P . J. F .

WINGATE
M.A., M.I.H . E. , Opera tion s G roup, Road Research l a boratory, Ministry of Transpo rt, England

USE OF CRITICAL PATH METHOD TO PLAN

AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS *
(Paper No . 278)

This report cOlltains a number of case studies of the use of the critical
path method for planning and programming road construction projects,
togeth er with a brief review of th e scope and limitations of CPM and its
practical app lication, eM a background to th e stlldy of its lise all such
projects.
Th e studies showed that th e general trelld amongst those /lsiJlg th e
critical' path m eth od in road constructio n schem es was away from the use
of large deta iled network diagrams necessitating computers and towards
small broadly based diagrams computed manually . Separate diagrams
were, however, extensively used to show in detail portions of projects,
such as bridges, wh ich required more d etailed planning. Som e use was
being made of the critical path m eth od for programming the planning and
design stages of projects as well as for th eir execution .
The m ethod was found to be a valuab le aid to the programming of
road construction projects pro vided its scope and limitations w ere realized.
Th is report also dis cusses possible futur e tren ds in th e lise of th e
critical path method. It suggests that, with greater ex perience of critical
path m eth od networks, planners m ay recognize th e particular advalltages
offered by computers and revert to th eir use.

INTRODUCTION of the problems involved in applying the

1. The general principles of the criti-
cal path m ethod (CPM) and similar tech-
niqu es for planning and progr amming are
now widely known in this country and are
being used in a variety of industries, 10-
eluding building and civil engineering. So
far, however, comparatively little use of
these techniques has been made in road
construction projects. This may be mainly
due to a general feeling that such projects
do not lend them selves to the rather pre-
cise mathematical solutions produced by
CPM, because estimates of completion
times are vulnerable to adverse weather
and site conditions. This report is a study
CPM to road construction projects and an
evalu ation of its use, based on limited
practical experience to date.
2. The report contains a brief review
of the scope and limitations of CPM and of
its practical application as a background to
the study of the particular applications to
road construction projects.
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF THE
CRITICAL PATH METHOD
3. There are two main stages in carry-
ing out a project: the planning of the
work and its execution. Each stage in-
volves the making of decisions, and CPM
is a technique which helps in the making

' ACKNOWLEDG EMENTS - T ha nks are due to the undermentio ned for the very valuable assistance
given during this study:
Richard Costain (Civil Engineering) Ltd. , W. and C. French Ltd., J ohn L a ing Construction Ltd. , Ro bert
McGregor and Sons Ltd ., The County Surveyor, Durham County Council, and The County Surveyor,
Northamptonshire County Council.
This paper is co ntri buted b y permission of the D irector of R oad Research . Crown Copyright. Re-
produced by permission of the Controller of H .M.S .O .

