Hossein Omrany a, Ali Ghaffarianhoseini b,1, Amirhosein Ghaffarianhoseini c, Kaamran

Raahemifar d, John Tookey b

Abstract

Passive wall systems Building Façades The building sector accounts for approximately 40% of total global energy
usage. Energy consumption for space heating and cooling makes up 60% of the total consumed energy in buildings.
This paper presents a comprehensive technical review of passive wall systems in building envelopes while discussing
their respective capabilities in optimizing energy efficiency. Different types of energy efficient walls such as Trombe
Walls, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Walls, Double Skin Walls, and Green Walls are explored. Furthermore, novel
concepts for optimizing energy efficiency in building envelopes are also introduced. Finally the utilization of passive
wall systems to save energy while improving the building environmental impacts is discussed.& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Maintaining building's indoor climate and environment (BICE) is responsible for consuming 30-40% of global
energy [1]. This percentage varies between countries as the result of social and economic situations, concentration on
energy requirements and the approach towards utilizing building energy codes, availability of main energy resources
and climatic conditions. Recent studies estimate that 41% of total US primary energy demand is consumed by the
building climate control [2], close to the figure of 40% within the European Union [3]. Different BICE proportions have
been proposed in the literature for consuming the total primary energy in China. International Energy Agency (IEA)
[4] indicated that China's BICE demand consumed 31% of its total primary energy in 2007. Ministry of Housing and
Urban–Rural Development of China (MOHURD) [5] also stated that China's building energy consumption accounted
for 27.5% of the total energy consumption in 2012. Zhang, et al. [6] calculated the amount of building energy use with
a life cycle approach in China. It was concluded that; buildings consumed approximately 43% of China's total energy
consumption (2011–2013). Similarly, BICE in India is known to be in charge of consuming 169 million tons of oil
equivalent (Mtoe) or 47% of the total energy usage [7].
Significance of achieving energy efficiency in buildings has been well reflected in European regulations where 3 out
of the 10 priority measures in the Action Plan for Energy Efficiency (European Commission, 2006) are related to
buildings [8]. The recent recast of the EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive requires all new buildings in the
EU to consume ‘nearly zero’ energy after 2020. It requires buildings' energy efficiency to be raised to a higher level
through ‘the coherent application of passive and active design strategies in order to reduce the heating and cooling
loads’, ‘raising equipment energy efficiency’, and ‘the use of renewable energies’ [9]. Similar attempts have been made
by China to control the growing trends of energy use in building sector. Comprehensive Building Energy Codes (BEC)
comprising standards for design and regulations have been issued. The current BEC for residential and commercial
buildings addresses heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems (HVAC) and building envelope

Table 1

Scope Journals Publisher

 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269 1253

Energy and Built Automation in Construction; Energy and Buildings; Building and ELSEVIER
Environment Environment; Construction and Building Materials; Progress in Materials
Science; International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment; Renewable
and Sustainable
Energy Reviews; Ecological Engineering; Landscape and Urban Planning;
Procedia; International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer; Journal of Cleaner
Production; Applied Acoustics; Renewable Energy; Energy Policy; Applied
Energy; Sustainable Cities and Society; Solar Energy
Building Research & Information; Intelligent Buildings International; Taylor &
Architectural Science Review; Construction Francis
Management and Economics
Cement & Concrete Composites; Built Environment Project and Asset EMERALD
Management; Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology; Smart and
Sustainable Built Environment
International Journal of Urban and Regional Research WILEY

Journal of Construction Engineering and Management; Journal of ASCE

Architectural Engineering; Computing in Civil
Engineering
Advances in Heat Transfer; International Journal of Sustainable Built ScienceDirect
Environment
Letters in Spatial and Resource Sciences; Journal of Central South Springer
University; Heat and Mass Transfer
Other Journals Scopus; Proquest; Google Scholar; International conferences; Official –
websites

Reviewed Journals for selection of relative papers.

[10]. Additionally, The Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development in China established different energy
efficiency targets for BIC. For example, it was targeted to achieve 50% reduction in energy use for new buildings and
fulfilling energy conservation for existing building by 25%, 15%, and 10% in large, medium, and small cities,
respectively, through implementing the retrofitting measures by the end of 2010 [10].
The US government also targets to achieve 80% Greenhouse Gases (GHG) reduction by 2050 as a response to the “the
2 °C guardrail” approved by the Copenhagen Climate Summit [11]. Moreover, US federal policy aims to decrease the
energy demand in new buildings by 70% by 2020 [12]. Different programs have been initiated in order to respond to the
increasing demand for energy consumption in the US. For example, LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design) is a federal energy policy that includes a set of rating systems for the design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of green buildings, homes and neighborhoods developed by the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC).
LEED is intended to assist building owners and operators to be environmentally responsible and use resources efficiently.
A primary measure to minimize the BICE energy use is to enhance the thermal and energy performance of the building
envelope. This enhancement is achievable through enforcing active, passive or combined energy management measures.
In recent years passive strategies have held prominence. Researchers have proposed innovative solutions aiming to
improve the energy performance of building envelope components. This paper presents a widespread technical review of
the wall component in building envelope and discusses about its respective improvements from a BICE efficiency
perspective. The scope of this research is limited to the use of passive strateies in the wall component. Different types of
energy efficient walls such as Trombe Walls, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Walls, Double Skin Walls, and Green Walls
1254 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269

are discussed. Furthermore, innovative wall concepts and their potential to reduce the energy use are presented. This study
introduces new concepts, recognized as novel solutions, for future trends of building envelope.

