lee L H Accession no.417896
(Xerox Webster Research Center)
The following topics are reviewed: chemical and physical Item 303
attributes of adhesion and durability; failure site Rubber & Eastern Europe.Conference Proceedings.
variabilities; bondline characteristics affecting bond London, 21st Nov.1990, p.69-73. 17

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 79

 References and Abstracts

MAINTAINING QUALITY was examined. The higher the content of sulphur or CBS,
Russell-Fell R the less the wt. loss of the vulcanisates after microbial
LRC PRODUCTS LTD. attack. In this system of curing without filler, the rate of
(Crain Communications Ltd.;First Europe microbial degradation was suggested to depend on the
Communications) crosslink density estimated from the swelling. Addition
of calcium carbonate as a filler did not affect the microbial
The paper outlines ways of improving and maintaining
degradation, and in some cases slightly enhanced it.
Quality Standards in Eastern Europe, covering aspects
Addition of carbon black, however, made the vulcanisate
such as production standards, raw materials and
apparently more resistant to microbial attack, HAF grade
machinery, motivating the workforce, management skills,
carbon being more effective than SRF grade. 9 refs.
and testing and certification.
JAPAN
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.417184
Accession no.417437
Item 307
Item 304 Philadelphia, Pa., 1990, pp.351. LS.43. 9ins. ASTM
Proceedings of the 31st Assembly of the IRSG.Vol.1. STP 1069. 18/3/91. 63Bu-6A1
Bangkok, July 1989, 11 papers, pp.154. 17 BUILDING SEALANTS: MATERIALS,
QUALITY OF ELASTOMERS PROPERTIES, AND PERFORMANCE. PAPERS
INTERNATIONAL RUBBER STUDY GROUP FROM A SYMPOSIUM HELD FORT
Eleven papers are presented on various economic aspects LAUDERDALE, FL., 31ST JAN-1ST FEB.1990.
of the tyre industry and on the quality of elastomers. O’Conner T F
THAILAND
AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING AND
MATERIALS
Accession no.417410
ASTM STP 1069
Twenty-four papers are provided dealing with five areas
Item 305
of structural sealant concern - structural sealant glazing,
London, 1986, pp.16. 12ins. 114-71
movement capacity of sealants, laboratory investigation,
BS 5760:PART 0:1986. RELIABILITY OF
sealant joint performance, and present and future trends.
CONSTRUCTED OR MANUFACTURED
PRODUCTS, SYSTEMS, EQUIPMENT AND Particular aspects considered include European and U.S.
COMPONENTS. PART 0. INTRODUCTORY testing procedures for structural glazing silicone sealants,
GUIDE TO RELIABILITY sealant stresses in tension and shear, water resistance of
BRITISH STANDARDS INST. sealants for construction, failure of construction sealants,
BSI.BS 5760:Part 0:1986 and architectural design challenges for sealant technology
and design standards.
Aimed at directors of companies looking for overall
USA
advantages, engineers not trained in quality and reliability to
show how reliability can help in their technical decision Accession no.417013
making and at middle management not specialised in
engineering to demonstrate how reliability should be Item 308
dovetailed in with other disciplines to give them the best result. Tire Business
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE 8, No.21, 11th Feb.1991, p.1/12
DESERT STORM TAKING TOLL ON VEHICLES’
Accession no.417293
TYRES
Moore M
Item 306
Journal of Applied Polymer Science According to several US government and industry
41, No.5/6, 1990, p.1181-97 sources, new and retreaded tyres have suffered premature
EFFECT OF COMPOUNDING INGREDIENTS failure in the punishing environment of Operation Desert
ON MICROBIAL DEGRADATION OF Storm. All replacements for the failed tyres are said to
VULCANISED NATURAL RUBBER have been new tyres purchased by the US Army’s Tank
Tsuchii A;Hayashi K;Hironiwa T;Matsunaka H;Takeda K Automotive Command; details are given.
JAPAN FERMENTATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE; US, ARMY
JAPAN, CHEMICALS INSPECTION & TESTING USA
INST. Accession no.416904
A series of natural rubber vulcanisates containing varied
amounts of sulphur and accelerator (CBS) were prepared Item 309
and their resistance to attack by a strain of Nocardia, Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
capable of utilising natural rubber as carbon substrate, 43, No.4, April 1990, p.321-6

80 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
LIABILITY FOR DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS AND
THE FRENCH LAW
Faugerolas L
A discussion is presented on the rather complicated French
legislation on product liability. 5 refs. (Second German
French Rubber Symposium, Freiburg, Sept.1989).
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE
Accession no.416608
Item 310
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
43, No.4, April 1990, p.318-20
German
LIABILITY FOR DEFECTIVE PRODUCTS AS
DESCRIBED IN THE WEST GERMAN
PRODUCT LIABILITY LAW
Kreifels T
ANWALTSSOZIETAET BRUCKHAUS KREIFELS
WINKHAUS
West German legislation on liability of producers, e.g.
rubber and plastics manufacturers and processesors, for
defective goods, is discussed with reference to a law
introduced in January 1990. (Second German French
Rubber Symposium, Freiburg, Sept.1989).
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WEST GERMANY; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.416607
Item 311
136th Meeting, Fall 1989, Conference Proceedings.
Detroit, Mi., 17th-20th Oct.1989, Paper 128. 012
UNIQUE APPROACH TO PRODUCT
CHARACTERISATION AND RELEASE
Forrest D D;Larson S F
DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I., & CO.INC.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
A description is given of the technology used by Du Pont
Elastomer Products for design and management of a
statistically-based product release system. Release criteria
and release decisions are based on the concept of
statistically estimated ‘true values’ as opposed to observed
values of products. An understanding of the nature of
variability is regarded as being fundamental to quality
management. 2 refs.
USA
Accession no.415257
Item 312
Rubber and Plastics News
20, No.14, 21st Jan.1991, p.1/31
RETREADS PULLED FROM USE IN DESERT
Moore M
The US Army is reported to have withdrawn retreaded
tyres from Persian Gulf operations, due to a high incidence
of blowouts and retread separations caused by casing
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
failure. The retreads have been replaced on the military
vehicles with new tyres; details are given.
AMERICAN RETREADERS ASSN.; US, ARMY
IRAQ; MIDDLE EAST; SAUDI ARABIA; USA
Accession no.414704
Item 313
Industria della Gomma
34, No.1-2, Jan-Feb.1990, p.29-32
Italian
MEANING OF QUALITY ASSURANCE WITH
RESPECT TO RUBBER PRODUCTS
Bassi A C
This article, which first appeared in the UNI journal for
January 1990, covers production organisation; relevant
European standards (Italian standards being closely
modelled on BS 5750 (1979); company responsibilities
and monitoring of raw materials.
BSI; UNI
EUROPE; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; UK; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.412795
Item 314
Tyre Industry Conference.Conference Proceedings.
Greenville, SC, 25-26th Oct.1989, paper 8. 6T1
RUBBER ON THE ROAD - ITS NOT ALL FROM
RETREADS
Brodsky H
TIRE RETREAD INFORMATION BUREAU
(Clemson, University)
A study has been carried out to discover where the scrap
rubber on the roads comes from. It is claimed that a good
portion of the rubber comes from new tyres and not
retreads, and that practically all the rubber comes from
truck tyres. The main reasons for this are overloading,
incorrect tyre pressure and mismatching of dual tyres.
USA
Accession no.411254
Item 315
Rubber Chemistry and Technology
63, No.3, July/Aug.1990, p.426-50
PROTECTION OF RUBBER AGAINST OZONE
Layer R W;Lattimer R P
GOODRICH B.F., CO.
A review is presented of the literature on the protection of
rubber against ozone. Particular attention is paid to the
historical background, ozone formation, chemistry of the
ozone-rubber reaction, physical requirements for ozone
cracking, physical methods of ozone protection, chemical
antiozonants, chemical antioxonants for polychloroprene,
mechanism of action of chemical antiozonants, chemistry
of the reaction of ozone and p-phenylenediamine, free-radical
mechanism, and critical stress and antiozonants. 88 refs.
USA
Accession no.409256
81
 References and Abstracts

Item 316 Item 320

International Polymer Science and Technology Construction & Building Materials
17, No.1, 1990, p.T/9-11 3, No.3, Sept.1989, p.145-51
METHOD OF CALCULATING THE MOULD FUNGUS GROWTH ON SANITARY
DURABILITY OF V-BELTS SEALANTS
Chibisov V A;Dymnikov S I;Govodnichev Yu Wolf A
N;Gubanov V V DOW CORNING SA NV
4 refs. (Full translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.8, 1989, p.31). The requirements that must be satisfied by sanitary
EASTERN EUROPE; USSR sealants are summarised, typical defects and their causes
Accession no.407920 are described and mould fungus growth and attack on
these sealants discussed in detail. Methods of combatting
and preventing fungus attack are considered and
Item 317 procedures for testing the effectiveness of fungicides
International Polymer Science and Technology used in these sealants are examined. Finally, the results
17, No.1, 1990, p.T/6-8 of Wallhaeuser tests on several commercially available
DEFORMATION AND FAILURE OF CONVEYOR sanitary silicone sealants, aimed at providing
BELTS IN IMPACT information on the probability of fungus attack, are
Zuev Yu S;Shtern T M reported. 15 refs.
8 refs. (Full translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.8, 1989, BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WESTERN EUROPE
p.23). Accession no.405626
EASTERN EUROPE; USSR
Accession no.407918 Item 321
Contraception
Item 318 41, No.6, June 1990, p.591-603
SATRA Bulletin HIGH SPEED CINEMATOGRAPHY OF THE
July/Aug.1990, p.77-80 INITIAL BREAK POINT OF LATEX CONDOMS
GUIDELINES FOR BETTER SPORTS DURING THE AIR BURST TEST
FOOTWEAR Stube R;Voeller B;Davidhazy A
Worswick B;Cross S CONSUMERS UNION; MARIPOSA FOUNDATION;
SHOE & ALLIED TRADES RESEARCH ASSN. ROCHESTER, INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
The performance levels to be expected from a variety of The location of break initiation and the direction of break
different sports shoe materials and constructions are propation in latex condoms inflated to burst under
reviewed. Recommendations for upper materials for use standard (ISO) conditions were investigated using high-
in sports footwear and constructional guidelines are speed cinematography. It was found that rupture of the
presented. The suitability and minimum thicknesses of condom was initiated at a small focal point on the shank
soles for sports shoes are indicated and methods of of the condom and rapidly propagated throughout the
avoiding discolouration problems and adhesion problems condom’s surface, often ending with partial or full
are highlighted. severance of the condom at its point of attachment to the
air burst instrument. 10 refs.
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
USA
Accession no.407205
Accession no.403447

Item 319
Adhasion Item 322
34, No.3, March 1990, p.21-3 Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
German No.692, Dec.1989, p.114-25
DEFECTS IN WINDOW SEALING French
Froelich H HIGH PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
INSTITUT FUER FENSTERTECHNIK EV TECHNIQUE FOR RUBBERS
Cardinet C;Verschave A
The paper explains how moisture can gain access to the HUTCHINSON SA
sealant and suggests remedies. Sometimes redesign of the
A detailed account is presented of the use of scanning
sealant elements is the only solution to the problem.
electron microscopy in conjunction with energy selection
INSTITUT DES GLASERHANDWERKS X-ray spectrometry to investigate features of rubbers such
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WEST GERMANY; WESTERN
EUROPE
as heterogeneity of composition, visual defects, blooming,
surface coatings, interfacial characteristics and surfaces
Accession no.406897
of substrates. Diagrammatic representations of equipment,

82 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts

electron micrographs, and X-ray spectrogrammes are polydienes are considered and details are given on suitable
included. 3 refs. antiozonants. Particular attention is paid to developments
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE in the field of non-staining antiozonants. 124 refs.
Accession no.401936 EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WEST GERMANY; WESTERN
EUROPE
Accession no.399717
Item 323
Washington, DC, 1990, pp.v, 55. 11ins. 20/8/90.
42C11C12D1-6R43-9(12)4 Item 326
STRENGTH AND CREEP-RUPTURE NR Technology
PROPERTIES OF ADHESIVE-BONDED EPDM 20, No.4, 1989, p.65-71
JOINTS STRESSED IN PEEL EFFECTS OF ANTIOXIDANTS ON THE AGEING
Martin J W;Embree E;Stutzman P E;Lechner J A OF NATURAL RUBBER LATEX THREAD
US, NATIONAL INST.OF STANDARDS & Gorton A D T;Knobloch G;Bauer R;Raue D P;Chen
TECHNOLOGY Ying
NIST Building Science Series 169 CIBA-GEIGY AG; MALAYSIAN RUBBER
PRODUCERS’ RESEARCH ASSN.; SOUTH CHINA,
The most frequently reported fault in EPDM single ply ACADEMY OF TROPICAL CROPS
roofing systems is in field formed joints. This technical
report finds the cure time and level of cleanness of the Ten antioxidants were studied under conditions of dry
EPDM membrane have the greatest effect on joint heat ageing, a washing treatment followed by hot air
strength, while the thickness of the adhesive and the ageing, outdoor exposure, and weatherometer tests. It was
magnitude of the mechanical load have the greatest effect found that the efficiency of the antioxidant depended on
on a joints creep rupture time to failure. The rankings of the ageing conditions, although some were used at a lower
variables in creep rupture and short time strength concentration than others. It is suggested that
experiments were different, and this difference should combinations of selected antioxidants might give
have important implications in standards writing and in improved results. 7 refs.
establishing performace requirements for EPDM roofing UK; WESTERN EUROPE
joints. 42 refs. Accession no.397356
USA
Accession no.401308 Item 327
Adhesion 14.
Barking, Elsevier Applied Science, 1990, p.126-60.
Item 324
9(12)4
SATRA Bulletin
ADHESIVE COMPOSITION SYSTEMS IN
June 1990, p.70-1
DEGRADATIVE CONDITIONS
POLYURETHANE COATED FABRICS: REIVEW
Kovacevic V;Kliajie-Malinovic L J;Smit I;Bravar
OF GUIDELINES
M;Agic A;Cerovecki Z
Rose S
ZAGREB, UNIVERSITY
SATRA FOOTWEAR TECHNOLOGY CENTRE
Edited by: Allen K W
A comprehensive review is given of SATRA’s current (London, City University)
performance recommendations for PU coated fabrics.
Results are presented of a studies of the ageing of PU
EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE
adhesives for leather, the adhesives used being based on
Accession no.400398 hydroxyl-terminated PU prepolymers prepared from
suitable adipate polyesters and aromatic isocyanates.
Item 325 Particular attention is paid to the yellowing of white
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe leather in contact with the adhesive. 35 refs.
42, No.9, Sept.1989, p.760-70 YUGOSLAVIA; EASTERN EUROPE
German Accession no.396761
OZONOLYSIS OF UNSATURATED RUBBER
AND THEIR VULCANISATES. SURVEY Item 328
Brueck D Rubber and Plastics News
BAYER AG 18th Oct.1989, p.Special Issue, p.10
This article reviews literature on ozone reaction with diene OEMS EXPECT REFINEMENT IN TYRE
rubbers. Physical and chemical phenomena of rubber TECHNOLOGY
ageing by ozone and mechanisms of ozone reaction with Rowand R
rubbers are described. Possibilities of improving ozone According to executives at the top three US automotive
resistance of rubbers and vulcanisates made from companies - General Motors, Ford Motor and Chrysler -

