LECTURE 1 PNGE 333

BASIC RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

INTRODUCTION TO
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
 RESERVOIR
A RESERVOIR IS A SUBSURFACE ROCK STRUCTURE WHERE NATURALLY
OCCURRING HYDROCARBONS (PETROLEUM) ARE ACCUMULATED.

OIL, GAS, AND WATER ARE IN SMALL

SPACES BETWEEN THE SAND GRAINS.
 RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
FIND WAYS AND MEANS FOR EFFICIENT DEVELOPMENT
AND OPERATION OF THE RESERVOIR LEADING TO:

INCREASING ULTIMATE RECOVERY

WISE INVEST OF THE CAPITAL

SAFE AND ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND PRACTICES

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING

PREDICTING THE PERFORMANCE OF

THE PETROLEUM RESERVOIR UNDER
GIVEN SET OF CONDITIONS.
PRODUCTIVE POTENTIAL OF THE RESERVOIR

IT IS NECESSARY TO DETERMINE:

 FLUID PROPERTIES

 ROCK PROPERTIES

 ROCK-FLUID INTERACTIONS
FLUID PROPERTIES
 SOLIDS VS. FLUIDS
SOLID FLUID

THE MOLECULES THE MOLECULES

ARE HELD IN PLACE ARE HELD TOGETHER
BY STRONG FORCES. BY WEAK FORCES.
 LIQUID VS. GAS
PISTON
PISTON
LIQUID
GAS

PISTON
PISTON
LIQUID
Liquid GAS

LIQUIDS CAN EXPAND GASES WILL EXPAND READILY

ONLY A SMALL AMOUNT AND WITHOUT LIMIT
 CLASSIFICATION OF FLUIDS
COMPRESSIBILITY 1  V  1   
c    c   
V  p T   p 

c  P,T Compressible

Slightly Compressible
c  Constant  10 6  10 5

IDEAL 
 0 , Incompressible
p
 BASIC FLUID PROPERTIES
m
 DENSITY 
V

    water P,T   141.5 

 API     131.5
GRAVITY     60 
 g   g air  S .C . 

 VISCOSITY
VISCOSITY IS A MEASURE OF FLUID RESISTANCE TO FLOW.
SLIDING PLATE EXPERIMENT
dV Vo  0
RATE OF STRAIN  
dy L
Vo
F
SHEAR STRESS  τ 
A

    dV dy 

τ VISCOSITY



dV dy  dV dy 
 COMPOSITION
PETROLEUM IS A COMPLEX MIXTURE CONTAINING THOUSANDS OF
DIFFERENT COMPOUNDS, MOST OF WHICH ARE COMPOSED
EXCLUSIVELY OF HYDROGEN AND CARBON (HYDROCARBONS).

PARAFFINIC NAPHTHENIC AROMATIC ASPHALTIC

CLASSIFICATION OF THE RESERVOIRS

OIL

INITIAL STATE
OF THE FLUIDS GAS/CONDENSATE

GAS
 STATE OF MATTER
SOLID LIQUID GAS

S S S S L L L L G G G G
S S S S
L L L L
G G G G

TEMPERATURE

PRESSURE
SUBSURFACE PRESSURE & TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
D
EXERTED ON THE FLUIDS
IN SUBSURFACE INCREASES
WITH DEPTH OF BURIAL.

p f   dP dD   D  14.73
 dP dD   Pressure Gradient
Tf  Gt  D  Ts Gt  Geothermal Gradient
 PRESSURE GRADIENTS
F W  V  A  1 ft 2  
1 ft. p    3
 p  psi
A A A  V  1 ft  144
1 ft.
1 ft.