866 A .R.R.B. P ROCEEDINGS

 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
of these decisions. In the planning stage
it helps the creation of the plan by clarify-
ing the problem of relating duration time,
resource requirements and costs to the
practical limitations of the project. During
execution, it provides a basis for control
and helps to indicate the course of action
necessary when the plan goes wrong. CPM
provides mathematically correct solutions
in accordance with the logic and data pro-
vided. The quality of these solutions de-
pends upon the accuracy of the logic and
data . CPM is no substitute for proper
planning, good estimating and effective
control, but it does enable those concerned
to make the best use of their skill and the
available data.
4. The advantages generally claimed
for CPM are that it:
(a) compels a thorough and detailed ex-
amination of the project,
(b) provides a programme based upon
logical sequence and interdependence
of activities and restraints,
(c) pIOvides a useful and systematic
method of allocating resources to the
best advantage,
(d) provides a clear and easily under-
stood method of communicating the
engineer's plan to all concerned,
(e) indicates and emphasizes likely areas
of trouble and delay,
( f) provides a basis for reporting pro-
gress,
(g ) indicates, if progress lags, where extra
effort is required to restore progress
and where extra effort would have no
useful effect, and
( h) facilitates amendment of the pro-
gramme when the situation requires it.
APPLICATION OF THE CRITICAL PATH
METHOD TO ROAD CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS
5. Most of the plallIling problems
which arise in road construction projects
Volume 3, Part 2 (1966)
are common to other types of construc-
tion work, but they are often accentuated
by the nature of the work and the site. The
main problems are due to the vulnerability
of completion times to adverse conditions,
the extent and nature of the site and the
method of tendering.
TENDERING
6. Most road construction projects are
concerned with public highways and the
form of tendering for such works almost
entirely excludes the contractor from any
participation in the design stages. Not until
he receives the tender documents does the
contractor obtain any detailed knowledge
of the project. Some of the information
contained in these documents, which will
have a considerable bearing on his plan, is
incomplete and provisional. This applies
particularly to information on the location
of statutory undertakings' services and the
work required to relocate them, dates for
entry on to land, the site survey etc. About
two months is usually allowed for the pre-
paration and submission of the tender,
which includes not only pricing the bill of
quantities but planning the work and mak-
ing arrangements for supply of materials,
sites for spoil dumps and offices, and sub-
contracts . The contractor is therefore
faced with the problems of producing in a
relatively short time a plan which is de-
tailed enough for the estimators to make
a precisely calculated and competitive bid,
yet broad and flexible enough to allow for
changes in some of the basic information
upon which it is based. These two require-
ments are conflicting. CPM shows to best
advantage in detailed planning and may
require extensive revision if changes have
to be made in the basic logic, but other
methods of planning offer no special ad-
vantages in this respect.
NATURE AND CONDITION OF THE SITE
7. Road construction sites, particu-
larly on major projects, may by their
867
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTR UCTION PROJECTS
length traverse areas with considerable dif-
ferences in topographical and geological
conditions. The forme r are obviously ap-
parent and can be al lowed for in planning,
but the latter often are not revealed until
the ground is opened up, despite extensive
soil surveys . Unexpected conditions will
upset any programme, whether based upon
CPM or not, but, if extensive revision does
become necessary, the effects of unexpected
changes on other parts of the programme
are very clearly indicated on a network
programme. The problems encountered
differ with the type of project; thus a re-
construction over the original alignment is
usually more complex than construction
over a new alignment. Reconstruction has
greater problems with the maintenance of
traffic flow, not only across the site but
along it and this in turn makes the re-
location of statutory undertakings' services
more complicated, particularly if changes
in levels between the old and new road
are necessary. Bridges and junctions can
produce difficult problems of timing which
are particu larly suitable for solution by
CPM. The main difficulty is usually un-
certainty about the exact location of the
underground services, complicated by the
fact that it is often necessary to move the
services very early in the contract. Un-
expected conditions at this time may throw
out the whole programme. On new align-
ments these problems still exist but not to
the same degree.
ESTIM A TION OF COMPLETI ON TI M ES
8. The problem of variations from the
estimated completion times of different
activities is present in any form of manu-
facturing and construction work, but is
probably most acute in road construction
since the site is a natural one and is ex-
posed to the weather the whole time. Esti-
mation of completion times should follow
established practice, i.e. it should be based
upon past experiences and varied by the
868
special conditions of the contract such as
the nature and condition of the soil, time
of year at which each activity is likely to
be carried out, local climate etc. The
method of programming should be suf-
ficiently flexible to allow completion times
to be altered with a minimum of replan-
ning. CPM meets this requirement satis-
factorily, provided the basic logic of the
network is unaltered ; new completion
times can be inserted and their effects on
th e subsequent works determined very
easily. The lines upon which any replan-
ning should follow are also made clear. The
vulnerability of completion times to the
effects of weather is probably the least re-
levant argument against the use of CPM
on road construction projects; instead it is
one of the most compelling in its favour.
9. Other problems may arise which
involve difficulties of timing. Portions of
the site may be particularly vulnerable to
wet weather and may need completion
during the most likely dry periods. A con -
crete pavement needs careful timing so that
the p aving train can run through with the
minimum of moves. CPM planning shows
with great clarity the effects of such time
restraints and possible difficulties.
DETA IL RE QUIRED
10. There does not seem to be any
great advantage in preparing the network
for the whole of a road construction pro-
ject in great detail. It is probably better
to base acti vi ties on collective operations,
otherwise it is difficult to know where to
sto p in the breakdown of activities. This
helps to retain the flexibility necessary to
deal with minor day to day changes which
are likely to occur owing to changes in con-
ditions on site, without altering the actual
programme. Where greater detail is re-
quired, for structures and areas where diffi-
cu lt problems of timing may arise, separate
diagrams can be used. It is also helpful to
show extensive operations such as drain-
A.R.R .B. PROCEEDINGS
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
age on separate di agrams. They can be
shown in broad outline on the main dia-
gram, while on the su bsidiary diagram
greater detail can be used to show move-
ment of labou r groups, plant etc. and a
breakdown of activities. Only activities and
restraints which really affect the main dia-
gram need be shown on it. T he subsidi ary
diagram will indicate those peculiar to the
type of operation dep icted.
11. The amount of detail and number
of activities shown on the main diagram
will generall y determine whether a com-
puter should be used . Generally, networks
for road construction projects do not h ave
a large number of activities, so manual
computation is usually possible. However,
the use of a computer does facilitate the
resource all ocation and future revisions,
and these factors should be considered
when the decision on the use of a com-
p uter is made. F urthermore, the com-
puter print-out is a very useful document
fo r communication and control.
THE CRITICAL PATH
12. Road construction projects tend to
confo rm to a general pattern, i.e. concen-
trations of work at bridge sites, junctions,
etc., linked by conti nu ous activities such
as earthworks , drainage, pavement con-
struction , etc. along the site. Work is
usually started more or less simultaneously
at these different points of concentrated
effort and to so me extent is continu ed in-
dependently of work at other points, but
gradually becoming more and more inter-
dependent as tim e advances. T he general
pattern of the network therefore resolves
itself into a number of semi-independent
networks at bridge areas etc. linked by
dumm y activiti es and normal activities
along th e carriageways. Precise planning
wi ll generally res ult in one critical path
which may move from one area to another
th rough the dummy activities. There are,
however , likely to be other paths (at least
Vo lum e 3, P art 2 ( 1966 )
one per area network) which are nearly
critical and which would become so if
even a short delay occurred in one or more
of their activi ties . In the practical applica-
tio n of CPM it is preferable to make these
near-criti cal paths critical by slight in-
creases in completion times, thus introduc-
in g several criti cal paths into the network.
This is qui te logical and could always occur
by chance in the most precisely calculated
network. The reason for doing this is that
it shows how delays on part of the site
may affect work on another and forewarns
the engin eer in charge how and where
trouble may develop. A n alternative way
of dealing with this is to mark th e near-
cri tical paths in a distinctive manner so
that they may be distinguished from the
non-critical paths. Whether a path is near-
criti cal or not can be detern1in ed b y some
arbitrary standard such as the total flo at
being less than a certain amount or less
th an a certain percentage of the total
co mpl etion time in the path.
PRESENTATION
13. Because road construction projects
tend to conform to a set pattern, network
diagrams are particularly adaptable to pre-
sentati on on a locati on bas is which greatly
increases their clarity and usefulness as a
means of comm uni cation of the pl an (this
is of course already done in th e more
ophi sticated forms of bar charts). The
CPM convention of tim e advancing from
left to right across the diagram is~ main-
tained, but instead of a haphazard group-
ing of chains of activities all over the dia-
gram they are located in the same relative
positions in whi ch they occur on the site.
On the verti cal left-hand m argin of the dia-
gra m a scale plan of the site is drawn with
particular features marked , i.e. bridges,
junctions, service crossi ngs, areas of cut
and fill , layout of drainage etc. Chains of
activiti es are th en drawn against the rele-
vant point in the plan. Acti vities at points
such as bridges are shown horizontally, and
869
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTlO
continuous activities such as earthworks are
shown by slanting lines drawn from the
point in time at which work starts on the
site to the finishing point. Dummy activi-
ties are shown by dotted slanting lines
connecting the relevant events. Detailed
bridge diagrams can often be shown in the
sa me way using a formalized plan of the
bridge in the left-hand margin.
14. In general, time spent on presenta-
tion of the final network diagrams is well
worthwhile. They should be well anno-