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 83

 References and Abstracts

tyre makers have done a good job in overcoming tyre Item 332
vibration, harshness of ride, noise, leaks, flat spots, lack Rubbercon ’88.Developed from an international
of durability and other technical problems; in the future, conference.
they will have to do more. Details are given. Sydney, 10-14th Oct.1988, Vol.2, Paper 16, pp.30. 012
CHRYSLER CORP.; FORD MOTOR CO.; GENERAL FRACTURE PROCESSES IN ELASTOMERS IN
MOTORS CORP. SEVERE SERVICE CONDITIONS
USA Stevenson A
Accession no.394973 MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY LTD.
Item 329 (PRI;Pacific Dunlop Ltd.; XPO Exhibitions)
China Rubber Industry Some recent developments in understanding the physics
36, No.10, Oct.1989, p.613-6 of failure mechanisms in elastomers, with particular
Chinese reference to severe mechanical and environmental
ABRASION FAILURE OF VULCANISATES conditions relevant to offshore engineering applications,
CONTAINING SHORT FIBRES are presented. NBR, chlorinated PE, polychloroprene and
Wang Weidong;Wang Mengjiao;Zhang Tao NR are subjected to high mechanical stresses and severe
BEIJING, RESEARCH & DESIGN INST.OF hydrocarbon fluid environments at elevated temperatures
RUBBER IND. in an attempt to determine component service life. 14 refs.
The relationship between abrasion resistance and fibre UK; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY
orientation was investigated along with the influence of Accession no.390328
adhesive on abrasion using SEM. It was found that the presence
of short fibres in the composite gave rise to changes in the Item 333
failure mechanism and that fibre orientation had varying effects Rubbercon ’88.Developed from an international
on the abrasion resistance of the composite. 9 refs. conference.
CHINA Sydney, 10-14th Oct.1988, Vol.2, Paper 3, pp.13. 012
Accession no.393327 LASER HOLOGRAPHY FOR INSPECTION OF
TYRE
Item 330 Shaoying Z;Yufang S;Bingyu L;Zhi Z
Modern Tire Dealer BEIJING, RESEARCH & DESIGN INST.OF
70, No.7, June 1989, p.28/35 RUBBER IND.
UNDERSTANDING AND CORRECTING (PRI;Pacific Dunlop Ltd.; XPO Exhibitions)
IRREGULAR WEAR ON RADIAL TYRES
The utilisation of laser holographic interferometry,
Jones A
vacuum stressing and the analysing of the interference
Irregular wear is said to be initially attributable to tyre fringes of double-exposure of tyres to evaluate tyre
design, service use, maintenance and the state of the structural uniformity, define the type of the defects and
vehicle on which they are used. Rapid irregular shoulder to estimate their size is described. Photographs of
wear is caused primarily by excessive low contact pressure reconstructed holographic interference patterns of tested
in the shoulder area. River wear or tramlining is caused tyres are given. 8 refs.
by high compression which forces the rib edges to spread CHINA
and abrade on the road. These defects are examined along Accession no.390322
with the effects of poor tyre and vehicle maintenance.
USA
Item 334
Accession no.390812
Rubbercon ’88.Developed from an international
conference.
Item 331 Sydney, 10-14th Oct.1988, Vol.1, Paper 20, pp.12. 012
Biomaterials PROCESSING OPTIONS OF FLUOROCARBON
10, No.9, Nov.1989, p.625-9 ELASTOMERS
APPLICATION OF AN EMPIRICALLY DERIVED Kosmala J L;Micallef J
GROWTH CURVE MODEL TO CHARACTERISE 3M CO.
STAPHYLOCOCCUS EPIDERMIDIS BIOFILM (PRI;Pacific Dunlop Ltd.;XPO Exhibitions)
DEVELOPMENT ON SILICONE ELASTOMER
Holmes C J;Evans R C;Vonesh E A general guide is presented aimed at providing
BAXTER HEALTHCARE CORP. fabricators with a basic understanding of the effects of
polymer type, cure systems, compounding ingredients,
24 refs processing conditions and part/mould design to efficiently
USA process FKM fluoroelastomers. A trouble-shooting
Accession no.390797 guideline for fluoroelastomers is also given.

84 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts
USA
Accession no.389330
Item 335
Fall Meeting(134th), 1988.
Cincinnati, Oh., 18-21st Oct.1988, Paper 43, pp.30. 012
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPIC STUDY OF PETP
DEGRADATION IN POLYESTER FIBRE/
NITRILE RUBBER COMPOSITES
Carduner K R;Carter R O;Peck M C P;Killgoar P C
FORD MOTOR CO.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The results are reported of the application of Fourier
transform IR spectroscopy to the study of the chemical
degradation of a PETP fibre/nitrile rubber composite
under consideration for use in an experimental automotive
subsystem. It is shown that the mechanism of polyester
decomposition responsible for failure is aminolysis. 9 refs.
An appendix is included, which presents data for
unadulterated and modified PETP samples and describes
a successful attempt to identify anomalous broadening
of intense bands observed in the spectrum of fibres, where
strength is preserved. 21 refs.
USA
Accession no.389096
Item 336
Fall Meeting(134th), 1988.
Cincinnati, Oh., 18-21st Oct.1988, Paper 16, pp.15. 012
QUALITY IMPROVEMENT THROUGH ROOT
CAUSE ANALYSIS
Floyd R C
EXXON CHEMICAL CO.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
The concept of root cause analysis, which is
fundamentally concerned with the cause-and-effect chain
of an operation, is described. Some examples of root cause
analysis are presented, which demonstrate how it works,
and a few simple rules, which must be followed to achieve
the desired end-result, are outlined.
USA
Accession no.388771
Item 337
Spring Meeting(133rd), 1988.
Dallas, Tx., 19-22nd April 1988, Paper 41, pp.31. 012
HEAT BUILD-UP AND BLOW-OUT OF RUBBER
BLOCKS
Hindi M;Gent A N
AKRON, UNIVERSITY
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Studies with thick rubber blocks of SBR, NR,
polybutadiene and butyl rubber (as used in articles such
as tyre treads and tank track pads) showed that the
principal cause of blow-out was the generation at high
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
temps. of sufficient quantities of a volatile decomposition
product. The reaction was, however, specific to the
particular elastomer and crosslinking system employed.
10 refs.
USA
Accession no.386943
Item 338
Spring Meeting (133rd), 1988.
Dallas, Tx., 19-22nd April 1988, Paper 1, pp.36. 012
FRACTURE MECHANISMS AND LIFE
PREDICTIONS FOR ELASTOMERS IN HIGH
PRESSURE OIL AND GAS ENVIRONMENTS
Stevenson A;Campion R P
MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY LTD.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
Failure mechanisms in elastomers subjected to high
pressures are discussed, initially from a purely mechanical
viewpoint and subsequently in relation to the effects of
hydrocarbon liquids and gases at elevated temps. Some
preliminary experimental results for nitrile rubber,
chlorinated PE, polychloroprene and NR are presented.
13 refs.
UK
Accession no.386925
Item 339
Spring Meeting(133rd), 1988.
Dallas, Tx., 19-22nd April 1988, Paper 18, pp.35. 012
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON RUBBER TANK
TRACKS
Pergantis C G;Murray T J;Mead J L;Shuford R J;Alesi A L
US, ARMY MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY LAB.
(ACS, Rubber Div.)
IR thermography was used to observe elastomer surface
temps. of the ground pad side of US Army track shoes
operating on an M-1 tank. The observations were made
to define the temps. generated by tank track pads under
field test conditions (on paved road) in order to relate
them to wear and failure modes of abrasion, cutting and
chunking, and blow-out. Elastomers investigated and
compared included SBR, NR and highly-saturated NBR.
Local surface temps. were affected by ground pad design,
pad location, the roadwheel path and the type of material.
The thermal behaviour of the rubber bushings was also
analysed. 8 refs.
USA
Accession no.386647
Item 340
Journal of Natural Rubber Research
4, No.2, June 1989, p.93-106
CREEP BEHAVIOUR OF RUBBERS SUBJECTED
TO REPEATED LOADINGS
85
 References and Abstracts
Pond T J
MALAYSIAN RUBBER PRODUCERS’ RESEARCH
ASSN.
The creep behaviour of various vulcanised rubbers under
cyclic conditions has been compared with that under
constant loading. Cyclic loading is found to produce an
enhancement of creep rates thought to be due to
crosslinks breaking under stress concentrations caused
by crystallisation. Half of the cyclic creep can be
accounted for in this way; visco-elasticity accounts for
the remainder. 6 refs.
MALAYSIA; UK
Accession no.386035
Item 341
International Polymer Processing
4, No.1, March 1989, p.3-8
ANALYSIS OF AGGLOMERATE RUPTURE IN
LINEAR FLOW FIELDS
Manas-Zloczower I;Feke D L
CASE WESTERN RESERVE UNIVERSITY
A dispersive mixing model focussing on the rupture of
agglomerates as the step that primarily determines the
dynamics of the mixing process has been derived and
analysed. Rupture is predicted to occur when
hydrodynamic forces exerted on the outer surface of the
agglomerate exceed cohesive forces binding the
agglomerate together. Agglomerates are modelled as
clusters of aggregates bound by van der Waals forces. An
analysis is made of agglomerate rupture in four flow
geometries: simple shear, pure elongation, uniaxial
extension and biaxial extension. 13 refs.
USA
Accession no.382415
Item 342
Journal of Polymer Science : Polymer Chemistry
Edition
27, No.7, June 1989, p.2313-24
POLYMER DEGRADATION UNDER IONISING
RADIATION: ROLE OF OZONE
Clough R L;Gillen K T
SANDIA NATIONAL LABORATORIES
A study was made of the gamma-radiation degradation
of SBR and Buna-n rubber in the presence of air. Using a
recently developed modulus profiling technique, it is
shown that degradation is very heterogeneous through the
sample thickness. Degradation is considered to result from
two different processes, namely free radical-mediated
radiation chemistry and ozone chemistry in the surface
regions of the samples. The synergistic action of ozone
and ionising radiation is discussed. 29 refs.
USA
Accession no.381832
86
Item 343
Journal of Polymer Science : Polymer Chemistry
Edition
27, No.7, June 1989, p.2435-55
OZONOLYSIS OF BUTYL AND HALOBUTYL
ELASTOMERS
Ho K W;Guthmann J E
POLYSAR LTD.
A study was made of the ozonolysis of butyl rubber and
its halogenated derivatives, as well as their model
compounds in hexane. The effect of various additives,
such as diphenylamine, triisopropyl phosphite,
hexylamine and 2, 6-di-tert-butyl cresol, on chain scission
and rearrangement of bromobutyl rubber, was also
evaluated. It was found while the ozonolysis of butyl and
chlorobutyl rubbers involved normal cleavage of olefinic
double bonds, the mechanism of ozonolysis of bromobutyl
rubber was more complicated. 8 refs.
CANADA
Accession no.381828
Item 344
Tire Science and Technology
17, No.2, April-June 1989, p.100-8
TYRE DESIGN THEORY BASED ON
OPTIMISATION OF STRESS-STRAIN CYCLES
OF ITS ELEMENTS
Tretyakov O B;Sokolov S L
MOSCOW, TYRE RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Some criteria are presented for evaluating the various tyre
design theories that are based on the equilibrium shape
of the sidewall and on the rolling contour of a tyre. Tyre
failure types and the mathematical models by which they
can be predicted by modern theories of rubber/cord fatigue
are also described. A tyre design theory based on stress-
strain optimisation of its elements is proposed as is a
hierarchic system of complicated tyre models for
calculation of stress-strain cycles. Influence of the cross-
section geometry and of the inner structure of the tyre on
stress-strain cycles in the belt and bead of radial tyres is
investigated. 21 refs.
USSR; EASTERN EUROPE
Accession no.380697
Item 345
Rubber World
200, No.1, April 1989, p.31-8
FIELD OBSERVATIONS ON RUBBER TANK
TRACKS
Pergantis C G;Murray T;Mead J L;Shuford R J;Alesi A L
US, ARMY MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY
LABORATORY
Information is presented in detail on data obtained from
testing of rubber tank tracks for Army tracked vehicles such
as the M-1 Abrams tank. Main areas of failure of rubber
track pads are identified and results of field tests are
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts

presented. Methods of testing included the use of infrared Item 349

thermography for monitoring thermal behaviour of the track CETIM Informations
pads. Materials studied included nitrile rubber, triblends, No.105, April 1988, p.53-7
natural rubber and fibre-filled rubber pads. 8 refs. French
USA SEALS FOR ROTATING SHAFTS: STUDY OF
Accession no.379956 LEAKAGES
Faure L
CENTRE TECHNIQUE DES INDUSTRIES
Item 346 MECANIQUES
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
41, No.10, Oct.1988, p.992-6 Results are presented of a study of oil leakages from nitrile
German rubber rotary shaft seals. 1 ref.
PRODUCTION FACTORS INFLUENCING THE FRANCE
QUALITY OF ELASTOMERIC INJECTION Accession no.377540
MOULDINGS - REQUIREMENTS OF AN
AUTOMOTIVE USER
Item 350
Walter G
International Polymer Science and Technology
DAIMLER-BENZ AG
15, No.8, 1988, p.T/19-22
An inspection by Daimler-Benz of elastomer components CALCULATION OF THE BURSTING ENERGY
for use in car construction showed that the percentage of OF HOSES
defective components was much higher than that for Huszka J
plastics or metal parts. Reasons for this situation are Full translation of Muanyag es Gumi, No.12, 1987, p.381)
discussed and ways and methods (failure mode effects
HUNGARY
analysis and statistical process control) of improving the
Accession no.375889
quality of rubber injection mouldings outlined. It is
concluded that quality should be achieved by quality
planning and development rather than by quality control. Item 351
13 refs. NR Technology
WEST GERMANY 19, No.3, 1988, p.50-8
Accession no.379264 STUDY OF THE BIODETERIORATION OF
VULCANISED RUBBER PIPE SEALS EXPOSED
TO INOCULATED TAP WATER
Item 347 Hanstveit A P;Gerritse G A;Scheffers W A
International Polymer Science and Technology DELFT, UNIVERSITY; TNO; TNO PLASTICS &
15, No.9, 1988, p.T/83-6 RUBBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
STUDY OF THE BREAKDOWN OF SEALS WITH
CYCLIC TEMPERATURES A novel NR vulcanisate containing a fungicidal plasticiser
(chlorinated paraffin) was tested for its resistance to attack
Shpindler V M;Zuev Yu S;Bondareva V S;Sveshnikova
by the rubber-degrading bacterium, Nocardia asteroides,
N V;Chulyukina A V;Yudina G I
under conditions which simulated those of pipe seals in
USSR, RUBBER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
water supply pipes. The vulcanisate was exposed to tap
3 refs. (Full translation of Prom.Sint.Kauch.Shin i water inoculated with the bacteria and the growth of
Rez.tekhn.Iz., No.6, 1988, p.23) bacteria on the surface of the material and any resultant
USSR deterioration were monitored by SEM, fluorescence
Accession no.379092 microscopy, TEM, viable counts in selective media and
tensile strength determination. After an exposure of nearly
two years, the samples were found to have undergone no
Item 348 significant deterioration. 23 refs.
International Polymer Science and Technology NETHERLANDS
15, No.9, 1988, p.T/30-1
Accession no.373613
EFFECT OF VIBRATION ON THE SEALING
POWER OF RUBBER GASKETS IN FIXED
JOINTS Item 352
Shtitel’man M I;Sedov V V;Yurtsev N N Journal of Biomaterials Applications
3, No.2, Oct.1988, p.207-27
9 refs. (Full translation of Kauch.i Rezina, No.6, 1988, BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS OF
p.23B) POLYURETHANES: IMPLICATIONS OF
USSR FAILURE MECHANISMS
Accession no.379082 Phillips R E;Smith M C;Thoma R J