Building envelope; Building energy consumption; Active pipe-embedded building envelope; Carbon emissions;
Thermal performance; Energy efficiency; Energy savings; Building façades; Trombe Walls; Building envelope
design; Thermal insulation; Sustainability; Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) Walls; Double skin façades;
Advanced façades; Responsive architecture; Biophilic Design; Biophilic architecture; Green building; Built
environment; Renewable energy; Phase Change Materials (PCMs) Walls; Passive techniques; Green walls;
Automated control; Intelligent Façades;
Shading device; Climate Adaptive Building Shells (CABS); Façade control; Innovative design of building envelope;
Thermal mass; Energy efficient wall system; Active pipe-embedded structure; New house wall; Wall insulation
materials; Indoor environmental quality; Thermal comfort; Kinetic Façades;
Thermal insulation system; Passive solar design

Research methodology

This research presented a comprehensive technical review of passive wall systems in building envelopes, while
discussing their respective potentials towards optimizing energy efficiency. The review considered the most related
scholarly studies from diverse academic databases, as represented in Table 1.
During the first stage, a comprehensive list consisting of the most popular passive walls, and building facades with
promising performances in optimizing building energy consumption were prepared (Fig. 1). A keyword search was
carried out to develop this list (see Table 1). Table 2 demonstrates the most common keywords used for this purpose.
The outcome of this stage represents a list embodying the most significant passive wall systems, and building facades
(Table 3). These walls, and facades were genuinely recognized in the literature as the energy efficient systems resulting
in enhancement of building performance. However, due to the extent of study's domain, filters were applied to limit the
numbers of passive walls targeted for this study. These filters include ‘the performances of these facades and walls for
increasing the building energy optimization’, ‘possession of the highest rate of repetitiveness in the literature’, and
‘existence of data reliability relative to these facades, and wall systems’.

During the second stage, the identified papers were classified into two categories including the most popular passive
wall systems and the building facades recognized in the literature as appropriate solutions to improve the energy
performance of building envelope. Notwithstanding the potential of these facades, their applications are not yet
generalized in the building sector. Therefore, these facades were classified under the cluster of ‘future trends of building
facades’, and their potentials were highlighted accordingly. The final database created was rigorously analyzed with
viewpoints to the main aim of this research to discuss the potential of employing passive wall systems as well as
applying energy efficient building facades towards reduction of building energy utilization. Findings were subsequently
interpreted, and presented.

Fig. 2. Functionality of the Trombe wall [17].

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2. Passive wall systems

Walls are the outermost part of the envelope that make up the largest component in a building. Walls can be defined
as ‘prevalent fragments of a building envelope which are expected to provide thermal and acoustic comfort for
occupants without compromising the esthetics of building’ [13]. Walls normally constitute the largest portion of the
building envelope. Consequently walls create a route for thermal transmission as a result of their large surface area,
allowing solar radiation to pass through the building in bright sunlight. Conversely they also provide a large surface
that facilitates thermal radiation in cold environments. In high-rise buildings with a high ratio of wall to envelope, the
thermal performance of walls can be even more crucial. Highlighting the functionality of walls in buildings, appropriate
selection of wall type is a fundamental measure to reduce the energy consumption.

2.1. Trombe walls

2.1.1.Overview of Trombe walls

Trombe wall, also known as storage wall or Solar Heating Wall (SHW), was first presented by Edward S. Morse in
1881 [14]. The wall was later developed by French engineer Felix Trombe and the French architect Jacques Michel. Its
integration in buildings as an architectural element was popularized in the 1960s [15]. This type of wall consists of a
massive vertical structure, generally made of stone, brick, or concrete, with high inertia and black color installed at a
close distance to glazing (Fig. 2). The wall absorbs solar radiation and transmits part of thermal energy into the building
by natural convection through the solar chimney formed by the glazing on one side and the wall on the other. The heat
absorbed from the sun by the external surface of the wall conducts slowly through the massive wall to the inner surface
and then to the room by radiation and convection [16]. This wall delivers different advantages (see Table 4). The most
important advantage offered by the heat capacity of the wall is to store the solar thermal gain during the day and release
it into the building space overnight [17]. Current design practice has added two vents to the bottom and top of glazing
frame in order to increase the buoyancy through the ‘solar chimney’ (the air space between glazing and high-mass wall).
Moreover, the heat-absorbing wall, which normally is painted black, has two openings to allow airflow through
thermosyphon to the interior. These vents can be closed at night with dampers (Fig. 3).
During winter, incoming heat is absorbed and stored in the high-mass wall for the nighttime period. Proper use of air
vents can further increase the air changes between chimney and interior, as the stack effect (primary driving force of
natural ventilation, caused by temperature difference between the smoke in the shaft and the ambient fresh air) [18] is
enhanced by incoming solar radiation through the glass. During summer, by closing the air vents of the heat-absorbing
and storage wall with dampers, the warming effects will be significantly neutralized [19]. Careful considerations of
Trombe wall design parameters improve the overall performance of the wall. The space between wall and glazing is
considered to be important in order to prevent heat loss through the glass. Additionally, the width of chimney is another
significant criterion as it can affect the convection process. It has been suggested that a suitable width for the chimney
ranges between 3 and 6 cm [20,21].

2.1.2.Effects of Trombe walls on BICE performance

Prior research has addressed different aspects of Trombe walls e.g. heat storage characteristics [22], integrating Photo
Voltaic system (PV) with Trombe walls [23–25], cost analysis of PV Trombe walls [26] and the application of phase
change materials (PCM) in Trombe walls [27]. Researchers endeavored to discover the capability of Trombe walls in
reducing the building energy consumption.
Boji et al. [28] studied a design optimization of two passive Trombe walls placed at the South side of a modified
‘Mozart’ house design, located in the in Lyon, France. Investigation was performed through using EnergyPlus software
to simulate the thermal behavior of these houses and GenOpt code to find the optimal thickness of the Trombe wall core
layer. Energy performances of these buildings were compared to that of those without Trombe walls, with a saving of
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approximately 20% of the annual operating energy during the heating seasons compared to the building without Trombe
walls. Abbassi et al. [17] developed a numerical
Table 4
Advantages and disadvantages of the reviewed passive walls.