tated to indicate restraints such as the use
of roads by traffic, switching of traffic to
new construction or diversions, dates of
entry onto land , moves of services, and
moves of plant, equipment and labour
gangs. These may have already been in-
cluded as dummy activities, but if time and
effort are consumed , e.g. when a concrete
trai n is moved from one carriageway to
another, they become normal activities with
a completion time.
15 . The general pattern of CPM plan-
ning therefore evolves on conventional
lines. Duri ng tendering, a broadly based
network is produced from the avail able
data and developed to give the require-
ments of resources with, if possible, de-
tailed networks for the more definite por-
tion s of the project, such as the bridges.
On acceptance of the tender, the network
is reviewed as soon as the missing and
incomplete data are obtained and con-
firmed . Greater detai l will probably be put
into the network and further subsidiary
diagrams drawn as required. As work on
the project proceeds, progress is com-
pared with the programme and the latter
is updated where necessary.
CA SE STU DIES O F THE US E OF THE CRITIC AL
PATH METHOD ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION
PROJECTS
16. On the different projects visited,
CPM was being applied in many different
870
PROJECTS
ways, but in the course of the investiga-
tions one fact in particular emerged: as
experience in the use of CPM was gained
there was a general trend away from the
conventional method of detailed applica-
tion towards simpler methods , more in
keeping with the practical, site-office ap-
proach needed by the engineer in charge.
F in ality in this had not been reached and
the method s employed were largely influ-
enced by the size, organization, experience
in the use of CPM and method of work-
ing of each contractor.
PROJ ECT A : NEW DUAL CARRIAGEWAY ROAD
17. The contractor (a medium-sized
firm) was making his first use of CPM on
this contract. Planning was approached on
conventional lines, and a very detailed net-
work was p roduced and processed by a
computer using a simple programme. Re-
visions were also made on a computer. This
project was not studied in any detail. The
contractor's experience on this project
showed that the use of CPM was well
worthwhile, but the approach had been
too elaborate. A more simple approach
was therefore tri ed out on his next con-
tract, project B.
PROJ ECT B: RECONSTRUCTION TO DUAL
CARRIAGEWAYS
] 8. This contract was for the recon-
structi on of an existing straight, narrow,
undul ating, heavily trafficked road to dual
carriageways with improved levels and
grade separation at junctions. Concrete
construction was specified for the carriage-
ways. This project contained most of the
cl assic problems, i.e. mainten ance of flow
of a large volume of traffic through th e
site at all times (diversions off the align-
ment were virtually impossible owing to
the unsuitability of alternative routes
through the area), services crossing at
right angles at road junctions and in-
adequately recorded, delayed land entry at
one bridge site, a soil which became un-
A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS
 WINGATE - C PM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION P R OJECTS
workable when wet, a bad starting date
(January 1 ) and a form of pavement con-
struction which could not be laid in short
lengths. In addition , there was bad weather
up to the middle of April. The contractor
was able to release the agent designate for
th e tender planning and he produced a net-
work di agram on rather broad lines on a
ca lend ar time basis for the bid. Bridges
were shown as single activities based upon
detail ed networks drawn by the contrac-
tor's bridge engineer. The bridge areas
stood out as the main centres of work
during th e first third of the two-year con-
tract period , with the construction of the
pavement as the main work for the re-
maind er of the period . Provision was
made for work being stopped during three
winter months, completion times were only
roughly calculated and the network was
not arithmetically computed but drawn
onto the time scale from the logic dia-
gram ; it was, in fact, computed graphically.
No critical path or fioat was shown. The
requirements of the main resources were
assessed by means of histograms.
19. On acceptance of the tender the
programme was put into operation but im-
mediately ran into difficulties because of
the weather and complications over moves
of services. The agent set abou t re-plan-
ning th e programm e in grea ter detail, but
owing to pressure of work (he had no
planning assistant to do it) he was unable
to complete the re-planning until about the
middle of March . The revi sed plan, which
took into account all known restraints,
was essentially simil ar to the tender plan
but was more deta iled (it contained 164
activities instead of the 126 of the ori ginal) .
It was drawn on a calendar time scale using
a time un it of one week. Float was shown ,
but no moves of plant, though these were
mostly readi ly apparent. It was not fo und
necessa ry to make any changes to the
bridge diagrams.
Volume 3, P a rt 2 ( 1966)
20. Owing to initial delays du e to the
weather and other complications, progress
lagged behind the programme. However,
with the coming of better weather progress
improved considerably but it was decided
not to make any revision of the network
until about August. This was done for
several reasons: the work, although behind
schedule, was catching up and adju stments
to timings were quite adequate to provide
th e necessary short-term guidance, and a
revision at this stage did not seem worth
the time and effort th at would be entailed.
Also, as the key operations - the con-
struction of the bridges - were proceed-
in g sati sfactorily, it was felt better to wait
until the completion of these was in sight
before progress and future work were sub-
stantially reviewed. As work proceeded,
minor adjustments were made to the logic
sequences to assist progress.
2 1. The major review was made in mid-
August and the remainder of the network
was recast upon the basis of progress to
date. Th e later part of the programme had
always been considered somewhat pro-
visional. Some alterations were made to
the basic logic, mainly to make up for lack
of progress in some portions of the pro-
ject, to allow for changes in the logic al-
ready made, and to make provision for
so me work durin g the winter period. Non-
critical activities during thi s period were
given ample fioat, and the one critical ac-
tivity was safeguard ed with a generous
completion time. In tbe event, laying of
co ncrete pavements was continued into
December.
22. Work was carried on during the
second yea r in general accordance with the
network programm e and no major revisions
were mad e. Minor changes were made on
two diversions which enabled excavation
and concreting on the main carriageways
to be speeded up. Des pite cement short-
ages, the concrete carriageways were com-
87 1
 WI GATE - CPM TO PLA AND CONTROL RO AD CONSTRUCTIO
pleted about four weeks ahead of schedule.
Joint-seaLing proved to be a bottleneck but
a generous allowance of time in the pro-
gramme for curing prevented this from
causing any delay.
23. T he contractor's approach to this
project was partly dictated by the small
number of staff employed, but experience on
project A had shown that flexibility in the
use of CPM was essential and that the agent
should not become the slave of the net-
work programme. Detailed planning was
very necessary since work at the bridge
areas required precise timing and inter-
dependence of activities. The agent, how-
ever, used the network mainly as a guide
and appreciated, very rightly in this case,
that frequent revisions would not have any
practical use. His major revision was
timed for a point when substantial progress
had been achieved and the emphasis of
work was changing from bridge to carriage-
way construction. Although a schedule of
events and times was drawn up in the con-
ventional manner, virtually no use was
made of it once the network had been
completed on a time scale. The computa-
tion of the revision was carried out entirely
graph ically, in fact as it was being drawn
out. A further review, which was to have
been carried out when work was largely
stopped by the winter, was found to be
unnecessary.
PROJECT c: RECONSTRUCTION TO DUAL
CARRIAGEWAYS
24. This contract (by the same con-
tractor as for projects A and B) was the
dualling of a heavily trafficked trunk road,
using concrete construction, and included
a length of by-pass over a new alignment.
The site was in a low lying flood plain so
the road was designed to be carried on a
low embankment built from self-draining
imported fill. The only excavation was for
bridge foundations and removal of unsu it-
able material. There were five small bridges
872
PROJECTS
in the project. There was little cross traffic
over the site and alterations to under-
gro und services were not extensive. The
agent designated carried out the tender
planning using CPM networks of 40 to 50
activities. Three alternative networks were
drawn to study different methods of phas-
ing the work. Separate, more detailed
bridge diagrams were used, two on one
sheet and three on another, to allow the
diagrams to be linked through moves of
sh uttering etc. Bridge construction could
be phased into the embankment construc-
tion and paving programmes at the most
suitab le times. The networks were drawn
against a time scale and were manually
computed. Resources were assessed suf-
ficiently for estimating purposes.
25. A serious difficuity arose over the
source of the imported fill at the start of
the contract. Because of this, construc-
tion of the embankments was lagging con-
siderably behind the tender programme
when the agent started on his firm plan. It
was also found that the quantity of un-
suitable material to be removed was about
double the estimated amount. Owing to
these unresolved problems the agent drew
up a new plan, on very similar lines to
hi s tender plan, against a horizontal time
scale and vertical site plan. No float was
shown as the agent preferred not to reveal
this (details of float were of course shown
on the manual tabulation). Before this
plan was complete a further complication
arose, in that it was decided to use the
project as a full scale trial of a slip form
paver. Another programme was drawn up
to all ow for this , but it was never really
used. Long term planning had to be sub-
ordinated to th e short term needs of the
trial.
26. The agent considered that CPM
had been particularly useful during ten-
dering since it enabled him to investigate,
very rapidly , different methods of carrying
A.R.R.B. PROCE ED INGS
 WINGATE - C PM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
out the project. In its original form , the
project had no particular complications and
the use of a broadly based network with a
small number of activities seemed to be
the right solution.
PROJECT D: MOTORWAY
27 . The contract for this project fin-
is hed at the lean concrete base level (a
separate contract was to be let for the re-
mainder of the work). Bridges and ser-
vices produced no special complications.
The contractor (a large firm) had previous
experie nce of CPM and maintains a large
planning section which carried out the
planning at the tender stage. The main
programme consisted of a CPM network
on a ca lendar time basis, with completion
times roughly estimated. Detailed networks
were drawn for the bridges. On acceptance
of the contract, the planning engineer ap-
pointed to the contract revised the pro-
gramme and bridge networks in the light
of additional information. The main pro-
gramme was drawn in the form of a linked
bar chart with activities shown against
their location on a plan of the site (show-
ing location of bridges and cut and fill