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 87

 References and Abstracts

CARBOMEDICS INC.; INTERMEDICS INC. Item 355

Rubber World
Three mechanisms are described which explain various
199, No.1, Oct.1988, p.12/51
observed interactions between PU chemistry and body
MAKING IT LAST
chemistry. These include calcification, environmental
Menough J
stress cracking and chain scission. Each may result in
implant device failure and each appears to involve Some of the typical causes of rubber product failure are
metal ion complexation as a key parameter. Continued reviewed, and some of the potential methods of
expansion of PU into implantable product applications overcoming these problems are described. Aspects
will require further clarification of the effect of each covered include abrasion, oxidation, chemical attack,
of these interactions on long-term product performance. permanent set and heat/cold.
25 refs. USA
USA Accession no.369899
Accession no.373588
Item 356
Item 353 Adhesion International 1987, Proceedings of the 10th
International Polymer Science and Technology Annual Meeting held Williamsburg, Va., 23-27
13, No.7, 1986, p.T/31-40 Feb.1987.
BLISTERING OF SEAL RINGS IN STERN TUBE Montreux, Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, 1988,
SEALS p.153-66. 9(12)4
Yamajo S;Yokoyama T;Ishikawa H EFFECT OF WATER ON MATRIX/FILLER
ADHESION IN A POLYURETHANE
The relationship between the nature of the sealing ring ELASTOMER
material (fluoroelastomer) and the ocurrence of Bowditch M R;Stannard K J
blistering was investigated. The results indicated that UK, ADMIRALTY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT
blistering occurred more readily when the crosslink Edited by: Sharpe L H
density was high as a result of over-vulcanisation. The (Adhesion Society Inc.)
filler was found to dissolve out into water more easily
in parts which were subjected to a large stress due to The static moduli failure stresses and dynamic moduli of
deformation of the rubber. It was possible that traces both filled and unfilled polyurethanes are measured over
left behind after dissolution of the filler provided nuclei a range of equilibrium water contents and these results
are compared with those obtained from dry controls. The
for crack formation which led to the occurrence of
degradation of mechanical properties in the presence of
blistering. 4 refs. (Full translation of Nippon Gomu
water, and the hydrolytic disruption of filler/matrix
Kyokaishi, 58, No.4, 1985, p.266)
adhesion is assessed. A quantitative relationship between
JAPAN
the water content and mechanical properties is established
Accession no.371989 and the mechanics of the water/polymer/filler interaction
are considered. 4 refs.
Item 354 UK
Rubber World Accession no.368269
199, No.1, Oct.1988, p.16/24
EFFECT OF THE ADDITIVES IN DOMESTIC
Item 357
WATER SYSTEMS ON RUBBER
Adhesion International 1987, Proceedings of the 10th
VULCANISATES
Annual Meeting held Williamsburg, Va., 23-27
Simmons C L;Evanson P P
Feb.1987.
MINNESOTA RUBBER; POLYSAR LTD.
Montreux, Gordon & Breach Science Publishers, 1988,
Failure of rubber parts used in domestic water applications p.137-52. 9(12)4
has been frequently reported, and complaints include EFFECT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL
swelling and cracking and are related to nitrile and POTENTIALS ON THE DURABILITY OF
ethylene-propylene copolymer-type compounds. An RUBBER/METAL BONDS IN SEA WATER
ageing test method is developed, and effects of the Stevenson A
different chemicals used in the purification processes on MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
nitrile and EPDM vulcanisates compared. Butyl, LABORATORY LTD.
halobutyls, ethylene-propylene copolymers and nitrile Edited by: Sharpe L H
vulcanisates are evaluated; two failure mechanisms are (Adhesion Society Inc.)
proposed and investigated. 7 refs. A study of the role of electrochemical potentials on the
USA durability of rubber/metal bonds in sea water is described.
Accession no.369900 The effect of electrochemically inert conditions is shown

88 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

 References and Abstracts

to be measured in stable bond strength after years. The Scotland, 14-16 June 1988, p.9/1-9/10. 63Pet
effect of bonding of the rubber to the more noble of a pair INTRODUCTION OF AN IMPROVED
of metals in electrical and electrolytic contact, however, is ELASTOMER FOR HIGH PRESSURE
shown to cause bond failure much faster. 4 refs. PIPEWORK FITTINGS
UK Rispin A;Phelan P
Accession no.368118 ANSON LTD.; WALKER J., & CO.LTD.
(PRI)

Item 358 The problem of explosive decompression damage to

Polymers in Offshore Engineering.Proceedings of the oilfield flowline equipment prompted the development
4th International Conference. of James Walker’s FR58/90 fluoroelastomer. The research,
Scotland, 14-16 June 1988, p.5/1-5/14. 63Pet development and field testing of Union seals made of this
FAILURE MECHANISMS IN ELASTOMERS IN material is described. The Anson Superseal has now been
HIGH PRESSURE OIL AND GAS CONDITIONS approved and accepted by major operators for sour gas
Campion R P explosive decompression service. 2 refs.
MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH UK
LABORATORY LTD. Accession no.367095
(PRI)
Experimentation at temps. up to 130C and pressures up Item 361
to 700 atmospheres was carried out to assess the explosive PMA’s Reference Guide to Polyurethane Processing.
decompression performance of a number of elastomeric Glen Ellyn, Il., c.1986, p.IV 104-10. 43C6
compounds. Permeation measurements showed that PROBLEM SOLVING IN POLYURETHANE
permeation rate decreased from proportionality against BONDING
pressure at high pressures, and at 700 atm. and 27C for Stahr B
carbon dioxide (now a liquid) permeation apparently was WHITTAKER CORP.
effectively halted; reasons suggested include the forced (Polyurethane Manufacturers Assn.)
close packing of molecular chains and the dependency of A detailed description is given of the problems
D on concentration. These observations are discussed encountered in the bonding of PU, and logical methods
together with aspects of nucleation, bubble growth and of analysing and solving bonding problems are presented.
elastomer fracture: an optimised balance of properties USA
related to these factors is presumably necessary for an
Accession no.366056
elastomer to withstand explosive decompression. 10 refs.
UK
Accession no.367343 Item 362
Elastomerics
120, no.7, July 1988, p.50
Item 359 SPACE SHUTTLE REDESIGN POSES CRITICAL
Expanding Technology and Markets for Adhesives and CHALLENGE TO THE RUBBER INDUSTRY
Sealants; Conference Proceedings. Hertz D L
Philadelphia, Pa., 18-21 Oct.1981, p.244-50. 6A1 The tendency of fluoroelastomers to lose resilience at
SEALANTS - ARE THEY TRULY THE MIRACLE lower temperatures is said clearly to be a major cause of
COMPOUND - ALL THAT WE HAVE BEEN LED the failure of the Challenger space shuttle. Redesign
TO BELIEVE? engineers have concluded that fluoroelastomers are still
Grenadier G the best material available for the construction of the O-
GRENADIER CORP. rings; details are given.
(US, Adhesives & Sealants Council)
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
A contractor’s view that sealants are not what they are USA
supposed to be and certainly are not what they used to be Accession no.365816
is discussed. Factors contributing to the denigration of
sealants in recent years are briefly considered and ways
Item 363
of improving the quality of sealants are suggested.
Plastics Southern Africa
USA
18, No.2, Aug.1988, p.78/82
Accession no.367165 QUALITY ASSURANCE. PART I
Ford R H
Item 360 SOUTH AFRICA, BUREAU OF STANDARDS
Polymers in Offshore Engineering.Proceedings of the The terms ‘quality management’, ‘quality assurance’ and
4th International Conference. ‘quality control’ are explained and examples of the need

© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited 89

 References and Abstracts
for quality assurance given. The implementation of quality
assurance on the factory floor is emphasised. (Pt.II is to
appear in the Sept.1988 issue).
SASOC; SASOL
SOUTH AFRICA
Accession no.365468
Item 364
Journal of Adhesion
21, Nos.3/4, 1987, p.329-41
EFFECT OF WATER ON MATRIX/FILLER
ADHESION IN A PU ELASTOMER
Bowditch M R;Stannard K J
UK, ADMIRALTY RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT
The static moduli, failure stresses and dynamic moduli
of an unfilled and filled polyether-urethane were measured
over a range of equilibrium water contents and the results
obtained compared with those for dry controls. Fillers
employed were barytes (and small amounts of fumed
silica and carbon black) or iron oxide. A quantitative
relationship between water content and mechanical
properties was established and the mechanics of the water/
polymer/filler interaction assessed. (Tenth Annual
Meeting of the Adhesion Society Inc., Williamsburg,
Virginia, USA, 22-27 Feb.1987). 4 refs.
UK
Accession no.365347
Item 365
Adhasion
32, Sept.1988, p.32-4
German
QUALITY ASSURANCE IN THE ADHESIVES
INDUSTRY
Bucken H J;Van Halteren A
FACHVERBAND KLEBSTOFFINDUSTRIE EV;
HENKEL KG
A description is given of a system of quality assurance,
developed by the West German Association of the
Adhesives Industry, which takes into account the
requirements of its various customers. Based on DIN/ISO
9004, it analyses the possible defects and their results
and derives statistical process control data and quality
cards based on this analysis. 12 members of the quality
assurance association are listed.
BAYER AG; VOLVO AB
WEST GERMANY
Accession no.364963
Item 366
Journal of Adhesion
21, Nos.3/4, 1987, p.313-27
EFFECT OF ELECTROCHEMICAL
POTENTIALS ON THE DURABILITY OF
RUBBER/METAL BONDS IN SEA WATER
90
Stevenson A
MATERIALS ENGINEERING RESEARCH
LABORATORY LTD.
A study was made of the effect of electrochemical potentials
on the durability of double shear type samples consisting
of 2 black filled NR and 3 metal discs alternately bonded
together. Metals employed were carbon steel, Inconel,
stainless steel, titanium and titanium alloy. The influence
of dissimilar metals in contact, high cathodic potentials
and elastomer strain was evaluated and the results discussed
in terms of failure penetration depth. (Tenth Annual
Meeting of the Adhesion Society Inc., Williamsburg,
Virginia, USA, 22-27 Feb.1987). 4 refs.
UK
Accession no.364839
Item 367
Adhesives, Sealants, and Coatings for Space and Harsh
Environments.Conference Proceedings.
Denver, Colorado, 7-9 April 1987, p.371-80. 63Tr.Sp.
INFLUENCE OF COMPOSITION AND FILM
THICKNESS ON BIOACTIVITY OF
ANTIFOULING PAINTS CONTAINING CASTOR
OIL AS THE THIXOTROPIC AGENT
Giudice C A;del Amo B;Rascio V J D
CIDEPINT
(ACS, Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)
The results are reported of a study of the influence of
chemical composition and film thickness on the biological
activity of high-build anti-fouling paints containing gum
rosin and chlorinated rubber as binders. Variables
investigated were rosin/chlorinated rubber ratio, binder
percentage, cuprous oxide content, amount of castor oil
incorporated as gel, dispersion time of toxicant and dry
film thickness. Raft tests were carried out on steel plates
coated with the paint and immersed for 25 months in sea
water at Puerto Belgrano. 14 refs.
ARGENTINA
Accession no.364050
Item 368
Developments in Rubber Technology-4.
Barking, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers Ltd.,
1987, p.159-91. 012
REVIEW OF ELASTOMERS USED FOR
OILFIELD SEALING ENVIRONMENTS
Revolta W N K;Sweet G C
DU PONT (UK) LTD.
Edited by: Whelan A;Lee K S
A general overview is given of elastomers used for sealing
applications during the exploration and production of oil and
gas. An attempt is made to define the main problem areas
and to give broad distinctions between different elastomers
to highlight their strengths and weaknesses. 19 refs.
UK
Accession no.361195
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
Item 369
International Rubber Conference IRC 86;Proceedings.
Goteborg, 1986, Vol.2, p.459-63. 012
SERVICE LIFE OF HYDRAULIC HOSE
COMPONENTS USED IN OFFSHORE OIL
APPLICATIONS
Hampson F W;Manley T R
NEI CLARKE CHAPMAN LTD.; NEWCASTLE-
UPON-TYNE, POLYTECHNIC
(Swedish Institution of Rubber Technology)
The results are reported of a study of the service life of
heavily worked hydraulic hose components subject to
impulse conditions over long periods using DSC. Tests
were carried out on a PU modified umbilical hose
component transmitting fluid power from an offshore
structure to a submersible or submerged structure and a
high pressure, flexible hose with an inner lining of oil-
resistant rubber, steel wire reinforcement and rubber
cover. The relationship between oxidative thermal
degradation changes and mechanically induced fatigue
of the polymers is demonstrated. 2 refs.
UK
Accession no.359815
Item 370
International Rubber Conference IRC 86;Proceedings.
Goteborg, 1986, Vol.2, p.347-52. 012
IMPROVEMENT OF RUBBER JOINTS FOR
LOCOMOTIVE TRANSMISSION GEAR
Schenk H
(Swedish Institution of Rubber Technology)
Tests were carried out on rubber joints for locomotive
transmission gears, which had unexpectedly failed
prematurely, to determine the cause of damage and
provide the basis for corrective measures. The fatigue life
of the specimens at 60 Shore hardness was investigated
as a function of alternating radial loads and the influence
of rubber hardness on fatigue life at a force level of + or
- 30KN evaluated. The effect of tangential stressing at
higher rubber hardness levels was also examined and the
consequences of using a rubber layer of thinner thickness
in the joints assessed. 1 ref. (German translation appears
in Kaut.u.Gummi Kunst., 40, No.4, 1987, p.343-5.)
WEST GERMANY
Accession no.359812
Item 371
International Rubber Conference IRC 86;Proceedings.
Goteborg, 1986, Supplementary Volume, p.175-85. 012
THE SPECIFICATION - ITS ROLE IN QUALITY
ASSURANCE
Clowes F
BRITISH RAILWAYS BOARD
(Swedish Institution of Rubber Technology)
The usefulness of standards and quality control in
everyday life is emphasised and definitions of
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
‘specification’ are set out. The pitfalls inherent in over-
specifying and under-specifying are described and the
basic requirements outlined. The terms ‘quality’, ‘quality
control’ and ‘quality assurance’ are defined and the
requirements as far as management organisation,
manufacturing control and training are detailed.
BRITISH STANDARDS INST.; EUROPEAN
ORGANISATION FOR QUALITY CONTROL;
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANISATION
SWEDEN; UK
Accession no.359356
Item 372
Rubber and Plastics News
17, No.22, 16th May 1988, p.28
ARMY RESEARCHERS CREATE TANK PADS
BASED ON SATURATED NBR
It is claimed that the development of a nitrile rubber-based
compound for battle tank track pads could save the US
Army million of dollars in maintenance costs. Researchers
at the Army Materials Research Laboratory and Belvoir
Research Development & Engineering Centre developed
a highly saturated nitrile rubber compound in 1987 in an
attempt to make the pads, currently moulded in SBR, wear
longer. Details are given.
BELVOIR RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT &
ENGNG.CENTER; FMC CORP.; US, ARMY
MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY
USA
Accession no.358151
Item 373
Adhesives Age
31, No.5, May 1988, p.28-9
ANAEROBIC ADHESIVE IMPROVES ROLLER
ASSEMBLY RELIABILITY
Loven W E
HENKEL ADHESIVES CO.
The change by a manufacturer of automated teller machine
rollers from one anaerobic adhesive to another to meet
performance requirements is examined. Topics covered
include assembly procedures, testing and cost savings; in
the two years that Hiawatha Rubber has been using the
anaerobic adhesive, only two bonded rollers out of about
16, 000 units have failed - each time attributed to improper
application of the adhesive. Details are given.
HIAWATHA RUBBER CO.
USA
Accession no.355963
Item 374
Adhesives & Sealants in Building & Construction.
London, Feb.22, 1988, Paper 1. 62Bu-6A
SERVICE EXPERIENCE OF ADHESIVES AND
SEALANTS IN BUILDING
91
 References and Abstracts
Berman A M
AMBER SCIENTIFIC LTD.
(PRI)
An attempt is made to justify the ‘belt and braces’
approach as a logical outcome of experience of practical
applications of sealants and adhesives in construction
work. Consideration is given to the probability of failure/
success, adhesive/substrate compatibility, workmanship/
quality control, problem prevention and where not to use
adhesives.
UK
Accession no.354170
Item 375
Tire Business
5, No.22, 29th Feb.1988, p.13
PROPER TYRE MAINTENANCE KEY TO
CASING LIFE
Ball C A
The causes of tyre damage and wear, such as
underinflation, overloading, high speeds, driver
behaviour, road conditions, climate and mechanical
conditions are examined. The necessity for a tyre to be
properly fitted, balanced and serviced throughout its
original life if it is to provide a sound foundation for
retreading is emphasised.
USA
Accession no.353435
Item 376
Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et Plastiques
64, No.672, Oct.1987, p.125-31
French
EFFECTS OF ENGINE LUBRICANT ADDITIVES
ON FLUOROELASTOMERS
Frapin B
PROCAL SA
A study was made of the effects of engine lubricant
additives, including dispersing agents, detergents,
antioxidants and viscosity modifiers, on the mechanical
properties of automotive seals made of vinylidene
fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymer and vinylidene
fluoride-hexafluoropropylene-tetrafluoroethylene
terpolymer fluoroelastomers. Two groups of additives,
dispersing agents and viscosity modifiers, showed the
most distinct effects due to their dispersing properties,
but interactions between different groups of additives were
also significant. The tests also established a correlation
between static and dynamic tests. 10 refs.
FRANCE
Accession no.352400
Item 377
Progress in Rubber and Plastics Technology
3, No.1, 1987, p.11-41
92
REVIEW OF QUALITY IN THE BRITISH
RUBBER INDUSTRY. PAST, PRESENT AND
FUTURE
Coulson S H;Cousans J A
EXXON CHEMICAL INTERNATIONAL INC.
The development of quality control systems in the British
rubber industry from 1918 to date has been reviewed. The
barriers to complete acceptance of modern quality systems
in the British rubber industry are identified and analysed.
221 refs.
BELGIUM; UK
Accession no.351308
Item 378
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
40, No.7, July 1987, p.642-50
German
PRECISION OF ANALYTICAL METHODS
FROM QUALITY ASSURANCE POINT OF VIEW
Schuster R H
Analytical methods employed in the rubber industry are
reviewed. Their accuracy is discussed, together with
factors influencing accuracy, e.g. instrument errors.
Methods considered are: IR spectroscopy, partition,
pyrolysis gas and gel permeation chromatography; and
thermogravimetry. Their use as quality control systems
is evaluated. 33 refs. (DKG Conference on Special Quality
Assurance Aspects in the Rubber Industry, Celle,
Sept.1986).
WEST GERMANY
Accession no.350289
Item 379
Journal of Biomedical Materials Research
21, No.3, Dec.1987, Supplement p.287-97
CORROSION AND DEGRADATION OF A PU/CO-
NI-CR-MO PACEMAKER LEAD
Pei Sung;Fraker A C
US, FOOD & DRUG ADMINISTRATION; US,
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
Changes in the metal surfaces and PU (Pellethane-2363-
80A) insulation of heart pacemaker leads under controlled
in vitro conditions were investigated. The wire leads were
exposed in Hank’s physiological saline solution for 14
months and analysed using SEM, X-ray energy dispersive
analysis and small-angle X-ray scattering. The data
obtained revealed that some leakage of solution into the
leads had occurred and that changes were present on both
the metal and PU surfaces. 6 refs.
USA
Accession no.350002
Item 380
Hydrocarbon Processing
66, No.10, Oct.1987, Section 1, p.39-40
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
 References and Abstracts
REDUCE COSTS WITH METAL BELLOWS
SHAFT SEALS
Martel Y;Botte J M;Regazzacci P
SEALOL INC.; TORAL CFP-PARIS
The replacement of elastomer seals with welded metal
bellows shaft seals in the refining industry is discussed
with reference to tests which claim to show large
maintenance cost savings. Reasons why mechanical seals
fail and methods of reducing or eliminating the major
causes of mechanical seal failure are described. The cost
of conversion and estimated cost recovery time is also
outlined.
FRANCE
Accession no.348304
Item 381
TAB: Tyres Accessories Batteries
20, No.6, Nov/Dec.1987, p.25/36
RETREADS. A TAB SPECIAL FEATURE. MORE
THAN ONE LIFE
A review is presented on retread tyres in the UK.
Comments are given on recent reports of faulty remould
tyres and the potential damage to the industry is assessed.
Brief details are also given on the new equipment,
processes and repair materials available to the retread
industry. This information is detailed under headings for
each company.
BANDAG TYRE CO.; BANDVULC; BARWELL
INC.; ELDEN TYRE; GRUMAC LTD.;
GUMMIWERK KRAIBURG GMBH; HARLAND
TYRES LTD.; MONARCH REMOULDS LTD.;
MOTORWAY REMOULDS LTD.; RETYRE &
RUBBER CO.LTD.; REYNER G., LTD.; TECH UK;
TIP TOP INDUSTRIAL RUBBER PRODUCTS LTD.;
VULTRA RUBBER CO.
UK
Accession no.347662
Item 382
ASE ’85.Adhesives, Sealants & Encapsulants
Conference;Day 3:Environmental Effects,
Applications;Off-Shore Applications:Assembly.
Kensington, London, 5-7 Nov.1985, p.52-64. 6A
INTERPRETATION OF THE EFFECTS OF
DIFFERENT CURING SYSTEMS ON THE
WATER RESISTANCE OF POLYSULPHIDE
SEALANTS
Hanhela P J;Huang R H E;Paul D B;Symes T E F
AUSTRALIA, DEPT.OF DEFENCE
(PRI)
The results are reported of a study of the disparate swell
behaviour in hot water of polysulphide sealants produced
with different curing agents (manganese dioxide and
ammonium dichromate). Sealants tested were commercial
aircraft sealants PR-1750, Pro-Seal 899 and PR-1422 and
laboratory formulations prepared using Thiokol liquid
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
polysulphide. The effects of type and loading of filler,
crosslink densities, extraction of components by the
swelling agent and chemical interaction with the swelling
medium were evaluated and the part played by
autoxidation assessed. 8 refs.
AUSTRALIA
Accession no.347586
Item 383
Urethanes Technology
4, No.3, Sept.1987, p.37
CONSIDER THE DETAILS: QUALITY IN PU
RIM PARTS
Ruhmann H
BATTENFELD POLYURETHANTECHNIK GMBH
To manufacture good quality moulds economically, the
moulder must know which parameters are important and
the possibilities for assessing product quality. Several
method are described of ensuring reproducibility in PU
mouldings by using quantitative and qualitative methods
of control; this is in effect replacing intuition by objective
procedures. However, such measuring techniques and
instruments cannot be used without evaluation and
analysis by trained personnel.
WEST GERMANY
Accession no.346856
Item 384
Kautchuk und Gummi Kunststoffe
39, No.11, Nov.1986, p.1075-81
RESIDUAL PLANT TISSUES FROM GUAYULE
RUBBER PROCESSING AND THEIR EFFECT
ON FAILURE PROPERTIES OF NATURAL
RUBBER
Bhowmick A K;Kasemsuwan S;Oroz M A;Patt
J;Seeger R;MacArthur A; McIntyre D
AKRON, UNIVERSITY; INDIAN INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY
The residual plant tissues and minerals, termed here as
dirt, in guayule rubber were characterised and classified
into two arbitrary groups, i.e. fine dirt and coarse dirt.
The effect of these types of dirt on tensile strength and
fatigue to failure properties of NR was investigated.
Results are discussed and evaluated. 12 refs.
INDIA; USA
Accession no.344441
Item 385
Plastverarbeiter
38, No.2, Feb.1987, p.87/94
German
QUALITY CONTROL IN INJECTION
MOULDING. AVOID MISTAKES IN THE FIRST
PLACE
Keostermann L
93
 References and Abstracts
WEIDMANN AG
The importance of systematic defect analysis and
identification of defect source or origin in quality control
of injection moulding is discussed. The subject is
considerd under the following headings: moulding
compound specification; raw material selection and
evaluation of suppliers; testing of bought raw materials;
compounding; recycling of scrap; process optimisation;
reliability testing; defect analysis; and microscopic
studies. 9 refs.
SWITZERLAND
Accession no.344359
Item 386
Polymers Paint Colour Journal
177, No.4192, 10th June 1987, p.416/8
PREVENTING BIODETERIORATION OF
SURFACE COATINGS
Barlow C G
STERLING INDUSTRIAL COLOURS LTD.
Problems associated with paint biodeterioration occurring
during the manufacturing process, at the ‘in can’ stage and
at the applied coating stage are discussed and the need for
a long lasting biocide in paint formulations highlighted.
94
Finally, criteria for selecting biocides suitable for paint
formulation and its intended end use are considered.
UK
Accession no.343396
Item 387
Rubber and Plastics News
17, No.5, 5th Oct.1987, p.150
SCIENTIST DISCOVERS MICROBE THAT
DECOMPOSES RUBBER
School R;Schreffler R
A strain of bacteria that decomposes thin, soft rubber
products, has been discovered by A.Tsuchii, a member of
the Fermentation Research Institute of the Agency of
Industrial Science & Technology in Japan. The Nocardia
germ, a member of the Actinomycete group of antibiotic-
producing bacteria, degrades NR and synthetic
polyisoprene through the digestion of micro-organisms.
Brief details of degradation tests on rubber products,
including gloves and bicycle tyres, are given.
JAPAN, INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY
AGENCY
JAPAN; USA
Accession no.342402
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