OVERBURDEN  dP dD O  1 psi ft

FLUID  dP dD W  0.433 psi ft

 dP dD Brine  0.5 psi ft

Gt  0.01 o ft or 1o 100 ft
 PHASE DIAGRAMS
PHASE DIAGRAMS ARE OFTEN USED TO ILLUSTRATE THE EFFECTS OF PRESSURE
AND TEMPERATURE ON THE PHYSICAL STATE OF HYDROCARBONS.
 PURE SUBSTANCE

C
P

T
 BINARY MIXTURE
Cx
P

Cy

T T
RESERVOIR FLUID
CRICONDENBAR
(HIGHEST PRESSURE) P
C CRITICAL POINT

T CRICONDENTHERM
(HIGHEST TEMPERATURE)
P

T
 OIL RESERVOIR

OIL
C
P

T
 PRODUCTION
OIL
1i
P

C
S

1a

T
 PRODUCED FLUID
OIL

1
P

1s

T
P GAS RESERVOIR
GAS 2i
C

2a

T
 DRY GAS RESERVOIR
GAS
P

2i
C

2a

T
 WET GAS RESERVOIR
GAS
P

2i

T
 GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIR
3i
P

OIL
C GAS
D

3a

T
 OIL RESERVOIR WITH A GAS CAP

CONDENSATE
OIL GAS
P

4i
T

4a

T
ROCK PROPERTIES
RESERVOIR ROCK PROPERTIES
RESERVOIR ROCK MUST CONTAIN AN INTERCONNECTED PORE
VOLUME TO STORE (POROUS) AND TRANSMIT (PERMEABLE) FLUIDS.

ABILITY TO STORE ABILITY TO TRANSMIT

POROSITY PERMEABILITY
 ORIGIN OF POROSITY
SAND GRAINS AND PARTICLES THAT MAKE UP THE RESERVOIR ROCKS ARE
USUALLY HIGHLY IRREGULAR IN SHAPE AND NEVER FIT TOGETHER PERFECTLY.

Rock Grain
Pore Volume

THE OPEN SPACE CREATED BETWEEN GRAINS DURING DEPOSITION

IS REFERRED TO AS THE VOID, OR PORE SPACE.
 ORIGIN OF POROSITY
PRIMARY (DEPOSITIONAL)
 INTERCRYSTALLINE

 INTERGRANULAR

 BEDDING PLANE
GEOLOGICAL
CLASSIFICATION SECONDARY (POST-DEPOSITION)
 SOLUTION
 DOLOMITIZATION

 FRACTURE
 POROSITY
Vb
Vp Vs
Pore Volume Vi
Porosity ,  
Bulk Volume
Vp  Interconnceted Pore Volume
Bulk Volume, Vb  Vp  Vi  Vs Vi  Isolated Pore Volume
Vs  Solid  Grain  Volume

Vp  Vi Vp
ABSOLUTE POROSITY , a  EFFECTIVE POROSITY , e 
Vb Vb
 ROCKS PROPERTIES
ROCKS PROPERTIES THAT IMPACT POROSITY:

 GRAIN
 SIZE, SHAPE, SORTING, PACKING

 DEGREE OF COMPACTION

 AMOUNT OF CEMENTATION
 GRAIN SIZE
THE ROCKS ARE CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THE GRAIN SIZES,
FROM CLAY TO BOULDERS.
 PACKING
CUBIC HEXAGONAL
θ  90 o
θ  60 o


Vp

 D 3
  D3 6 
 0.476
Vp  D 3
sin θ   D 3 6 
   0.395
Vb D3 Vb 3
D sin θ
RHOMBOHEDRAL

θ

Vp

 D 3
sin θ   D 3 6 
 0.259
3
Vb D sin θ

θ  45 o
 GRAIN SHAPE

• PARTICLES DEPOSITED CLOSE TO THEIR SOURCE OF ORIGIN REMAIN LARGE

AND ANGULAR.

• PARTICLES TRANSPORTED LONG DISTANCES BY WATER AND WINDS ARE

SMALL, SPHERICAL, AND SMOOTH.
SORTING
IMPACT OF THE SORTING
COMPACTION
CEMENTATION
 PERMEABILITY
PERMEABILITY IS A MEASURE OF THE EASE OF FLOW OF A
FLUID THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM.

