Original article

Textile Research Journal

2015, Vol. 85(6) 568–589

Effect of yarn, machine and knitting ! The Author(s) 2015

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process parameters on the dynamics DOI: 10.1177/0040517514547216
trj.sagepub.com
of the circular knitting needle

Sena Cimilli Duru, Cevza Candan and Ata Mugan

Abstract
Stitch formation during the knitting process is dependent on the dynamic movements of needles. The movement of the
needle is subjected to many different factors during loop formation, such as machine, yarn and knitting process param-
eters. In particular, machine speed, yarn tension and fiber type are the vital parameters of needle movement. This study
was conducted in order to investigate the effect of these parameters on needle dynamics during one knitting cycle. High-
speed camera technology was used for the first time to collect data regarding needle movement on a circular knitting
machine of E 24 and 30’’ in diameter.
The results showed that the needle displacement in both x and y coordination did tend to increase as the yarn tension
increased. For all situations, the elastane yarn was an influential parameter on the needle displacement, although the
change in its input tension was not a significant parameter. It was also found that during the production with 100% ring
cotton, there was a tendency for the needle to follow the cam path when the machine speed was increased from 15 to
20 rpm. Finally, the data obtained for knitting with the textured polyester yarn showed that the needle movement was
highly dependent on yarn input tension.

Keywords
needle displacement, high-speed camera, fiber type, machine speed, yarn tension

During the process of loop formation, an interaction
takes place between various yarn variables (rigidities,
coefficient of friction, diameter, etc.), knitting machine
variables (speed, diameter, machine gauge, cam shape,
needle and sinker shape, etc.) and knitting process vari-
ables (yarn input tension, fabric take down tension,
cam setting, etc.).1
The majority of the manufacturers would like to
produce their products with high speed but without
any faults in the process. This is achieved to some
extent with the advance in many industrial areas, espe-
cially machinery and computer technology. However, it
has been realized that it is impossible to increase the
production speed infinitely without considering the tex-
tile materials used on the machines due to the material-
related problems occurring in the production.2
Increasing the speeds of weft knitting machines will
consequently enlarge the reaction forces between knit-
ting elements and then cause their attrition.3
Also yarn tension is a key parameter on the force
between knitting elements. In the loop formation zone,
yarn tension induced by applied forces and yarn–metal
contact builds up in the new loop as it is formed. The
tension in each arm of the new loop determines the yarn
force exerted on the hook and contributes to the react-
ive force at the butt. This variable yarn force is opera-
tive during loop formation and is influenced by yarn
physical characteristics and the geometry of the
system.4 In addition to that, the yarn input tension
plays an important role in determining the value of
Istanbul Technical University, ITU Gumussuyu Yerleşkesi, Turkey
Corresponding author:
Sena Cimilli Duru, Istanbul Technical University, ITU Gumussuyu
Yerleşkesi, Inonu cad. No:65, Gumussuyu, Istanbul, 34437, Turkey.
Email: cimilli@itu.edu.tr