A 262 281 287 289 297 327 354
ABRASION, 15 17 98 158 214 245
339
ABRASION RESISTANCE, 55 72
99 158 171 176 189 200 252
308 329 330 339 349 355 372
375 380
ABSORPTION, 3 48 82 224 240
ACCELERATED AGEING, 82 98
129 133 167 215 237
ACCELERATED TEST, 17 41 48
55 61 62 98 133 154 177 204
215 218 266 287 289
ACCELERATOR, 64 81 146 224
306
ACCIDENT, 13 32 52 132 275
ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, 39
76
ACCIDENT PREVENTION, 78
ACETONE, 69 224
ACID ETCHING, 84
ACID RAIN, 207 211
ACID RESISTANCE, 203 368
ACRYLATE RUBBER, 26 67 176
ACRYLONITRILE-BUTADIENE
COPOLYMER, 27 89
ACTIVATION ENERGY, 21 62 90
203 215 216
ADDITIVE, 8 15 33 38 42 65 69
73 81 82 97 98 99 108 115 130
133 134 135 136 145 146 154
177 178 182 183 187 188 191
201 202 213 217 218 224 225
252 262 266 306 315 334 337
353 368
ADHESION, 15 35 39 64 69 81 85
128 135 158 166 173 180 187
191 199 205 209 214 232 241
264 277 278 285 298 299 300
301 318 323 324 356 357 364
366
ADHESIVE, 15 16 69 187 199 241
269 300 307 319 323 327 329
361 373 374
ADHESIVE FAILURE, 15
ADSORPTION, 201 301
AEROSPACE APPLICATION, 6
11 44 97 226 295 362
AGEING, 3 9 15 17 21 38 48 54 60
61 64 67 81 82 95 98 115 123
126 129 133 135 144 146 164
167 176 177 189 201 203 205
207 213 215 216 217 218 219
224 235 237 241 247 252 258
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Subject Index
Subject Index
369 376
AGGLOMERATE, 136 341
AGGREGATE, 136 341
AGGRESSIVE MEDIUM, 332
AIR BUBBLE, 178
AIR CONDITIONING, 19 115 219
225
AIR ENTRAPMENT, 178
AIR PERMEABILITY, 22 56 81
AIR POLLUTION, 112 260
AIR PRESSURE, 13 56 157
AIR SPRING, 186
AIR-INTAKE MANIFOLD, 47
AIRCRAFT, 97 226 382
AIRCRAFT TYRE, 11 53 81 244
ALGAE, 224
ALLERGY, 68 86 164
ALUMINIUM, 33 42 199 205 301
319
ALUMINIUM HYDROXIDE, 166
171 205
ALUMINIUM OXIDE, 205 380
AMINE, 65 82 192 195 203 213
AMINOLYSIS, 335
AMMONIA, 200 218
ANALYSIS, 3 8 9 18 21 35 41 44
45 47 50 51 69 79 83 84 92 98
100 106 109 114 118 126 133
134 135 144 145 154 158 161
176 177 178 182 183 188 201
202 203 204 209 216 217 218
221 236 242 252 261 268 269
273 276 283 287 289 290 316
317 322 333 341 354 378 379
384 385
ANGLE-PLY, 109 191
ANODE, 154 266
ANTIDEGRADANT, 8 65 81 146
213 377
ANTIFOULING, 367
ANTIFREEZE, 154 225
ANTIOXIDANT, 58 81 93 96 111
117 123 145 146 167 187 195
209 213 224 225 247 252 326
376
ANTIOZONANT, 15 55 73 81 96
108 135 213 224 257 315 325
343
APPEARANCE, 57 134 135
ARAMID FIBRE-REINFORCED
RUBBER, 154
ARCHITECTURAL
APPLICATION, 307
ARMOURED VEHICLE, 190 372
ARRHENIUS’S LAW, 17 204
ARTIFICIAL AGEING, 98
ARTIFICIAL BREAST, 88 174
210
ARTIFICIAL JOINT, 71
ASPHALT, 269
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY,
128
ATTENUATED TOTAL
REFLECTION
SPECTROSCOPY, 69 98 173
AUGER SPECTROSCOPY, 301
AUTOMATION, 51 57 106 167
217
AUTOMOTIVE APPLICATION,
13 19 42 47 49 58 61 79 80 103
114 115 130 146 154 170 183
219 222 225 230 243 270 316
328 335 344 346 368 376
AUTOMOTIVE HOSE, 154 219
266
AUTOXIDATION, 153 195 213
262 382
B
BACTERIA, 224 231 331 351 387
BALL, 22
BALLOON, 22
BARRIER PROPERTIES, 86 131
164 228 229
BEAD, 245 286
BEARING, 51 182 230 292 296
BELLOWS, 380
BELT, 10 103 107 110 121 140 147
156 158 172
BENDING, 158 176 190
BIAS TYRE, 151
BICYCLE TYRE, 387
BIOCIDE, 224 367 386
BIOCOMPATIBILITY, 164
BIODEGRADATION, 9 122 153
159 174 209 224 231 248 249
306 320 331 351 386
BIOLOGICAL ATTACK, 17 96
122 224 249 261 306 320 331
351 367 387
BIOMEDICAL APPLICATION,
238 352
BLADDER, 22
BLEACHING, 33
BLEND, 64 73 81 128 130 134 135
146 158 171 177 200 213 220
225 283 345 367
BLISTERING, 33 82 142 178 202
95

204 219 290 353
BLOOM, 8 55 58 64 135 213 322
BLOW-OUT, 77 291 337
BOAT, 265
BODY PANEL, 222
BOILING WATER, 203
BOND STRENGTH, 6 34 277 300
357 366
BONDING, 15 16 59 69 81 97 160
169 180 205 220 261 300 323
357 361
BONDING AGENT, 15 16 69 241
269 373
BOOT, 200
BOVINE SERUM, 271
BRAKE LINING, 80
BRAKING, 177
BREAKAGE, 5 235 258
BREAKER, 4 177
BREAKING STRENGTH, 50 137
324
BREAKING STRESS, 133 163
BRIDGE BEARING, 340
BRITTLENESS, 195 218 269 297
BROMOBUTYL RUBBER, 81
135 177 343
BUBBLE, 178 184 202
BUCKLING, 79
BUILDING APPLICATION, 38 60
129 232 269 296 298 299 307
319 323 374
BULGING, 158
BURST STRENGTH, 101 164 165
167 258 291 321 350
BURSTING, 53 101 116 189
BUS TYRE, 7 14 83
BUSHING, 47 137 190 339 345
BUTADIENE-ACRYLONITRILE
COPOLYMER, 22 23 27 30 41
45 51 55 67 73 75 82 86 89 93
98 121 125 176 182 184 195
200 201 202 203 213 218 219
220 224 225 226 239 257 263
268 272 276 284 290 291 332
335 338 339 342 345 348 349
354 368 372
BUTADIENE RUBBER, 6 45 74
81 98 111 134 135 136 158 195
262 291 304 337
BUTADIENE-STYRENE
COPOLYMER, 37 50 75 98 99
158 163 171 195 201 213 218
220 224 246 247 252 291 337
339 340 342 376
BUTYL RUBBER, 22 23 67 73 79
81 108 130 135 177 195 213
218 222 224 291 319 337 343
354
96
Subject Index
C APPLICATION, 200 203 204
CABLE, 73 133 253
CALCIFICATION, 152 194 352
CALCIUM CARBONATE, 99 133
154 236 306 382
CALCULATION, 118 160 161 162
186 206 236 243 246 256 261
340
CALENDERING, 136 178 200
CALIBRATION, 84 85 167 183
217 363
CAMERA, 51
CAP PLY, 52
CAR, 1 13 146 154 183 219 376
CAR TYRE, 39 77 78 81 87 114
177 189 191 314 328
CARBON BLACK, 8 26 37 42 50
58 69 81 98 99 108 123 133
134 135 136 144 154 173 177
181 182 191 201 202 224 236
252 266 306 340 364 366 382
CARBON DIOXIDE, 202 204 208
338 358
CARBOXYLATED RUBBER, 368
CARCASS, 97
CARCINOGEN, 88
CARDIAC PACEMAKER, 166
CASE HISTORY, 23 38 47 71 129
CASING, 72 157 314
CATERPILLAR TRACK, 155 190
220 345 372
CATHETER, 71
CAVITATION, 69 178 180 214 259
285
CELL GROWTH, 209
CELLULAR MATERIAL, 36 255
270 318
CHAIN SCISSION, 10 133 135
195 213 343 352
CHARACTERISATION, 8 25 45
47 143 153 161 205 209 301
311 354 384
CHEMICAL CLEAVAGE, 233 343
CHEMICAL DEGRADATION, 9
10 48 82 335
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY, 120 380
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 15 16
21 42 48 54 61 82 93 115 117
125 148 154
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, 15 16
19 21 42 44 48 54 55 61 73 75
81 82 93 95 117 124 125 134
135 146 148 154 189 200 203
204 212 218 219 226 238 239
240 248 251 261 268 276 332
335 338 352 354 355 368 376
CHEMICALLY RESISTANT
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
218 219
CHLORAMINE, 93 117 218
CHLORINATED
POLYETHYLENE, 290 332
338
CHLORINATED RUBBER, 69
233 367
CHLOROBUTYL RUBBER, 135
343
CHLOROPRENE RUBBER, 22 64
67 73 86 195 225 239 273 278
290 315 323 332 338 340
CHLOROSULPHONATED
POLYETHYLENE, 6 133
CHROMATOGRAPHY, 8 43 65
135 143 144 153
CITRACONIMIDOMETHYL
BENZENE, 97
CLADDING, 299
CLEANING, 64 189 211
CLEANING AGENT, 207
CLEANLINESS, 113
CLOSURE, 47
CLOTHING, 138
CLUTCH, 243
COATED FABRIC, 198 200 276
278 284 317 318 324
COATING, 15 33 38 64 112 222
224 233 264 276 279 324 386
COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION,
141 158 189
COHESION, 2 15 31 199 285 299
341
COHESIVE FAILURE, 139 173
COLOUR, 135 189 213
COLOUR RETENTION, 111
COMPATIBILITY, 19 66 125 134
276 374
COMPOSITE, 9 35 81 85 109 121
139 154 162 191 222 329 335
COMPOUND, 15 42 64 67 81 97
123 134 136 144 146 177 181
188 201 217 224 243 252 266
COMPOUNDING, 15 37 43 47 92
112 123 134 136 144 145 146
147 155 178 200 212 213 217
219 224 234 247 252 385
COMPOUNDING INGREDIENT,
8 221 306 334
COMPRESSION, 31 36 82 129
158 180 182 183 190 201 202
287 291 316 347 348
COMPRESSION MOULDING,
145 146 178
COMPRESSION PROPERTIES,
82 126 141 146 184 204 222
255 287 291 297 316 347 348

COMPRESSION SET, 44 63 82 93
146 154 219 253 255 297
COMPRESSION STRESS, 82 146
190
COMPRESSION STRESS
RELAXATION, 44 45
COMPUTER AIDED ANALYSIS,
51 79 83 84 182 270
COMPUTER AIDED DESIGN, 18
246
COMPUTER AIDED PROCESS
CONTROL, 217
COMPUTER AIDED QUALITY
CONTROL, 51 83
COMPUTER AIDED TESTING,
47 85 177 183
COMPUTER MODEL, 47 79 144
237 276
CONDOM, 22 25 101 116 131 164
165 167 228 229 258 271 321
CONNECTOR, 47 79
CONSTRUCTION, 296 307
CONSUMER PROTECTION, 293
CONTAMINATION, 15 71 112
113 137 163 214 233 304 320
384
CONTRACEPTIVE, 22 25 101
116 131 164 165 228 229 258
271 321
CONTROL EQUIPMENT, 127 177
217 246 363 371
CONVEYOR BELT, 10 158 317
COOLANT, 42 154 225 266
COOLER HOSE, 154 219 266
COPPER, 213 319 326
CORD, 139 156 162 267
CORROSION, 23 56 154 205 357
379
CORROSION INHIBITOR, 82 154
CORROSION RESISTANCE, 15
48 124 169 233 276 284 357
379 380
COST, 5 20 54 59 86 91 127 162
200 204 222 245 246 254 295
380
CRACK GROWTH, 46 50 54 61
69 74 81 95 100 121 134 139
154 160 161 177 182 184 195
197 202 218 256 257 259 261
266 267 316 332 340 372
CRACK INITIATION, 95 139 154
202
CRACK LENGTH, 134 139 177
202
CRACK RESISTANCE, 55 95 134
177
CRACKING, 22 24 35 37 42 46 64
69 70 74 79 81 93 95 98 109
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Subject Index
121 128 134 135 139 146 154
167 177 182 188 191 200 202
204 213 218 219 256 257 261
315 316 338 353
CREASING, 189
CREEP, 17 61 158 191 193 243
259 288 316 340
CREEP RUPTURE, 307 323
CREPE RUBBER, 164
CRITICAL PRESSURE, 202
CROSS PLY TYRE, 151 177
CRYSTALLISATION, 37 69 71
136 145 340
CURE, 173 246 297 340
CURE RATE, 15 81 144 146 178
185
CURE TIME, 58 69 134 145 163
177 200 213 217
CURING, 15 28 42 64 70 73 122
173 188 195 252 255 280 297
334 340
CURING AGENT, 8 37 69 81 82
117 133 135 144 145 154 164
178 188 192 213 218 224 262
306 334 337 377 382
CURING TEMPERATURE, 15 69
134 145 178 200 280
CURVATURE, 156
CUSHION GUM, 177
CUT GROWTH, 4 81 134 145 177
CUT RESISTANCE, 4 134 145
177 189 339
CUTTING, 158 171 200 217
CYCLIC DEFORMATION, 134
156
CYCLIC LOADING, 46 148 162
191 297 340
CYTOTOXICITY, 224
D DIAPHRAGM, 18 19 23 47 101
DAMAGE, 3 11 34 39 41 42 63 77
78 84 85 155 156 183 184 189
191 202 244 247 252 253 254
294 296 350 375
DAMAGE DETECTION, 40 252
DAMAGE TOLERANCE, 254
DAMPING, 79 130 146 183 190
259 296
DEBONDING, 15 52 139 191 205
DECOMPOSITION PRODUCT,
291 337
DECOMPRESSION, 3 184 202
204 208
DEFECT, 5 8 15 20 25 26 27 28 29
30 51 57 71 83 85 92 100 106
116 134 145 178 188 201 221
228 229 231 232 245 264 265
274 285 286 309 310 320 322
330 333 346 353 385
DEFECTIVE SAMPLE, 265
DEFLATION, 11
DEFORMATION, 15 48 82 110
134 136 139 145 156 158 169
176 180 182 183 186 188 201
204 215 216 243 259 264 267
287 288 291 294 317 337 347
348 353
DEGRADATION, 3 9 10 15 17 21
33 37 38 41 42 44 48 49 54 60
61 63 64 67 74 81 82 93 95 96
98 115 122 123 124 126 129
133 135 144 146 153 154 168
195 208 213 215 216 218 231
233 234 248 249 252 258 262
263 266 280 281 287 289 297
327 352 354 356 369 376 379
380
DEGRADATION PRODUCT, 98
133
DEGRADATION RATE, 98 167
213 215
DEHYDROCHLORINATION, 133
DEHYDROHALOGENATION, 69
DELAMINATION, 4 57 84 85 109
147 191 299
DENTAL APPLICATION, 175
DEPROTEINISATION, 69 145
DEPTH PROFILING, 215 216
DESICCANT, 93 178
DESIGN, 3 18 23 24 39 54 66 89
126 139 140 141 147 161 169
183 190 192 198 206 214 234
243 260 276 281 307 319 330
339 355 362
DETERGENT, 15 376
DETERGENT RESISTANCE, 326
DETERIORATION, 37 64
198 218
DIELECTRIC PROPERTIES, 84
200 268
DIENE RUBBER, 64 98 171 262
315 325
DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING
CALORIMETRY, 43 143 185
248 369
DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL
ANALYSIS, 43 143 185 248
369
DIFFUSION, 21 31 70 135 178
179 202 215 216 237 256 257
269 290
DIGITAL IMAGE ANALYSIS, 83
DIMENSION, 51 81 106 139 190
201
97