Fig. 3. Unvented Trombe wall (left); vented Trombe wall in winter mode (center); and vented Trombe wall
in summer mode (right) [19].

model of a Trombe wall system by using TRNSYS software. This model was further validated by a small-scale
experimental prototype at a laboratory in Borj Cedria, Tunisia. Simulation results indicated that approximately 77% of
total heating demand of a 16 m2 non-insulated simple Tunisian building, can be reduced by a vented Trombe wall of 8
m2. Moreover, a 97% reduction of the annual heating loads was attained by a 6 m2 Trombe wall area when the external
walls of the considered simple building were double walls insulated by 5 cm of expanded polystyrene. Koyunbaba et
al. [29] carried out a research to analyze the performance of a BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaic) Trombe wall
integrated to the façade of a room in Izmir, Turkey. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was applied to predict the
temperature and velocity distribution in the test room model. Experimental results indicated that; the BIPV Trombe
wall model is capable of increasing the building's thermal efficiency and enhancing the average daily electricity
consumption by 27.2% and 4.52%, respectively. Jaber and Ajib [30] also studied the thermal, environmental and
economic impacts of Trombe wall systems for residential buildings in the Mediterranean region by using TRNSYS.
Life Cycle Cost (LCC) was used to determine the optimum size of this system. It was concluded that the application of
a Trombe wall system does not reduce the maximum loads in the building, but can reduce annual heating energy
consumption. This is primarily because performance of a Trombe wall depends on the availability of solar radiation.
Obviously where there is a high level of solar radiation during the day, there is usually a lower overall heating demand
– and of course vice versa. They also calculated the optimum Trombe wall area ratio from thermal and economical
points of view to be 37%. The use of optimum ratio decreased LCC by 2.4%. Krüger et al. [19] analyzed the
heating/cooling potential of a Trombe wall system. Two test cells were built for this purpose with an internal volume
of 5.4 m3 (one of them with a naturally ventilated Trombe wall attached to it and another one without it called the
reference test cell). Indoor temperature measurements were carried out in cold periods of 2011 and during summer
2012. They demonstrated that a Trombe wall system had a better performance compared to the reference test cell. In
another attempt, Briga-Sá et al. [31] used a calculating methodology to analyze the energy performance of Trombe wall
based on ISO 13790: 2008 (E), adapted to the Portuguese climatic conditions. It was concluded that heating energy
needs can be reduced by 16.36% if a Trombe wall is added to a building envelope. The results also showed that the
proposed methodology provided a valid approach to compute the Trombe wall thermal performance.
The Trombe wall is thus recognized as a wall system potentially able to reduce BICE energy consumption. The
performance of this type of wall can be further improved through being integrated with other modes of energy efficiency
strategies namely BIPV. Furthermore, this wall can have positive environmental impacts by reducing the CO2 emission.

2.2. Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) walls

AAC walls comprise of noncombustible cement-based materials, manufactured from a mixture of Portland cement,
fly ash (or other sources of silica), quick lime, gypsum, water, and aluminum powder (or paste) as described in ACI
523.2R [32]. This material was first presented in the 1920s as an alternative for building construction by Dr. Johan Axel
Eriksson and Professor Henrik Kreüger at the Royal Institute of Technology in Sweden [33]. In the modern day AAC
is being used widely because of its particular characteristics as it combines ease of construction with an excellent
combination of mechanical and thermal properties. AAC is also considered as an environmentally friendly material
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with considerable potential for future applications. In comparison with traditional construction materials, AAC
applications in building can offer substantial advantages. These include lower material density (i.e. the opportunity of
creating lightweight, if not load bearing, structures), lower thermal conductivity, lower shrinkage, greater fire resistance
and ease of use in construction [34]. Other AAC advantages (see Table 4) include lightness; ease of transport and
installation; ductility; acoustic insulation properties and transpiring properties [35].
Beside the aforementioned advantages of AAC, the salient feature of aerated concrete is the high porosity resulting in
lower density and compressive strength compared to normal-weight concrete. The pore structure, consisting of a variety
of sizes from micro-pores to macro-pores and air-pores [36], results in excellent thermal properties. AAC has been
recently introduced as a green masonry material. Several investigations into the energy saving properties of this material
have been undertaken. Al-Sayed [37] discovered a significant reduction in heat gains and cooling loads for a typical
building in Kuwait can be achieved while using AAC instead of cement blocks. Al-ajmi [38] investigated six
airconditioned mosque buildings during the summer to inspect indoor climate conditions and thermal comfort in Kuwait,
concluding that AAC blocks provided thermal comfort inside buildings without the use of thermal insulation. Radhi [39]
assessed the influence of AAC on thermal performance of UAE residential buildings, comparing these properties with a
number of possible alternatives including a techno-economic analysis. Results of their study showed that the energy use
could be reduced by approximately 7% if AAC walls were used. Additionally, each square meter of an ACC wall can
save almost 350 kg of CO2 emissions throughout its life cycle. Application of AAC in building envelopes offers significant
advantages ranging from the acoustic properties to easing the process of installation and transportation. In addition to
these properties, this wall has a satisfactory thermal performance. Literature reviews indicate the promising capability of
AAC walls for mitigating the energy demand in buildings.

