©2004 Society of Economic Geologists

Special Publication 11, 2004, pp. 1–14

Chapter 1

Musings on Future Exploration Targets and Strategies in the Andes

RICHARD H. SILLITOE†
27 West Hill Park, Highgate Village, London N6 6ND, England

Abstract
A variety of metals and deposit types define the metallogeny of the Andes from Colombia through Ecuador,
Peru, and Bolivia to Argentina and Chile, although porphyry copper and epithermal gold deposits undoubtedly
predominate and will continue to do so. Discoveries over the last 30 yrs or so, predominantly in the central
Andes and especially Chile, have been made using routine, field-based geologic and complementary geo-
chemical methods, a situation that is considered unlikely to change radically in the foreseeable future. The only
clearcut evolutionary change is the increased number of deposits being discovered beneath pre- and postmin-
eral cover. The predictive capacity of conceptual geology has had minimal impact on the Andean discovery
record but is thought to offer much promise for the future. This introductory article selects mineralization
styles and relationships as well as some broader metallogenic parameters as simple examples of geologic con-
cepts that may assist exploration. Emphasis is placed on porphyry copper ± molybdenum ± gold and high-, in-
termediate-, and low-sulfidation epithermal gold ± silver deposits, although reference is also made to several
carbonate rock-hosted precious and base metal deposit types and styles as well as subvolcanic tin, volcanogenic
massive sulfide, and slate-belt and intrusion-related gold deposits. Particular emphasis is placed on the poten-
tial for exceptionally high grade porphyry copper, porphyry gold, epithermal gold, and subvolcanic tin deposits.
Deposits resulting from the oxidation, enrichment, and chemical transport of copper and zinc and mechanical
transport of gold and silver during supergene weathering are also briefly highlighted.

Resumen
Si bien la metalogenia de los Andes de Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, Bolivia y Chile se encuentra definida por
una gama de metales y estilos de mineralización, son los depósitos tipo pórfido de cobre y epitermal de oro los
que dominan en el presente y continuarán prevaleciendo en el futuro. Los descubrimientos de los últimos 30
años, predominantemente en los Andes centrales y especialmente en Chile, han sido realizados mediante
métodos geológicos rutinarios de campo, generalmente complementados satisfactoriamente por métodos geo-
químicos. Se estima que esta situación difícilmente experimentará variaciones radicales en un futuro cercano.
El único cambio destacable en esta historia evolutiva está dado por el aumento apreciable de descubrimientos
de depósitos cubiertos, bajo cobertura pre o postmineral. A nivel andino, la capacidad predictiva de la geología
conceptual ha tenido un impacto mínimo en el número total de descubrimientos, aunque se piensa que su uso
debiera garantizar buenas perspectivas futuras. El presente artículo selecciona ciertos estilos y relaciones de
mineralización, en conjunto con algunos parámetros metalogénicos más amplios, como ejemplos simples que
pueden asistir a los procesos de exploración. Se enfatiza ciertos tipos de depósitos, incluyendo pórfidos de
cobre±molibdeno±oro y sistemas epitermales de oro±plata de sulfidización alta, intermedia y baja, aunque
también se hace referencia a otros estilos de mineralización, como por ejemplo metales preciosos y básicos en
rocas carbonatadas, estaño en rocas subvolcánicas, sulfuros volcanogénicos macizos y oro hospedado en
pizarras y en rocas intrusivas. Se pone particular énfasis en el potencial andino por mineralización de alta ley
en pórfidos de cobre, pórfidos de oro, epitermales de oro y subvolcánicos de estaño. Se destaca brevemente,
además, la mineralización supérgena resultante tanto del transporte químico de cobre y zinc (oxidación y en-
riquecimiento) como del transporte mecánico de oro y plata, durante los procesos de meteorización.

Introduction ative impact on the interest shown in some Andean countries,

THE ANDES—host to the world’s largest copper (El Teniente,
Chile), silver (Potosí, Bolivia), and tin (Llallagua, Bolivia) de-
posits and the third largest gold deposit (Yanacocha, Peru)—
have been a favorite exploration venue for the last 20 yrs and
currently (2003) lead the world in total exploration expendi-
ture (roughly 25%; Chender, 2004). Nevertheless, exploration
dollars are split inequitably among the Andean nations, with
Chile and Peru taking the lion’s share and Argentina a distant
third. These three countries, in common with much of the
Andes, have widely recognized potential but also proven track
records of recent discoveries. Nongeologic factors have a neg-
† E-mail, aucu@compuserve.com
especially Colombia and Bolivia, and the newly deteriorating
law-and-order situation in Peru may expose that country to
the risk of cuts in exploration activity.
It is well known that porphyry copper and epithermal gold
deposits are the premier exploration targets throughout the
Andes (Fig. 1) for both major and junior companies, and it
would be an audacious pundit, indeed, who predicted any
substantive change in the foreseeable future. This situation
makes the topic of this article rather difficult, some might say
redundant, but the intention is to highlight aspects of widely
accepted metallic mineral deposit models and their metal-
logeny that have perhaps been underappreciated, at least in
some quarters.

1
2 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

80º 70º
J
0º
QUITO

Colom
E E

bia
0º 0º
GUAYAQUIL Ecuador

Per
u
J
Bolivia
EC
M?

Argentina
PP

Chile
M
LJ
10º
M?

LIMA

EC

LJ-EC
METALLOGENIC BELTS LE-EO Epz
NO
LO-M
Porphyry Cu-(Au)
AREQUIPA LA PAZ
High-sulfidation Au, porphyry Au-(Cu)
High-sulfidation Au, polymetallic,
porphyry Cu-Au
High-, intermediate, and low-sulfidation
Sn-Ag
Slate-belt Au 20º
Iron oxide Cu-Au P-EE
LO-M
Manto-type Cu SC
Volcanogenic massive sulfide
Mississippi Valley type
A
Low-sulfidation LE-EO
ANTOFAGASTA LJ

METALLOGENIC EPOCHS

Epz Early Paleozoic

J Jurassic
LJ Late Jurassic LJ-EC FN
EC Early Cretaceous
P-EE Paleocene-early Eocene LO-M
E Eocene
30º
ME-EO Middle Eocene-early Oligocene
LO-M Late Oligocene-Miocene
M Miocene
LM-P Late Miocene-Pliocene LM-P
MENDOZA
SANTIAGO
0 250 500 km EC
70º

FIG. 1. Approximate axes of the principal metallogenic belts defined by different genetic types of copper, gold, silver, zinc,
and tin deposits in the Andes and their corresponding metallogenic epochs. Key deposit locations beyond main metallogenic
belts: A = Aguilar, FN = Farallón Negro, NO = Nazca-Ocoña, PP = Pataz-Parcoy, and SC = San Cristóbal.