DIMETHYLMERCURY, 132
DIP MOULDING, 164
DIPPING, 15 22 64
DIRT CONTENT, 384
DISCOLOURATION, 33 68 108
111 123 135 167 189 195 213
223 269 318 327
DISHWASHER, 79
DISINFECTANT, 218
DISPERSION, 8 26 134 136 163
178 201 252 367 376
DISPLACEMENT, 156 177 182
183 190 191
DISTORTION, 5 218
DRAINAGE, 224
DRAINAGE PIPE, 96
DRIVE BELT, 110
DRYING, 15 178 195 207 326
DURABILITY, 4 7 14 31 37 38 49
50 52 81 129 152 169 215 216
237 240 297 300 316 366
DUROMETER, 163 217
DYNAMIC FATIGUE, 280
DYNAMIC LOADING, 98
DYNAMIC MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES, 143 144 146
176 183 201 225 259
DYNAMIC MODULUS, 126 144
171 176 183 356 364
DYNAMIC PROPERTIES, 17 130
143 144 146
DYNAMIC SEAL, 23 66 176
E ENERGY STORAGE, 82 182 193
EARTHQUAKE, 215 216
ECCENTRICITY, 176
ELASTIC MODULUS, 79 158 176
188 192 202 218 316 348
ELASTIC PROPERTIES, 21 92
136 144 158 164
ELASTIC RECOVERY, 2 176 225
ELASTICITY, 82 133 141 144 158
163 167 176 177 182 193 218
236 350
ELECTRICAL APPLICATION,
270
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY,
154 181 200
ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR, 47
79
ELECTRICAL INSULATION, 73
379
ELECTRICAL INSULATOR, 112
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, 73
84 90 116 148 154 200 266 268
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY, 84
154
98
Subject Index
ELECTRICAL STRESS, 17
ELECTROCHEMICAL
DEGRADATION, 9 42 154 266
366
ELECTRODEPOSITION, 15
ELECTROLYTIC RESISTANCE,
357
ELECTROMAGNETIC, 23 84 183
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY, 33
154
ELECTRON PROBE
MICROANALYSIS, 253
ELECTROSTATIC, 181
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS, 8
ELONGATION, 58 93 111 133 144
145 146 154 163 176 195 201
215 216 218 219 258 341
ELONGATION AT BREAK, 50 65
133 136 154 167 252 324 326
376
ELUENT, 153
EMBRITTLEMENT, 297
EMISSION, 19
EMISSION CONTROL, 1 260
ENDURANCE, 190
ENERGY CONSUMPTION, 13 14
42 157 217 328
ENERGY DENSITY, 46 177 182
ENERGY DISPERSIVE X-RAY
ANALYSIS, 69 269 277
ENERGY DISSIPATION, 98 145
158 169 177
ENERGY RELEASE RATE, 46
118 134 139
350
ENGINE, 225
ENGINE MOUNTING, 47 49 61
64 130 146
ENGINEERING APPLICATION,
61 129 137 160 251 259 307
340
ENVIRONMENT, 17 138 235 251
368
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESISTANCE, 38 112
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
CRACKING, 9 154 159 209
248 352
ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION,
224
EPICHLOROHYDRIN RUBBER,
23 368
EPOXIDISED NR, 99 257
EQUIPMENT, 12 20 57 77 148
158 171 254 262 381
EROSION, 214
ETCHING, 84
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE
COPOLYMER, 23 84 93 195
213 348 354
ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-
DIENE TERPOLYMER, 23 41
42 45 58 60 64 79 92 93 108
115 117 134 135 154 195 200
205 213 218 224 239 269 323
340
EXAMINATION GLOVE, 138
EXPANSION, 82 90
EXPLOSION, 275 291 337
EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION,
3 23 82 125 178 202 212 219
225 234 237 238 239 240 272
276 282 290 358 360 368
EXPOSURE TIME, 82 98 133 146
154 176 207 218 224 252
EXTENSION, 129 145 182 225
324
EXTRACTABILITY, 279
EXTRACTION, 69 98 133 224 225
EXTRUSION, 59 63 82 92 93 124
136 178 188 201 227 237 251
254 274 285 368
EXTRUSION FAULT, 92 188
F
FABRIC, 57 318
FABRIC REINFORCED, 18
FACE SEAL, 23
FAIL SAFE, 286
FAILURE ANALYSIS, 7 8 10 14
16 19 32 35 38 40 45 49 59 66
71 85 87 91 102 103 104 110
114 121 220 242 243 254 270
301 346 365
FAILURE MECHANISM, 18 69
85 102 103 104 110 114 121
139 332
FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT
ANALYSIS, 59
FATIGUE, 17 37 40 46 50 81 85
100 102 103 104 128 134 137
139 144 145 146 148 152 156
157 161 162 171 172 177 182
183 189 190 191 194 195 213
235 243 244 259 261 267 307
317 344 358 369 370 384
FATIGUE STRENGTH, 35 102
103 104
FAULT, 26 27 28 29 30 114 286
FAULT DETECTOR, 51
FAULT DIAGNOSIS, 26 27 28 29
30 51 83 114 185
FIBRE-REINFORCED RUBBER,
81 85 121 139 154 267 345

FILLED, 69 82 173 182 183 201
366
FILLER, 8 22 26 37 50 58 69 75 81
98 99 112 117 121 133 134 135
136 144 154 163 173 177 178
182 183 188 191 201 202 213
217 218 224 225 236 252 266
306 340 353 356 364 366 377
382
FILM, 69 98 131 145 148 228
FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS, 3
18 35 44 45 47 79 100 109 118
158 161 182 183 186 202 204
206 216 243 294
FIRE HAZARD, 181
FISH-EYES, 15
FLAMMABILITY, 200 275
FLASH POINT, 226
FLAW, 131 134 137 145 163 175
184 202 228 264 265 274 285
286 309 310 319 320 322 330
333 346 353 385
FLEX CRACK, 111 195 213
FLEXIBLE, 3 10 60 223
FLEXURAL PROPERTIES, 37 61
81 82 111 139 146 156 158 163
167 176 177 180 182 183 189
190 259 278 324
FLEXURE, 278
FLUID RESISTANCE, 141 203
225 238 240
FLUID TIGHT, 19
FLUOROELASTOMER, 1 28 30
31 45 51 82 125 176 184 202
204 212 218 225 238 239 240
253 290 334 348 353 360 362
368 376
FLUOROSILICONE RUBBER, 23
226 368
FOAM, 36 223 232 255 270 318
FOOD APPLICATION, 192 198
FOOTWEAR, 200 318 324 327
FORCE, 79 82 139 146 158 177
183 188 191
FORENSIC ANALYSIS, 12 87
FORMIC ACID, 154
FORMULATION, 2 42 43 45 58
73 93 111 117 128 130 147 192
240 241 282 283 386
FOURIER TRANSFORM, 69 98
144 145 153 183 194 242 269
273 335
FRACTURE, 4 15 37 69 82 109
136 139 160 178 182 184 201
202 256 267 288 290 332 338
358
FRACTURE MECHANICS, 35 46
118 139 182 184 202 237 267
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Subject Index
FRACTURE MORPHOLOGY, 128
FRACTURE SURFACE, 69 100
FREE RADICAL, 195 315 342
FREQUENCY, 84 85 130 144 146
176 177 183 188 191 201
FRICTION, 23 79 158
FRICTION PROPERTIES, 141
158 189 225
FUEL HOSE, 1 80
FUEL LINE, 226
FUEL RAIL, 80
FUEL RESISTANCE, 19 44 225
FUEL SYSTEM, 1 19 226
FUEL TANK, 279
FUNGAL RESISTANCE, 224
G HEAT BUILD-UP, 144 177 259
GAMMA IRRADIATION, 342
GAS, 3 17 56 82 184 202 204 239
263 272 290 338
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY, 43
143 167 378
GAS DECOMPRESSION, 184
GAS DIFFUSION, 31 153 178 202
GAS INDUSTRY, 272 360 368
GAS PERMEABILITY, 19 31 56
184 197 202 216 219 237 239
240 263 272 338 358
GAS SOLUBILITY, 31 202
GASES, 3 17 56 82
GASKET, 45 93 94 218 225 251
292 348
GASOLINE, 225
GEL, 69 88 144 195 201 210 247
252 367
GEL PERMEATION
CHROMATOGRAPHY, 143
144 153 378
GENERAL RUBBER GOODS,
185
GEOMETRY, 92 98 182 190 240
GLAND, 44 218
GLASS FIBRE-REINFORCED
RUBBER, 121
GLASS TRANSITION
TEMPERATURE, 22 31 58 143
185 202 204 257 348
GLAZING, 211 307 319
GLOSS, 92 135 200
GLOVE, 22 86 101 131 132 138
148 164 175 229 387
GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS, 21
43 113 133 143
GROOVE, 158 319
GUAYULE, 145 384
GUM, 201
H
HALOBUTYL RUBBER, 108 135
354
HARDNESS, 2 17 58 93 111 117
133 144 146 154 163 183 188
203 204 217 218 219 225 340
370 376
HEALTH HAZARD, 86 88 119
132 138 174 210 242 286 293
377
HEART PACEMAKER, 379
HEART VALVE, 152 194
HEAT AGEING, 15 62 81 90 111
130 133 135 144 146 195 203
213 215 216 217 218 219 252
297 316 326
337
HEAT DEGRADATION, 6 29 49
62 64 90 98 133 158
HEAT RESISTANCE, 2 4 29 81
130 146 176 192 204 219 240
247 261 266 312 355 376
HEATER HOSE, 266
HEAVY VEHICLE TYRE, 4 7 10
20 40 56 72 76 77 78 81 83 85
91 142 151 157 280 286 314
HEEL, 200
HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY, 43 242
HIGH PERFORMANCE TYRE,
52 177
HIGH PRESSURE, 3 18 19 202
239 272 276 290 338
HIGH SPEED TYRE, 52 151 245
HIGH TEMPERATURE, 3 124 133
176 203 225 227 247 252 257
338
HOLE, 25 92 175
HOLOGRAPHY, 245
HOSE, 1 19 42 47 79 80 113 115
154 206 219 225 235 266 276
281 284 350
HOT AIR AGEING, 144 146
HOT WATER, 261 271 382
HUMIDITY, 167 205 224
HYDRAULIC, 214
HYDRAULIC FLUID, 113
HYDRAULIC HOSE, 369
HYDROCHLORIC ACID, 69 133
203
HYDROCHLORINATION, 96
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE, 98 143
154 213 248 266
HYDROGEN SULFIDE, 203 204
235 282 368
HYDROGENATED NBR, 1 23 82
121 125 176 184 203 212 219
99

224 225 272 276 282
HYDROLYSIS, 70 154 203 213
279
HYDROPHOBIC, 112
HYPOCHLORITE, 218
HYSTERESIS, 81 134 145 191
259 267
I LAMP, 71
IMAGING, 51 83 84 262
IMMERSION, 82 154 176 203 219
224 367 376 379 382
IMPACT PROPERTIES, 12 34 158
183 317
IMPLANT, 71 88 152 166 174 194
210 231 331 352 379
IMPURITIES, 145
IN-VITRO, 116 153 159 194 248
IN-VIVO, 209 248
INCLUSION, 28 29
INDUSTRIAL HAZARD, 132
INFLATION, 164 167
INFLATION PRESSURE, 34 39
81 85 105 189 191 286 294 314
INJECTION MOULDING, 246
270 346 385
INNER TUBE, 189
INSERT, 137 190
INSPECTION, 51 57 83 85 129
170 254 371
INSPECTION SYSTEM, 106 127
INSTALLATION, 23 214
INSULATION, 6 49 181 284 307
INTERFACE, 6 69 134 173 205
264 301
INTERFACIAL ADHESION, 191
241
INTERFACIAL DEBONDING, 15
INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES, 35
173 209 322
INTERFACIAL STRENGTH, 277
IR SPECTROSCOPY, 43 69 143
145 153 173 203 242 248 269
273 335 378
IRIDESCENCE, 58
IRON, 203 213
IRON OXIDE, 356 364
IRRADIATION DEGRADATION,
342
ISOBUTYLENE COPOLYMER,
108 130 134 135 146
ISOPRENE RUBBER, 68 69 98
144 145 290 304 387
J MINING APPLICATION, 71
JOINT, 79 96 129 307 323 349 370
376
100
Subject Index
K MAINTENANCE, 57 72 127 189
KNIT LINE, 232
L MASS SPECTROSCOPY, 43 69
LAMINATE, 109 139 198 234 276
366
LASER, 25 57 127 135 333
LATCH, 79
LATEX, 8 22 68 86 101 116 131
132 138 148 164 167 170 175
228 229 249 258 271 275 321
326
LAWSUIT, 39 52 71 76 132 275
LEACH, 218
LEAD OXIDE, 82 133
LEAK DETECTION, 25 349
LEAKAGE, 1 19 22 44 47 56 79 80
82 94 112 113 115 116 154 164
174 176 181 210 226 229 260
266 271 275 287 292 349 379
LEAKPROOF, 200
LEATHER, 200 327
LEGISLATION, 20 32 88 91 115
119 157 170 174 189 210 260
265 293 309 310
LIABILITY, 39 76 119
LIFEBOAT, 265
LIFETIME PREDICTION, 38 44
46 49 82 85 98 129 208
LIGHT DEGRADATION, 9 98 207
261 326
LINER, 6
LINING, 264 276 369
LIP SEAL, 44 176
LIQUID ABSORPTION, 82
LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY,
43 65 135 268
LITIGATION, 39 52 71 76 132 275
LOADING, 6 11 34 35 60 98 105
137 139 146 177 180 182 183
190 191 211 218 288 314 370
LORRY TYRE, 20 72 157
LOW PRESSURE, 330
LOW TEMPERATURE, 176 225
247 257 368
LOW TEMPERATURE
PROPERTIES, 22 81 82 89 124
189 204 219 261 347
LUBRICANT, 15 22 25 165 167
176 219 225 376
M MINER’S RULE, 50
MACROGEL, 201
MACROPHAGE, 209
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
200 217 330 375
MANIFOLD, 47
MARINE APPLICATION, 193 265
278 367
135
MATERIAL REPLACEMENT, 38
55 68 86 135 212 222 241 254
372 373 380
MATERIALS SELECTION, 19 23
42 54 66 117 140 141 204 224
225 254 261 298 368 385 386
MATHEMATICAL MODEL, 41 50
186 204 217 236 243 256 261
287 289 290 316 317 341
MECHANICAL DEGRADATION,
227
MECHANICAL PART, 51 82 94
176 182 190 193 202 203 204
218 219 224 349 368 376
MECHANISM, 98 102 103 107
133 153 154 156 168 171 173
180 206 207 213 220 263 264
272 315 325 329 335 338 342
343 348 352 358
MEDICAL APPLICATION, 25 71
138 165 229 248 258 271 321
331 352 379
MEMBRANE, 31 60 93 148 179
269
MEMORY EFFECT, 82 183
METAL, 15 42 51 69 154 180 182
199 213 243 261 300 301 347
348 357 366 367 379 380
METAL ADHESION, 15 220
METAL CORROSION, 56
METAL FIBRE-REINFORCED
RUBBER, 81 85 369
METAL INSERT, 190
METAL ION, 203 352
METHANE, 82 202 208 272
METHANOL, 208 225 368
METHYLSTYRENE
COPOLYMER, 108 130 134
135 146
MICROBIOLOGICAL ATTACK,
96 122 224 249 306 387
MICROCRACK, 98 100 154 218
MIGRATION, 15 55 56 69 98 112
133 134 135 213 224
MILITARY APPLICATION, 155
190 193 220 265 278 308 312
339 372
MILLING, 28 136 178 200
MISSILE, 193
MIXING, 15 26 39 59 92 99 117