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Duru et al.
loop length for at any cam section.1 The variation in
loop length, which occurs when knitting under different
conditions of yarn input tensions, is attributed possibly
to the following factors:5
1. needle fling-changes in the needle direction due to
inertia forces after the knitting point has been
reached;
2. yarn extension at high knitting tension;
3. robbing back.
Hence, tension control should be properly main-
tained and optimized during the knitting process.2
In addition to above findings, yarn properties deter-
mining needle displacement during the knitting process
may be summarized as follows:6–11
. finer yarns were more abrasive than the coarser ones;
. lower twist levels resulted in more abrasion;
. Open-end yarn is more abrasive than ring yarn due
to belt fibers;
. rotor yarns produced with higher rotor speeds were
more abrasive;
. yarn contamination as a major contributor to needle
wear;
. ring spun yarn that was produced from dirty cotton
was more abrasive;
. increase in wax levels did not affect abrasiveness;
. excessive amount of fall out was seen when using
ring spun yarn;
. oxides or silicates on the surface of a spun yarn
result in abrasion of the needle material;
. synthetic fibers that contain matting agents such as
titanium dioxide can induce needle wear.
A literature survey also showed that there are many
studies that focus on the forces on needles and cams for
circular knitting machines. They have generally studied
the theoretical models, working with strain gages or a
computer-aided design system.3,12–20
Wray and Burns12,21,22 designed an impact trans-
ducer for measuring the rapid force fluctuations existing
between the needle and stitch cam on a 10 inches diam-
eter, 18 gauge circular knitting machine having one yarn
feeding station with a standard 0.44 mm thick latch
needle. They used semi-conductor strain gauges so
that not only needle bounce on the cams can be visua-
lized but also their duration and number could be rec-
orded. The effects of machine speed, take down tension,
input yarn tension, cam angle, needle thickness, mass
and butt type, clearance between cylinder and cams
were also investigated.14,23–26
Ghosh and Banerjee1 highlighted the role of the
dynamic geometry of the knitting zone and the dynamic
equilibrium of forces on the needle hook as well as the
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569
importance of cast off loops hanging around the yarn,
pulled in by needles inside the knitting zone, on the
loop formation process. However, in the study they
worked with two different hand-driven small diameter
circular machines with linear cams.
Long20 analyzed cam to needle impact forces and the
shape of the impact pulse in weft knitting using the
mechanical model of viscously damped free vibration
with one degree of freedom. The induced equations
predict that the peak impact force and pulse frequency
are directly proportional to the product of the natural
circular frequency and the mass of the needle. However,
the experimental machine was modified on the basis of
a 7 inch diameter circular knitting machine and was
fitted with 0.45 mm thick needles. Also, the peripheral
speed of the needle cylinder was adjusted to 0.85 m/s
during the test. During the experiment 45 cam and
semi-conductor strain gages were used for detecting
vertical and horizontal impact forces.
Oldman et al.27 described an investigation into the
suitability of three non-linear profiles for inclusion in a
computer-aided design system for a 30 inch diameter
machine running at 40 rpm. They evaluated the profiles
according to the various knitting and dynamic require-
ments. The acceleration characteristics of cam profiles
and the characteristics of reaction forces between the
cam and the needle were compared and analyzed by
Song et al.3 with the aid of a computer-aided design
system. MacCarty et al.4 developed a general model
for mechanical forces that arise in normal operation
of a latch needle cam system. The model can predict
mechanical forces for any specified cam profile and for
the most common needle and cam arrangements.
As can be seen from the literature above, surpris-
ingly enough, there is no experimental study that has
been carried out on an industrial knitting machine that
takes all the parameters mentioned above into account.
Accordingly, this study was conducted in an attempt to
investigate real-time needle movement on an industrial
circular knitting machine and, in doing so, the effect of
machine speed, yarn tension, yarn type and fiber type,
including elastane, on the impact and resistance forces
on needles was studied using a high-speed camera,
which was a novel approach for such studies.
Material and method
For the work under discussion, a Beck Gmbh E 24 30’’
knitting machine, equipped with Groz-Beckert needles,
with 90 positive feeding systems, was employed. For
yarn cost purposes, only 24 feeders out of 90 were
used throughout the study. Before recording any data
at any machine speed, the machine ran at 10 rpm for
30 minutes to make it heat up to normal working
conditions.
570
Also, for the study, yarn type, machine speed and
yarn input tension were selected as the variables; the
design of the experiment was conducted such that 24
different situations were investigated. In one set of these
trials, for example, the yarn input tension was changed
whilst the other variables were kept constant. Thus it
could be possible to discuss the possible effects of vari-
ous knitting parameters on needle movement under
commercial conditions. Furthermore, for each case,
the take up tension became the only parameter that
was kept constant. Table 1 presents the details of the
parameters taken into account for the design of
experiment.
Yarns (100% cotton ring spun and 100% textured
polyester filament), both with and without 33 dtex elas-
tane yarn, were employed for the work. These yarns
were chosen as they were commonly used in the indus-
try. The physical properties of the yarns are summar-
ized in Table 2.
An Olympus i-SPEED 3 high-speed camera was
employed to collect data. In addition to that, a specia-
lized sensor was used so that the Olympus i-SPEED 3
could capture frames of video at high speeds. However,
when the cam arrangement was kept as it was, it was
impossible to capture a meaningful movie because the
distance between the two adjacent cams was too close.
Therefore, to be able to investigate the needle move-
ment at the knock over position, a hole of
5 mm  20.5 mm  15 mm was drilled in the outer wall
of a cancelled cam system using computer numerical
control (CNC; see Figure 1), such that no deformation
occurred on the cam segment itself. The camera was
adjusted to 20.000 frames in order to obtain the best
possible sharpness and resolution.
Table 1. Knitting parameters for the experimental study
100% ring cotton,
Fiber type 100% textured polyester
Machine speed (rpm) 15 and 20
Yarn tension (cN) 3, 6 and 9
Elastane tension (cN) 0, 3, 6 and 9
Table 2. Properties of the yarns
Yarn properties Ring cotton Textured polyester
Yarn count Ne 50/1 110 dtex
Elongation at break 6.33% 21.13%
Yarn tension at break 211.24 cN 431.18 cN
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Textile Research Journal 85(6)
The i-SPEED 3’s image sensor is capable of increas-
ing its dynamic range by detecting light in a non-linear
fashion. The way the sensor detects the light permits
each pixel to individually reduce its sensitivity with
increasing light, and it also allows the sensor to
gather image features in very bright and dark areas
simultaneously.28 Accordingly, the lighting system
together with the camera was positioned in the way
given shown in Figure 2, and thus a better lighting
with higher sensitivity could be obtained.
For the data evaluation, the Olympus i-SPEED 3
software suit was utilized. In order to convert the
images from pixels to units of inches, meters, milli-
meters, etc., it was calibrated according to distance
between the stitch and clearing cam, which was
4.8 mm (see Figure 3).
For easy tracking of needle movement, firstly the
butt of a chosen needle was painted with oil resistance
white dye. Then two additional points were marked on
the needle, which were close to the upper and lower
edges of the needle butt. The distance between the
marked points and the very end points of the butt
edges of the needle was measured with the relevant
tool of the program.
Manual tracking requires the user to manually step
through the video one frame at a time, using the mouse
to select the location of the feature in each frame.28 In
the work, however, with the help of the points marked
on the chosen needle, the whole stitch forming process
was followed at intervals of every five steps.
Accordingly, not only both ends of the needles were
observed, but also with reference to the selected
points, both the observations from clearing and stitch
cams were also made. In Figure 4, a typical represen-
tation of the needle movement within the cam track is
shown. Figure 4(a) represents the first contact point of
the needle to the cam, while Figure 4(b) shows the
second contact point. After recording was finished,
the tracked points were exported to MS Excel for fur-
ther evaluation and calculations.
Both vertical and horizontal velocities of the needle
were calculated using Equations (1) and (2):