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 FUTURE EXPLORATION TARGETS & STRATEGIES, THE ANDES 3

The mineralization styles promoted briefly below are not
designed to be of exclusive interest to the major mining cor-
porations but to include a variety of suitable targets for the ju-
niors as well as for domestic explorers, a sector that needs
strengthening for the sake of the health of the entire industry.
The discussion that follows adopts a geologic approach, al-
though the day-to-day realities of exploration obviously need
to take account of commercial, regulatory, social, and envi-
ronmental concerns and, even if sustainability in the true
sense is unattainable, at least strive for harmony among all
stakeholders through a commitment to international best
practice. In particular, we have learned over the past few
years that nonmining population centers and their environs,
whatever their metallogenic attractions, are to be given a wide
berth at the grassroots exploration stage.
This brief and somewhat personalized introductory article
is not meant to be anywhere near exhaustive in its coverage of
the topic but simply to set the scene for the rest of the papers
in this volume, most of which expand on issues raised and are
cited where appropriate.
Epithermal Gold Deposits
Epithermal gold deposits of high-, intermediate-, and low-
sulfidation types (Hedenquist et al., 2000; Sillitoe and
Hedenquist, 2003) are widely represented throughout the
Andes, and both vein and bulk-tonnage deposit styles are well
known.
Recent experience in the Andes, most notably in northern
Chile and immediately adjoining parts of Argentina and in
northern Peru, has emphasized that the largest deposits, in
terms of contained ounces, are of high-sulfidation type and,
more particularly, tend to represent the shallow, immediately
subsurface parts of areally extensive lithocaps (Fig. 2). Enor-
mous rock volumes that are highly permeable for lithologic
(ignimbrite, volcaniclastic rock), structural, and/or hydrother-
mal (breccia, leaching) reasons are a requirement for the
development of these large high-sulfidation deposits, which
include Yanacocha, Pierina, and Alto Chicama in Peru and
Veladero and Pascua-Lama in Argentina-Chile (e.g., Volkert
et al., 1998; Harvey et al., 1999; Jones et al., 1999; Araneda et
al., 2003; Deyell et al., 2004). The shallow exposition of the
gold mineralization is confirmed by the common partial
preservation of steam-heated zones developed above paleo-
water tables (Sillitoe, 1999; Deyell et al., 2004). Clustering of
the largest deposits, as exemplified by the eight Yanacocha
orebodies and Pascua-Lama plus nearby Veladero, empha-
sizes the importance of targeting the vicinities of high-sulfi-
dation deposits. Deep supergene oxidation is a prerequisite
for the development of ore in most of these systems because
of the typically refractory nature and low grade of the hypo-
gene gold mineralization. In marked contrast to these ex-
tremely large deposits, poorly fractured andesitic or dacitic
plugs, domes, and lavas tend to develop only volumetrically
restricted high-sulfidation mineralization.
Many explorers have fantasized about finding a Round
Mountain analogue: a large, low-grade, low-sulfidation gold
deposit hosted by nonwelded ignimbrite (e.g., Sander, 1988)
or, potentially, other permeable rock units. The possible exis-
tence of such a deposit in the ignimbrite-rich Patagonian
province (see below) as well as elsewhere has been addressed
by several groups but to date without success.
Notwithstanding the existence of the well-described bo-
nanza precious metal shoots at the El Indio gold-silver-cop-
per deposit, Chile in an areally extensive lithocap (Jannas et

Steam-heated
horizon
X X Disseminated Au-Ag ore in
X X
X X X X vuggy quartz hosted by
X permeable unit/ hydrothermal
X X X
Felsic dome breccia
X
complex
Intermediate-sulfidation
Au-Ag-base metal vein
Outer limit of Massive enargite-Au
lithocap ore in breccia/fault zone

Top of b + Bonanza Au
asemen
t vein/breccia
+
+
+ Hypogene copper sulfide
+ enrichment in sericitic
Limit of felsic + (± dickite ± pyrophyllite) roots
porphyry stock +
to lithocap
+
+
500 m
+ Chalcopyrite ± bornite
+ mineralization with
+ potassic alteration

500 m

FIG. 2. Schematic representation of the telescoped linkage between porphyry copper ± gold and high- and intermediate-
sulfidation epithermal environments. Note positions of low-grade, bulk-tonnage, and bonanza gold deposits, and hypogene
copper sulfide enrichment (summarized from Sillitoe, 1999).

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4 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

al., 1999; Heather et al., 2003; Deyell et al., 2004), little

attention has been paid to bonanza gold concentrations in
lithocaps, especially those exposed at intermediate, deep- 28ºS
epithermal levels (~≥500 m; Sillitoe, 1999; Fig. 2). Although
commonly restricted in tonnage, such bonanza shoots can be
high revenue earners. The recent discovery of the telluride- CHOIYOI
rich Chipmo gold deposit in the longstanding Orcopampa ep- VOLCANO-PLUTONIC
ithermal precious metal district of southern Peru (Mayta et PROVINCE
al., 2002) is a good example and emphasizes how subtle such (PERMO-TRIASSIC)
targets can be, especially where largely concealed beneath
barren parts of lithocaps.
In addition to high-sulfidation deposits, bonanzas also
occur in both intermediate- and low-sulfidation epithermal
systems. Of these, however, low-sulfidation veins are judged
36º ARGENTINA
to offer the greatest bonanza potential, with the added ad-