134 136 144 145 146 176 178
192 195 200 201 217 246 252
255 334 341 383
MODEL, 18 70 134 144 153 158
161 182 183 204 207 209 215
217 246 258 263 267 331 344
MODEL COMPOUND, 248 258
263 267 331 343 344
MODULUS, 58 81 82 93 111 136
139 141 144 145 146 154 158
163 177 178 195 201 202 219
253 290 342 364 376
MOISTURE RESISTANCE, 112
207 222
MONITORING, 13 20 72 127 281
313
MOONEY SCORCH, 111 136 146
MOONEY VISCOSITY, 81 92 136
144 177 188 195 247 252
MOULD GROWTH, 320
MOULDING, 15 59 82 145 146
190 246 334 383
MOULDING FAULT, 346
MOUNTING, 79 182 259
N OIL SWELL, 176
NATURAL RUBBER, 10 21 22 23
50 55 64 65 67 68 69 75 81 86
96 97 98 99 101 111 122 130
131 134 135 136 137 143 144
145 146 158 163 164 167 170
171 175 182 185 195 200 213
215 216 218 220 224 241 243
246 249 257 273 288 291 304
306 326 332 337 338 339 340
345 351 366 384 387
NEOPRENE, 64 67 73 86 195 278
NITRILE RUBBER, 22 23 27 30
41 45 51 55 67 73 82 86 89 93
98 125 176 182 184 195 200
201 202 203 213 218 219 220
224 225 226 239 257 263 268
290 291 332 335 338 339 342
345 348 349 354 368 372
NITROGEN, 56 202
NITROGEN PERMEABILITY, 56
NITROSAMINE, 242
NOISE ABATEMENT, 245
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING,
10 40 57 84 85 218 245 262
281 333
NON-STAINING, 108 111 135 213
325
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC
RESONANCE, 10 43 69 201
242 283
NYLON, 52 115 151
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Subject Index
O 215 216
O-RING, 23 44 51 66 82 93 126
141 163 196 202 203 208 218
225 226 251 254 292
ODOUR, 68 224
OFF-THE-ROAD TYRE, 81
OFFSHORE APPLICATION, 3 54
82 124 125 204 238 276 284
332 358 360 369
OIL, 81 133 134 135 146 176 224
235 239 259 338
OIL DRILLING, 212 276 282 360
368
OIL EXTENSION, 15 81 134 135
201 224
OIL HOSE, 284
OIL INDUSTRY, 54 184 302 368
OIL RECOVERY, 82 202 203 204
238 240 281 282 284 369
OIL REMOVAL, 15
OIL RESISTANCE, 44 124 176
200 203 204 212 219 225 239
261 268 368 369 376
OIL SEAL, 125 176 184 202 203
204 349
ON-LINE INSPECTION
SYSTEM, 40 85
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY, 33 84
92 134
OPTICAL PROPERTIES, 74 92
135 139 145 188 189 213 262
OPTICAL SENSOR, 84
OPTIMISATION, 47 110 220 294
344
OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICE, 5
ORANGE PEELING, 92
ORGANOLEPTIC PROPERTIES,
224
ORGANOSILOXANE
POLYMER, 70 126
OVEN AGEING, 133 144
OVERCURE, 353
OVERINFLATION, 189
OXIDATION, 4 9 10 15 56 64 98
154 159 185 195 203 211 215
216 253 259 261 262 288 326
342
OXIDATION RESISTANCE, 167
355
OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION, 4
10 15 56 64 98 133 154 159
185 195 203 213 215 216 218
252 259 261 262 288 326 342
OXYGEN, 64 153 187 195 199
224 288
OXYGEN ABSORPTION, 195
OXYGEN PERMEABILITY, 167
216
OZONE, 17 64 75 95 98 177 187
195
OZONE CRACKING, 55 73 75 95
98 130 134 146 163 200 213
326
OZONE DEGRADATION, 58 65
74 75 95 98 99 108 135 168
189 211 213 241 257 259 273
315 325 326 342 343
OZONE RESISTANCE, 55 73 75
81 95 134 135 146 200 213 261
OZONOLYSIS, 10 213 343
P
PACKAGING, 167
PAINT, 233 367 386
PALE CREPE, 164
PASSENGER TYRE, 11 13 20 32
72 81 177 181 189
PEEL STRENGTH, 69 173 180
199 241 264 277
PEELING, 34 323
PENETRATION, 116
PERCOLATION, 197 256
PERMANENT SET, 144 154 176
340 355
PERMEABILITY, 1 19 22 29 31
48 54 56 81 101 131 148 166
177 197 202 204 263
PERMEATION, 19 132 202 219
276 284 358
PEROXIDE, 42 98 117 154 188
213 218
PEROXIDE VULCANISATION,
93 154 188
PH, 154 166 207 211 218 225
PHARMACEUTICAL
APPLICATION, 238
PHENYLENE DIAMINE, 75 135
213 315
PHOSPHITE, 135 195 213
PHOTODEGRADATION, 98 213
PHOTOLYSIS, 98
PHOTOOXIDATION, 9
PHOTOOXIDATIVE
DEGRADATION, 98
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 22 37
64 97 123 125 130 163 169 207
211 212 220 255 279
PIPE, 38 47 71 79 96
PIPE FITTING, 96 224 351 360
PIPELINE, 3
PLAQUE, 133
PLASTICISER, 8 15 133 178 218
101

224 351
PLUMBING APPLICATION, 218
224
PLY SEPARATION, 4 40 139
PNEUMATIC TYRE, 293
POLLUTION, 37 112 260
POLYACETAL, 38 71
POLYACRYLATE, 23 26 67 368
POLYAMIDE, 52 115 151
POLYARAMIDE, 18
POLYBUTADIENE, 6 45 74 81 98
111 134 135 136 158 171 173
195 213 247 252 262 304 337
POLYBUTYLENE, 71
POLYCHLOROPRENE, 22 64 67
73 86 195 200 213 218 219 224
225 239 273 315 332 338 340
POLYDIMETHYL SILOXANE,
112 179 188 256
POLYESTER URETHANE, 159
192 327
POLYETHER URETHANE, 152
159 192 194 209 248 364 379
POLYETHER URETHANE
UREA, 152 153 209
POLYETHYLENE, 58 71 133 253
POLYETHYLENE
TEREPHTHALATE, 335
POLYISOPRENE, 68 69 98 144
145 195 213 224 227 290 304
387
POLYSILOXANE, 70 126 285
POLYSULFIDE, 23 67 129 382
POLYURETHANE, 2 16 30 36 129
140 152 158 163 164 183 192
194 223 232 263 307 318 324
327 352 356 361 369 379 383
POLYURETHANE ELASTOMER,
30 153 158 173 183 248 279
327 356 361 364
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, 60 71
73 86 132
POROSITY, 36 134 148 159 178
228
POST CURING, 82 167 176 216
224 297
POTABLE WATER, 218 224 351
354
POWER STEERING, 225
POWER TRANSMISSION, 112
POWER TRANSMISSION
BELTING, 107 110 140 147
172
PRECISION, 51 127 161 217 378
PRESSURE, 3 11 13 20 31 72 78
82 92 94 136 144 154 158 167
178 183 184 188 191 197 202
204 212 225 226 238 263 272
102
Subject Index
285 330 338 350 358
PRESSURE DROP, 158
PRESSURE HOSE, 369
PRESSURE LOSS, 82
PRESSURE RESISTANCE, 18
204
PRESSURE SENSOR, 92
PRIMER, 15 69 205
PROBLEM PREVENTION, 15 16
22 26 27 28 29 30 43 71 142
217 221 242 254 255 283 298
302 318 328 334 336 359 361
374 386
PROBLEM SOLVING, 26 27 28
29 30
PROCESSING, 4 15 26 27 28 29
39 57 115 127 178 192 246 247
252 274 285 334 384
PRODEGRADANT, 387
PRODUCT DESIGN, 139 183 190
238 240 259 289 298 299 334
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, 47
79
PRODUCT LIABILITY, 39 76 119
170 265 309 310
PRODUCT RECALL, 20 39
PROPELLANT, 193 275
PROSTHESIS, 152 159 166 194
210 231
PROTECTIVE CLOTHING, 276
PROTECTIVE COATING, 38
PROTOTYPE, 11 59 79 85 190
PSEUDOMONAS, 224
PULLEY, 158 172
PUMP, 92 113 260
PUNCTURE, 25 77 116 189 275
PUNCTURE RESISTANCE, 81
116
PURITY, 37 68 145
PYROLYSIS, 185
Q 375 381
QUALITY, 44 57 59 119 120 295
371
QUALITY ASSURANCE, 116 120
144 170 245 283 295 303 311
313 363 365 371 378
QUALITY CIRCLE, 295 363
QUALITY CONTROL, 38 44 51
83 85 101 106 116 120 127 143
144 161 164 200 201 217 232
242 246 255 265 270 283 289
295 303 304 305 311 313 336
346 359 363 365 371 373 374
377 378 383 385
QUALITY MANAGEMENT, 101
120 170
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
R
RADIAL PLY TYRE, 11 40 53 81
83 85 177 191 330
RADIAL SEAL FORCE, 44
RADIAL TYRE, 11 40 53 81 83 85
330
RADIATION DEGRADATION,
168
RADIATOR, 42
RADIATOR HOSE, 154 266
RAIL PAD, 79
RAILWAY, 370
RAILWAY APPLICATION, 47 170
370
RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY, 98
242 283
RECALLING, 24
RECIPROCATING SEAL, 23
RECORDING MEDIA, 51
REFRIGERANT, 219 225
REGULATION, 13 76 91 157 242
251 265 293 309 310
REINFORCED HOSE, 79 206
REINFORCED RUBBER, 18 35
81 85 109 139 154 191 235 267
278 329 335
REJECT, 51
REJECT RATE, 83
RELIABILITY, 214 244 305
REPAIR, 39 72 77 189 222 275
314 381
REPLACEMENT, 77
REPLACEMENT TYRE, 13 24 72
308
RESEARCH, 11 96 104 129 131
132 167 208 250 266 280 294
328
RESILIENCE, 22 145 218 251 362
RETREAD, 10 20 40 72 76 85 245
250 280 308 312 314 375 381
RETREADING, 4 16 53 81 91 280
REVERSE ENGINEERING, 8
REVIEW, 8 9 17 23 43 47 66 71 91
95 104 107 108 120 122 127
129 135 143 155 158 164 168
170 178 185 221 229 242 245
246 267 286 295 300 301 303
304 311 313 315 322 325 330
363 371 377 378 383
RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, 8
15 58 81 82 92 93 111 136 143
144 177 178 188 201 217 252
285 341
ROCKET, 173
ROCKET MOTOR, 6 205 262
ROCKET PROPELLANT, 6 173
 Subject Index
ROLL COATING, 15 SHEAR, 35 92 136 144 158 178
ROLLER, 102 158 373 180 182 183 188 190 195 201
ROLLING DIAPHRAGM, 18 213 216 252 267 307 341 366
ROLLING RESISTANCE, 7 14 81 SHEAR MODULUS, 144 158 160
181 245 183 201
ROOF, 38 60 232 269 307 323 SHEAR PROPERTIES, 58 92 158
ROUGHNESS, 84 92 136 158 188 160 348
RUBBER TO METAL BONDING, SHEAR STRAIN, 46 139 183 190
15 16 59 69 81 366
RUBBERISED ASPHALT, 269 SHEAR STRESS, 58 92 158 190
RUN-FLAT, 85 189 206 348
RUPTURE, 3 82 85 133 148 163 SHEET, 82 136 139 200 269 319
171 179 202 205 215 236 256 SHELF LIFE, 167 192 237 289
263 266 321 324 340 341 376 SHOCK ABSORBER, 146 169 261
345
SHRINKAGE, 44 178 225
S SIDEWALL, 4 57 81 83 85 108
SAFETY, 7 13 20 32 52 53 78 91 123 127 134 135 177 189 245
119 131 132 175 189 200 242 344
286 381 SIDING, 38
SAFETY FOOTWEAR, 200 SILICA, 58 99 135 177 181 188
SALINITY, 148 217 364
SANITARY APPLICATION, 47 SILICONE POLYMER, 70 126
320 174 264 285
SCANNING ELECTRON SILICONE RUBBER, 23 29 30 67
MICROSCOPY, 33 69 128 134 79 88 112 129 176 182 188 199
148 153 175 209 218 229 231 207 211 217 218 224 231 256
264 269 277 322 329 351 379 263 319 320 331 347
SCORCH, 81 136 144 146 178 SIMULATION, 11 98 177 188 190
SCUFF RESISTANCE, 200 207 215 246 247 252
SEA WATER, 21 203 235 278 357 SKID RESISTANCE, 189
366 367 SKIM RUBBER, 39 81
SEAL, 1 18 19 23 31 44 45 47 51 SKIN IRRITATION, 164
54 61 63 66 79 82 89 93 106 SLIDING WINDOW, 319
124 125 141 160 176 184 196 SLIP, 158 171
198 202 203 204 208 212 214 SLIP RESISTANCE, 200
218 219 224 225 226 230 234 SLIPPAGE, 165
237 238 240 251 253 254 260 SLITTING, 25 232
276 284 287 292 302 347 349 SMOOTHNESS, 84 92 158 188
351 353 354 360 362 368 376 SNOW TYRE, 189
SEALANT, 2 45 70 129 199 207 SOFTENING, 182 203
211 222 297 298 299 307 319 SOFTENING POINT, 192
320 359 374 382 SOLAR RADIATION, 207
SEALING, 23 79 284 SOLE, 200 318
SEALING RING, 353 SOLUBILITY, 19 21 31 69 111
SEAM, 200 323 178 202 203 268 290
SENSOR, 40 84 85 92 106 127 SOLVENT, 15 69 133 178 189 204
SERVICE LIFE, 7 14 21 22 41 44 225 241 268
48 56 58 61 62 81 82 85 96 98 SOLVENT EXTRACTION, 69 133
110 126 129 148 158 176 180 382
189 190 193 200 204 218 235 SOLVENT RESISTANCE, 15 189
244 245 253 261 280 281 287 261 268
289 305 332 338 369 374 375 SONAR APPLICATION, 278
SERVICE PROPERTIES, 6 166 SOUR GASOLINE, 204 239
196 258 272 352 SPACE SHUTTLE, 362
SERVOHYDRAULIC, 182 183 SPARE TYRE, 77 189
SHAFT SEAL, 176 214 349 380 SPECIFICATION, 11 42 44 101
SHARKSKIN, 92 188 285 181 242 299 371 385
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
SPEED, 11 72 127 157 163 177
SPLITTING, 28
SPORTS SHOE, 318
STABILISER, 37 65 73 75 98 133
195 213 252 279 315
STAINING, 135 213 269
STANDARD, 11 12 13 16 20 22 37
42 44 53 62 94 96 97 101 113
120 129 144 164 167 170 183
200 204 217 224 245 250 295
297 299 303 305 307 313 319
326 363 371 385
STANDARD MALAYSIAN
RUBBER, 145 246
STATIC, 191 259 364
STATIC SEAL, 23 44 66
STATISTICS, 9 17 58 67 72 78 86
95 170 210 245 304
STEEL, 69 81 154 157 182 190
233 366 367 369
STEEL BELTED, 24 40 83 85 191
STEEL CORD, 77 81 85 139 191
278
STEEL FIBRE-REINFORCED
RUBBER, 81 85 139 191
STEERING GEAR, 225 270
STIFFNESS, 37 61 81 82 139 146
158 163 167 176 180 182 183
190 259
STORAGE, 15 178 189 205 247
252 258 363 386
STORAGE MODULUS, 144 201
STORAGE STABILITY, 167 189
200
STORAGE TANK, 71
STRAIN, 45 46 50 69 82 134 136
139 144 145 152 158 160 176
177 182 183 184 190 191 201
202 204 215 216 218 243 297
340 366
STRAIN CRYSTALLISATION, 69
136 145
STRAIN-HARDENING, 136 191
201
STRAIN RATE, 82 134 136 144
163 191 201 323
STRAIN-SOFTENING, 136
STRENGTH, 60 90 129 141 212
236 246 277 289 324 335
STRESS, 6 15 32 69 82 89 92 94
134 136 144 145 146 148 154
158 176 177 182 183 190 191
201 202 206 215 216 218 243
261 287 288 289 307 315 323
340 347 348 353 364 370
STRESS ANALYSIS, 18 35 183
235
STRESS CONCENTRATION, 82
103