x
vx ¼ ð1Þ

t

y
vy ¼ ð2Þ

t
The acceleration of the needle was calculated using
Equation (3):

vy
a¼ ð3Þ

t
Duru et al. 571

Figure 1. Detailed photos of the cam system.

Figure 2. Position of the camera and light during recording

data.

The statistical evaluation of the data obtained was

performed using the SPSS 18 software package. To do
Figure 3. Evaluation of the needle movement.
so, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test
methods were employed and the factors were con-
sidered to be significant at a p-value less than 0.05.

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572
Figure 4. (a) The first contact point to the cam. (b) The second contact point to the cam.
Results
In the study, the effect of fiber type, machine speed and
use of elastane on the needle movement was investi-
gated. The graphs related to the needle dynamics are
given in Figures 5–14. Also, the statistical evaluation of
the results regarding the needle displacement can be
seen in Table 3. In the following sections of the
paper, the relevant parts of these results are discussed
in detail.
Effect of yarn tension and machine speed
Ring cotton yarn
At the knitting point, the needle displacement in both x
and y coordination did tend to increase as the yarn
tension increased. The impact of yarn tension on the
displacement was more significant for 3 and 9 cN ten-
sions, whilst the values obtained for 6 and 9 cN were
close to each other. The similar tendencies were
observed when working at 15 and 20 rpm machine
speeds. When the speed was 15 rpm, the needle bounced
to 1.5 mm in the x direction and 0.4 mm in the y direc-
tion at 3 cN yarn tension, whereas its displacement at
yarn tension of 9 cN of was 1.65 and 0.6 mm in the x
and y directions, respectively (see Figures 5(a1) and
(b2)). According to the ANOVA evaluation, yarn ten-
sion was an important parameter on needle displace-
ment in both the x and y directions at 95% significant
level (x: F ¼ 325.000, p ¼ 0.000; y: F ¼ 400.000,
p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 3). Meanwhile, for the machine
speed of 20 rpm, the needle bounced over 1.3 mm in
the x direction and 0.3 mm in the y direction when
the yarn tension was 3 cN. However, at 9 cN, the dis-
placement values were 1.5 mm (x direction) and 0.5 mm
(y direction). Also for the machine speed of 20 rpm,
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Textile Research Journal 85(6)
ANOVA results showed that yarn tension affected the
needle displacement in both x and y directions signifi-
cantly (95% significant level x: F ¼ 400.000, p ¼ 0.000;
y: F ¼ 400.000, p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 3). Knapton and
Munden5 declared that nearly as much as one half of
the loop length is lost to following needles at high input
tensions. Also, under the condition of low input ten-
sion, the needle at the knitting point robs yarn from
only one needle. When the input tension is increased, it
then becomes possible for the needle at the knitting
point to rob yarn from two needles until an input ten-
sion is reached where the yarn breaks out.29 Our results
complied with this high tension effect on robbing
back because the velocity of the needle, when the
yarn tension was high, was higher at robbing back, in
comparison to that of the needle at low yarn tension
(see Figure 5(c3)).
During the production with 100% ring cotton yarn
with tension of 6 cN, it was found that there was a
tendency to follow the cam path when the machine
speed was increased from 15 to 20 rpm. At the speed
of 15 rpm, the needle bounced to 1.7 mm in the x and
0.6 mm in the y direction. However, at 20 rpm the
needle bounced to 1.5 mm in the x and 1.3 mm in the
y direction (see Figures 6(a1) and (b2)). Also, due to the
fact that the needle bounced less at high machine speed
(20 rpm), surprisingly, this very needle had a slower
velocity during robbing back (see Figure 6(c3)). As
machine speed was increased, a considerable impact
force in magnitude grows between the needle and the
clearing cam.25 Accordingly, when the needle contacted
the clearing cam for the first time at the machine speed
of 20 rpm, it appeared that a higher force occurred in
comparison to the force at the machine speed of
15 rpm. As a result, the acceleration of the needle at
20 rpm was approximately 50% higher than that of
the needle at 15 rpm (see Figure 6(d4)). Under the
Duru et al. 573

Figure 5. Effect of yarn tension on needle displacement behavior and velocity at 15 rpm during production with ring cotton yarn.