E
CHIL
vantage of the sulfide-poor ore generally being environmen-
tally and metallurgically benign. Many low-sulfidation de-
posits appear to accompany bimodal magmatic suites during
rifting in intra-, near-, and back-arc settings (John, 2001; Sil-
litoe and Hedenquist, 2003). The Patagonian region of south-
ern Argentina and neighboring Chile, during Late Jurassic ac-
cumulation of the rhyolite-dominated Chon Aike Group,
constitutes probably the best known Andean back-arc regime Esquel
of this type, which is host to the Cerro Vanguardia (Zubia et
al., 1999), recently discovered Esquel (Sillitoe et al., 2002),
and several smaller deposits (Figs. 1, 3). A similar, albeit 44º
Permo-Triassic felsic rock-dominated and compositionally
similar bimodal suite, the Choiyoi Group, occurs farther Cerro Bayo CHON AIKE
north in Argentina and Chile (Kay et al., 1989; Fig. 3), and it VOLCANIC PROVINCE
must be asked if it too might host unrecognized low-sulfida- (JURASSIC)
tion bonanza gold veins (cf. Sillitoe, 1992) in view of the fact Cerro Vanguardia
that mineralization of this type was recently reported
(Sotarello et al., 2002).
Nevertheless, extension within arcs can also give rise to
conditions propitious for low-sulfidation bonanza formation,
with El Peñón, northern Chile (Robbins, 2000; Warren et al.,
2004) providing a good example. High-grade, low-sulfidation
gold veins are also exploited in southern Peru (Fig. 1) at Ares 52º
(Candiotti and Guerrero, 2002) and Antapite (Vidal et al.,
2002) besides the better known, silver-dominated, intermedi-
ate-sulfidation deposits (e.g., Arcata, Orcopampa), although it
remains to be seen if they correspond to any of the pulses of km
0 500
extension and bimodal volcanism documented preliminarily
by Noble et al. (1999). A valuable lesson learned in low-sulfi-
FIG. 3. Generalized distributions (with main outcrop areas shown) of the
dation camps, especially at Esquel, El Peñón, Ares, and An- Jurassic Chon Aike Group in Patagonia and the Permo-Triassic Choiyoi
tapite, is that both high-grade and true bonanza ore shoots are Group farther north in the Andes (after Franzese et al., 2002). Principal low-
commonly “blind” and display only subtle, if any, overlying ev- sulfidation epithermal gold deposits in Patagonia are also shown.
idence for their existence. Anomalously high arsenic and an-
timony values overlie some blind veins, as documented at El
Peñón (Warren et al., 2004). The pinch out of low-sulfidation may exist. Indeed, late Tertiary magmatism, albeit of high K
veins at depths as great as several hundred meters beneath calc-alkaline to shoshonitic composition, occupying this tec-
the paleosurface commonly seems to be attributable to fault tonic position in central-western Argentina does have minor
refraction or termination caused by incompetent stratigraphic associated gold mineralization (Urbina et al., 1997).
horizons. Another epithermal relationship of exploration utility is the
The Andes lack significant examples of low-sulfidation ep- transition between the high- and intermediate-sulfidation ep-
ithermal gold deposits related genetically to alkaline magma- ithermal types (Fig. 2) consequent upon decrease of sulfida-
tism, although the existence of isolated alkaline centers, sev- tion state, neutralization, and reduction during continued up-
eral reminiscent of Cripple Creek, Colorado, in being located ward and outward fluid flow (Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
along the eastern side of the orogen (e.g., Ahlfeld and Schnei- This transition is clearly observable in carbonate host rocks in
der-Scherbina, 1964; Stewart, 1971), suggests that potential the well-zoned Colquijirca district of central Peru, where the

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 FUTURE EXPLORATION TARGETS & STRATEGIES, THE ANDES
high-sulfidation environment encompasses both enargite-
gold and zinc-lead-silver mineralization (Fontboté and Ben-
dezú, 1999; Vidal and Ligarda, 2004). The zinc-lead-silver
zone, however, spans the proximal high-sulfidation and more
distal intermediate-sulfidation environments, as corroborated
by the change of the accompanying gangue from alunite, dick-
ite, and/or kaolinite to various carbonate species (Fontboté
and Bendezú, 1999; Bendezú et al., 2003). A similar high- to
intermediate-sulfidation transition was recently documented
in volcanic host rocks at El Indio (Heather et al., 2003). In
most high-sulfidation epithermal districts, however, the actual
transition to intermediate-sulfidation mineralization is typi-
cally cryptic because of the existence of barren gaps, as at Or-
copampa, a situation that complicates search for visually sub-
dued intermediate-sulfidation deposits around highly
prominent high-sulfidation (lithocap) centers (Fig. 2). Low-
sulfidation deposits do not appear to possess a clearly observed
association with high- and intermediate-sulfidation deposits
and ultimately may well be linked to deeper basaltic magma
sources (Noble et al., 1988; Sillitoe and Hedenquist, 2003).
Plio-Pleistocene inter- or postglacial weathering of the
topographically salient high-sulfidation epithermal environ-
ment in the central Andes has given rise to a spectrum of un-
usual precious metal deposits that developed near source
without the intervention of placer concentration. These in-
clude the 10.2-million oz (Moz) La Quinua gold deposit at
Yanacocha, which is hosted by dominantly coarse grained
glaciofluvial sediments that inherit three-quarters of the gold
grade present in the nearby bedrock source (Williams and
Calderón, 2000; Mallette et al., 2004), the silver-bearing de-
bris flow deposits (pallacos) on the flanks of Cerro Rico at Po-
tosí, Bolivia (Bartos, 2000), and the landslide block detached
from the Farellón gold-silver orebody at La Coipa, northern
Chile (Oviedo et al., 1991; J.L. Illanes, pers. commun., 1999).
It is easy to underestimate the potential economic signifi-
cance of such detrital materials, especially where weathered
recessively and masked by surficial accumulations.
Porphyry Copper ± Molybdenum ± Gold Deposits
Several recent investigators have emphasized the temporal
and spatial coincidence of large, high-grade hypogene por-
phyry copper ± molybdenum ± gold deposits in the central
Andes, and elsewhere, and pulses of contractional tectonism
accompanied by rapid surface uplift and enhanced denuda-
tion rates (e.g., Kurtz et al., 1997; Sillitoe, 1998; Maksaev and
Zentilli, 1999; Kay and Mpodozis, 2002; Perelló et al., 2003).
The Andean porphyry copper belts that possess such a setting
are the premier middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt of
northern Chile-southern Peru, Paleocene to early Eocene
belt of southern Peru, and late Miocene to Pliocene belt of
central Chile (Fig. 1). Whatever the relationship between
compression and porphyry copper genesis—perhaps inhibi-
tion of volcanism, consequent development of larger parental
magma chambers, and, hence, liberation of larger volumes of
copper-charged fluid (Sillitoe, 1998)—it is clear that contin-
ued exploration in these belts is likely to be rewarded with
success; however, all three belts constitute relatively mature
plays in which concealment of undiscovered deposits beneath
advanced argillic lithocaps (Fig. 2) or postmineral alluvial and
volcanic cover is highly probable. The recent blind porphyry
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5
copper discoveries at Gaby (Camus, 2001), Toki (Rivera and
Pardo, 2004), Quetena (Rivera et al., 2003), and Antapaccay
(Fierro et al., 2002) in the middle Eocene to early Oligocene
belt, as well as elsewhere, underscore this likelihood.
In addition to the regional tectonic controls on the size and
grade of porphyry copper ± molybdenum ± gold deposits, it
is empirically evident that the nature of wall rocks is also a co-
gent control on grade development. Particularly favorable
host rocks seem to include massive, thickly bedded carbonate
units because of their impermeability, especially when mar-
bleized, and ferrous iron-rich rocks because of their ability to
induce copper precipitation. The mafic sill complex that hosts
much of the El Teniente deposit (Lindgren and Bastin, 1922;
Skewes et al., 2002; Maksaev et al., 2004) may have played the
latter role and assisted with development of the deposit’s
large size and high hypogene grade (>1% Cu). Exploration
might be focused on districts possessing such potentially fa-
vorable rock types.
Another parameter that has been reemphasized as a result
of the recent major discoveries in the Chuquicamata district
(Rivera and Pardo, 2004) is the marked clustering of porphyry
copper ± molybdenum ± gold deposits within areas of <200
km2. The clusters typically approximate alignments rather
than equidimensional groupings of deposits, with the individ-
ual centers being strung out either parallel (e.g., Chuquica-
mata district) or transverse (e.g., Quebrada Blanca-Collahuasi
and Río Blanco-Los Bronces districts) to Andean strike (Fig.
4), a factor that could facilitate exploration planning. Arc-par-
allel and arc-transverse deposit alignments presumably reflect
fundamental structural controls, at least some of those across
arcs possibly of great antiquity (e.g., Richards et al., 2001).
Clearly, if a company is lucky enough to own or gain access to
the environs of a single porphyry copper deposit, the priority
exploration ground is brownfields and the approach clearcut.
In recent years, it has become apparent that gold-rich por-
phyry systems tend to be concentrated in belts, such as the
Maricunga belt of northern Chile (Vila and Sillitoe, 1991) and
the Cajamarca belt of northern Peru (Sillitoe, 1998; Noble
and McKee, 1999), or solitary districts (e.g., Farallón Negro,
northwestern Argentina; Sasso and Clark, 1998; Fig. 1). How-
ever, they may also exist anywhere as isolated entities in belts
dominated by porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits (Silli-
toe, 1998; Rivera et al., 2004), as emphasized by recent dis-
coveries of gold-rich deposits at La Fortuna-El Moro (Perelló
et al., 1996; Paleczek and Cáceres, 2003), Esperanza (Perelló
et al., 2004a), and Cotabambas (Perelló et al., 2004b) in the
middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt of northern Chile-
southern Peru (Fig. 1). The economic viability of gold-rich
porphyry deposits in the Andes has not been convincingly
demonstrated to date, with Bajo de la Alumbrera in the Far-
allón Negro district arguably being the most successful pro-
ject. Nevertheless, in the same way that Grasberg, Indonesia,
expanded the then known grade frontiers of porphyry copper-
gold deposits, it may be postulated that substantially higher
grade gold-only porphyry deposits exist in the Andes. It seems
eminently reasonable, for example, to suggest that deposits
containing double the grade of Lobo and Marte (1.4–1.8 g/t
Au; Vila and Sillitoe, 1991) remain to be found and would be
of considerable interest to the major gold companies con-
stantly in need of additional ounces since porphyry gold
5
6 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