areas). It was in effect a modified network
diagram and included considerable use of
dummy activities. Events were not num-
bered and no schedule of activities was
prepared (computation was graphical). In
general, the presentation of all diagrams
was excellent, and they were of a conveni-
ent size for handling.
28. For his own reasons, the contrac-
tor planned to complete the project two
months ahead of the contract date, and to
achieve this he virtually had to make all
activities critical. When this was done, no
critical paths were shown on the diagrams.
The main diagram was on broad lines and
a separate one was produced to show the
ea rthworks and drainage in detail. The
separate bridge diagram s were reviewed
and two were drawn for each bridge: one
Volume 3, P art 2 ( 1966 )
was a pure logic diagram showing move-
ment of form work but with no other re-
straints; the second diagram, which was the
working programme, included all restraints
and was based upon a realistic allocation
of resources. In later revisions only the
second diagram was altered and issued.
R esource requirements were planned from
the diagrams and recorded on them in
histogram form . Movements of resources
such as plant and labour were recorded by
notes at appropriate points. The diagrams
were given a wide distribution in addition
to being well displayed in the planning en-
gineer's office. They were used to record
progress and were the basis of planning by
site engineers and foremen.
29. The plan for the project was largely
based upon the sequences for the bridge
construction, and no particular difficulties
were anticipated on the earthworks even
though large volumes were involved. Be-
cause of the very ti ght, self-imposed sched-
ule, and the fact th at virtually every activ-
ity had been made critical, it was found
necessary to make frequent revisions of
the programme at intervals of four to five
weeks. Opportunity was taken at these re-
visions to improve the form of presenta-
tion of the programme, so the later edi-
tions differ somewhat in layout from the
earlier ones. The final form adopted was
that described earlier (para. 13).
30. Progress was well maintained for
the first ten months ( up to early in the
fir st summer) but then a problem arose
which eventually caused a major delay and
completely upset the earthworks pro-
gramme. The bulk of the material to be
placed in the embankments was a marl
which was very difficult to compact to
specification unless the moisture content
was exactly right. The dry summer and
the laying of the marl in thin layers (as
required in the specification) caused it to
dry out rapidly and considerable difficulty
873
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
was experienced in bringing it up to the
correct moisture content. The difficulty
became so acute that forward planning be-
came impossible. T he earthworks part of
the CPM diagram had to be abandoned
but the bridgeworks were continued largely
accordin g to plan , except where they were
affected by the earthworks. A further
difficulty arose owing to changes in the
design of a service area and this was not
resolved until late in the contract. Eventu-
ally an extension of 16 weeks had to be
granted.
31. T he fact that the plan broke down
was not the fa ult of the technique or those
who applied it. The situation became such
that forward planning of the earthworks by
any method became impossible. To have
continued to revise the diagrams to the
rapidly changing situation would merely
have been to record past history. The
value of CPM is shown by the fact that
individual bridge construction could still
follow the network diagrams and that the
sequ ence of bridge construction in the main
plan still remai ned largely valid . Difficul-
ties on bridge construction due to failure
of the earthworks programme were clearly
seen and the course of action could be de-
termined .
32. The contractor adapted and de-
veloped the CPM technique to meet his
particular needs on this project. Because
of the tight schedule he needed the close
control which CPM gave him, though at
the expense of frequent revisions of the
networks. These must have absorbed a
great deal of time and effort not only by
the planning engineer but also by the
drawing office staff. This was a project on
which the use of a computer might have
been well worthwhile, if only for the re-
visions. A suitable programme would also
have saved the extensive redrawing by giv-
ing the print-out in bar chart form.
874
PROJECT E: NEW DUAL CARRIAGEWAY ROAD
33. The construction of this road, over
a new alignment, call ed for some grade
separation and several bridges including
one over a single line railway. Like pro-
ject C, the whole of the carriageway was
carried on embankment and the only ex-
cavation was for bridge foundations and
removal of some unsuitable soil. The con-
tractor was the sa me as that for project D.
34. Preliminary planning was carried
out in the contractor's head office. A two
months' delay in the acceptance of the
tender allowed the contractor to review the
pl anning before the work was started. This
was done by the project chief engineer
who was subsequently responsible for
planning and progressing the contract.
35. The construction of the embank-
ments presented no particular difficulties,
and there were no special time restraints
so it was decided to base the programme
entirely on the most convenient timings for
the bridge construction. The bridges were
all of different design and allowed little
in terchange of shuttering. The supply of
concrete was the main problem (there
were ten different mixes required) so the
periods during which bridges were con-
structed were adjusted to produce as level
a demand for concrete as possible. Other
resources were also considered, particularly
the requirement of cranes, but were largely
subordinated to the demand for concrete.
With the relative positions in time of the
bridges settled , the main programme was
then drawn up. The rate of embankment
construction was based upon an economi-
cal rate of output from the borrow pits
and the maintenance of the embankments
at a roughly equal level during construc-
tion along the site. The final main pro-
gramme was virtually a bar chart (but
based upon a network) drawn to a weekly
time scale. 0 critical path was shown.
The pavement construction (flexible) was
A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRU CTION PROJECTS
only shown in very broad outline since
this presented no planning problems. The
duration time of the project as planned
was about 25 per cent less than the con-
tract time.
36. At the start of the project progress
was extremely good. The site was poten-
tially very wet, but the dry summer had
reduced the level of the water table so ad-
vantage was taken of this to advance the
foundation construction of one of the
bridges, and the main diagram was amend-
ed to show this. There were some minor
changes in embankment construction,
partly due to difficulty of access to one
part of the site, but mainly because the
output of the borrow pits was stepped up.
Later, however, there was an unexpected
failure to obtain planning permission for
the use of a further source of imported
fi ll. Construction of the embankments was
reduced to a very slow rate while alter-
native so urces were sought. Work on the
bridges was continued according to the
programme but progress slipped behind
slightly, particularly on one major bridge,
owing to unforeseen complications in its
construction. Although the programme had
been based upon full completion of each
bridge before subsequent activities were to
be started, it was . found that these could
in fact be started before the bridges were
entirely complete and no time was lost.
Delay on the embankments did not materi-
ally affect the bridge construction, but the
tentative paving plan, which had envisaged
a continuous run through for each layer
from end to end, had to be abandoned for
piecemeal work as lengths of embankment
became avai lable. However, it was antici-
pated that the project would be completed
within the time the contractor had origin-
ally planned .
37. Again, th is appeared to be a
straightforward project which would not
need a very detailed programme. The main
Volume 3, Part 2 (1966)
programme and the detailed bridge net-
works were always available to the sub-
agents , but in fact they planned their own
work from bar charts covering three
months' work which were drawn from the
main programme by the . chief engineer.
Foremen were given similar bar charts
covering two weeks' work (issued weekly) .
In planning the project the contractor took
full advantage of the resource allocation
characteristic of CPM.
38. It had been anticipated that no
major revision of the programme would be
necessary. When the source of imported
fill failed, the CPM programme clearly
showed th at the main framework - the
construction of the bridges - would be
un affected, and that emergency action for
drawing up a whole new programme was
not required . E mbankment construction
could be carried on as fill became avail-
able. The tentative plan for paving was
altered to fit the new circumstances, but
fortunately the paving sub-contractor was
also working on an adjoining contract and
was able to adjust his output between the
two projects.
PROJECT F: MOTORWAY
39. The contractor for this project was
a large firm with a planning department
and experience of CPM on construction
work. Only limited use of CPM was made
on this project. The main programme was
a sophisticated form of bar chart developed
by the contractor, drawn on a time and
location basis, but network diagrams were
used for individual bridges. In this con-
tract there were no important outside re-
straints, and the order and time of con-
struction of the bridges could be arranged
entirely at the contractor's convenience.
This was a considerable advantage since
part of the pavement was to be constructed
in concrete. It was considered that it was
in correct to base a logic network on purely
arbitrary decisions which could be altered
875
 WINGATE - C PM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
at will. The method of programming gave
adequate but flexibl e control and a good
means of resource allocation. Control on
the contract was exercised firmly by a pro-
ject planning engineer and two assistants.
It was, however, considered that in the
later stages of the contract, when comple-
tion on time finally depended upon com-
pletion of a number of converging activi-
ties , a network diagram would be drawn
to ensure adequate control at this critical
stage. In the event, this was not found to
be necessary.
40. On this project, the contractor was
still experimenting with CPM for road
construction and he had a well tried and
satisfactory alternative method of program-
ming. The circumstances of the project did
not warrant a tight, rigid plan and schedule
in the early stages . He did appreciate how-
ever, th at in the latter stages more definite
planning might become necessary and that
CPM would be the best method of achiev-
ing it. However, a broadly based CPM
network could well have been substituted
for his own type of programming technique
from the very beginning, and should prob-
lems have arisen CPM would more likely
have indicated their solution.
PROJE CT G : NEW DUAL CA RR IAG EWA Y ROAD
41 . This project was a by-pass about 5
miles long with two-lane dual carriageways
and concrete pavements. It had grade-
separated roundabouts at either end and
grade separation at all crossings through-
out its length. The route lay partly through
low lying agricultural land and partly
through a built-up area, but had been pro-
tected by the county plan. There were
considerable problems over the relocation
of statutory undertakin gs' services, the full
extent of which were not apparent at the
time of tendering. The contractor was a
