(Aleksandr Yurievich Brailov) Engineering Graphics (B-Ok - CC) PDF

Aleksandr Yurievich Brailov
Engineering
Graphics
Theoretical Foundations of Engineering
Geometry for Design
Engineering Graphics
Engineering Graphics
Theoretical Foundations of Engineering
Geometry for Design
123
Department of Descriptive Geometry
and Engineering Graphics
Odessa Academy of Civil Engineering
and Architecture
Odessa
Ukraine
ISBN 978-3-319-29717-0 ISBN 978-3-319-29719-4 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29719-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930673
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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I dedicate this book to close friends and
colleagues, to all people in my life I love and
care about!
Я пocвящaю этy книгy близким дpyзьям и
кoллeгaм, вceм людям в мoeй жизни,
кoтopыx Я люблю и o кoтopыx зaбoчycь!
Foreword
One of the fundamental courses in professional engineering education is

Engineering Graphics, which establishes a kind of engineering language to properly
translate the design ideas into real-world parameters. The theoretical foundation of
engineering graphics is engineering geometry.
The major difference and advantage of the textbook by Professor Brailov is that
each theoretical notion of engineering geometry is considered as a complex solution
to direct and inverse problems of descriptive geometry.
Each solution of basic engineering problems is accompanied by construction of
unique three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of geometrical images.
The universal structure of formal algorithms for the solution of positional, metric
and axonometric problems, and also solutions of a problem of construction of
development of a curvilinear surface, are developed in detail.
The book introduces and explains the added laws of projective connections to
facilitate the building of geometrical images in any of eight octants.
Therefore, the textbook will be useful to undergraduate and graduate students
and well as professors of technical universities and academies, and also for many
practicing engineers.
Prof. V.E. Mihajlenko

President of the Ukrainian Association of Applied Geometry
Honored Scientist of Ukraine
Academician AS of Higher Education of Ukraine
Academician AS of Building of Ukraine
Dr.Sci.Tech
vii
Preface
The necessity of writing this new textbook stems from the following facts:
1. The general level of mathematical knowledge of high-school graduates is
insufficient for them to comprehend the basic concepts, and thus to study
descriptive geometry independently.
2. High-school graduates do not acquire the necessary background in graphics. The
level of many first-year students in imaginative perception, spatial imagination,
and skills for the solution of problems with the necessary level of abstraction is
not generally sufficient for studying modern engineering graphics.
3. Because the lecture hours assigned for Engineering Graphics are rather limited
in many educational professional programs (EPP), the basic weight of training is
shifted to independent work of the student (IWS).
4. The credit-modular system of training compels the teacher to spend an over-
whelming part of lecture time not on the formation of knowledge and skills but
rather on obligatory ratings of the quality assurance of the material “not
acquired” by students.
5. In the existing textbooks on Engineering Graphics, from our point of view,
achievements of modern computer science and the technologies facilitating
studying of the subject under conditions named above are insufficiently utilized.
The reduced lecture hours available for Engineering Graphics education and the
development of computer graphics technologies, which seemingly can substitute for
such education, might lead one may to ask logically “Why do we need to teach
descriptive geometry at all?” This question parallels other frequently-asked similar
questions: “Why do we need to study arithmetic in schools if we have calculators?”
and “Why do we need to spend so much time to learn calculus at Universities if we
have modern software programs such as MATLAB and Mathematica?”
In the author’s opinion, descriptive geometry is needed, first of all, as it con-
stitutes the basis for the development of the engineering geometry.
The existence of practical demand for studies in descriptive geometry as the
basis of engineering geometry is explained as follows.
ix
x Preface
Although the pencil and a paper were replaced a long time ago with the
computer equipped with advanced solid-modeling software packages, one should
clearly realize that the computer can’t replace an engineer. Moreover, designers and
engineers with different experience using the same graphic software can produce
considerably different graphic products with the same designation. The more
complicated the graphic software package is, the greater are the experience and
knowledge required to run it efficiently. In other words, the computer saves drawing
time, whereas engineers build an image of a part and/or structure in their brains.
The knowledge of engineering graphics helps him or her to convey the constructed
mental image in a clear and unambiguous fashion that is readily understandable to
other design/manufacturing/application professionals all over the world.
For effective design, it is necessary for the engineer to know the laws of pro-
jective connections and the properties of geometrical images, to possess spatial
imagination and imaginative perception, and to have the skills of biunique trans-
formation of two-dimensional and three-dimensional models of geometrical parts
that enable the solution of direct and inverse problems of descriptive geometry.
Practical expert skills in design are substantially formed due to the employment
of the basics of the descriptive geometry. Without these skills and abilities, the
efficient design of difficult parts, assemblages and machines is impossible even with
the use of most advanced computers because the final decisions must be selected
and then accepted by the designer.
Therefore, the author considers descriptive geometry as the basis of engineering
geometry. The development of engineering geometry is influenced by the theory of
algorithms, the theory of signs (semiotics), the theory of information technologies,
the theory of computer designing and other closely related branches of science.
In the author’s opinion, the standard fundamental discipline “Engineering
Graphics” should include three logically connected parts:
1. Engineering geometry.
2. Engineering drawing.
3. Engineering computer graphics.
Descriptive geometry constitutes the theoretical basis of first part.
This new textbook provides the following advantages compared to the other
existing titles:
1. It enhances deeper and adequate understanding of the geometrical essence of the
studied phenomenon. It argues that the definition of the theoretical foundation of
an engineering drawing should be carried out as a combined solution to direct
and inverse problems of descriptive geometry.
2. It reveals that, to facilitate the construction of two-dimensional and
three-dimensional models of geometrical parts in any of eight octants, the laws
of projective connections should be formulated on the basis of a necessary and
sufficient set of essential notation.
Preface xi
3. It provides essential help in the development of spatial imagination and