In some porphyry copper ± molybdenum ± gold deposits

characterized by extreme telescoping of alteration and miner-
N alization zones, the basal parts of lithocaps overprint the api-
Rosario cal parts of quartz veinlet stockworks. The latter are devel-
oped during potassic alteration and may contain part or all of
the metal inventory in the form of chalcopyrite ± bornite plus
Quebrada
Blanca
any associated native gold. The superposition of these two
Ujina geochemically different environments may induce hypogene
La Grande copper enrichment (and concomitant impoverishment in
gold) as the potassic alteration is converted to sericite ± dick-
ite ± pyrophyllite assemblages and the low-sulfidation cop-
Porphyry copper
deposit per-iron sulfides are transformed to high-sulfidation–state
0 km 5 Exotic copper covellite, chalcocite, and/or bornite in intimate association
a. deposit with neoformed pyrite (Sillitoe, 1999; Gustafson et al., 2004;
Fig. 2). There is a strong suggestion that copper and gold are
remobilized from the preexisting potassic alteration rather
Radomiro than being introduced directly from the underlying parental
N magma chambers (cf. Brimhall and Ghiorso, 1983).
Tomic
In porphyry copper deposits with well-developed super-
gene enrichment blankets, it is difficult to discriminate be-
tween the superficially similar hypogene and supergene cop-
per sulfide minerals, as discussed by Ossandón et al. (2001) in
Chuquicamata the case of Chuquicamata. Recognition of the hypogene na-
ture of the copper sulfide minerals is more straightforward
where supergene effects are limited or absent, although the
danger still exists of confusing hypogene with supergene en-
richment. A hypogene origin for copper sulfide minerals im-
Mina plies that their vertical extent may exceed that of a typical su-
Sur
pergene enrichment blanket as well as presenting the
possibility that the underlying potassic alteration zone may be
richer in gold. In common with supergene enrichment zones,
MM hypogene copper sulfide minerals may also be amenable to
heap leaching and copper recovery by solvent extraction-elec-
trowinning, especially if gold contents have been reduced to
Quetena
a level that contributes little to deposit economics.
The economic importance of supergene oxidation and en-
Toki richment in many central Andean porphyry copper deposits,
Genoveva
including most of the producers in northern Chile and south-
ern Peru, cannot be overemphasized. While supergene pro-
Opache files are generally immature and actively developing through-
Porphyry copper out much of the Andes, those in the hyperarid parts of
deposit
Exotic copper
northern Chile became essentially fossilized in the Miocene,
0 km 5
b. deposit beginning at ~14 Ma, as aridity intensified (Alpers and
Brimhall, 1988). Most porphyry copper exploration for the
FIG. 4. Examples of markedly aligned porphyry copper clusters in north- last 20 yrs in northern Chile has sought oxidized or enriched
ern Chile. a. The orogen-transverse Quebrada Blanca-Collahuasi district. b.
The orogen-parallel Chuquicamata district (after Rivera et al., 2003).
zones beneath alluvial and/or volcanic cover. It is being in-
creasingly realized, however, that indiscriminate search be-
neath cover may well fail because supergene profiles are
poorly developed or even absent beneath old, say >~25 Ma
mineralization is not generally refractory. It is important to postmineralization cover in the middle Eocene to early
propose that porphyry gold mineralization is not a feature of Oligocene belt, although mature profiles may still underlie
only the shallow tops of porphyry copper-gold deposits, as cover as old as ~40 Ma in the older belts of northern Chile
concluded by Muntean and Einaudi (2000), but represents a (Sillitoe and McKee, 1996; Bouzari and Clark, 2002). Older
gold-only end member of the porphyry deposit clan, favored cover sequences are generally proxied by appreciable thick-
by shallow subvolcanic intrusion, which appears to undergo nesses (say, >250 m) of piedmont gravel. The ultimate prize
little systematic change in Au/Cu ratios with depth. Porphyry beneath cover, besides high-grade chalcocite enrichment like
gold prospects are known principally from the late Oligocene that beneath the exposed leached capping at the Escondida
to Miocene belt (Fig. 1) but also from the middle Eocene to porphyry copper deposit (Ojeda, 1990; Padilla-Garza et al.,
early Oligocene belt in northern Chile and southern Peru and 2004), is a high-grade oxidized zone dominated by sulfate
are judged to be an underexplored mineralization style. minerals, including water-soluble species like chalcanthite