2.3. Double skin façades

2.3.1.Overview of double skin façades

Double-skin façade (DSF) can be defined as ‘a special type of envelope, where a second skin, usually a transparent
glazing is placed in front of a regular building façade’ [40]. The cavity space between the external and internal skin is
called ‘channel’. In general, the channel is ventilated (naturally, mechanically, or using a hybrid system) in order to
diminish overheating issues in summer and contribute to energy savings in winter. This concept was initially introduced
in early 1900s but, little progress was made until the 1990s. In recent years, application of DSFs in building envelope has
become more widespread.
DSF refers to a building façade covering one or more levels with multiple glazed skins. The cavity between the skins
of the façade can be airtight or naturally/mechanically ventilated [41]. DSFs may be equipped either with forced
ventilation in the cavity or natural ventilation (stack effect). The outer skin is usually a hardened single glazed panel and
can be fully glazed. The inner skin can be an insulating double-glazing though not necessarily fully glazed in most
applications. The optimum width determined for the gap between the two skins ranges between 200 mm to more than 2
m [41]. Application of an air-tightened DSF increases the building thermal insulation while reducing the heat loss during
winter. Use of DSFs offers various advantages [42,43,131] including (see also Table 4):

Transparent properties of DSF can provide a sufficient visual connection with the surroundings.
DSFs admit a large amount of daylight to enter the building without glare.
DSFs offer attractive esthetic values.
DSFs promote natural ventilation resulting in pleasing indoor air quality while improving thermal comfort without
any electricity demand.

On the other side, application of DSFs has some disadvantages such as:
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DSFs have higher costs of designing, constructing and maintaining compared to the traditional single façade.
Application of DSFs increases the overall weight of the building's structure.
Transparent properties of DSF can increase the risk of overheating during sunny days as leading to a higher cooling
demand.
Designing DSFs can be complicated as several factors namely; geometric parameters, glass selection, ventilation
strategy, shading, daylighting, esthetics, wind loads, maintenance and cleaning cost expectations are involved.

2.3.2. Effects of double skin walls on the building energy performance

Previous researchers have addressed various aspects of DSFs such as advancements made in its design [44,45] and
evaluation of DSFs behavior in heating and cooling seasons [46–48]. Other studies investigated specific aspects of DSFs
namely daylighting characteristics [49,50], the effects of cavity depth on spreading fire in DSFs [51,52], measurements
of airflow inside the DSF [53] and the effect of plants used in the cavity on the performance of DSFs [54]. Chan [41]
studied the energy performance of DSF applied to a typical office in Hong Kong. They established an experimental setup
and the collected data were further used to verify the theoretical model developed via EnergyPlus simulation software.
The validated model was then used to evaluate the energy performance of DSF with various configurations including
glazing type, glazing position, and glazing layers. Results indicated that a DSF system with single clear glazing as the
inner pane and double reflective glazing as the outer pane can provide an annual saving of approximately 26% in building
cooling energy, as compared to a conventional single skin façade with single absorptive glazing.
Ballestini et al. [55] investigated the possibility of using passive solar systems for a silk factory in a Mediterranean
climate. They used dynamic simulations with the aid of TRNSYS software and LOOPDA simulation models. Their results
indicated that use of DSF is a promising solution for building renovation as it can save up to 12% of energy consumption.
Xu et al. [56] proposed a DSF for a double-story residential building in Kitakyushu, Japan. They studied different
parameters such as the stack effects on the DSF during summer, the greenhouse effects during winter and availability of
free air-conditioning during autumn. Temperature distribution, thermal performance in the double skin space and its
impacts on air-conditioning load in rooms were measured. Results demonstrated that; the DSF led to approximately 10–
15% energy saving for cooling during the peak in summer due to heat exhaustion through natural ventilation. Furthermore,
20–30% energy for heating in winter was also saved due to the greenhouse effects. Therefore; DSF system was proven
to be an effective solution to conserve energy in residential buildings.
Factors affecting the energy performance of DSFs should be taken into consideration during initial design stages. Joe
et al. [57] quantitatively analyzed the impact of initial DSF design factors, regarding window glazing type and cavity
depth on the energy consumption of adjacent conditioned zones. They conducted parametric and optimization studies on
the DSF design through validating a proposed model. Results of their study indicated that the largest variation of energy
consumption occurred when the window glazing type on the outside surface of the inner layer changed. Moreover, energy
consumption decreased when lowering the cavity depth of the DSF. Eventually, application of optimal DSF design
provided a further 5.62% reduction in energy consumption. Charron et al. [58] theoretically investigated the performance
of DSF integrated with Photovoltaic (PV) and motorized blinds. They examined two configurations of the façade with the
lower section integrated with PV and the upper vision section with motorized blinds. Results showed that; placing the
blind in the middle of the cavity can increase the efficiency of vision section by 5%. In addition, it was also concluded
that the optimized performance of façade through this approach can lead to an efficiency in electricity by over 60%.
Pappas et al. [59] also tested the energy performance of DSF through utilizing the DOE 2.2 and EnergyPlus software. It
was found that less than 1% annual cooling energy and 3% heating energy was saved comparing the DSF to a conventional
air distribution system. Energy Plus predicted a 3% reduction in cooling and heating loads with DSF as compared to a
triple-glazed façade with no air flow between the glazings.
Application of DSFs in building envelope delivers various advantages such as permitting radiation to pass through
the building due to its transparent characteristics, as well as providing visual connection with the surrounding. In terms
of energy preservation, reviewed papers confirmed that using DSFs is a promising solution towards optimizing the
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energy consumption in buildings. Recent studies indicated that disadvantages related to energy performance of DSFs
can be improved through taking critical factors into consideration. These factors include the optimum depth of cavity,
using glazing system in DSFs and the integration of DSFs and PV systems.