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574
Figure 6. Effect of machine velocity on needle displacement behavior during production with 100% ring cotton yarn.
influence of this very impact force, the needles lost their
contact with the cam, and as can be seen from the
Figures 6(a1) and (b2), they hit the cam for the
second time. Although the needles had higher acceler-
ation at the machine speed of 20 rpm than the ones at
15 rpm when they did contact with the clearing cam for
the first time, they had a similar acceleration character-
istic at the second contact with the cam due to the nee-
dles bouncing less and hitting the cam sooner at the
machine speed of 20 rpm (see Figure 6(d5)).
The paired sample t-test between the data obtained
from 15 and 20 rpm machine speeds revealed that the
bouncing distances of the needle in both directions were
statistically significant (95% significant level x:
t ¼ 22.000, p ¼ 0.000; y: t ¼ 5.000, p ¼ 0.001) (see
Table 3).
Textured polyester yarn
A comparative study of needle displacement at the knit-
ting point for yarn tensions of 3 and 9 cN revealed that
the effect of yarn tension increase on needle displace-
ment was more significant than in the case of produc-
tion with 100% cotton ring yarn. Irrespective of
machine speed, there was no tendency for the needle
to bounce at yarn tension of 3 cN (see Figure 7(a1)).
However, when yarn tension was increased, for
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Textile Research Journal 85(6)
instance, from 3 to 6 cN, the needle did not follow the
cam path and started to bounce. In the study, at 9 cN,
the needle bounced to 1.8 mm in the x direction and
0.6 mm in the y direction when the machine speed
was 15 rpm. However, at the machine speed of
20 rpm, it made a displacement of 1.5 mm in the x
and of 0.4 mm in the y direction (see Figure 7(b2)).
ANOVA evaluation of the data also suggested that
yarn tension had an influence on the behavior of
needle displacement in both the x and y directions
(95% significant level, 15 rpm – x: F ¼ 13075.00,
p ¼ 0.000; y: F ¼ 2275.000, p ¼ 0.000 and 20 rpm – x:
F ¼ 3100.000, p ¼ 0.000; y: F ¼ 1300.000, p ¼ 0.000)
when producing with 100% textured polyester yarn
(see Table 3).
The decrease of the yarn tensile force value refers
back to yarn elongation, because there is a greater
amount of yarn in the section that has to be elongated
before the tensile force increases, as discussed by
Matthes et al.30 Hence, the reason why lower yarn ten-
sion did not cause the needle to bounce may be the high
elongation property of the textured polyester yarn.
Koo2 suggested that an increase in the friction between
the yarn and needle hook is produced by high tension
and, hence, such a needle did not follow the cam thor-
oughly due to the high tension between the hook and
the yarn. Also the literature on the mechanics of single
Duru et al. 575

Figure 7. Effect of yarn tension on needle displacement behavior and velocity at 20 rpm during production with texture polyester
yarn.

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576 Textile Research Journal 85(6)

Figure 8. Effect of machine velocity on needle displacement behavior during production with 100% textured polyester yarn.