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 FUTURE EXPLORATION TARGETS & STRATEGIES, THE ANDES
and kröhnkite. Such oxidized material, developed by in situ
oxidation of mature chalcocite enrichment zones, occurred
shallowly at Chuquicamata and was the first ore mined and
sulfuric-acid leached, at great profit (Jarrell, 1944).
In the arid weathering environment of northern Chile, ex-
otic oxide copper deposits were commonly formed in pied-
mont gravel and subjacent bedrock alongside pyritic porphyry
copper deposits during supergene oxidation and enrichment
as a result of the lateral migration of copper-charged super-
gene solutions (e.g., Münchmeyer, 1996). Recent exploration
in the middle Eocene to early Oligocene belt has discovered
exotic deposits both unrelated to outcropping porphyry cop-
per mineralization (e.g., El Tesoro; Mora et al., 2004) and
near known porphyry copper deposits (e.g., Sillitoe, 2000a),
as well as expanded the resources of several known exotic de-
posits. To date, however, an ore-grade enrichment blanket
has still to be encountered alongside an exotic deposit of un-
known source (e.g., Sagasca in the Paleocene-early Eocene
belt; cf. Sillitoe, 1992).
Other Copper Deposit Types
Several other types of copper mineralization, besides the
economically dominant porphyry copper and related skarn
deposits, exist in the Andes, of which iron oxide-copper-gold
deposits in northern Chile-southern Peru and so-called
manto-type deposits in northern and central Chile are the
most important (Fig. 1). Although only two districts of iron
oxide-copper-gold type, Candelaria-Punta del Cobre
(Marschick and Fontboté, 2001) and Mantoverde (Vila et al.,
1996), are formal producers, they remain a perhaps surpris-
ingly popular exploration objective. Uncertainty surrounding
the origins of iron oxide-copper-gold and manto-type copper-
(silver) deposits is believed to have seriously impeded discov-
ery given the likelihood for concealment beneath both pre-
and postmineralization cover, a situation nicely exemplified
by recent discovery of the Mina Justa deposit in the Marcona
district of southern Peru (Moody et al., 2003).
Sillitoe (2003) argued for a fairly conventional magmatic-
hydrothermal origin for both hematite- and magnetite-rich
Andean iron oxide-copper-gold deposits in association with
dioritic intrusions in preference to involvement of magmati-
cally heated brine of basinal origin (e.g., Hitzman, 2000).
Whichever origin is preferred, deposits seem to be localized
by regional-scale fault systems, with the largest deposits being
composite in the sense of encompassing a variety of mineral-
ization styles and occurring in steep to low-angle faults and/or
within intrinsically permeable volcaniclastic units, sometimes
beneath impermeable caprocks, such as carbonate sequences.
Importantly for exploration, dioritic intrusions occur along-
side some iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, which commonly
also share the controlling fault zones with dioritic dikes (Silli-
toe, 2003), although the latter are often difficult to identify at
the early drilling stage because of compositional similarities
with the volcanic wall rocks.
Some investigators (e.g., Orrego et al., 2000) favor a close
genetic linkage between iron oxide-copper-gold and manto-
type copper-(silver) deposits in northern Chile. This relation-
ship would have major exploration implications, but this
writer feels that more evidence is needed to substantiate it.
Irrespective of any connection to iron oxide-copper-gold
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
7
deposits, the origin of manto-type deposits is contentious in
its own right. Both magmatic-hydrothermal (Holmgren,
1987) and metamorphic basinal (Sato, 1984; Sillitoe, 1992;
Maksaev and Zentilli, 2002) fluid sources have been pro-
posed. Nevertheless, at a district scale, all the large deposits
(Mantos Blancos, El Soldado, and Lo Aguirre) abut regionally
persistent redox boundaries indigenous to the host Mesozoic
volcano-sedimentary sequences (Sillitoe, 1992), a relationship
that greatly aids at the grassroots stage. During brownfields
and prospect-scale exploration of manto-type deposits, the
characteristic zoning from hypogene chalcocite-bornite as-
semblages accompanied by albite-chlorite alteration in prox-
imity to the redox front through chalcopyrite to minor pe-
ripheral pyrite both laterally and downward is an effective
targeting tool.
Polymetallic Deposits
Andean deposits containing several base and precious met-
als include some skarn and carbonate-replacement deposits,
especially in northern Peru (Fig. 1), as well as volcanogenic
massive sulfide (VMS) deposits in central and northern Peru,
Ecuador, and Colombia. The Antamina deposit in northern
Peru, a porphyry copper-related calcic skarn, is the largest ex-
ample of its type, at least in part because much of the miner-
alized roof zone of the porphyry stock, not only its flanks, is
preserved (O’Connor, 1999; Redwood, 2004). Some of the
VMS deposits may be particularly attractive targets for
smaller players because of high metal, including gold con-
tents (e.g., 5% Cu and 8 g/t Au at Macuchi, Ecuador; Stoll,
1962). Interestingly, at least two distinct VMS environments
occur: intra-arc basins of Early Cretaceous age in central and
northern Peru (e.g., Cerro Lindo and Tambogrande; Injoque,
1999; Winter et al., 2004) and early Tertiary accreted arcs of
intraoceanic origin in the Western Cordillera of Ecuador and
Colombia (Reynaud et al., 1999).
An unconventional but probably not unique polymetallic
deposit occurs at San Cristóbal in the Altiplano of southwest-
ern Bolivia (Fig. 1), where a large tonnage of potentially eco-
nomic, disseminated mineralization grading 62 g/t Ag, 1.67
percent Zn, and 0.58 percent Pb is hosted by fine-grained vol-
caniclastic rocks that accumulated in a restricted lacustrine
setting in association with a dacitic dome complex (Buchanan,
2003). The adularia-rich, disseminated mineralization may be
assigned to the intermediate-sulfidation epithermal type, al-
though Buchanan (2003) suggested a transition to the VMS
category, albeit formed beneath lake- not seawater. Although
higher grade veins and disseminated bodies have long been
known from the domes (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina,
1964), much of the topographically recessive, disseminated
mineralization has an extremely subtle expression, which is
further masked by severe supergene depletion of zinc values