2.4. Application of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in wall systems

Phase Change Materials (PCMs) have attracted significant attention due to their capability of materializing the
objective of heating control over the last decade. Functionality of PCMs is largely based on absorbing the surplus
energy when there is plenty available and subsequently releasing the absorbed energy when there is an energy deficit.
Considerate use of this technology reduces the building energy consumption while maintaining the indoor environment
level of comfort due to marginal temperature fluctuations. PCMs are most commonly used in buildings for installation
of PCM-based wallboard towards the interior side of the building envelope. High thermal storage capacity of these
wallboards absorbs and releases the heat in the building for a significant part of the day when placed inwards. Based on
the sufficient thermal storage capacity of these wallboards, their application in lightweight building structures that
commonly have a low thermal inertia is promising. PCMs can be generally categorized into two groups, namely organic
and inorganic [60,61]. Organic compounds used for PCM include paraffin waxes, esters, acids and alcohols; inorganic
materials include salt hydrates, eutectics of inorganic salts, and metals and their eutectics [60]. PCMs from organic
compounds generally have low melting points, and can only be used for room-heating thermal storage. For high
temperature thermal storage, inorganic compounds can be used [62]. Several investigations attempted to find out the
impacts of PCMs-based materials used in the building envelope on the overall indoor temperature and energy
consumption.
Lee et al. [63] evaluated the thermal performance of South and West facing walls (northern hemisphere) outfitted
with a thin layer of PCM. ‘PCM thermal shield (PCMTS)’ was integrated into the wall through a thermal shield, whereby
the PCM was contained in thin sealed polymer pouches, arranged in sheets laminated with aluminum foil on both sides.
The PCMTSs were installed at five locations, one at a time, at various depths within the wall cavities of the South and
West facing walls. The thermal performance of South and West facing walls with and without PCMTS was evaluated
experimentally using two identical test cases. Results revealed that; at the optimal location of PCMTS, the peak heat
flux reductions were 51.3% and 29.7% for the South and the West walls, respectively. Evola et al. [64] investigated the
effects of using PCMbased wallboards in existing buildings with lightweight structures on improving the summer
thermal comfort. They selected two different PCM walls. One included an aluminum honeycomb matrix, filled with a
compound containing 60 wt% of a paraffin wax, encapsulated within polymeric microspheres with a diameter of
approximately 5 μm. The wallboard was sealed by two thin aluminum sheets and its overall thickness was 20 mm. The
weight of the wallboards was around 11 kg m2. The second one was made of a micro-encapsulated paraffin. The final
form of this wallboard was a flexible panel with a thickness of 5.26 mm, covered on both sides with a very thin
aluminum sheet. The final weight was 4.5 kg m2. The analysis was carried out by dynamic simulations on a sample
office building using EnergyPlus software. The analysis was repeated in four different locations ‘Catania and Milan,
Italy’, ‘Madrid, Spain’, and ‘Paris, France’ with diverse climatic conditions. Results confirmed that; the use of
wallboards made of micro-encapsulated paraffinic PCMs was a promising and effective solution for the energy
refurbishment of existing lightweight buildings. Soares et al. [65] also evaluated the impacts of PCM-drywalls on the
annual and monthly heating and cooling energy savings of an air-conditioned lightweight steel-framed (LSF) residential
building. Real-life conditions and several European climates were considered in this study. A multi-dimensional
optimization study was carried out by combining EnergyPlus and GenOpt tools. Different variables were considered
such as the thermophysical properties of the PCM, solar absorbance of the inner surfaces, thickness and location of the
PCM-drywalls. It was concluded that the PCM-based drywalls can make a considerable contribution to heating and
cooling energy savings. PCM-drywalls were particularly determined to be suitable for Mediterranean climates, with a
promised energy efficiency gain of about 62% for the Coimbra, Portugal climate. Seville, Spain also had the second
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largest energy efficiency gain by 46%. Mandilaras et al. [66] analyzed a typical double-storey family house located in
Greece. Walls consisted of multiple layers of insulation materials and gypsum plasterboard panels containing PCMs
(BASF – MicronalR PCM melting point 23 °C) [67] for thermal energy storage purposes. Sensors were installed in
different locations of all external walls in order to provide detailed temperature measurements. In order to only focus
on thermal characterization of the walling system, the building was left closed, unoccupied, and no energy systems
were installed. It is shown that within the predicated conditions, the thermal mass of the walling system was enhanced
during late spring, early summer and autumn, due to the PCM implementation, resulting also in a decrease of the
decrement factor by a further 30–40% and an increase in the time lag of approximately 100 min.

2.5. Green walls/systems

Green walls, also known as ‘vertical gardens’, ‘vertical greening systems’, ‘green vertical systems’, ‘vertical greenery
systems (VGSs)’ or ‘Biowalls’ [68], are not novel concepts. Primary usage of this idea can be dated back to the fifth
century CE, growing in use through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries mostly in the UK and Central Europe [69].
Nowadays, application of green wall systems is spread worldwide and is being used in various countries. One in every
ten flat roofs in German cities was reported to be green by 1996 [70]. 70% of flat roofed inner city buildings in Swiss
cities were reported to have roof gardens [70]. In Asia, the use of green systems is being increasingly developed with
countries such as Japan, Hong Kong and Singapore. In Tokyo, the Japanese government passed a decree in April 2000
requiring all new buildings with a gross floor area of 41000 m2 to plant trees (namely, conifers and cedars) on rooftops
[71]. Nowadays, Germany is known as one of the pioneer countries in applying the green systems [70,72].
Green systems (green roofs and green walls) are considered as sustainable strategies for rehabilitating urban spaces
due to their great environmental advantages. Emergence of vegetation in the city context can have therapeutic effects.
These effects can further result in psychological wellbeing, improving the city image [73], enhancing the property values
[74] and acoustic protections [75,76]. Urban buildings vertically dressed with green plants help

Fig. 5. Direct green façade [68].

Fig. 4. Classification of green walls according to their construction characteristics [68].