imaginative perception. It argues that the analysis of geometrical models of
some images is needed for executing it is system, from uniform positions,
stating in full their properties and features on three-projective complex drawing.
For example, geometrical models of the main lines of a plane on two projective
complex drawings do not adequately facilitate the presentation of the solution
of the inverse problem of descriptive geometry.
Conditions for the parallelism and intersection of straight lines should be studied
separately for geometrical images of the general and local positions.
4. Its methodology of presentation helps readers to acquire the ability to adequately
read drawings. That is because carefully develops a system of rules of definition
of visibility of initial geometrical images and constructive elements of a product
for direct and inverse problems of descriptive geometry.
5. It presents the universal structure of algorithms for the solution to positional,
metric and axonometric problems, and also solutions to a problem of con-
struction of development of a curvilinear surface. These help to simplify mas-
tering a course and the formation of skills for independent work by students.
In the present textbook, the features just specified are realized by a statement
of the laws of projective connections contributed by the author, the structured
formal algorithms for the solution of positional, metric and axonometric problems,
and also by the solution of a general problem of construction of development of a
curvilinear surface.
Each theoretical development is considered at the solution of a basic practical
problem.
The solution of each basic problem is accompanied by a construction and
biunique transformation of two-dimensional and three-dimensional models of
geometrical parts.
A system of rules of definition for the visibility of images on the basis of the
method of competing points is offered.
Each step of the algorithm is reflected in a sign (semiotics) model for the solution
of an engineering problem.
The structure of the offered algorithms for the solution of problems presented in
the eighth, ninth, tenth and eleventh chapters of the textbook is sufficiently uni-
versal to help students to solve various problems with no additional or with only
minimum instructions.
The major objective of the present textbook is to represent the course of
Engineering Geometry on the basis of recent developments in the field.
The textbook consolidates the author’s twenty-five-year experience of teaching
at the Department “Descriptive Geometry and Engineering Graphics,” the Odessa
National Polytechnic University and at the Department “Descriptive Geometry and
Drawings,” the Odessa Academy of Civil Engineering and Architecture.
xii Preface
The textbook includes the foreword, preface, references, appendix and 11

chapters:
1. A projecting method. The methodology and basic operations of projection.
2. Types of projection. The center of projection.
3. Formation of the complex drawing. Octants. The method of Gaspard Monge.
4. Geometrical models and analytical model of a point.
5. Geometrical models and analytical models of a straight line.
6. Geometrical models and analytical models of a plane.
7. Geometrical models and analytical models of a surface.
8. Positional problems.
9. Metric problems.
10. Development of surfaces.
11. Axonometric projections.
All sections are grouped in seven logical information blocks. The first, second,
third, and fourth chapters are unified as the first information block. The fifth and
sixth chapters are unified as the second information block. The seventh, eighth,
ninth, tenth, and eleventh chapters are according to the third, fourth, fifth, sixth and
seventh information blocks. Each information block concludes with review
questions.
In the textbook, on the basis of the stated theoretical positions of engineering
geometry, the solutions of twenty-three basic problems are offered and analyzed in
great detail.
Detailed explanations of application of the basic laws and use of properties of
models of geometrical images in the solution of basic engineering problems better
enable successful mastery of the theoretical part of Engineering Graphics courses.
In the textbook, the long-term operational experience of the author, both at the
theory level (lecture courses), and at the methodical level of formation of skills of
performance of design documents and possession of computer technologies, is
generalized. A tailored synthesis of theoretical and methodical knowledge is pre-
sented to facilitate the preparation of students capable of answering the call of
modern techniques and technologies.
The author expresses sincere gratitude for encouragement, counsel and valuable
remarks to Professors: Sukhorukov J.N., Podkorytov A.N., Mihajlenko V.E,
Vanin V.V., Kovalyov S.N., Sazonov K.A., Astakhov V.P, Radzevich S.P.,
Pereleshina V.P, Ajrikjan A.L., Dzhugurjan T.G., Dashchenko A.F., Semenjuk V.F.,
Dorofeyev V.S, Kivalov S.V., Grishin A.V., Barabash I.V., Karpjuk V.M,
Klimenko E.V., Kit N.V., Maksimov M.V, Maslov O.V, Kosenko S.I., Petro N.N.,
Panchenko V.I.
The author also extends his gratitude to his colleagues in the department and at
the academy and university for generously sharing their experience and knowledge,
delicacy and tactfulness, keenness and for their attention to the solution of the
illustrative problems.
The author will be grateful to the benevolent reader for suggestions and remarks
which will result in raising the quality of this textbook.
Contents
1 Descriptive Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 The Subject Matter of Descriptive Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Aims and Problems of Descriptive Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Types of Geometric Figures and Objects (Images) . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 A Determinant of a Geometric Image (Object) . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 A Projecting Method. The Components and the Operations
of Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Types of Projection. The Center of Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Central (conical) Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Parallel (cylindrical) Projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Properties of the Central (conic) Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Properties of Parallel (cylindrical) Oblique-Angled
Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 10
2.5 Properties of Parallel Rectangular (orthogonal) Projection ... 12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 13
3 Formation of the Complex Drawing. Octants. The Method
of Gaspard Monge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1 The Concept of Octant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 The Essence of the Method of Gaspard Monge . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Geometrical Models and an Analytical Model of a Point . . . . . . . 19
4.1 The Laws of Projective Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Classification of Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3 Review Questions on the First Block (Chaps. 1–4) . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
xiii
xiv Contents
5 Geometric and Analytical Models of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . .. 25