at surface (L.J. Buchanan in Sillitoe 2000a).
Zinc Deposits
Given the pessimistic outlook for the zinc market, little zinc
exploration is being carried out or planned in the Andes or
elsewhere for that matter. The two major zinc-dominated de-
posit types, carbonate replacement and Mississippi Valley
type, are both hosted by Mesozoic carbonate rocks in central
and northern Peru (Fig. 1). Moreover, they may have both
7
8 RICHARD H. SILLITOE
formed at broadly the same time in the Miocene during re-
gional contraction marked by thrusting, albeit from very dis-
tinct magmatic and basinal brines, respectively (Noble and
McKee, 1999; Badoux et al., 2001; Noble et al., 2004). A case
may perhaps be made for the largest carbonate-replacement
deposits, exemplified by Cerro de Pasco and Colquijirca, hav-
ing formed in association with dome-diatreme complexes at
relatively shallow epithermal depths astride the high- to in-
termediate-sulfidation boundary (e.g., Fontboté and Ben-
dezú, 1999; see above) rather than at greater paleodepths in
association with intrusive stocks. To these zinc deposit types
may be added the long-exploited Aguilar sedimentary-exhala-
tive (Sedex) deposit, part of an early Paleozoic rift sequence
in northwestern Argentina (Sureda and Martín, 1990; Fig. 1).
In view of the deeply developed supergene profiles in parts
of the central Andes, oxidized zinc deposits potentially
amenable to extraction by heap leaching and solvent extrac-
tion-electrowinning need to be borne in mind. The small
Accha deposit in southern Peru (Carman et al., 1999) exem-
plifies supergene nonsulfide zinc mineralization developed
essentially in situ by oxidation of a carbonate-replacement
sulfide body. Nevertheless, given the extreme mobility of zinc
under acidic weathering conditions, appreciable lateral trans-
port of the metal may take place from pyritic deposits hosted
by noncarbonate lithologies (Hitzman et al., 2003). Hence,
exotic zinc mineralization, analogous to that better known in
northern Chile for its copper content (see above), may be hy-
pothesized under appropriate chemical and hydraulic condi-
tions. Indeed, zinc is a subordinate component of the Mina
Sur exotic copper deposit (Marey et al., 2003; Fig. 4) along-
side the Chuquicamata porphyry copper deposit, itself anom-
alously rich in zinc (Ossandón et al., 2001). However, in con-
trast to copper, oxidized zinc minerals are difficult to detect
visually and may not be suspected, especially where present
in dispersed form and unaccompanied by limonite. However,
liberal use of zinc zap goes some way to overcoming this prob-
lem (see Hitzman et al., 2003).
Tin Deposits
Grassroots tin exploration ceased many years ago in the Bo-
livian tin-silver province and its short extensions into southern
Peru and northwestern Argentina (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, in
view of the likely existence of undiscovered high-grade cassi-
terite veins, like those exploited in the first decades of the
20th century at Llallagua and elsewhere in Bolivia, this situa-
tion is perhaps somewhat surprising. The economic potential
of such high-grade veins, containing >5 and, locally, >10 per-
cent Sn (Turneaure, 1960; Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina,
1964), is shown by the highly profitable San Rafael operation
in southern Peru, where a vertically zoned tin-copper vein is
hosted by a peraluminous granite porphyry stock of latest
Oligocene age (Kontak and Clark, 2002; Mlynarczyk et al.,
2003). Recent documentation of advanced argillic lithocaps,
similar to those better known from the porphyry copper envi-
ronment, in the upper parts of several modestly eroded tin
systems in Bolivia opens the possibility of blind tin veins con-
cealed beneath both lithocap remnants (Sillitoe et al., 1998)
and underlying rocks. This situation was described at Potosí
(Turneaure, 1960), where the giant silver deposit is lithocap
hosted and of high-sulfidation type (Sillitoe et al., 1998).
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Carbonate Rock-Hosted Precious Metal Deposits
Several isolated and somewhat unusual gold and silver de-
posits in the Andes are assignable to the skarn, carbonate-re-
placement, and sediment-hosted categories. Nambija, in the
Jurassic porphyry copper belt of southern Ecuador (Fig. 1), is
a high-grade, sulfide-deficient gold deposit contained in gar-
net-rich calcic skarn (Fontboté et al., 2004). Jerónimo, in the
middle Eocene to early Oligocene porphyry copper belt of
northern Chile (Fig. 1), is a strata-bound carbonate-replace-
ment deposit formed in proximity to the high-sulfidation
lithocap environment (Thompson et al., 2004). Uchucchacua,
currently the premier silver producer in the Andes, is a high-
grade, carbonate-replacement chimney-manto deposit in
northern Peru (Fig. 1) and, like Jerónimo, is manganese rich
(Fig. 1; Bussell et al., 1990; Petersen et al., 2004). Gualca-
mayo, in central-western Argentina, comprises a low-grade
porphyry molybdenum system, proximal auriferous skarn
(Sillitoe, 1992), and nearby disseminated gold-(arsenic) min-
eralization reminiscent of sediment-hosted (Carlin-type) de-
posits (Dircksen, 2003). Mineralization spanning this spec-
trum of deposit types might be anticipated wherever
intrusion-related hydrothermal systems affected calcareous
rocks, especially at shallow paleodepths and in association
with porphyry centers. However, by analogy with the litho-
logic settings of the Carlin and other gold trends of northern
Nevada (e.g., Hofstra and Cline, 2000), thinly bedded, silty
carbonate sequences are likely to be a requirement for the oc-
currence of large sediment-hosted gold deposits on the pe-
ripheries of intrusion-centered systems. Nevertheless, some
workers (e.g., Hofstra and Cline, 2000) distinguish true Car-
lin-type deposits from sediment-hosted gold mineralization
with a clear intrusive affiliation, although the grounds for the
distinction are often vague.
Slate-Belt Gold Deposits
Attention was drawn previously to slate-belt (orogenic) gold
deposits, comprising saddle reefs, bedding-parallel veins, and
associated mineralization styles, in penetratively deformed,
but weakly metamorphosed turbidite sequences of early Pa-
leozoic age in northwestern Argentina, western Bolivia, and
southern Peru (Fig. 1) as valid exploration targets (Sillitoe,
1992; Haeberlin et al., 2002). The opinion is based on the fact
that the early Paleozoic host rocks share the margin of the