THE FLUID FLOW IN POROUS

MEDIA TAKE PLACE THROUGH THE
INTERCONNECTED PORE VOLUME.

THE GEOMETRY OF THE PORES DETERMINES HOW THE FLUID

FLOWS THROUGH A POROUS STRUCTURE TAKES PLACE.
 PERMEABILITY
P1 P2

MACROSCOPIC q A
L
PERMEABILITY
DESCRIPTION

MICROSCOPIC
 MACROSCOPIC APPROACH
PERMEABILITY IS DEFINED BASED ON AN EQUATION, DEVELOPED
BY HENRY DARCY:
P 1 P 2
k
q A   p L  q q
 A
L
 p L  Pressure Gradient
k   Conductance p  p1  p2

Fluid Property ,   Viscosity 

 
Conductance   
 Rock Property , k  Permeability 
 
 PERMEABILITY DETERMINATION
qL
k
A  p1  p2 

q = FLOW RATE
A = THE AREA ACROSS THE FLOW
p1 = UPSTREAM PRESSURE q
p2 = DOWNSTREAM PRESSURE
L = LENGTH OF THE MEDIUM
 UNIT OF PERMEABILITY
1 cp
1 cc/sec 1 cm
qL
k 1 darcy
A  p1  p2 
1 cm2
1 atm
ONE DARCY IS A RELATIVELY HIGH PERMEABILITY AND MILLIDARCY (md) IS
COMMONLY USED AS THE PERMEABILITY UNIT.

1 darcy = 1000 md
RESERVOIR ROCK PERMEABILITY
0.01 TO OVER 1000 md
 POOR k ˂ 1 md
 FAIR 1 < k < 10 md
 MODERATE 10 < k < 50 md
 GOOD 50 < k < 250 md
 VERY GOOD k > 250 md
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
1 1
3
L T 1 ML T
L
q L
k
A p 1 2
2
L ML T

k
   T   L 2
L3 1
T  ML1 1

L
 L    ML T 
2 1 2

1 darcy  0.987  10 12 m2

 MICROSCOPIC APPROACH
KOZENY MODEL
n tubes

BUNDLE OF CAPILLARIES
n r 2L

AC L
  r 4   p L  
q   n
 8  n r 4  r2
 k  k
q  kAC   p L   8AC 8
  
 
 GENERAL GEOMETRY
Surface Area  As 
Specific Surface Area,S 
Volume V 
r ?
As n  2 rL  2  r2  1 
SVP    k  k  2 
VP n  r L  r
2
8  2SV
 P



As     1  3
SVgr   SVP   k  2 
Vgr  1   2SV   1   2
 gr 
 GENERAL GEOMETRY
UNIFORM SPHERICAL GRAINS

CUBIC HEXAGONAL RHOMBOHEDRAL

S  d2 6
SVgr   
Vgr  d 6  d
3
 CARMEN-KOZENY EQUATION
 1  3
k  
 2 SV2   1   2
 gr 

2  K z
2
L 
Tortuosity Coefficient:    a 
L  1  3
k  
 K z SV2  1   2
 gr 
EXAMPLE
CALCULATE PERMEABILITY OF A POROUS MEDIA
WITH FOLLOWING PROPERTIES:

 UNIFORM SPHERICAL GRAINS, d = 10 μm

 CUBIC PACKING

 KZ = 5
SOLUTION
   0.476  Cubic  
 3
 
k   Kz  5 
K z SV2gr  1   
2
 S  6 d  6  10 5 m 1 Uniform 
 Vgr 

0.476 3
k  0.218  10 12 m 2
5   6  10 
2
 1  0.476 
5 2

 1 darcy 
k  0.218  10 12
m 2
  0.987  10-12 m2   0.221 darcy  221 md

EXAMPLE
CALCULATE PERMEABILITY OF A POROUS MEDIA
WITH FOLLOWING PROPERTIES:

 UNIFORM SPHERICAL GRAINS, d = 10 μm

 RHOMBOHEDRAL PACKING

 KZ = 5
SOLUTION
RHOMBOHEDRAL PACKING   0.259

0.259 3
k  0.0176  10 12 m2
5   6  10 
5 2
 1  0.259 
2

 1 darcy 
k  0. 0176  10 12
m 2
  0.987  10 -12 m2   0.0178 darcy  17.8 md

EXAMPLE
CALCULATE PERMEABILITY OF A POROUS MEDIA
WITH FOLLOWING PROPERTIES:

 UNIFORM SPHERICAL GRAINS, d = 2 μm

 CUBIC PACKING

 KZ = 5
SOLUTION
6 6 6 1
SVgr    3  10 m
d 2  10 6

0.476 3
k  0.026  10 12 m2
5   3  10 
6 2
 1  0.476 
2

 1 darcy 
k  0.026  10 12
m 
2

 0.987  10
12 2 
m 
 0.0263 darcy  26.3 md
 WHAT CAN BE LEARNED
FROM CARMEN-KOZENY EQUATION?

1
k  r , ,
p
2


FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY
IMPACT OF THE COMPACTION

kH , Horizontal Permeability  kV , Vertical Permeability

 DIRECTIONAL PERMEABILITY

kx , ky  Horizontal Permeabilities
y kH  kx  ky
x

kz  kV  Vertical Permeability
FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY
IMPACT OF THE CEMENTATION
 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY
GRAIN SIZE

  24%   22%
k  3500 md k  360 md
 FACTORS AFFECTING PERMEABILITY
GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION (SORTING)
POROSITY & PERMEABILITY
NO UNCONNECTED CONNECTED
PORE SPACE PORE SPACE PORE SPACE

NON-POROUS POROUS POROUS

NON-PERMEABLE NON-PERMEABLE PERMEABLE
 SYSTEM OF UNITS
DERIVED UNITS
BASIC UNITS AREA L2
LENGTH L VOLUME L3
MASS M VELOCITY L/T
TIME T ACCELERATION L/T2
FORCE ML/T2
TEMPERATURE
PRESSURE M/LT2
ELECTRICAL CURRENT
ENERGY, WORK
QUANTITY OF SUBSTANCE ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL
LUMINOSITY ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
SURFACE TENSION
PREFIXES
PREFIX FACTOR SYMBOL
TERA 1012 T
GIGA 109 G
MEGA 106 M
KILO 103 K
HECTO 102 h
DECA 10 da
DECI 10-1 d
CENTI 10-2 c
MILI 10-3 m
MICRO 10-6 μ
NANO 10-9 n
 SYSTEM OF UNITS
SI UNITS
METER, KILOGRAM, SECOND, OC,….

SYSTEMS CGS UNITS

CENTIMETER, GRAM, SECOND, OC,….
BRITISH UNITS
FOOT, POUND, SECOND, OF,….
 DERIVED UNITS
F  ma

SI UNITS: NEWTON m

N  Kg   2 
s 
 cm 
CGS UNITS: DYNE dyn  g   2 
 s 
 ft 
BRITISH UNITS: POUNDAL pdl  lbm   2 
s 
 WEIGHT VS. MASS
W  mg
g  Gravitational Accelartion

SI : Kg  Kg   m s 2 

g  g   cm s
g
CGS : 2
 W  m
gc
British : lb f  lbm   ft s 2 
 CONVERSION FACTORS
SI : m  kg, W  kg  gc  9.8
m  kg, W  N  gc  1.0

g CGS : m  g, W  g  gc  980
W  m
gc m  g, W  dyn  gc  1.0

British : m  lbm , W  lb f  gc  32.2

m  lbm , W  pdl  gc  1.0
 OILFIELD UNITS
Quantity Symbol Filed Units Abbreviation Comment Converstion Factor
LENGTH L foot ft.
MASS m Pound lbm
TIME t second s
TEMPERATURE T Degree Fahrenheit oF