large firm making its second full scale use
of CPM on a road construction project.
876
42. The tender programme was a con-
ventional bar chart drawn up by the con-
tract planning engineer. Work on a CPM
network was started in M arch , as soon as
the contract was let by the planning en-
gineer in conjunction with a consultant. A
very detailed examination of the project
was made and the resultant network con-
tained over 2,000 activlues (including
dummies) . Everything was contained in
one large diagram (some 16 ft long); it
was not drawn to a time scale nor was any
location separation used. Estimated com-
pletion times were given in days. The
general basis of the pl an was to space out
th e construction of the bridges to the
period s most convenient for the contractor
within the limitations imposed by other
factors, such as maintenance of traffic
across the site, relocation of the under-
ground services, th e earthworks , and the
need to allow the concreting train an un-
interrupted run. It was known that a con-
siderable amount of soil would have to be
rejected as unsuitable. Naturally, a com-
puter was used to compute the large net-
work , and the programme required separ-
ate run s for solving the netwo rk and
allocating resources. The first run for
durati on time gave an excessive and un-
acceptable answer largely owing to re-
straints imposed upon earthworks during
th e winter months. The network was ad-
justed manually, using more realistic inter-
pretations of the restraints, and a second
run on the computer gave a sati sfactory
duration time. The resource allocation
run (for the more important resources
only ) was then made. This planning took
about four months to complete. Subse-
quently, some re-pl anning of the carriage-
way construction was carried out and this
part of the network was re-drawn . This
re-planning was the result of second
thoughts and was not caused by events
occurring during the execution of the pro-
ject.
A.R.R.B . PROCEED INGS
 WINGATE - CPM T O PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
43. Little use was made of the actual
network diagram, the computer print-out
being the main reference document. This
showed the sched uled starting time, latest
starting tim e and latest finishing time for
all activities, marked the critical activities
and gave the resources required where
these were assessed . Activities were listed
in order of their scheduled starting time
and increasing amount of float.
44. During the early stages of the pro-
ject several minor changes were made in
the logic of the network, but it was not
re-computed. The main reason for the
changes was to take advantage of the dry
summer and autumn by pressing ahead
with earthworks wherever possible. Changes
were also necessary because the amount of
unsuitable material to be removed was
found to be considerably more than had
been estimated. Others were made because
of compli cations both in the construction
of retaining walls in a narrow cutting and
on the moves of underground services.
45. It was anticipated that an extensive
review and revision of the programme
would be necessary during the first winter.
However, progress was so good that no
changes were required and work was con-
tinued after the winter on the lines of the
programme as it stood . Completion of the
project was expected to take place about
four months ahead of schedule.
46. Progress was recorded on the chart
and the print-out by marking off com-
pleted activities , the information being ob-
tained at weekly conferences. There was
no special progressing routine organized
on the basis of the network.
47. This contractor's use of CPM was
rather different from that of the others
visited. The network was complex and not
used outside the pl anning engineer's office,
except for copies sent to the resident en-
gineer and head office. Distribution of the
Vol um e 3, P art 2 ( 1966)
print-out was similarly limited since only
three copies were available. Planning from
the programme using the print-out was
carried out mainly at the weekly confer-
ence. The contractor, however, considered
that the very detailed approach was well
worth the effort put into it. It revealed not
only the major problems on the project but
also the smaller details which might other-
wise have been overlooked only to cause
trouble later. It was considered that separ-
ate diagrams for structures, etc. were not
necessary. Since every aspect of the pro-
ject was considered in equal detail this was
logical, and was more convenient for solv-
ing the network on the computer. It did ,
however, result in an unwieldy and com-
plicated diagram which was little used ex-
cept by the planning engineer. The com-
puter print-out, however, was invaluable.
The extra cost of the CPM planning was
considered to be small compared with the
cost of the project (some £Sterling31h
million) and the benefits obtained. The re-
source allocation alone, if done by normal
manual methods, would have been a
Jengthy and unreliable process. Once the
data were on the cards, revision was simple
and cheap. The use of the network, was,
like that of other contractors using CPM,
realistic and flexible.
PROJECT H : RECONSTRUCTION TO DUAL
CARRIAGEWAYS
48. The project was the dualling of a
length of class 1 road feeding a motorway
and was carried out by the direct labour
force of a county surveyor. A preliminary
logic network was drawn to ascertain
whether or not the project could be carried
out economically by the available direct
labour force within the time allowed. The
network was computed both manually and
on a computer and assessed for labour re-
quirements. The solution confirmed that
direct labour could meet the requirement.
A second network was drawn in greater de-
tail , based upon an outline plan devised
877
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
by the engineer in charge, which would
maintain traffic flow without interruption
throughout the duration of the job. Com-
putation of this network revealed some
discrepancies in the logic, so it was revised
to correct these and re-computed. The net-
works were drawn against a time scale
(one-day units) with activity times already
estimated. The networks were adjusted as
drawing proceeded so that the duration
time equalled the allowed period (120
days) and no further adjustment for this
was required. In effect, graphical com-
putation was used for the critical path, but
the computer was needed to give the re-
maining information since the number of
activities (750) was far too great for
manual method s. Only a simple print-out
was obtained.
49. The county surveyor's department
had had little experience of CPM but had
a considerable amount of data on the
labour and plant content and standard
minute values of jobs, accumulated by its
work study section. It was decided, there-
fore, to base the breakdown of activities
and all estimated completion times on
these data and for this reason a very de-
tailed network was used. The use of these
estimates based upon work-measurement
studies gave the planner (the work study
engineer) considerable confidence in his
programme and, in the event, the duration
time was only very slightly exceeded . One
revision was made on the computer during
the execution of the project.
50. Neither the engineer in charge nor
his foreman had previously had any know-
ledge of CPM, but both found the network
programme of considerable help through-
out in timing material supply, plant require-
ments and the movement of labour to and
from other works in the county as the
labour requirement on the job varied.
51. The cost of the planning, including
the computer time, was approximately 0.35
878
per cent of the total cost of the project
(£ Sterling152,000) and of this about one-
third could fairly be attributable to the
training of those concerned in the use of
CPM.
52. Further uses of CPM within the de-
partment are being investigated, including
programming of design work, maintenance
sched ules and new construction projects.
The second phase of the dualling of the
feeder road is also being planned with
CPM.
CASE J : PROGRAMMING THE DESIGN STAGE OF
PROJECTS
53 . A county highway department was
faced with a four-fold increase in its an-
nual volume of work and a deadline of
five years in which to spend a special allo-
cation of funds. A study of the manpower
required showed that very careful organiza-
tion of the design stage of the programme
would be necessary to bring projects to the
construction stage early enough for the
funds to be spent. The department already
had experience of the use of computers so
it was decided to make use of computer-
based critical-path networks to plan the
programme. A three-man project planning
unit was set up to do this.
54. Five different sections were involved
in the whole county programme: direct
labour, bridges; traffic planning and
laboratory ; motorways; trunk classified
roads. The project planners had to work
in close co-operation with the principal
officers of the five sections , who provided
the data on which the networks were based.
The data consisted of target dates, details
of legal procedures and design processes
(which included tasks to be carried out by
the Ministry of Transport and other depart-
ments) and information on the staff and
time required to accomplish these tasks.
55. The first step was to draw out the
whole motorway programme on a CPM
network, as this was the immediate work
A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS
 WINGATE - C PM TO PLA AND CO TROL ROAD CONSTR UCTIO
and was already in progress. The remain-
der of the programme (special priority
projects, conurbation projects, normal road
programme projects over £ Sterling 100,000
and other projects under £SterlinglOO,OOO)
was phased in broadly at suitable times
according to priorities allotted. Networks
were then drawn for these other projects.
After close checks had been made of all
networks to ensure the logic was correct
and all necessary procedures and processes
had been included, timings were added (on
the computer) and the networks adjusted
to comply as far as possible with the given
target dates. Staff requirements were then
assessed and adjustments made to ensure
that the best use was made of staff available.
These adjustments included alterations to the
networks and to the numbers of staff allot-
ted to individual activities. Where consider-
able float time was available it was often
useful to reduce the numbers employed on
the relevant activities, thus releasing staff
for other work and absorbing the float. On
the other hand , it was sometimes prefer-
able to increase the staff and speed up
activities, thus releasing whole teams for
other work, earlier. To control the deploy-
ment of staff, charts were drawn up show-
ing what each man would be working on
at any given time. Any necessary re-
deployment of staff to meet changing con-
ditions could be clearly seen on these
charts which covered a period up to six
months ahead. Only engineers were shown
on these charts - draughtsmen were not
included.
56. The programme was monitored so
that each project came under scrutiny
about once every two months. Monitoring
consisted of very careful checks by the
head of the project planning unit in con-
junction with all concerned including any
outside departments involved. Progress
was checked and alterations to the logic
sequences and staff deployment were made
Volume 3, Part 2 ( 1966)
PROJECTS
as necessary. Networks were re-computed
if significant changes were made. Records
were kept of progress made and this was
shown in outline on lists of projects by
recording against target dates the actual
completion dates of key stages.
57. A specially adapted programme
was used for computing the networks and
gave the following:
(a) earliest and latest starting and finish-
ing times as calendar dates,
(b) very full activity descriptions,
(c) choice of time units: months, weeks