5.1 Classification of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
5.2 Ways of Representation for a Line Segment
and Determinants of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26
5.3 Geometric Model of a Straight Line of General Position . . .. 27
5.4 The Peculiarities of a Complex Drawing of a Straight
Line of General Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27
5.5 Geometric Models of a Level Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
5.5.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontal Level
Line and Properties of This Model . . . . . . . . . . .. 28
5.5.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontal Level
5.5.3 A Geometric Model of a Profile Level
5.5.4 Peculiarities of the Complex Drawing
of a Level Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31
5.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Straight Line . . . . . . . . .. 32
5.6.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontally Projecting
Straight Line and Properties of the Model . . . . . .. 32
5.6.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontally Projecting
Straight Line and Properties of This Model . . . . .. 33
5.6.3 A Geometric Model of a Profiled Projecting
Straight Line and Properties of the Model . . . . . .. 34
of a Projecting Straight Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
5.7 Analytical Models of a Straight Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 36
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37
6 Geometric Models and Analytical Models of a Plane . . . . ...... 39
6.1 Classification of Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 39
6.2 Ways of Representation of a Plane in the Complex
Drawing. Plane Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 40
6.3 A Geometric Model of a Plane of General Position. . ...... 41
6.4 Peculiarities of the Complex Drawing of a Plane
of General Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 41
6.5 Geometric Models of a Plane of Level . . . . . . . . . . ...... 42
6.5.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontal Plane
of Level and Properties of This Model . . . ...... 43
6.5.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontal Plane
6.5.3 A Geometric Model of a Profile Plane
of a Plane of Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 47
Contents xv
6.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47

Plane and Properties of This Model. . . . . . . . . . .. 48
6.6.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontally Projecting
6.6.3 A Geometric Model of a Profiled Projecting
of a Projecting Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.7 Analytical Models of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
6.8 The Main Lines of a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.9 Review Questions for Chap. 5 and this Chapter . . . . . . . . . . 54
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7 Geometric and Analytical Models of a Surface . . . . . . . . . . .... 57
7.1 Ways of Formation, Description and Mapping,
and Classification of Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 57
7.2 A Surface Contour and a Surface Sketch. The Way
of Representing a Surface in a Complex Drawing. . . . . .... 60
7.3 Ruled Developable Surfaces with One Directional Line . .... 60
7.4 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Two Directional
Lines and a Plane of Parallelism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 64
7.5 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Three Directional
Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7.6 Screw Surfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.7 Surfaces of Revolution and Their Analytical Models . . . . . . . 70
7.8 An Indication of a Point Belonging to a Surface. . . . . . . . . . 73
7.9 Review Questions the Third Block (This Chapter) . . . . . . . . 73
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 Positional Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 79
8.1 The Concept and Classification of Positional Problems . . ... 79
8.2 The Concept of Competing Points. The Rule to Define
the Visibility of Constructive Elements of a Product . . . . ... 79
8.3 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging of the Same
Linear Geometric Images to Each Other . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 80
8.3.1 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging
of Points to Each Other. The Rule to Define
the Visibility of Competing Points . . . . . . . . . ... 80
of Straight Lines to Each Other . . . . . . . . . . . ... 82
of Planes to Each Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 87
xvi Contents
8.4 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging of Different

Types of Linear Geometric Images to Each Other. . . . . . . .. 89
of a Point and a Straight Line. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 89
of a Point and a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 91
of a Straight Line and a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 93
8.5 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging of a Point
and a Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 96
8.6 Application of the Indications of Incidence of Geometric
Images to Solve Engineering Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
8.6.1 A Problem of Belonging of a Straight Line
to a Plane (Problem 1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 98
8.6.2 The Problem of a Point Belonging to the Plane
(Problem 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 100
8.6.3 The Problem of Parallel Planes (Problem 3) . . . . .. 104
8.7 Mutual Intersection of Geometric Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 108
8.7.1 Classification of Positional Problems of Mutual
Intersection of Geometric Images . . . . . . . . . . . .. 109
8.7.2 The Concept and Criterion of a Choice
of the Intermediary for Positional Problems . . . . .. 109
8.7.3 Algorithm for Solving Positional Problems
of Mutual Intersection of Geometric Images . . . . .. 110
8.7.4 Construction of a Point of Intersection
of a Straight Line and a Plane (Problems 4, 5).
The First Basic Positional Problem
of Descriptive Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 113
8.7.5 Construction of a Line of Intersection of Two
Planes (Problem 6). The Second Basic Positional
Problem of Descriptive Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126
8.7.6 Construction of Points of Intersection
of a Straight Line and a Surface (Problem 7) . . . .. 134
8.7.7 Construction of the Line of Intersection
of a Plane and a Surface (Problem 8) . . . . . . . . .. 141
8.7.8 Construction of the Line of Intersection of Two
Surfaces (Problems 9, 10, 11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149
8.8 Review Questions to the Fourth Block (Chapter 8) . . . . . . .. 174
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 175
9 Metric Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.1 The Theorem of a Right Angle Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.2 Solving Metric Problems Without Transformation
of the Complex Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Contents xvii
9.2.1 Perpendicularity of Straight Lines