92 134 136 163 176 191 201
294 340 347
STRESS CRACKING, 9 49 74 154
213
STRESS CRAZING, 49 74
STRESS DISTRIBUTION, 82 109
158 201
STRESS RELAXATION, 17 45 54
61 82 134 139 144 145 176 183
201 237 259 287 288 326 340
STRESS SOFTENING, 163 182
STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES,
4 17 36 45 46 82 109 134 136
145 153 158 160 161 163 167
182 186 190 191 201 215 216
218 243 259 267 294 344 350
370
STRESSES, 6 15 32 69 82 89 92
94 134 136 144 145 146 148
154 158
STRETCHING, 133 134 201
STRIATION, 154 266
STRIP, 139 176
STRUCTURAL SEALANT, 207
298 299
STYRENE-BUTADIENE
RUBBER, 37 50 75 98 99 158
163 171 195 201 213 218 220
224 246 247 252 291 337 339
340 342 376
STYRENE-BUTADIENE-
STYRENE BLOCK
COPOLYMER, 164
STYRENE-ETHYLENE
BUTYLENE-STYRENE
BLOCK COPOLYMER, 164
STYRENE RUBBER, 67
SUBSTRATE, 15 84 298 322 374
SULFUR, 37 42 69 117 133 135
154 203 204 213 218 306 326
340
SUNLIGHT, 123 207 241
SUPERPOSITION PRINCIPLE,
41 158
SURFACE ANALYSIS, 51 69 135
230 277
SURFACE CRACKING, 24 139
146 188
SURFACE DEFECT, 8 15 51 92
106
SURFACE DEGRADATION, 98
112 135 153 195 215 216 230
269
SURFACE FINISH, 58 92 200
SURFACE PROPERTIES, 84 123
136 153 158 188 197 209 271
274 301 379
104
Subject Index
SURFACE TREATMENT, 15 96
241 298 300
SURGICAL APPLICATION, 86 88
101 138 152 159 166 174 175
194 210 231 258 271 321 331
352 379
SURGICAL GLOVE, 86 101 138
SURGICAL GOWN, 88
SWELLING, 44 54 69 93 133 176
179 203 204 212 218 219 225
226 256 259 268 306 319 340
354 376 382
SWELLING AGENT, 268 382
SYNCHRONOUS BELTING, 103
107 110 172
SYNERGISM, 187 213 326 342
T 299
T-JOINT, 79
TACK, 64 144 177 200 218
TANK, 71 218 220 276 337 339
345
TEAR, 93 267
TEAR ENERGY, 134 182 184 202
290
TEAR RESISTANCE, 37 64 118
TEAR STRENGTH, 37 64 118 145
146 183 202 217 324 372
TEARING, 22 92 109 177 182 184
202
TEMPERATURE RESISTANCE,
238 355
TENSILE MODULUS, 136 144
201 216 256
TENSILE PROPERTIES, 2 17 35
50 58 65 67 82 89 93 111 115
129 133 134 136 144 145 146
153 154 161 163 167 204 216
248 256 258 263 269 288 326
351 372 376 384
TENSILE STRAIN, 35 82 145 191
201
TENSILE STRENGTH, 58 65 67
93 115 129 134 144 145 154
164 183 191 195 201 213 215
216 217 218 219 288 351 372
376
TENSILE STRESS, 35 82 169 191
201 211 225 316
TENSION, 36 46 158 182 190 191
288 307
TEST EQUIPMENT, 10 19 85 133
144 163 177 182 183 201 217
218
TEST METHOD, 5 7 8 11 16 17 18
19 22 37 38 39 42 44 45 46 47
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
53 55 62 64 67 72 78 93 96 97
112 125 126 129 130 131 176
183 204 215 216 217
TEST SPECIMEN, 98 139 183 216
217 218 224
THERMAL ANALYSIS, 8 21 185
THERMAL CONTRACTION, 82
THERMAL CYCLING, 45 82 251
347
THERMAL DEGRADATION, 6 9
15 17 29 49 62 64 81 90 98 111
130 133 135 144 146 158 168
205 213 215 216 223 266 291
297 307 316 326 355 369
THERMAL EXPANSION, 82 90
251 347
THERMAL HISTORY, 136
THERMAL INSULATION, 276
THERMAL PROPERTIES, 69 82
89 136 145 185 202 204 337
339 345 347
THERMAL RESISTANCE, 29 42
THERMAL STABILITY, 2 4 29 81
130 146 176 198 204 219 225
240 247 261 266 312 355 376
THERMOGRAVIMETRIC
ANALYSIS, 21 43 143 185 242
378
THERMOOXIDATIVE
DEGRADATION, 9 98 133 168
213 227 369
THICKNESS, 3 15 51 64 83 84 94
139 145 158 163 184 202 215
216 232 264 318 367 370
THIN FILM, 145 164
TIME DEPENDENCE, 17 41 45
69 180 201 202 203 204 288
367
TIME TEMPERATURE
SUPERPOSITION
PRINCIPLE, 41 158
TIMING BELT, 156
TOILET, 218
TOLERANCE, 51 64 83 246
TOOTHED BELTING, 103 107
110 121 156
TORPEDO, 193
TORQUE, 144 190 217 246 247
252
TORSION, 46 137 182 190
TOXICANT, 367
TOXICITY, 132 224 286 293 377
TRACK, 190 220 337 339 372
TRACTION, 147 189 200
TRACTOR, 316
TRACTOR CAB, 79

TRACTOR TYRE, 20
TRAILER TYRE, 314
TRANSMISSION ELECTRON
MICROSCOPY, 33 128 134
351
TRANSMISSION FLUID, 225
TRANSPARENT, 74 139 188 290
TRANSVERSE CRACKING, 139
TREAD, 4 7 11 13 14 16 20 24 34
37 39 52 81 83 123 177 181
189 252 308 312 337 381
TREEING, 9
TROUBLESHOOTING, 16 22 26
27 28 29 30 43 71 142 185 192
242 255 283 302 328 334 336
359 361 386
TRUCK TYRE, 4 7 10 40 56 76 81
83 85 91 142 151 177 191 280
286 314
TUBELESS TYRE, 81 189
TYRE, 4 5 7 10 11 13 14 16 20 24
32 37 38 39 40 52 53 55 56 57
72 76 77 78 81 83 84 85 87 91
97 105 108 114 123 127 134
135 142 149 150 151 157 162
163 170 177 189 191 244 245
250 252 267 275 280 286 293
294 304 308 312 314 328 330
340 344 355 375 381
TYRE BEAD, 83 294
TYRE BELT, 5 39 81 83 177 191
TYRE CARCASS, 81 177
TYRE CASING, 81 85
TYRE CORD, 35 57 81 83 85 162
177 191 267 344
TYRE DEFLATION, 189
TYRE FITTING, 375
TYRE INFLATION, 56 81 85 189
191 275 375
TYRE INNER LINER, 5 81 177
TYRE NOISE, 7 189
TYRE PRESSURE, 5 32 81 85 189
191 375
TYRE REPAIR, 189
TYRE SHOULDER, 24 39 245
TYRE SIDEWALL, 40 55
TYRE TREAD, 4 7 16 24 34 52
123 250 308 312 337 381
TYRE VALVE, 56
U 268
ULTRASONIC TEST, 85 183
UNDER INFLATION, 85 91 105
UNDER-THE-BONNET
APPLICATION, 19 79 80 130
146
© Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited
Subject Index
UNDERGROUND PIPE, 38
UNDERWATER APPLICATION,
357
UNVULCANISED, 98 144 177
247 252
UV DEGRADATION, 71 98 168
189 241 326
UV IRRADIATION, 17 37 58 112
187
UV RESISTANCE, 195
V WATER ABSORPTION, 200 224
V-BELT, 107 147 316
VALVE, 47 51 56 113 198 208
218 251 260
VALVE SEAT, 93
VALVE STEM SEAL, 51
VAPOUR PERMEABILITY, 81
VAPOUR PRESSURE, 178
VARIABILITY, 183 217
VASCULAR PROSTHESIS, 159
VEHICLE, 20 155 330
VEHICLE ROOF, 222
VEHICLE SHELL, 335
VEHICLE SUSPENSION, 23 137
VEHICLE TRANSMISSION, 370
VIBRATION, 182 183 348
VIBRATION DAMPER, 146 186
215 216 345
VIBRATION DAMPING, 79 296
VIBRATION INSULATION, 49
VIBRATION PAD, 345
VIBRATIONAL
SPECTROSCOPY, 69 98 143
145
VIDEO ANALYSIS, 69 177 188
VIDEO CAMERA, 51
VIRUS, 116 131
VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES,
4 45 92 136 144 158 183 188
201 252 340
VISCOSITY, 8 15 58 81 92 93 136
144 177 178 188 201 217 226
246 252 257
VOICE PROSTHESIS, 231
VOID, 25 36 163 178 278 285
VOLATILITY, 1 15 111 133 178
260 275 291 326 337
VOLUME CHANGE, 93 117 201
VULCANISATE, 15 37 64 69 89
90 98 144 154 162 169 177
183 188 201 218 224 236 241
247 252 268 272 287 288 289
306 316 325 329 347 351 354
366
VULCANISATION, 15 26 37 42
69 81 82 90 93 133 134 135
144 145 146 154 164 169 176
177 178 188 200 213 216 217
218 224 252 291 340 353
W
WALL THICKNESS, 167 190
WARP, 18
WASHER, 93 218
WASHING, 112 326
256 259 261 278 307 320 353
364 366 382
WATER ADSORPTION, 93 218
WATER EXTRACTION, 98 224
WATER PERMEABILITY, 22
101
WATER PIPE, 79 96 351
WATER RESISTANCE, 2 200
203 224 261 278 307 320 353
382
WATER SYSTEM, 93 218
WATER TREATMENT, 93 117
354
WATER VAPOUR
PERMEABILITY, 81 256
WATERPROOF, 200 320
WAX, 15 55 58 75 123 213 257
WEAR, 14 18 41 81 113 147 157
176 189 214 220 308 330 339
349 375 380
WEAR RESISTANCE, 55 72 99
158 171 176 200 372
WEATHER RESISTANCE, 17 75
81 95 123 129
WEATHER STRIPPING, 58
WEATHERING, 17 75 81 95 123
168 189 195 207 213 235 241
289 297 326
WEATHERING RESISTANCE,
37 63 75 81 95 129
WEATHEROMETER, 326
WELD STRENGTH, 246
WHEEL, 189 275
WHEEL RIM, 286
WICKING, 278
WIND RESISTANCE, 60
WINDOW SEALANT, 319
WINTER TYRE, 189 245
WRINKLE, 92
X
X-RAY ANALYSIS, 69 83 205 269
277 301 322
105
 Subject Index

Y
YEAST, 231
YELLOWING, 111 326 327
YIELD, 201
YOUNG’S MODULUS, 79 158
163 167 176 183 188 192 202
211 218 225 316 348

Z
ZINC OXIDE, 37 42 98 224 326
340
ZIPPER FAILURE MODE, 40
ZIPPER MECHANISM, 85

106 © Copyright 2002 Rapra Technology Limited

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