Gondwana supercontinent with similar sequences elsewhere,
most notably in eastern Australia, including the closely com-
parable Ballarat-Bendigo slate-belt gold district. A modest
amount of exploration has been carried out over the last
decade or so, with the 2.3-Moz Pederson gold deposit in Bo-
livia (Orvana Minerals Corporation, 1997) being the best re-
sult to date. Further potential is predicted, possibly including
high-grade ore shoots like those exploited >100 yrs ago at
Santo Domingo, in the Peruvian part of the belt (~120 g/t Au;
Fuchs, 1900).
Exploration programs perhaps need to take more account
of recent models for this deposit type in the central Andes
(e.g., Rodríguez et al., 2001) and elsewhere. These suggest
that mixed arenaceous-pelitic sequences and faulted anti-
clines of broad wavelength are especially favorable geologic
indicators, and that the widespread antimony occurrences in
8
 FUTURE EXPLORATION TARGETS & STRATEGIES, THE ANDES
the early Paleozoic belt (Ahlfeld and Schneider-Scherbina,
1964) represent the shallow parts of slate-belt systems, po-
tentially above maximal gold concentrations (Fig. 5).
Intrusion-Related Gold Deposits
Worldwide controversy over the distinction, if any, between
orogenic (including slate-belt) and intrusion-related gold de-
posits of mesothermal character (e.g., Goldfarb et al., 2001)
carries over to the central Andes. The auriferous quartz sul-
fide veins hosted by an oxidized (high redox state) granodior-
ite batholith of Late Carboniferous age in the Pataz-Parcoy
district of northern Peru (Fig. 1) have been assigned mag-
matic-hydrothermal (Schreiber et al., 1990), possibly mag-
matic-hydrothermal but postbatholith (Macfarlane et al.,
1999), and nonmagmatic (Haeberlin et al., 2002) origins.
However, there would be little dissent if the auriferous pyrite-
quartz-carbonate veins of the Nazca-Ocoña district in south-
ern Peru (Fig. 1) were related genetically to the host intru-
sions, mainly oxidized tonalite-granodiorite phases of the
Late Cretaceous Coastal batholith (Vidal, 1985), or if the
bulk-tonnage gold deposit at Kori Kollo, Bolivia, a shallow-
level member of the lithophile element-gold association, were
linked directly to the reduced, peraluminous, Miocene mag-
matism of the tin-silver belt (Thompson et al., 1999; Fig. 1).
Notwithstanding the genetic debate, distinction between
mesothermal gold deposits in either oxidized or reduced
intrusions and those of slate-belt type is an important aid to
the Andean explorationist because of their widely differing
Antimony
mineralization
Phyllitic
arenite-pelite
sequence
Large gold
concentration
Fault
a.
Antimony
mineralization
Small gold
concentration
b.
FIG. 5. Schematic model for slate-belt gold deposits in the central Andes,
showing vertical zoning of gold and antimony. a. Broad-wavelength anticline
associated with large gold concentration. b. Lower order folds with small gold
concentrations (modified after Rodríguez et al., 2001).
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9
geologic settings, characteristics, geometries, and zoning.
Nevertheless, it seems that neither of these intrusion-related
mesothermal gold deposit types is widely represented in the
central Andes, although examples affiliated to oxidized Meso-
zoic plutons are far more commonplace in the northern
Andes of Colombia (Lozano and Buenaventura, 1990).
Discovery Methodology
In the same manner that observed deposit distributions and
types are the best guides to future exploration areas and tar-
gets, exploration methodologies employed successfully in the
not-too-distant past remain the best bet for future discovery.
The Andes figured prominently in analyses of base and pre-
cious metal discovery case histories around the Pacific Rim
over the last 34 yrs (Sillitoe, 1995, 2000a). Therefore the prin-
cipal conclusions of these studies are directly applicable to
the Andes and point to a preferred exploration approach
thought likely to maximize the chances of discovery.
Of the 32 principal base and precious metal discoveries in
the Andes over the last 34 yrs (Fig. 6a)—all but ten now in or
about to enter production or worked out—20 (63%) are in
Chile, six in Peru, four in Argentina, and two in Bolivia. The
deposit types represented are porphyry copper ± molybde-
num ± gold (14), high-sulfidation epithermal (7), low-sulfida-
tion epithermal (3), porphyry gold (2), exotic copper (2), in-
termediate-sulfidation epithermal silver-zinc-lead (1), iron
oxide-copper-gold (1), bulk-tonnage, intrusion-related gold
(1), and detrital gold alongside a high-sulfidation epithermal
deposit (1; Mallette et al., 2004). Twenty-nine (88%) of the
case histories highlight the crucial role of conventional geo-
logic fieldwork techniques (Fig. 6b), including mapping and
standard geologic observation and interpretation, 22 (69%)
describe use of geochemistry (Fig. 6c), mainly rock-chip
and/or soil (talus fines) methods, and 9 percent note a contri-
bution made by ground geophysics (induced polarization and
electromagnetic methods; Fig. 6d). Half of these discoveries
were the outcome of formal, district- or regional-scale pro-
grams designed for the deposit type eventually discovered,
and 69 percent involved long-term (≥5 yrs) commitment on
the part of the explorer. Regional airborne geophysics and
partial- or selective-extraction geochemistry, widely used in
the central Andes over the last 15 yrs or so, played no appre-
ciable part in any of the discoveries. This fact stands out in the
case of iron oxide-copper-gold deposits, a particular focus of
airborne geophysical exploration.
Six (19%) of the discoveries were made near operating
mines and another 14 (44%) in old mining districts or nearby
documented mineral occurrences, many already explored
over many decades (Fig. 7). Moreover, 12 (38%) of the
prospects had been explored previously by at least one com-
petitor company. Thirteen (41%) of the deposits were identi-
fied as color anomalies, either on the ground, from the air, or
from aerial photographs but, rather surprisingly, none using
satellite imagery. Tellingly, there has been little clearcut
change in most of these statistics over the last decade com-
pared to those for the previous two (Sillitoe, 2000a), although
it is fair to say that ground geophysics, drilling, and serendip-
ity (chance finds) have played greater roles since 1995 (Fig.
6d-e). The other noteworthy change is the marked increase in
the number of concealed deposits discovered since 1990 (9)
9
10 RICHARD H. SILLITOE