(Problems 1, 2). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
9.2.2 Perpendicularity of a Straight Line
and a Plane (Problem 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.2.3 Perpendicularity of Two Planes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.2.4 Angles Between Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.2.5 Angle Between a Straight Line
and a Plane (Problem 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.2.6 Angle Between Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
9.3 Solving Metric Problems by Means of Complex Drawing
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
9.3.1 Classification of Transformation Methods
of the Complex Drawing of a Geometric Image . . . 192
9.3.2 Methods of Complex Drawing Transformation
for a Motionless Geometric Image . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
9.3.3 Methods of Transformation of Complex Drawing
in Changeable (Mobile) Position of Geometric
Image in Space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
9.4 Review Questions on the Fifth Block (This Chapter). . . . . . . 222
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10 Development of Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 227
10.1 Basic Properties of Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 227
10.2 A Condition of Surface Development . . . . . . . . . . ....... 228
10.3 The General Principle, Method and Algorithm
for Constructing Development of a Curvilinear
Developed Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
10.4 Methods of Constructing Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.5 Development of Cones and Pyramids (Problem 1) . . . . . . . . 231
10.6 Development of Cylinders and Prisms (Problem 2) . . . . . . . . 236
10.7 Review Questions on the Sixth Information Block
(This Chapter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 243
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... 244
11 Axonometric Projections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 245
11.1 The Projection Drawing. Requirements for the Projective
Drawing and Its Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 245
11.2 Principles of Construction of a Drawing . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 246
11.3 Axonometry Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 247
11.4 The Essence, the Components and Operations
of the Method of Axonometric Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11.5 Properties of Axonometric Projections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
11.5.1 Visualization of Axonometric Projections. . . . . . . . 249
11.5.2 Convertibility of Axonometric Projections . . . . . . . 250
11.5.3 Measurability of Axonometric Projections . . . . . . . 252
xviii Contents
11.6 The Polke-Schwarz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

11.7 Classification of Axonometric Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.8 Standard Kinds of Axonometric Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.8.1 A Rectangular Isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.8.2 Rectangular Dimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.8.3 Oblique-Angled Frontal Isometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
11.8.4 Oblique-Angled Frontal Dimetry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.8.5 Oblique-Angled Horizontal Isometry . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.9 Algorithm of Construction of Axonometric Projections . . . . . 276
11.10 Review Questions on the Seventh Block (This Chapter) . . . . 283
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12 Conclusion and Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
12.1 The Collection of Recent Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
About the Author
Aleksandr Yurievich Brailov is a Professor in the

Department of Descriptive Geometry and Drawing at
the Odessa Academy of Civil Engineering and
Architecture since 2008.
He began his engineering career in 1974 when he
became a first-year student of the Odessa National
Polytechnic University. After graduating, in 1979,
with a Master of Engineering, with Distinction, he was
employed as a research engineer at the Odessa
National Polytechnic University.
Dr. Brailov subsequently read for a Doctor of
Philosophy (Ph.D.) Degree at the Odessa National
Polytechnic University in the field of manufacturing engineering, focusing pri-
marily on the geometry of cutting tools under the supervision of Professor Yuri
Sukhorukov. Later on, to enhance his mathematical acumen, he completed the
Bachelor and Master programs at the Institute of Mathematics, Economy and
Mechanics of the Odessa I.I. Mechnikov National University in 1996.
After completion of his Ph.D., Dr. Brailov was employed by the Odessa National
Polytechnic University as a Senior Research Fellow, Associate Professor, and
Professor within the Departments of Metal Cutting and Cutting Tools, Descriptive
Geometry and Graphics, Computer Designing Technologies.
Professor Brailov is a member of the Ukrainian Association on Applied
Geometry, since 2000, and a member of the International Society of Geometry and
Graphics, since 1998.
His research interests include areas of geometrical modeling of engineering
objects and systems, engineering geometry, mechanical design, computer aided
design, engineering computer graphics and computer design of tools.
The author of 160 scientific and methodical works—including 133 scientific and
technical articles, three copyright certificates on inventions, two patents, three
textbooks, seven manuals, and 12 teaching-methodical works—Dr. Brailov has also
presented the results of his research at technical conferences around the world.
xix
Chapter 1
Descriptive Geometry
Descriptive geometry is a field within geometry that solves problems primarily with
graphic methods and that analyzes the geometric properties of the objects through
their graphic images [1–43].
More specifically descriptive geometry is the science of dealing with laws and
graphic methods of mapping spatial objects into the plane and creating
three-dimensional images of the objects from their two-dimensional images.
1.1 The Subject Matter of Descriptive Geometry
The subject matter of descriptive geometry is as follows:

1. Ways of constructing two-dimensional images of three-dimensional objects.
These are the theoretical bases for constructing and reading the drawings.
2. Ways of solving the geometric task to determine the mutual position of
three-dimensional objects by their two-dimensional images. These are the
positional tasks of descriptive geometry.
3. Ways of solving the geometric task to determine the metric characteristics of
objects (distances, areas, angles). These are the metric tasks of descriptive
geometry.
4. Graphical ways to develop spatial imagination and imaginative perception. Such
methods are based on the first three principal components of the subject. Spatial
imagination and imaginative perception are the basis of engineering creativity.
5. The basics of developing a graphic language to perform design and technical
tasks.
6. Geometrical bases of developing computer graphics means.
Graphically the subject of descriptive geometry can be represented in the form of
a scheme (see Fig. 1.1).
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

A.Y. Brailov, Engineering Graphics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29719-4_1
2 1 Descriptive Geometry
The subject matter of descriptive geometry
1 2 3 4 5 6
Fig. 1.1 The subject matter of descriptive geometry
1.2 Aims and Problems of Descriptive Geometry
Descriptive geometry has two main aims.

The first aim of descriptive geometry is to represent a three-dimensional object
accurately in a two-dimensional drawing. This is the direct task of descriptive
geometry.
The second aim of descriptive geometry is to create a precise three-dimensional
representation of an object as depicted uniquely by two-dimensional drawings. This
is the inverse task of descriptive geometry.
The applied problems of descriptive geometry. The fundamentals of descriptive
geometry were formulated by the French scientist Gaspard Monge (1746–1818).
Subsequently, scientists, developing descriptive geometry as an applied science,
face the following problems:
1. To develop a theoretical basis for the graphical mapping of objects and pro-
cesses used for designs in industry, building science and architecture.
2. To create objects of optimal geometric form.
3. To develop the graphical bases for the optimization of the design and techno-
logical development of an object on the basis of their geometric models.
1.3 Types of Geometric Figures and Objects (Images)
The basic elements of a three-dimensional space are the geometric points. Any set
of points is called a geometric figure or geometric object (image). A line and a
plane consist of a set of points. Therefore, the main geometric figures are consid-
ered a point, a line, and a plane.
There are three types of geometric objects (images):
– linear objects (a point, a line, a plane);
– nonlinear objects (a curved line, a curved surface);
– compound objects (polyhedrons, one-dimensional and two-dimensional com-
pound curves) [26–30].
1.4 A Determinant of a Geometric Image (Object) 3
1.4 A Determinant of a Geometric Image (Object)
The set of conditions which determines the shape, size and position of a geometric
image (object) is called a determinant of this image.
Structurally, a determinant of a geometric image consists of three parts: an
identifier (name) of an image, geometric part (G) and algorithmic part [A]—
I (G) [A].
An identifier (name) of an image can consist of a set of capital Greek or Latin
letters and figures.
Geometric part (G) of a determinant contains data or identifiers of geometric
figures forming a designed image.
Algorithmic part [A] of a determinant contains the description of laws (algo-
rithms) for the formation of a geometric image.
1.5 A Projecting Method. The Components

and the Operations of Projection
A projecting method enables the generation of a flat figure as the image of a spatial
object by means of the projecting rays. Formally, the problem of construction of an
image of an object is formulated as follows:
Given: 1. An object that is being projected. For example, a point A.
2. A plane of projection П.
3. The center of projection S or a direction of projection s. The center of
projection S must not belong to the plane of projection П.
4. Projecting rays SA.
Construct projection AП of the point A in the plane П.
The components (1–4) necessary to define a projection are an object to project,
the plane of projection, the center of projection or the direction of projection and the
projecting rays [31].
The problem solution:
The essence of the method of projection: the projecting ray SA is drawn through
the center of projection S and the point A. The ray SA intersects the plane of
projection П at some point AП. This point AП, which is the point of intersection of
the projecting ray SA and the image plane П, is called a projection of point A.
Thus, the projection AП of point A is obtained by means of two operations of
projection:
1. Operation of connection S [ A = [SA) between the center S and the object
A (Fig. 1.2) and
2. Operation of intersection [SA) \ П = AП of the projecting ray [SA) with the
plane of projection П (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.2 Operation of S

connection S [ A ¼ ½SAÞ
between the center S and the
object
Fig. 1.3 Operation of S