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Duru et al.
Figure 8. Continued.
jersey loop formation revealed that the phenomenon of
robbing back plays an important role in determining
loop length and, in particular, yarn input tension
strongly affects robbing back, although it occurs even
at zero input tension.1 When the input tension is
increased, it then becomes possible for the needle at
the knitting point to rob yarn from two needles until
an input tension is reached where the yarn breaks
out.5,16 This is because when yarn tension in the
needle hook increases, it was difficult for the needle to
rob yarn from its neighbor due to the opposite force at
the needle hook. Similarly, in our study we found that
the needle subjected to lower yarn tension had lower
velocity during the robbing back (see Figure 7(c3)).
This may suggest that higher tension increased the rob-
bing back, which is in agreement with the literature.5,16
According to the literature survey,1,21,23,24 the ten-
dency for the needle to bounce on the cam is decreased
as the rotational speed of the machine is increased. The
data obtained for the textured polyester yarn showed
that the needle displacement behavior was dependent
on the yarn tension. For the yarn tensions such as 3 and
6 cN as machine speed increased, the needle bounced
more in both x and y directions. For instance, for the
textured polyester yarn whose tension was 6 cN, the
needle made a displacement of 1.35 mm in the x direc-
tion and 0.3 mm in the y direction at 15 rpm, whereas it
bounced to 1.6 mm horizontally and 0.5 mm vertically
at 20 rpm (see Figures 8(a1) and (b2)). However it was
surprising that, at high yarn tensions (i.e. 9 cN), the
needle bounced more at low machine speed (15 rpm).
As discussed earlier, the velocity of the needle at
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577
robbing back position was affected by needle bounce.
Although at low yarn tensions they tended to follow the
cam thoroughly, the needle at the machine speed of
20 rpm had a faster velocity during robbing back
because of its bounce characteristic. This can be seen
from Figure 8(c3). When the needle at the machine
speed of 20 rpm contacted the clearing cam for the
first time, a large reaction and impact forces took
place than at the machine speed of 15 rpm. As a
result, acceleration emerged more at this very needle
(see Figure 8(d4)). Due to the fact that the place
where they hit the cam second time were not the
same, second force appeared were not likewise so an
acceleration seen from Figure 8 D5 was come up.
In addition, the effect of changing rotational speed
of the machine on needle displacement behavior was
not a statistically significant factor according to the
paired t-test (x: t ¼ –1.270, p ¼ 0.240; y: t ¼ –0.286,
p ¼ 0.782) (see Table 3).
Comparison of ring cotton and textured polyester
yarn results
Yarn tension is a very important parameter on needle
displacement because if it is high, the needle tends to be
pulled up by this force. Yarn elongation is another par-
ameter that affects yarn tension during the knitting pro-
cess. If the yarn elongation property is high, it extends
more so the force in the needle hook is less. Moreover,
the coefficient of yarn/metal friction is as important as
the elongation property of the yarn.16 During knitting,
also the frictional coefficient influences the process
578 Textile Research Journal 85(6)

Table 3. Statistical evaluation of the results

Effect of machine speed

Ring cotton Textured polyester

t p t p t p t p

Without elastane 22.000 0.000 5.000 0.001 –1.27 0.24 –0.286 0.786
With elastane –1.49 0.148 1.199 0.241 1.674 0.106 0.721 0.477

Effect of elastane

15 rpm 20 rpm

Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in

x direction y direction x direction y direction

t p t p t p t p

Ring cotton –2.657 0.012 –3.803 0.001 –5.586 0.000 –5.617 0.000
Textured polyester –12.134 0.000 5.400 0.001 –2.121 0.041 –1.315 0.197

Effect of fiber type

15 rpm 20 rpm

Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in

x direction y direction x direction y direction

t p t p t p t p

Without elastane 2.403 0.043 3.965 0.004 1.109 0.299 0.555 0.594
With elastane 9.827 0.000 11.000 0.000 6.378 0.197 7.979 0.010

Effect of yarn tension

15 rpm 20 rpm

Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in Displacement in

x direction y direction x direction y direction

F sig F sig F sig F sig

Ring cotton 325.000 0.000 400.000 0.000 400.000 0.000 400.000 0.000
Textured polyester 13075.000 0.000 2275.000 0.000 3100.000 0.000 1300.000 0.000

when yarn is slipping from the hook as well as when it
is wrapping the trucks of the needles or forming the
loops.31
Cotton yarn has a rougher surface then textured
polyester yarn. Textured synthetic yarns have a strong
non-linear behavior as a result of this process.30 In the
study, the elongation of polyester is approximately
three times higher than that of the cotton yarn (see
Table 2). At the machine speed of 15 rpm the data
showed that it was the ring cotton yarn that made the
needle bounce more than the polyester yarn so far as
low yarn tension values, such as 3 cN, were concerned
(see Figures 9(a1) and (b2)). The paired sample t-test
showed that the difference between the bouncing dis-
tances of the needles in x and y directions for the ring
cotton and textured polyester yarns was statistically
significant (95% significant level x: t ¼ 2.403,
p ¼ 0.043; y: t ¼ 3.965, p ¼ 0.004) at the machine speed
of 15 rpm (see Table 3). The higher bounce distance
values of the needle working with relatively higher fric-
tion cotton yarn, when compared with the textured
polyester yarn, may be explained such that at low
yarn tension where the yarn was robbed from one
needle only, it was difficult for the ring cotton knitting
needle to rob yarn from its neighbor. As a result, dur-
ing the robbing back position the ring cotton