or days (five- or six-day working
weeks) ,
(d) choice of print-outs: master, critical,
section or team,
(e) references to reports, and
(f) skeleton master print-outs for quick
checking of revisions.
58 . The skeleton print-out proved ex-
tremely useful. It allowed the engineer
concerned to check that the logic and data
of a revision were correct before a full run
and print-out were made.
59. A year's experience in the use of
the system has shown that the effort put in
to devising and operating it has been in-
valuable in enabling management to keep
control of this large and expanding pro-
gramme. Without this use of CPM it
wou ld have been almost impossible to
plan the work with any degree of certainty,
and forecasts of expenditure of funds and
starting dates for construction work could
have been seriously wrong. The efficacy of
the system has been shown by the fact that
progress has kept remarkably close to the
programm e, that changes have been fore-
seen well in advance and that generally
schemes have been brought to the con-
struction stage quicker than in the past.
CASE K: DIREC T LAB O UR PRO J ECTS
60. As a second stage in the application
of CPM, the county highway authority
879
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
concerned in case J above has started to
use CPM on its direct labour projects,
which vary widely in size. The use of the
technique was still in the experimental
stage and no attempt had been made to
optimize resource allocation through CPM.
Networks were broadly based and com-
puted on a computer. The planning sys-
tem used was different from the other pro-
jects studied in that the engineer con-
cerned only listed the activities together
with their completion times, and indicated
against each activity those which immedi-
ately preceded it. The actual network was
drawn by the project planning unit using
the information provided by the engineer.
The system saved the engineer a consider-
able amount of time, but very careful
thought was required in making out the
li sts.
61. The actlVlty lists, which also
showed quantities and estimated costs of
activities, will be used to record expendi-
ture.
62. So far, these networks have only
been used by the engineer himself and have
not been used to communicate the plan to
subordinates.
COST OF USING THE CRITICAL PATH METHOD
63. Except in the case of project H, it
was difficult to determine the extra cost of
the CPM planning over normal methods.
The figure of 0.35 per cent of the total cost
of project H included the initial training
of the staff in the use of CPM. Omitting
this, the true cost was more nearly 0.22
per cent. It is thought that the cost is
unlikely to exceed 0.25 per cent of the
total cost of a project, even when a com-
puter is used. This amount might well be
less than the labour, plant and overhead
costs for one week. If one week could be
saved on the duration time, the extra cost
of CPM planning could thus be covered.
880
LESSONS LEARNT
64. Although the different users have
developed their own individual ways of
app lying CPM their experience does point
to certain basic principles which have a
common appli cation in road construction.
These are:
(a) CPM can be a very flexible planning
method and full advantage should be
taken of this characteristic.
(b) The possibility of I arge changes m
the completion times of activities is
no hindrance to the use of CPM. In-
stead, CPM is probably the best plan-
ning technique for dealing with this
situation.
(c) In a complete project there are al-
ways likely to be several alternative
logic sequences. In the initial plan-
ning the most suitable logic network
to suit the existing circumstances
should be aimed at, but it should not
be rigidly adhered to when circum-
stances change, particularly if the
changes are favourable to more rapid
progress. The effect of alterations to
the logic sequences of the network
can be readily foreseen and evaluated.
(d) Although studies in detail will always
produce valuable information they
will often be unnecessary and not
worth the effort if carried out on the
whole project. Detailed studies can be
limited to areas where difficult prob-
lems arise such as structures, junc-
tions , etc.
(e) Frequent revisions of the network are
not usually necessary in the early
stages. Revisions are best carried out
after the completion of some definite
stage in the project. Towards the end
of a project, when tight control may
be necessary to achieve completion by
the due date, frequent revisions may
become more necessary together with
more detailed planning.
A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CO STRUCTlON PROJECTS
(f) If the full benefits of CPM are to be
gained, the highway authority should
supply the contractor with more and
better information about the project
than is usual at present when tenders
are called for. More time should be
allowed for tendering so that the con-
tractor can place more reliance on the
information he has to collect for him-
self. There should be no need for
sketchy or preliminary programmes.
The programme the contractor pro-
duces for himself during tendering
should be sufficiently complete and
reliable to be used throughout the
execution of the project (unless un-
foreseen circumstances arise later).
(g) CPM should be applied and controlled
from the site office. Where possible
the CPM planning should be carried
out from the start by someone who
will be a member of the site staff. Pre-
ferably, the initial planning should be
carried out by the contractor's agent
designate, but he may need additional
assistance once the contract has been
started.
( h ) CPM can be used to programme any
series of related activities and to allo-
cate the necessary resources. It is
particularly valu able in programming
the planning and design stages of
highway authorities' road programmes
since it will ensure that the best use
is made of the staff available and that
projects reach the construction stage
at predicted times.
(i) Comparatively little use has been
made of CPM networks for recording
progress, since many engineers prefer
to use other methods such as cumu-
lative graphs of expenditure or pro-
duction . It is, however, essential that
any differences between the pro-
gramme and the actual situation are
always known; progress should there-
Volume 3, Part 2 ( 1966)
fore be marked on the networks or
print-outs, in addition to any other
method used. In only one instance
was there any attempt to link the net-
work with expenditure. Cost control
by means of the network is a field
which might well repay further study.
(j) CPM can be used equally well on
large or small projects though its use
on the latter would be more usefully
confined to those with complicated
timings and numerous restraints, such
as works in urban areas.
65. All the contractors visited agreed
that CPM was a considerable help to them
in planning and controlling their projects,
and that they would continue to use and
develop it. R esident engineers also con-
sidered that they benefited from the con-
tractor's use of CPM as they were pre-
sented with a better picture of the con-
tractor's plan and intentions.
OTHER USES AND FUTURE TRENDS
66. It is likely that much more use will
be made of CPM in the future for program-
ming the pre-construction work on pro-
jects, i.e. design and adm inistrative work,
which is one of the main tasks of highway
au thorities. Work done in the United
States on this aspect has shown that stan-
dard logic networks can be prepared for
the complete processing of projects from
their inception right up to the start of con-
stru ction. These standard networks are
then adapted to suit tbe needs of individual
projects, e.g. activities not required are
omitted by giving them zero completion
time. Experience in this country is also
showing the value of this use of CPM. In
the same way contractors can plan their
tendering procedures to enable them to
produce their bids more efficiently and
quickly. (Indeed one of the contractors
visited is already using this method for
planning 'design and build' civil engineer-
ing contracts.)
881
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
67. Some highway authorities in the
United States produce their own CPM net-
works for the construction phase of con-
tract projects. This practice helps to re-
veal any special problems that are likely to
arise and enables the highway authority to
make a realistic estimate of the duration
of the project. That there is a need for
such an approach can be illustrated by the
following example. Projects Band D both
had a contract period of two years. Pro-
ject B had to be on a very tight schedule
to ensure completion within the time
allowed, whereas project D had so much
time allowed that it could be planned for
completion well within its contract period.
Such wide differences cannot be to any-
one's advantage. The networks produced
by American highway authorities are either
sent out with the contract documents or
else explained at meetings with those in-
tending to tender. This ensures that all
the contractors concerned are fully con-
versant with the project and its special
problems before they bid and have no ex-
cuse for their bids not being realistic. The
successful contractors are not obliged to
use the networks and they remain free to
programme the work to suit their own
methods and resources. The networks do,
however, provide a yardstick by which the
highway authorities can judge the merits of
programmes submitted with tenders.
68. The general tendency in road con-
struction projects has been to move away
from large detailed networks, thereby re-
ducing the number of activities to within
the limits of manual computation. Even
manual computation is being abandoned in
favour of graphical methods, although the
arithmetical method is preferred for the
more complex networks required for
bridges. This may only be a temporary
phase of over-simplification, and there may
be a swing back to more detailed networks
and the use of computers as more experi-
882
ence is gained of their use on other civil
engineering works. The contractor in pro-
ject F showed that such detailed networks
and computer solutions with simple re-
so urce allocations are by no means im-
practicable and have their advantages. On
complex projects in urban areas and others
where frequent revision might be necessary,
suc h as project C, the use of detailed net-
works and computers would be well worth-
while.
CONCLUSIONS
69. The general experience of those
who have used CPM on road construction
projects shows that there are no serious
difficulties in this particular application.
The most quoted problem of the variability
of completion times is not peculiar to pro-
gramming with CPM; it is inherent in the
road construction industry. It affects any
method of programming and has to be ac-
cepted and overcome. CPM provides a
very satisfactory way of dealing with this
problem since the effect of delays is clearly
shown, and the flexibility of the method
faci litates amendments to reflect the
changed situation.
70. CPM probably costs more to im-
plement than other planning methods since
it compels a very close study of projects,
but careful planning and sound control
should save this cost by enabling the en-
gineer to foresee and eliminate problems
without wasted effort and extended dura-
tion time. CPM has this advantage to offer
provided it is applied intelligently and with
conviction . The problems peculiar to road
construction are no bar to its use.
71. CPM has its limitations and prob-
lems; a particular difficulty is choosing the
most su itable computer programme. Any-
one using CPM for the first time would be
well advised not to be too ambitious in its
application without first taking expert ad-
vice.
A.R.R.B. PROCEED INGS
 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
(DISCUSSIONS BY BLUNDELL AND HEALEY)