intersection ½SAÞ\P ¼ AP
The result of solving the considered engineering problem is the image AП of the
point A in the drawing.
References
1. Automation of the designing and preparation production (2002) T-FLEX Parametric CAD. M.:
“Top Systems”, 41 p (in Russian)
2. Brailov AYu (2002) Interference and problem of the designing in machine building. In:
Proceedings of Odessa Polytechnic University. OGPU, Odessa. vol 2, issue 18, pp 21–24 (in
Russian)
3. Brailov AYu (2007) Computer engineering graphics in the environment of T-FLEX:
Transformations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional models of products. Caravella,
Kiev, 176 p (in Russian)
4. Brailov AYu (2011) Features of training on engineering graphics in modern conditions.
Technical esthetics and design. Issue 8, pp 44–49 (in Russian)
5. Brailov AYu (2011) The structure of algorithm of the solution of positional problems. App
Geom Eng Graph (88):100–105 (in Russian)
6. Brailov AYu (2012) The structure of algorithm of the construction of development of a
surface. App Geom Eng Graph 89:94–100. K.: KNUBA (in Russian)
References 5
7. Brailov AYu (2013) The structure of algorithm of the solution of metric problems. Works of
Tavrijsky state agrotechnological university. TSATU, Melitopol, SPGM-15, pp 16–24 (in
Russian)
8. Brailov AYu (2013) The general algorithm of the solution of typical geometrical problems.
App Geom Eng Graph (91): 32–45. K.: KNUBA (in Russian)
9. Brailov AYu (2013) Engineering geometry. Kiev: Caravella, 456 p. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5
(in Russian)
10. Brailov AYu (2014) Algorithm of the constructing of axonometry of products. Modern
problems of modeling. MDPU name of B. Khmelnicki, Melitopol, issue 2, pp 9–21 (in
Russian)
11. Brailov AYu (2014) A hypothesis about the correspondence of the algorithm of the
constructing of axonometry of products to the general approach to the solution of typical
engineering geometrical problems. Building and technogenic safety. NAPKS, Simferopol.
Issue 50, pp 34–44 (in Russian)
12. Brednyeva VP, Dzhuguryan TG, Marchenko VS (2008) Engineering graphics. Astruprint,
Odessa, 204 p (in Russian)
13. Bubennikov AV, Gromov MYa (1973) Descriptive geometry, M.: Vishaya shkola, 416 p (in
Russian)
14. Vanin VV, Bliok AV, Gnitecka GO (2003) Appearance of design documentation. Caravella,
Kiev, 160 p (in Ukrainian)
15. Glazunov EA, Chetverukhinн NF (1953) Axonometry. M, 291 c (in Russian)
16. Ivanov GS (1987) Design of engineering surfaces (in Russian). M: Mashinostroenie, 192 p
17. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry. M: Mashinostroenie , 223 p (in Russian)
18. Ivanov GS (1998) Theoretical foundations of Descriptive geometry. Machine building, M,
158 p (in Russian)
19. Ivanov YuN, Podkoritov AN, Strigo YuS (1962) Descriptive geometry. Oмsкaya pravda,
Oмsк, 232 p (in Russian)
20. Mihajlenko VE, Kovalyev SN, Sedleckaya NI and other (in Russian) (1989) Engineering
Geometry with element of the theories of parameterization. К.: UMК VO, 83 p
21. Kotov II, Polozov VS, Shirokova LV (1977) Algorithms of computer graphics. M.:
Mashinostroenie, 231 p (in Russian)
22. Kolotov SM, Dolski EE, Mihajlenko VE and other (in Russian) (1961) Course of Descriptive
Geometry. К.: Gosstrojizdat USSR, 314 p
23. Tevlin AM, Ivanov GS, Nartova LG and other; Tevlin AM (in Russian) (1983) (ed) Course of
descriptive geometry on the ground of computer. M.: Vishaya shkola, 175 p
24. Levicki VS (1988) Machine-building drawing. M.: Vishaya shkola, 351 p (in Russian)
25. Marchenko VS (2008) Engineering graphics. Odessa: Astruprint, 168 p (in Ukrainian)
26. Mihajlenko VE, Vanin VV, Kovalyev SN (2013) Engineering and computer graphics:
handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed) (in Russian). K: Karavella, 328 p
27. Mihajlenko VE (2001) Engineering and computer graphics. In: Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VM,
Podkorytov AN, Skidan IA (ed). Vishcha shkola, Kiyv, 350 p (in Russian)
28. Mihajlenko VE (2002) Problems in the engineering and computer graphics. In:
Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VM, Podkorytov AN, Skidan IA (ed). Vishcha Shkola,
Kiyv,159 p (in Russian)
29. Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VM (1998) Explanation terms for applied geometry, engineering and
computer graphics. К.: Urozhaj, 200 p (in Ukrainian)
30. Mihajlenko VE, Ponomaryev AM (1990) Engineering graphics. К.: Vishcha shkola, 303 p (in
Russian)
31. Podkorytov AN, Galzman EG, Perevalov VF (1993) Lectures on engineering graphics (with
structurally logic schemes and algorithms of graphic constructions in solving typical
problems) for students of non-mechanical specialties. OSPU, Odessa, 83 p (in Russian)
32. Romanicheva ET, Sokolova TYu, Shandurina GF (2001) Engineering and computer graphics.
M.: DMК Press, 592 p (in Russian)
33. Russian complex of the programs T-FLEX CAD/CAM/CAE/PDM (2005). M.: “Top
Systems”, 52 p (in Russian)
34. Rizhov NN (1983) Main positional problems. M.: MADI, 38 p (in Russian)
35. Rizhov NN (1988) Parametric geometry. M.: MADI, 63 p (in Russian)
36. Fedorenko VA, Shoshin AI (1992) Guide to machine-building drawing. Mashinostroenie,
Leningrad, 416 p (in Russian)
37. Frolov SA (1978) Descriptive geometry. Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 240 p (in Russian)
38. Brailov AYu (1998) The exclusion method of interference in conjugated helicoids In:
Proceedings of the eighth international conference on engineering design graphics and
descriptive geometry, Austin, Texas, USA. ISGG, vol 2, pp 443–445
39. Brailov AYu (1999) Physical constraints in the control of chip breakability ASME J Manuf
Sci Eng, MED 10:389–396. Nashville, Tennessee, USA
40. Brailov AYu, Tigaryev VM (2000) Graphic method of determination of ranges of a
modification of parameters of complicated movements. In: Proceedings of the ninth
international conference on engineering design graphics and descriptive geometry,
Johannesburg, South Africa. ISGG, vol 2, pp 412–416
41. Brailov AYu (2002) Interference in design. In: Proceedings of the tenth international
conference on geometry and graphics, Kiev, Ukraine. ISGG, vol 1, pp 84–88
42. Brailov AYu (2004). Designing using T-FLEX CAD. In: Proceedings of the eleventh
international conference on geometry and graphics, Guangzhow, China. ISGG pp 397–402
43. Brailov AYu (2006) Development of a parametrical three–dimensional model of a product. In:
Proceedings of the twelfth international conference on geometry and graphics, Salvador,
Brazil. ISGG, p A19
Chapter 2
Types of Projection. The Center
of Projection
The object projection into the image plane can be carried out by straight lines or
curves (rays) [1–15].
The projection carried out by straight lines (rays) is called a rectilinear pro-
jection. The projection carried out by curves (rays) is called a curvilinear
projection.
The center of projection is the origin or source of the stream of projecting rays.
Depending on the distance between the center of projection and the image plane,
the distinction should be made between central (conical) projections and parallel
(cylindrical) projections.
2.1 Central (conical) Projection
Central (conic) projection is a projection from the center, located at the finite
distance from a plane of projection (Fig. 2.1). An array of rectilinear projecting rays
forms a conic surface.
Examples of central projection are the shadow of an object from an electric bulb,
a photo of a product, and an image of an object on the retina of the human eye.
2.2 Parallel (cylindrical) Projection
Parallel (cylindrical) projection is a projection from the center, located at a infinite