Fig. 6. Technical scheme for indirect green façade. [83].

insertion of vegetation into the urban context without occupying the horizontal spaces such as streets (see Table 4) [77].
Several researchers studied the impacts of vertical green systems on urban temperature reduction. Akbari et al. [78]
analyzed the temperature trends for the last 100 years in several large U.S. cities. They found that the urban temperature
has been increased by approximately 0.5–3.0 °C since 1940. The study suggested that; electricity demand in cities will be
increased by 2– 4% for every 1 °C increase in temperature. Estimation showed; 5–10% of the current urban electricity
demand spent on cooling buildings is just to compensate for the increased 0.5–3 °C in urban temperatures. Price [79] also
investigated the cooling effects of a green façade on the Southern and Western walls. Results showed that; the ambient
air temperature, exterior surface temperature, interior air temperature and heat flux were reduced by using vertical green
systems. It was also demonstrated that; reduction in cooling loads, ranging from 1.4% to 28.4%, is dependent on the
building construction, green façade placement, and employment of window coverage.
 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269 1261

Fig. 7. Continuous living wall system, Caixa Forum, Madrid [68].

Fig. 8. Modular living wall system, Natura Towers, Lisbon [68].

At the building scale, application of vegetation on the building envelope can improve the overall thermal
performance. Wong et al. [80] simulated the effects of vertical green systems on the temperature and energy
consumption of buildings. They used TAS software to simulate a ten-story hypothetically designed building in three
scenarios: (i) with opaque walls, (ii) with seven windows in each story and (iii) with full glass cover. These scenarios
were compared to similar situations by adding vertical greenery systems. Indoor mean radiant temperature and the
cooling energy load were measured. Based on a hypothetical designed building in tropical climate it was found that;
heat transfer through concrete walls was reduced by using a cover of plants. It was also found that 100% coverage of
vertical greenery systems could be an effective measure in lowering the mean radiant temperature of a glass façade
building.
Eumorfopoulou et al. [81] made a thermal comparison between a bare wall and a wall covered with a green façade
in Greece during the cooling period. The main aim of this study was to show the dynamic thermal characteristics and
temperature variation. Results of this study revealed that; covering the wall surface with plants had thermal benefits for
both exterior and interior surfaces. It also reduced the heat flow losses. Azkorra et al. [82] evaluated the use of green
wall systems as a passive acoustic insulation system for buildings. Two different standardized laboratory tests were
performed during this study. The main results were a weighted sound reduction index (Rw) of 15 dB and a weighted
sound absorption coefficient (a) of 0.40. Results indicated that; application of green vertical systems in the building
envelope can be used as a sound insulation tool however, design adjustments should be implemented namely; enhancing
the efficiency of sealing the joints between the modular pieces. Green walls can also be classified into two groups based
on their construction characteristics as represented in Fig. 4.

2.5.1.Green façades
Green façades are the plants that grow up vertically upwards or downwards the buildings through climbing or
hanging along the walls [68]. This system can be classified into two clusters; direct and indirect systems. Direct systems
use the wall as a support in which they attach directly to in order to grow up (Fig. 5). On the other hand, indirect systems
use a structural support for growing the vegetation. In the indirect system, roots of vegetation penetrate into the ground
or a facilitator such as a planter so that plants would grow by following the supporting structure in a favorable direction
(Fig. 6). Indirect solution can be further classified into continuous and modular solutions. The difference between these
two solutions is pertained to the number of structures that can be used to develop the planting. In the continuous
solution, a single structure will be used, however, in the modular solution, several modular elements along the surface
can be used.

Living walls
2.5.2.
Living walls system (LWS) is an innovative solution in the field of cladding walls. Living walls are able to integrate
green walls in high-rise buildings allowing to vertically cover a large area of the building surface by different plant
species [68]. Based on the applied method, LWS can be classified into two groups;

Continuous systems; based on the application of lightweight and permeable screens in which plants are individually
inserted (Fig. 7).
Modular system; where a complementary structure or fixed structure will be directly combined to the wall with a
growing media enabling plants to grow in a specific direction (Fig. 8). Modular systems are classified with respect to
their differences in ‘composition, weight and assembly’ into trays, vessels, planter tiles and flexible bags [68].
1262 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269

Fig. 9. Conventional house wall construction and materials’ sequence [90].

Fig. 10. New house wall construction and materials’ sequence [90].

The created gap between building façade and the living wall can perform as an extra insulation layer for the building
envelope resulting in reduction of heat gains and losses [84]. The use of LWS can offer a good thermal insulation to the
building as only a small portion of the solar radiations can get the chance to pass through the building envelope. In general,
out of the overall received solar radiations by the living wall, ‘5–30% is reflected’, ‘5–20% is used for photosynthesis’,
‘10–50% is transformed into heat’, ‘20–40% is used for evapotranspiration’, and only ‘5–30%’ will get the chance to
penetrate the envelope [85,86].
Mazzali et al. [87] conducted an experimental study on the energy performance of living walls in three different
locations in Italy. Different parameters had been recorded in this study such as ‘surface temperatures’, ‘external air
temperatures and relative humidity’, ‘air velocity’, ‘heat flux and solar radiation’. It was concluded that; the application of
green architectural wall can significantly contribute to the reduction of cooling energy demand and offer a valuable
solution for retrofitting existing buildings. Chen et al. [88] carried out an experimental investigation on the living wall
system located in the Wuhan, China with hot and humid climate. They selected six different plant types to be used in
construction of the green wall. Parameters measured by the study were the ‘interior wall surface’, ‘exterior wall surface’,
‘air gap’, ‘interior back panels surface and exterior temperatures’, ‘air gap and exterior relative humidity’, ‘the wind speed’
and ‘the solar radiation’. It was concluded that as the result of using living walls, a temperature reduction by 20.8 °C was
achieved at the exterior wall surface. Interior temperature of wall surfaces was also reduced by 7.7 °C, and an indoor
temperature reduction was reported to be achieved by 1.1 °C. In addition to the thermal improvement, enhancing the air
quality is considered as another advantage of using green walls. Ottelé et al. [89] stated that; application of vegetation in
the building envelope can reduce the number of particulates (o10 mm) in the air as they can be hazardous for the human
health.
 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269 1263

In summary, application of green walls in building envelope influences both the indoor air temperature and the outdoor
environment. Green wall systems are considered as effective alternatives to be utilized in exterior building configurations
in order to improve the psychological wellbeing of users. Further essential benefits are delivered through using such
systems namely; increasing the property value, acoustic protection and improving the city image. These benefits promote

Fig. 11. Working principle of WIHP [91].

green wall systems as an operative alternative in both new constructions and retrofitting buildings.