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Duru et al.
knitting needle had a more constant and higher velocity
value compared to the textured polyester one (see
Figure 9(c3)).
If, however, machine speed and yarn tension were
increased simultaneously (i.e. machine speed 20 rpm
and yarn tension 9 cN), the behavior of needle displace-
ment changed in such a way that irrespective of yarn
type the needles made the same displacement in the x
direction, whereas the needles working with the ring
cotton yarn bounced higher in the y direction. A large
impact force occurred when the needle butt hit the
clearing cam for the first time and this impact was
higher while working with higher machine speeds,
such as 20 rpm. The positive effect of greater elongation
percentage of the textured polyester yarn was signifi-
cantly limited due to the combined influence of this
very impact force together with high yarn tension.
Also, the paired sample t-test for higher machine
speeds and yarn tension values (e.g. 9 cN) supported
this result that there was no significant difference
between bouncing distance and height of the needles
when they were knitted using different yarn types
(95% significant level x: t ¼ 1.109, p ¼ 0.299; y:
t ¼ 0.555 p ¼ 0.594) (see Table 3).
Effect of elastane
Ring cotton-elastane yarn
If the ring cotton yarn was plaited with elastane yarn,
the needle tended to bounce more both in the horizon-
tal and vertical directions at the machine speeds of 15
and 20 rpm. When the speed was 15 rpm and the cotton
yarn tension was 6 cN, the needle bounced to 1.7 mm in
the x and 0.6 mm in the y direction. However, when the
yarn tensions were 6 cN cotton–9 cN elastane (i.e. elas-
tane was included in knitting), the needle bounced to
1.9 mm in the x and 0.8 mm in the y direction. When the
machine speed was increased up to 20 rpm, the needle
working with 6 cN cotton yarn made a displacement of
1.5 mm in the x and 0.3 mm in the y direction, whereas
its horizontal and vertical displacement values were 1.8
and 0.6 mm, respectively, for the case of 6 cN cotton–
9 cN elastane yarn tensions (see Figures 10(a1) and
(b2)). The resistance of the yarn to the loads depends
upon viscoelastic properties of the yarn.32 Since knit-
ting of elastane and cotton yarn together exhibits
higher elasticity modulus, it offers higher resistance to
the loads occurring in knitting. This results in more
prominent bouncing behavior of the needle. Also, the
independent t-test results suggested that elastane is a
highly significant factor on needle movement for both
x and y directions at the machine speed of not only
15 rpm but also 20 rpm (95% significant level 15 rpm
x: t ¼ –2.657, p ¼ 0.012, y: t ¼ –3.803, p ¼ 0.001;
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579
20 rpm – x: t ¼ –5.586, p ¼ 0.000, y: t ¼ –5.617,
p ¼ 0.000) (see Table 3). In addition to that, the velocity
of the needle producing 100% ring cotton yarn was
slower during robbing back (see Figure 10(c3)).
Ghosh and Banerjee1 suggested that yarn input tension
strongly effects robbing back and its increase also
advances the robbing back. The cotton-elastane knit-
ting needle had more pre-tension, and thereby it caused
more robbing back at the stitch formation point. When
the yarn tension increased, more yarn was robbed from
one needle to another, which resulted in higher velocity
at the needle.
Furthermore, in order to investigate the impact of
yarn pre-tension and the responding feeding load upon
the needle movement, fabrics were manufactured at dif-
ferent elastane yarn tensions, namely 3, 6 and 9 cN. It
was found that including elastane in the production
increased the needle bounce for both machine speeds
under discussion; however, changing the tension did
not have as much influence on needle bounce behavior
as was expected. The elongation percentage of elastane
is very high so its force on the needle hook was not less
than the force applied by the face yarn, that is, cotton
yarn. As a result, the bouncing behavior of the needles
working with the cotton yarns of the same tension were
the same but elastane yarn tensions were different.
Moreover, it was observed that when the elastane ten-
sion was kept constant while cotton yarn tension was
increased, the higher the cotton yarn tension was, the
more the needle tended to bounce.
When knitted with ring cotton-elastane yarn, the
needles presented the same bouncing value in the y dir-
ection, whereas the displacement of the needle in the x
direction was greater at the machine speed of 20 rpm.
Knitting at 3 cN cotton–9 cN elastane yarn tensions,
the needle bounced to 1.7 mm in the x and 0.6 mm in
the y direction at the machine speed of 15 rpm.
However, at 20 rpm, its displacement in the x direction
was higher (see Figures 11(a1) and (b2)). The literature
survey showed that as the machine speed is increased,
the impact force magnitude also increases, the period of
time during which the needle contacted the cam is shor-
tened and both the number and duration of the bounces
increases.1,21,23,24 The results were in agreement with the
findings of the literature. However, according to the
paired sample t-test conducted between the needle dis-
placement values obtained for 15 and 20 rpm machine
speeds, the machine speed was not a statistically signifi-
cant factor, providing that elastane was employed in the
production (95% significant level x: t ¼ –1.490,
p ¼ 0.148; y: t ¼ 1.199, p ¼ 0.241) (see Table 3).
Moreover, the results suggested that there was no
remarkable difference between the displacement values
of the needles depending on different elastane yarn ten-
sions. However, the findings suggested that the
580 Textile Research Journal 85(6)

Figure 9. Effect of fiber type during production with low yarn tension at 15 rpm.

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Duru et al. 581

Figure 10. Effect of elastane on needle displacement behavior and velocity at 20 rpm during production with ring cotton yarn.