distance from a plane of projection (Fig. 2.2). An array of rectilinear projecting rays
forms a cylindrical surface as all rays are parallel.
An example of parallel projection is the shadow of an object from the rays of the
Sun.

8 2 Types of Projection. The Center of Projection
Fig. 2.1 The central (conic) S

projection
A
B
C1
1 A1 B1
Fig. 2.2 Parallel = 90º

S
(cylindrical) oblique-angled
projection
C s
B
A
C1
1 A1
B1
Depending on the size of the angle φ of an inclination of the projecting rays to

the plane of projection, parallel (cylindrical) projection is divided into oblique-
angled projection (φ ≠ 90°, Fig. 2.2) and rectangular (orthogonal) projecting
(φ = 90°, Fig. 2.3).
2.3 Properties of the Central (conic) Projection
Some important properties of the central (conic) projection are:

1. A projection of a point is a point (Fig. 2.1).
2. A point in the space, with the given direction of projection, determines the
location of the single projection of the point on the plane of projection (Figs. 2.2
and 2.3).
3. A projection of a point does not determine the location of the point in space
(Fig. 2.4).
2.3 Properties of the Central (conic) Projection 9
Fig. 2.3 Parallel

(cylindrical) rectangular = 90º
(orthogonal) projection S
C s
B
A
C1
1 A1
B1
Fig. 2.4 Ambiguity of the S = 90º

solution to an inverse problem A
of geometry for a point
A
? s
A
4. A projection of a straight line, which does not coincide with a direction of

projection, is a straight line (Fig. 2.5).
5. A projection of a straight line, which coincides with a direction of projection, is
a point (Fig. 2.6).
Central (conic) projecting is a special case of parallel (cylindrical) projecting.
Therefore, the properties 1–5 of the central (conic) projection are also valid for
parallel (cylindrical) projection.
Nevertheless, there are a number of properties, which are characteristic for
parallel (cylindrical) oblique-angled projection, that differ for central (conic) pro-
jection in several respects.
Fig. 2.5 Straight line AB

does not coincide with the S = 90º
direction of projection s
B
s
B1
1 A1
Fig. 2.6 Straight line AB S = 90º

coincides with the direction of A
projection s
s
B
A1 = (B1 )
1
2.4 Properties of Parallel (cylindrical) Oblique-Angled

Projection
6. A projection of a straight line segment or of a plane figure, which is parallel to a

projection plane, appears in equal length or as a congruent figure, respectively
(Fig. 2.7).
7. A projection of a point, dividing a spatial line segment in certain proportion,
divides a projection of that segment in the same proportion (Fig. 2.8).
8. Projections of parallel straight lines are parallel (Fig. 2.9).
Parallel oblique projection is a generalization of parallel projection. In the former
case, the angle between projecting rays and the planes of projection is not 90°
(φ ≠ 90°). Therefore the properties of parallel oblique projection also apply to
parallel projection.
Rectangular (orthogonal) projection is a generalization of parallel projection.
The angle between projecting rays and the planes of projection is 90° (φ = 90°).
2.4 Properties of Parallel (cylindrical) Oblique-Angled Projection 11
Fig. 2.7 Projection A1B1 of

the segment AB is parallel to it S = 90º
and equal in length
s
A B
A1 B1
1
Fig. 2.8 Projection K1 of