2.6. Innovative wall system solutions

Aldawi et al. [90] evaluated the thermal performance of two house wall systems under different climatic conditions in
Australia. In this study, a proposed wall system with new configuration was compared to a wall system constructed by
conventional method. Technical details of these walls are shown in Table 4. The external wall of the conventional house
consisted of 110 mm brick veneer, 50 mm air gap, 90 mm timber frame structure with 2.5 mm thick insulation foil, and
10 mm plaster (Gypsum) board on the inside (Fig. 9). The new house wall system was made of reinforced concrete with
double-sided insulation panels. The wall was constructed of 10 mm render, 118 mm (59 mm and 59 mm) polystyrene as
insulation materials, 150 mm reinforced concrete panel and 10 mm plaster board on the inside (Fig. 10). Two types of
standard windows, single glazed and double glazed, with aluminum frames were used in this study as outlined in the
Building Code of Australia (BCA). AccuRates software was used to simulate the thermal performance of the two house
wall systems. It was found that the new wall system with single glazed windows performed significantly better compared
to the conventional wall system as it required less heating and cooling energy demand. This improvement in the
performance of new wall system was related to the combined use of insulation and thermal mass materials. The energy
saving by the new wall system was reported to be between 22% and 44%. However, the new design with double glazed
windows showed energy savings between 1% and 37%. It was concluded that; the new design with single and double
glazed windows had superior thermal performances (37% and 20%) compared to the conventional case with similar
window configurations.
Zhang et al. [91] investigated the thermal performance and energy-saving characteristics of a new wall system. A ‘Wall
Implanted with Heat Pipes’ (WIHP) was proposed as a new type of passive solar energy utilization technology. In order
to construct the WIHP, microgravity heat pipes in millimeter level were implanted in the crack of plastering mortar at the
outside of the insulation board. The condensing section (or evaporating section) was implanted in the cement mortar of
the inner surface. Using the microgravity heat pipes did not affect neither the thickness of the proposed wall nor its
1264 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269

structural strength. Working principles of this wall is illustrated in Fig. 11. Experimental results indicated that; heat
transferring performance of the WIHP was better than the wall without heat pipes. Moreover, WIHP improved the
capacity of heat transfer and the inside surface temperature compared to the wall without heat pipes. Moreover, the WIHP
had excellent feasibility and energy saving. During winter in a typical year in Jinan, China, the heating loss of the Southern
external wall was reduced by 14.47%. The WIHP reduced the building heating load effectively and had a high application
value.
The pipe-embedded structure uses water conduits to circulate water inside the mass of the structure permitting the
heat to be transferred. In this system water acts similar to a heat exchanger. The mass structure can be floor, ceiling or
wall. This system is popular for the ceiling and floor, such as chilled ceiling systems and under-floor heating systems
[92]. Various energy sources may be used by the pipe-embedded structures in order for heating or cooling water such
as chillers or heat pumps, groundwater, cooling towers, and geothermal energy produced by the ground coupled heat
exchanger systems [92]. Pipe-embedded structures can use different energy sources to supply the required water heating
or cooling such as; ‘chillers or heat pumps groundwater’, ‘cooling towers’, and ‘geothermal energy produced by the
ground coupled heat exchanger systems’ [92]. Quality of the pipe material used in this system must be extremely durable
enabling water to be circulated throughout the system [93]. Furthermore, the pipe loops must be leak resistant as less
consistent attentions would be required for a long period. The high-density polyethylene or polybutylene are the most
common types of pipes which can be used in this system. However, copper pipes and steel pipes may also be used but
measures must be taken to prevent corrosion. Another important criterion for using the pipe is the diameter of the pipe
must be large enough to keep the pump power small [93] – usually in the range of 20 mm and 40 mm [93].
D'Antoni and Saro [94] studied the possibility of using exposed concrete structures as solar energy absorbers in order
to be utilized as a low cost solar–thermal collector in residential buildings. The proposed concrete solar collector
consisted of a vertical concrete slab embedding a pipe coil. This proposed system was capable of extracting heat from
the environment. Xie et al. [95] inspected the thermal performance of an active pipe-embedded building envelope under
typical hot summer climatic conditions while comparing it with the performance of conventional external walls/roofs
through numerical simulation. Results indicated that the pipe-embedded structure can reduce the external heat transfer
significantly and decrease internal wall surface temperature – thus eventually improving overall thermal comfort.
Ibrahim et al. [92] presented a novel closed wall-loop system aimed at capturing the wasted energy during non-cloudy
winter days on the Southern facade and transferring it to the Northern façade (in northern hemisphere buildings). The
water pipes were embedded in an exterior wall and coated by aerogel-based insulation. Five cities had been selected in
France in which they represented three different climates, Mediterranean, Oceanic, and Semi-Continental. They
developed a MATLAB numerical model coupled with the whole building energy simulation program EnergyPlus
through co-simulation. The simulations were carried out for two types of houses, the old house with no internal
insulation and the new house adopting the exterior thermal insulation. Afterwards the simulation results were compared
against a house without the proposed system. Results indicated that; significant reduction in energy consumption was
achieved for both old and new houses that applied the system in all three climates compared to the case without the
system.