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582 Textile Research Journal 85(6)

Figure 11. Effect of machine velocity on needle displacement behavior during production with ring cotton-elastane yarn.

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Duru et al.
Figure 11. Continued.
bouncing behavior of the needle had an important effect
on the velocity of the needle throughout the robbing
back. While the yarn was robbed back, the more the
needle bounced, the higher its velocity was (see Figure
11(c3)). After downward movement though the stitch
cam, the needle hit the clearing cam and then it bounced
through this very cam with the help of impact and react-
ive forces. In this example, by the agency of its high
velocity, the needle at the machine speed of 20 rpm hit
the cam faster and huge acceleration occurred
(see Figure 11(d4)). After this hit movement, the
needle butt stroked the clearing cam second time. As
the needle at the machine speed of 20 rpm bounced
longer comparing to the ones at 15 rpm, this very
needle hitting the cam was more influential so its accel-
eration was high at this second hit (see Figure 11(d5)).
Also, it was found that changing elastane yarn ten-
sion had no statistically significant effect on needle dis-
placement for the either machine speeds.
Textured polyester-elastane yarn
As far as textured polyester yarn was concerned, the
effect of addition of the elastane to the production was
more apparent when working with low yarn tension
(e.g. 3 cN), whereas its presence was not effective at
high polyester yarn tensions (e.g. 6, 9 cN) at the
machine speed of 15 rpm. In particular, working at
low machine speeds, such as 15 rpm, it was found
that elastane was not an influential parameter for
needle movement when textured polyester yarn was
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583
employed. Also, the independent t-tests conducted
between needle displacement values of the needles
working with 100% textured polyester and ‘‘textured
polyester-elastane’’ presented that there was a statistic-
ally significant difference between these two groups at
low yarn tensions (e.g. 3 cN) (95% significant level x:
t ¼ –12.134, p ¼ 0.000; y: t ¼ –5.400, p ¼ 0.001),
whereas no statistical difference was found at high
yarn tensions (x: t ¼ –0.884, p ¼ 0.386, y: t ¼ –0.844,
p ¼ 0.408) (see Table 3). On the other hand, at the
machine speed of 20 rpm, irrespective of the tension
of the textured polyester yarn, the needles bounced
more when the elastane yarn was included in the knit-
ting process. Moreover, the needle bouncing was more
evident as the tension of textured polyester yarn was
increased. For instance, the needle working with 9 cN
textured polyester yarn bounced to 1.5 mm in the x
and 0.4 mm in the y direction, whereas the one knitted
with 9 cN polyester–9 cN elastane made a displacement
of 1.8 mm in the x and of 0.6 mm in the y directions
(see Figures 12(a1) and (b2)). Both textured polyester
and elastane yarns show high elongation at break (see
Table 2). As a result, they force the needle more, which
in turn causes it to bounce more. Also, with reference
to the independent t-test, the difference between the
displacement values in both directions, that is, x and
y, of the needles working with 100% textured polyester
and textured polyester-elastane was statically signifi-
cant only for the displacement in the x direction
(95% significant level x: t ¼ –2.121, p ¼ 0.041), whereas
no significant difference was found for the bouncing
584 Textile Research Journal 85(6)

Figure 12. Effect of elastane on needle displacement behavior and velocity at 20 rpm during production with textured polyester
yarn.

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Duru et al. 585

Figure 13. Effect of machine velocity on needle displacement behavior during production with textured polyester-elastane yarn.