72. All the possible uses and advant- Further study and research, particularly by
ages of CPM on road construction projects users themselves, are essential if the maxi-
have probably not yet been fully explored. mum benefit from its use is to be obtained .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Lockyer, K. G., A n Introduction to Critical Path Analysis, Sir Isaac Pitman
and Sons Ltd. (London, 1964) .
For the American view on the principles and application of CPM, the under-
mentioned are suggested.
2. O'Brien, J. J., CPM in Construction Management, McGraw Hill Book Co.
Inc. (New York, 1965) .
3. Antill, J. M. and Woodhead, R. W. , Critical Path Methods in Construction
Practice, John Wiley & Sons Inc. (New York, 1965) .

DISCUSSIONS

P. A. B L U N D EL L, B.E., M.Tech ., A .M.I.E.Aust., T he Shell Co. of Aust. Ltd ., New

South Wales
73. In many cases it would appear that in Australia we are using critical path
networks for the wrong purposes. It seems fair to state that networks are often
not constructed until after the commencement and completion dates of a project
are nominated, generally for other than engineering reasons. This then forces
engineers to construct a network to fit in with the stated completion time. Surely
we should first construct the network based on minimum cost and, if this com-
pletion time is unsatisfactory, the programme should then be 'crashed' until a
satisfactory completion date is obtained.