a. b. Geologic work
6 6
Number of deposits

4 21 4

22

23
2 2
3 7 12 15 17 24 27 29

1 2 4 5 6 8 9 10 11 13 14 16 18 19 20 25 26 28 30 31 32

70 75 80 85 90 95 00 70 75 80 85 90 95 00
Discovery year, 1969-2003

c. d.
6 Geochemistry 6 Geophysics

4 4

2 2

70 75 80 85 90 95 00 70 75 80 85 90 95 00

1 Los Pelambres, Chile 17 Ujina, Chile

2 Bajo de la Alumbrera, Argentina 18 Cerro Vanguardia, Argentina
e. 3 El Indio, Chile 19 Damiana, Chile
Serendipity Drilling 4 Quebrada Blanca, Chile 20 El Peñón, Chile
6
5 Collahuasi, Chile 21 San Cristóbal, Bolivia
6 Kori Kollo, Bolivia 22 La Quinua, Peru
4 7 Escondida, Chile 23 Pierina, Peru
8 Zaldívar, Chile 24 Gaby, Chile
9 Marte-Lobo, Chile 25 Spence, Chile
10 La Coipa, Chile 26 Veladero, Argentina
2 11 Yanacocha, Peru 27 Los Chancas, Peru
12 Candelaria, Chile 28 Antapaccay, Peru
13 Refugio, Chile 29 Toki, Chile
14 Pascua-Lama, Chile-Argentina 30 Esquel, Argentina
15 El Tesoro, Chile 31 Alto Chicama, Peru
70 75 80 85 90 95 00 16 MM, Chile 32 Quetena, Chile
FIG. 6. Methods contributing to discovery of principal base and precious metal deposits in the Andes during the last 34
yrs. a. Discovery year and deposit name. b. Geologic work. c. Geochemistry. d. Geophysics. e. Serendipity and drilling (not
guided by the other methods). Most of the data extracted from Sillitoe (1995, 2000a) and, for discoveries since 2000, from
Corrales (2001), Sillitoe et al. (2002), Araneda et al. (2003), Rivera et al. (2003), and Rivera and Pardo (2004).

compared to the previous 20 yrs (1; Fig. 7). It is sad to record total over the last 8 yrs (Fig. 7), is thought likely to be a con-
that conceptual geology, over and above routine geologic tinuing trend with major importance for exploration planning.
analysis of a district or prospect, has played an obvious role in In view of this discovery record, it is my view that reliance and
only one discovery. Even drilling divorced from geoscientific major expenditure on geochemical methods of an experimen-
work and serendipity, contributors to three and five discover- tal nature and on airborne geophysics must be seriously ques-
ies each (Fig. 6e), figure more prominently. tioned in the Andes, although the latter does offer a means,
Based on these results and their lack of any dramatic evo- albeit an expensive one, of crudely mapping concealed bedrock
lutionary change, it is concluded that future exploration pro- geology. Several other parameters vital for exploration success
grams in the Andes for base and precious metals should rely appear to be as applicable to the Andes as they are elsewhere
on well-founded geologic techniques carefully integrated in the circum-Pacific region (Sillitoe, 2000a), namely (1) de-
with conventional geochemistry and should make judicious ployment of an elite exploration team, (2) maximal contact
use of prospect-scale geophysics if and where necessary. time with the rocks, (3) familiarity with relevant ore deposit
Notwithstanding the poor showing of conceptual geologic models, and (4) persistence in the face of initially somewhat
thinking, its potential for predictive discovery is evident, and discouraging results. There is, of course, a fine line between
it should be increasingly brought to bear wherever possible. the merits of persistence and the excesses of overkill.
Indeed, this article takes it for granted, albeit in its most basic Finally, a strong case may be made—applicable at least to
form. Exploration of known districts or near known mineral the major companies that should be able to afford a longer
showings merits high priority: sound evidence for the exis- term view of exploration—for assignment of some small pro-
tence of mineralization, even if minor or low grade, must be portion of exploration budgets to basic grassroots exploration
considered a good start to any exploration program. The in- beyond the known and defined metallogenic belts schema-
creased number of concealed discoveries, 50 percent of the tized in Figure 1. This component is justifiable when it is

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 FUTURE EXPLORATION TARGETS & STRATEGIES, THE ANDES 11

Outcropping deposit
Near operating mine
In old mining district/
near known mineralization
In virgin area
6
Number of deposits
Concealed deposit
Near operating mine
In old mining district/
near known mineralization
In virgin area
Nevertheless, the burgeoning cost of Andean discovery
when calculated, for example, on a cents/lb Cu equiv or dol-
lars/oz Au equiv basis shows that viewed industry-wide the re-
turn on investment has become wholly inadequate, especially
in the case of the mature porphyry copper belts of northern
Chile. Therefore only those players adopting the very best ex-
ploration strategies, models, and techniques and fielding the

most competitive teams will be able to reduce the exploration

4
2
70 75 80 85 90
Discovery year, 1969-2003
FIG. 7. Sites of outcropping and concealed (beneath pre- or postmineral
cover) base and precious metal deposits discovered in the Andes from 1969
to 2003 in terms of location with respect to operating mines and old mining
districts or known mineral occurrences. Note that there is no outcropping de-
posit near an operating mine. Sources as for Figure 6.
recognized that a number of ore deposits, including several of
giant status, do not fit readily into defined deposit models and
might even be considered as unique (e.g., Sillitoe, 2000b).
Furthermore, this is the only strategy for detection of new
metallogenic belts. The jungle-covered Eastern Cordillera
and flanking Subandean belt from Colombia through
Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia to northwestern Argentina must
be considered prime virgin territory in the Andes for unantic-
ipated deposit types containing gold and/or base metals. Ini-
tial exploration forays into this logistically challenging region,
based principally on drainage geochemistry, have already re-
sulted in discovery of Jurassic porphyry copper deposits in
southern Colombia and southern Ecuador (Sillitoe et al.,
1984; Gendall et al., 2000; Fig. 1) and Mississippi Valley-type
zinc mineralization in northern Peru (W.A. Wodzicki, pers.
commun., 2003; Fig. 1), and additional, perhaps better de-
posits undoubtedly await the intrepid and successful explorer.
Concluding Remarks
This introductory article highlights some geologic relation-
ships and analogies that could be used as guides by the An-
dean explorationist, both during initial planning and area se-
lection and at various stages of program implementation.
Numerous additional geologic and metallogenic factors and
relationships exist and could be equally useful. Such geologic
concepts, no matter how simple, have a predictive capacity
and can therefore help with the complex process of targeting,
over and above the direct testing of geologic, geochemical,
and geophysical anomalies. Geologic concepts abound in the
literature but, to my mind, constitute an underutilized re-
source in Andean exploration. Integration of more such con-
cepts into the exploration process is believed to offer a means
of at least maintaining the current discovery rate. Some other
practitioners, however, would advocate state-of-the-art geo-
chemical and geophysical techniques as panaceas for future
discovery rather than integrating tried-and-tested methodol-
ogy into fundamentally geologic programs, irrespective of the
deposit type under exploration.
risk to the point that the rewards are satisfactory.
Acknowledgments
The authors of the following 18 papers in this volume are
thanked for their contributions, around which this introduc-
95 00
tory article is crafted. Rich Leveille, Pepe Perelló, and John
Thompson are thanked for reviews and Claudio Montecinos
for drafting.
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