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586
Figure 13. Continued.
values of the needles in the y direction (95% significant
level y: t ¼ –1.315, p ¼ 0.197) (see Table 3). Also, the
study showed that when polyester yarn tension was
kept constant, there was no difference in the needle
displacement, depending on the increase in elastane
yarn tension. In addition to these findings, increasing
polyester yarn tension, by keeping elastane yarn ten-
sion constant, forced the needle to bounce more.
Finally, the needle gave higher velocity values during
robbing back when elastane-textured polyester yarn
was utilized (see Figure 12(c3)).
When the effect of machine speed on needle displace-
ment behavior of the needle was evaluated, it was found
that for low textured polyester yarn tensions increasing
machine speed caused the needle to bounce more in
both directions. For instance, at the machine speed of
15 rpm, the needle working with 3 cN textured polyes-
ter–3 cN elastane yarn bounced to 1.0 mm in the x and
0.1 mm in the y directions, whereas the one knitting at
the machine speed of 20 rpm made a displacement of
1.5 mm in the x and 0.3 mm in the y directions (see
Figures 13(a1) and (b2)). However, according to the
paired t-test results, machine speed was not an influen-
tial parameter on needle displacement behaviors at dif-
ferent machine speeds (x: t ¼ 1.674, p ¼ 0.106; y:
t ¼ 0.721, p ¼ 0.477) (see Table 3).
Depending on the machine speed, the velocity behav-
ior of the needle during robbing back was investigated
and it was found that the needle at the machine speed of
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Textile Research Journal 85(6)
20 rpm was faster in that zone compared to those at
15 rpm (see Figure 13(c3)). When the needle contacted
the clearing cam for the first time at the machine speed
of 20 rpm, it appeared that a higher force occurred in
comparison to the force at the machine speed of 15 rpm.
As a result, the acceleration of the needle at the machine
speed of 20 rpm was approximately 50% higher than
that of the needle at 15 rpm (see Figure 13(d4)). Under
the influence of this very impact force, the needle at the
machine speed of 20 rpm bounced for the second time
and hit the cam again so second acceleration took place
(see Figure 13(d5)). However, at the machine speed of
15 rpm, the needles tended to follow the cam path and
second acceleration did not arise.
Comparison of ring cotton-elastane and textured
polyester-elastane yarn results
When the elastane yarn was fed together with the ring
cotton or textured polyester yarn to the needles, the
yarn force opposite needle movement increased, and
therefore the needles tended to bounce more when com-
pared with the results of the section titled Effect of yarn
tension and machine speed. However, the needle move-
ment was somewhat different in the case of working
with different yarns, such that at low yarn tension
and at low machine speed, it was the cotton-elastane
yarn that influenced the needle bounce values more.
The needle knitting with the cotton yarn of 3 cN tension
Duru et al. 587

Figure 14. Effect of fiber type and elastane at 15 rpm.

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588
and with the elastane yarn of 6 cN tension bounced to
1.7 mm in the x and 0.6 mm in the y directions. On the
other hand, the textured polyester-elastane one, at the
same yarn tension values, caused the needle to lose its
contact with the clearing cam up to 1.3 mm in the x and
0.3 mm in the y directions (see Figures 14(a1) and (b2)).
Also, the paired sample t-test supported this finding in
such a way that there was a statistically significant dif-
ference between the needle displacement in the x and y
directions while working with low yarn tension and low
machine speed of 15 rpm (95% significant level x:
t ¼ 9.827, p ¼ 0.000; y: t ¼ 11.000, p ¼ 0.000) (see
Table 3). This may be due to the fact that low yarn
tension, in combination with higher elongation percent-
age of polyester yarn, did not have a big influence on
pulling up the needle. Also, the velocity of the needle
knitting with cotton-elastane yarns was faster during
the robbing back (see Figure 14(c3)).
When both machine speed and yarn tension were
increased, the needles working with both ring cotton-
elastane and textured polyester-elastane yarns showed
similar bounce behavior. Higher yarn tension lifts the
needles up more, and high machine speed made needles
tend to bouncing more. With the combination of these
two factors, elongation and smooth surface properties
of textured polyester yarn appeared not to be influential
parameters, like yarn tension and machine speed. In
brief, both of the needles bounced to the same distance
in the x direction but the needle producing cotton-elas-
tane yarn had greater displacement in the y direction.
Summary
The needle dynamics on an industrial circular knitting
machine was studied using a high-speed camera. The
important results of the study under discussion can be
summarized as follows.
1. The needle displacement in both x and y coordin-
ation did tend to increase as the yarn tension
increased, irrespective of machine speed.
2. For all the relevant cases discussed, the presence of
elastane yarn was a significant parameter on needle
movement. However, its input tension was not as
influential as its presence.
3. The data obtained for knitting with textured polyes-
ter yarn showed that the needle movement was
highly dependent on yarn tension.
4. Producing with cotton ring yarn made the needle
bounce more than knitting with the textured polyes-
ter yarn, especially for low yarn tension and machine
speed.
5. For all situations, the velocity of the needle was
higher at robbing back, which in turn caused a
greater displacement.
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Textile Research Journal 85(6)
Accordingly, the following may be suggested that for
a longer needle life:
. manufacturing optimized yarn would decrease the
force inside needle hook;
. working at lower machine speeds causes needles to
bounce less, which in turn results in decreasing
impact force;
. working with yarns of low frictional properties
would allow needles to follow the cam path thor-
oughly, which results in less abrasion on the cam
and needle butt.
Finally, due to the novelties of the work it may be
concluded that the study was the very first approach in
which real-time measurements regarding needle dis-
placement within a cam track were taken for an indus-
trial-type circular knitting machine thanks to the use of
a high-speed camera. In addition to that, unlike the
literature in which mostly cotton was used as a mater-
ial, and which has produced some findings for this very
material, in this work the effect of different materials,
such as textured polyester as well as elastane yarns, on
the needle displacement was discussed for an industrial-
type circular knitting machine, the important results of
which were given above.
Funding
This work was supported by the Turkish Higher Education
Council under the framework of the PhD Research Support
Program.
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to Dr Achim
Hehl from RWTH Aachen University Institut für
Textiltechnik (ITA) for his kind and valuable support.
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