AREA A Acres Ac 43,560 ft2/Ac

VOLUME V Barrels Bbl For Liquids 5.615 ft3/Bbl
VOLUME V Cubic Feet ft3 For Gases
VOLUME V Acre-feet Ac-ft. For the Reservoir 43560 ft3/Ac-ft.
PRESSURE P Pound per inch2 psi 144 in2/ft2
ENERGY E British Thermal Unit BTU
FORCE F Pound lbf gc = 32.2
 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RESERVOIR
 THE WELLS ARE THE SOURCE OF ALL THE INFORMATION
CONCERNING THE RESERVOIR.

 FORMATION EVALUATION DATA ARE OBTAINED

DURING PARTICULAR PHASES OF THE DRILLING
AND COMPLETION OPERATION.

 RESERVOIR-FLUID AND PRODUCTION DATA ARE

OBTAINED LARGELY AFTER THE WELLS ARE
COMPLETED.
 MEASUREMENTS
FLUID SAMPLE (PVT ANALYSIS)
DIRECT
ROCK SAMPLE (CORE ANALYSIS)

MEASUREMENT
METHODS
WIRELINE LOGS

INDIRECT PRESSURE TRANSIENT TESTS

PRODUCTION DATA ANALYSIS
FLUID/PVT ANALYSIS
CORING
 CORE PLUG ANALYSIS
POROSITY
ROUTINE PERMEABILITY
ANALYSIS GRAIN DENSITY
SATURATIONS (AS RECEIVED)
CORE PLUG
ANALYSIS
CAPILLARY PRESSURE
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY
SPECIAL
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
ANALYSIS ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
CORE PLUG ANALYSIS
COMPRESSIVE PROPERTIES (CONVENTIONAL)
 GEOPHYSICAL WELL LOGS
INSTRUMENTS (SENSORS) ATTACHED TO
THE END OF A WIRE THAT ARE LOWERED
INTO THE WELL TO OBTAIN AND
TRANSMIT DIFFERENT MEASUREMENTS.
 WELL LOG ANALYSIS
SANDSTONE, LIMESTONE,
LITHOLOGY
DOLOMITE, SHALE,…

POROSITY
OBJECTIVES COMPLETE
SATURATION VIABILITY
ABANDON
THICKNESS
 PRESSURE TRANSIENT TEST
PRESSURE
RATE
TRANSIENT
CHANGE

WELL OR PRESSURE TRANSIENT TESTING PROVIDES INFORMATION ON THE

RESERVOIR BEHAVIOR UNDER DYNAMIC CONDITIONS.

THE INFORMATION OBTAINED FROM TRANSIENT TESTS COVERS A RELATIVELY

LARGER AREA, TYPICALLY HUNDREDS OF FEET INTO THE RESERVOIR.
 PRODUCTION DATA ANALYSIS
WHEN SUFFICIENT PRODUCTION AND PRESSURE DATA
FROM THE RESERVOIR HAVE BECOME AVAILABLE,
PRODUCTION DATA ANALYSIS CAN BE PERFORMED TO
DETERMINE:

 VOLUME OF THE OIL OR GAS IN PLACE

 PRODUCTION MECHANISM

 RECOVERY FACTOR
 DATA ROCK SAMPLE FLUID SAMPLE GEOLOGICAL DATA
COLLECTION PRODUCTION DATA
WELL LOGS WELL TESTS

CORE ANALYSIS PVT ANALYSIS WELL LOG INTERPRETATION

DATA
ANALYSIS
PRESSURE TRANSIENT ANALYSIS PRODUCTION DATA ANALYSIS

RESERVOIR
INTEGRATION CHARACTERIZATION