B. O. HE ALE Y, B.E. , A.M.I.E.Aust., Associate, R ankine and Hill, North Sydney, New
South Wales
74. The real valu e of critical path networks seems to the writer to have been
that, as a result, the familiar Gintt bar chart now means something. It has be-
come a factual expression of a situation when prepared on a basis that takes
account of the interrelationship between activities. To quote the author of the
paper, 'the networks do provide a yardstick by which the highway authorities can
judge the merits of programmes submitted with tenders.' This is the crux of it.
75. However, the emphasis throughout the paper is on the network. The
writer is reminded of a large multi-storey building project, where there was a
magnificent network on the wall of the site office. The site architect commented,
'that is of no use except to the man who drew it up. ' That was true.
76. CPM is a tool for management - not for the man on the job. The writer
has heard a management consultant suggest that the man on the job should be
given only the start date for each activity, not the fini sh dates, and obviously not

Volume 3, Part 2 (1966) 88>

 WINGATE - C PM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD C ONSTRU CTIO N PROJECTS
(DISC USSION BY MOFFAT)

the network. Once the job is planned by management, the tool is no longer re-
quired, the network is not referred to again, unless revisions are necessary.
77. There is no need to mark up critical lines on the network as suggested -
the critical activities are obvious on the bar chart if floats are shown there. The
critical activities have no float.
78. The appreciation of the existence of float times is the second great benefit
conferred by CPM. It is surprising that the author did not find contractors mak-
ing greater use of follow-up procedures after preparation of the bar chart by
adjusting activities within the float time to:
(a) even out manpower requirements,
(b) even out plant requirements, and
(c) adjust plant requirements to suit other concurrent jobs.
79 . It is also significant that no attempt is being made to 'crash' activities with
a view to cost reduction by a study of the project cost curve. Similarly, the owner
is not receiving the opportunity to use the float times to his advantage. It has been
calculated that if the late start is used on each activity instead of the early start
on each activity, on a $Aust.4m. job, with interest at 6 per cent, the saving to
the owner is $Aust.24,000 for the same date of completion.
80. It is agreed that 'all possible uses and advantages of CPM on road con-
struction projects have probably not yet been fully explored.' The author has
rendered the industry a great service in this review of present practice. It is to be
hoped that realization of the advantages will not be delayed further by failure to
appreciate that the advantages are beyond, and not inherent in, the network dia-
gram.
D. W. M 0 F FAT, B.E., A.M.I .E.Aust., Supervising Roads and Aerodromes Engineer,
Commonwealth Department of Work, New South Wales
81. The writer would agree with the statements in para. 11 but would add that,
whilst manual computation with up to say 90 to 100 activities is relatively easy, the
use of a computer is extremely economic of time, and as the author has stated,
the print-out is more easily understood than the network diagram for control
purposes.
82. The case histories quoted are most interesting but project D certainly
called for some positive thinking. It is difficult to understand how the embank-
ment construction mentioned in para. 30 could be allowed to cause the planning
to break down. Surely some estimate of time could have been made which, in
itself, would have constituted a target. Also, changes in design are certainly not
unknown and times can even be estimated for these in spite of the fact that
most designers affirm that one cannot programme inventiveness.
83. In para. 43 it is stated that little use was made of the actual network dia-
gram . This the writer understands and agrees with, but would suggest, however,
that an abridged time-scaled network diagram banded into like activities is of
great value for overall technical management.

884 A.R.R .B. PROCEEDINGS

 WINGATE - CPM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
(DISCUSSION BY TlNNI)

A. TIN N I, B.E., Department of Main Roads, New South Wales

84. After reading paper No. 278, persons unacquainted with CPM scheduling
could be left with an impression that the CPM is an all important discovery that
makes engineering decisions and saves the contractor's money. That this is not the
case deserves more emphasis. The CPM provides a means of graphically record-
ing logical engineering thought, whether simple or complex in nature. From this ,
deductions or decisions are made.

85. In para. 10, the author discusses the level of breakdown of activities. A
point that could be added to this is that the amount of detail in a network is
directly proportional to the quantity or output control methods required. If the
control unit or units for a particular activity are very small, the plotting, record-
ing and evaluating of them becomes very time consuming. Hence too much
detail in a network should be avoided.

86. In addition to the notes on the critical path in para. 12, the writer would
like to add that often it is beneficial to break up large activities, such as earth-
works, into various specific categories, e.g. earthworks requiring drilling and
blasting, winning by ripping and scraping or ripping and dozing and carting with
lorries. This automatically breaks up the work into sections and simultaneously
provides for better resources control and allocation requirement. It also provides
simpler means to exercise cost control.

87. The method of presentation, as described in para. 13, can vary of course.
The following has been used by the Department of Main Roads, New South
Wales, and has proved quite successful. On the vertical left-hand margin a dia-
grammatic sketch plan of the job is drawn. This shows the spli t-up of the job
into various sections of different characteristics. There is one basic chain of
activities for each section which is drawn horizontally. Along the various chains,
activities are grouped so that similar activities are shown in the same section of
the horizontal scale. The general break-up might take the form of: clearing,
drainage , earthworks, etc. Using this method, activities of a particular type can
quickly be identified in the network. The timings of the activities are presented
in the conventional CPM technique. The activity arrows could also show the
percentage split-up of the activity and be coloured in as the job progresses. The
progress of the job can be checked at any time by drawing an isochrone through
the network. Activities, that are to the left of thi s line and are not coloured in,
would be lagging. Those to the right of the line and are coloured, would be ahead
of schedule. Thus, if the network is kept up to date, progress can be evaluated at
a glance.

88. It is noted that the author does not mention job control methods in any
of the case history studies. It must be remembered that, to obtain full benefit
from a CPM network, strict and efficient job control methods must be developed
and used. The network becomes redundant to the organization if this is not done.

Volume 3, P art 2 (1966 )

 WINGATE - C PM TO PLAN AND CONTROL ROAD CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
(AUTHOR 'S CLOSURE)

AUTHOR ' S CLOSURE

89. The author disagrees with the view expressed that CPM is only a tool
for management, not for the engineer in charge of the job. The amount of detail
and type of information to be conveyed by the network can be varied to suit the
requirements of the main recipient. Top management will usually require differ-
ent information from that which the resident engineer and his staff require. But
the network itself (or a bar chart based upon the network) has important uses
throughout the execution of the project including forward planning on the site at
all levels. The issue of bar charts to site engineers and foremen, mentioned in
project E , illustrates this.
90. Some engineers no doubt prefer not to reveal finishing dates to their sub-
ordinates, and computer print-outs omitting this information are often used. The
practice is, however, of doubtful value particularly on the higher levels.
91. The author agrees that one of the main advantages of CPM is its ability
to point the way to the best use of resources. This characteristic was made use of
to some extent in all of the projects described. More can be done in this direction.
More too should be done on minimizing indirect costs, even at the expense of
direct costs on individual activities.
92. However, it must be remembered that road construction works are particu-
larly vulnerable to delays through adverse weather. Float times act as a buffer
against this and give flexibility to the plan. To eliminate float completely by using
all late starting times would eliminate flexibility. The savings gained could very
easily be lost and more.

886 A.R.R.B. PROCEEDINGS