3. Future trends of building façade

3.1. Intelligent façades

‘Intelligent façade’ refers to ‘those façades that are responsive dynamically to demands posed by outside environment
and inside occupancy by following the energy-conscious principles and maintaining user comfort’ [96]. These façades
have been developed with the aim of rectifying all the drawbacks of current façades (see Table 3) [97], improving the
indoor comfort level and fulfilling the future energy requirements [98,130]. In this regard, Inkarojrit [99] states that;
application of intelligent façades delivers two significant advantages namely; improving the thermal comfort sensation
 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269 1265

and the building energy reduction. Skelly [100] investigated the contributing parameters associated with the effective
performance of intelligent façades. Accordingly, intelligent façades must be responsive to three main parameters:

Weather; façades should be responsive to unpredictable outdoor temperature.

Context; façades should be responsive to the context. Occupants; façades should be responsive to the wide
variety of individuals’ preferences.

Moreover, the interactions between aforementioned parameters must be:

Table 5

Conventional house Thickness

No. Items Thickness (mm) New house envelope
envelope (mm)
1 External wall Brick veneer (single) 110.0 Render 10.0
Air gap 50.0 Insulation polystyrene 59.0

Insulation foil 5.0 Reinforced concrete panel 150.0

Timber structure 90.0 Insulation polystyrene 59.0

Single glaze window 3.0 Single glaze window 3.0 and

12.0
2 Internal wall Plaster board 10.0 Plaster board 10.0
3 Ground/floor Reinforced concrete slab 100.0 Reinforced concrete slab 100.0
Roof Timber with concrete tiles 90.0 and 20.0 Timber with concrete tiles 90.0 and
(20°) (20°) 20.0
Insulation battsþplaster 20.0 and 10.0 Insulation battsþplaster 20.0 and
board 30.0 board 10.0
5 Internal door Timber (mountain ash) Timber (mountain ash) 30.0
6 External door Timber (hard) 50.0 Timber (hard) 50.0
Conventional and new house wall components and their thicknesses [90].
Dynamic: Many parameters change over time and at different rates.
Non-linear: Some parameters exhibit different types of behavior in different regions.
Stochastic: Some parameters are subject to large unpredictable/ chaotic environmental disturbances.
Multi-dimensional: Many different mechanisms interact in a complex manner.

Different studies investigated the challenges and possibilities of utilizing intelligent façades in the building sector [108–
110]. It is concluded that; ‘the reduction of energy consumption’ and ‘enhancing the indoor comfort’ are the two most
important goals that are necessary to be realized as the result of smart building performance. Furthermore, controlling
systems need to integrate strategies that support all aspects of whole façade functions (see Table 3). Various researchers
assessed the potential of using controlling systems in increasing the building energy efficiency. Nielsen et al. [111]
quantified the potential of employing dynamic solar shading in decreasing the building energy demands by simulating
three different solar shading types. The research indicated that the annual energy demand can be reduced by 16% for a
room with a South-facing façade using dynamic shading. In another study, the differences between static and dynamic
control of interior and exterior blind systems in office buildings were evaluated by Kim and Park [112]. It was found that;
optimal utilization of dynamic control blind system can result in realizing energy savings by 7–17% compared to manual
control and without blind control. Moreover, energy performance of blind systems can be significantly improved by
applying daylighting control. Liu et al. [98] developed control strategies for intelligent glazed façades and investigated
1266 H. Omrany et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 62 (2016) 1252–1269

the effects of different control strategies on energy and comfort performance in office buildings. They numerically utilized
a simplified hourly calculation method developed to calculate yearly energy and comfort performance of an office room
equipped with an intelligent façade. The numerical method was validated by the Danish dynamic building simulation tool
BSim and experimental tests in a full scale test facility at Aalborg University. Results indicated that; as a result of utilizing
an intelligent façade, a reduction by approximately 60% was achieved compared to the same building with a static façade
(Table 5).

3.2. Kinetic façades

considered to be significant in terms of enhancing the building energy performance [113]. Kinetic façades, as
intelligent façades, are able to adopt their shape, form, orientation or openings to automatically respond to the
environmental parameters including the temperature, humidity, wind, etc. (see Table 6) [113]. The effective use of kinetic
façades is dependent on controlling four major variables: solar thermal control, daylighting control, ventilation control,
and energy generation [114].

Ingress of solar irradiation can be controlled by different devices coupled with a kinetic façade, ranging from automated
louvers to adjustable overhangs.
Daylight can be controlled by kinetic façades. Systems such as blinds and shades can intercept unwelcome daylighting
without compromising the benefits of receiving necessary radiations. Louver systems, overhang systems, and
electrochromic windows are other alternatives that are applicable to be used for distracting the incoming radiations.
Ventilation control by kinetic façades offers great potential for naturally ventilated buildings. Two systems capable of
being coupled with kinetic façades in order to control the ventilation are; louver systems and double-skinned envelopes
utilizing the stack effect.
Another important aspect of kinetic façade can be related to the energy generation. The integration of this façade with
the building integrated photovoltaic systems (BIPV) can offer the advantage of producing energy in the building.

Beside the great advantages offered by the kinetic façades (i.e. responsiveness to the changing climates), integration of
this system with other external devices can improve system performance further. Kensek and Hansanuwat [114]
showed that application of properly designed kinetic façades significantly mitigates the building energy use. Kinetic
façades were able to decrease energy consumption for both heating and cooling situations by 30%, over the non-shaded
system. Fig. 12 illustrates the final model proposed by Kensek and Hansanuwat in which overhang, vertical louvers and
photovoltaic system were integrated with the kinetic façades.

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