S = 90º
point K divides projection
A1B1 of segment AB in the
same proportion, i.e., lengths B
AK:KB = A1K1:K1B1 K
s
A
A1 B1
1
K1
Fig. 2.9 Parallel projections S = 90º

A1B1 and C1D1 of the parallel
straight lines AB and CD B D
s
A C
C1 D1
1 A1 B1
Therefore the properties of parallel rectangular (orthogonal) projection also

apply to parallel projection.
Consider some important properties, which are characteristic only for parallel
rectangular (orthogonal) projection, that differ for central (conic) projection in
certain respects.
2.5 Properties of Parallel Rectangular (orthogonal)

Projection
9. In orthogonal projection, the length of a projection of the segment, which is not

parallel to the plane of projection, is less than the true (actual) length of that
segment (Fig. 2.10).
10. If a plane figure coincides with a projection direction, its projection is a straight
line segment (Fig. 2.11).
Orthogonal projection has 28 principal properties.
The structural scheme of the types of projection is presented in Fig. 2.12.

B
segment AB is less than the s
true length of this segment
A
A1 B1
1

an orthogonal plane figure is
B
a segment s
B1
1 A1
Fig. 2.12 Types of projection Types of projection
Rectilinear Curvilinear
Parallel projection
Central (conic) Oblique projection Orthogonal

projection projection
References 13
References
1. Brailov AY (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, 456 p. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

(in Russian)
2. Bubennikov AV, Gromov МY (1973) Descriptive geometry. М.: Vishaya shkola, 416 p
(in Russian)
3. Kolotov SM, Dolski EE, Mihajlenko VE et al (1961) Course of descriptive geometry. К.:
Gosstrojizdat USSR, 314 p (in Russian)
4. Tevlin АМ, Ivanov GS, Nartova LG et al (1983) Course of descriptive geometry on the
ground of computer. Tevlin АМ (ed). М.: Vishaya shkola, 175 p (in Russian)
5. Ivanov GS. Descriptive geometry. М.: Mashinostroenie, 223 p (in Russian)
6. Ivanov YN, Podkoritov АN, Strigo YS (1962) Descriptive geometry. Омsкаya pravda, Омsк,
232 p (in Russian)
handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed). K: Karavella, 328 p (in Russian)
Podkorytov AN, Skidan IA (eds). Vishcha shkola, Kiyv, 350 p (in Russian)
problems) for students of non-mechanical specialties. ОSPU, Odessa, 83 p (in Russian)
10. Frolov SА (1978) Descriptive geometry. Mashinostroenie, Moscow, p 240 (in Russian)
11. Cardone V, Iannizzaro V, Barba S, Messina B (2012) Computer aided descriptive geometry.
In: Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on geometry and graphics, Montreal,
Canada. ISGG, pp 100–109
12. Cervantes-Sanchez JJ, Zsombor-Murray P (2014) Kinematics of a mobile overconstrained
RRRCR Loop. In: Proceedings of the 16th international conference on geometry and graphics,
Innsbruck, Austria, pp 726–731
13. Cucakovic Aleksandar A, Teofilovic Natasa K, Jovic Biljana S (2014) Descriptive geometry
education by using multimedia tools. In: Proceedings of the 16th international conference on
geometry and graphics, Innsbruck, Austria, pp 262–265
14. Honma IA (2012) Trial with teaching materials on descriptive geometry by using CAD for
students with hearing impairments. In: Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on
geometry and graphics, Montreal, Canada. ISGG, pp 296—301
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Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on geometry and graphics, Montreal,
Chapter 3
Formation of the Complex Drawing.
Octants. The Method of Gaspard Monge
In 1799, a French scientist, mathematician and engineer Gaspard Monge (1746–

1818) developed a rational method for the formation of a drawing. The basic idea of
this method consists in the application of parallel rectangular (orthogonal) projec-
tions of an object on three mutually perpendicular planes [1–5].
3.1 The Concept of Octant
An octant is the smaller solid angle, subtended by three mutually perpendicular

planes.
An octant in solid geometry is one of the eight divisions of a Euclidean
three-dimensional coordinate system defined by the signs of the coordinates. It is
similar to the two-dimensional quadrant and the one-dimensional ray.
Three mutually perpendicular planes divide all space into eight octants. The
numbering of the octants is shown in Fig. 3.1. The numbers of invisible octants
(6) and (7) are taken in parentheses. The first octant is selected by a continuous
thick line.
Mutually perpendicular planes are called as follows:
П1 is a horizontal plane of projection;
П2 is a frontal plane of projection;
П3 is a profile plane of projection.
Three mutually perpendicular planes of projection are linked with the right
rectangular system of coordinates developed by Rene Descartes (1596–1650).
The origin of the system of coordinates, point O (Origo, Latin–beginning),
belongs to the general point for all three planes.
The x-axis (axis of abscissas) Ox coincides with the line of intersection between
the horizontal projection plane П1 and the frontal projection plane П2
(П1 \ П2 = Ox).
16 3 Formation of the Complex Drawing. Octants. The Method …
Fig. 3.1 Numbers of octants

1–8 Z 23
3
2 (6)
1 5
X 21 O
3 (7)
1
4 8
Y13
The y-axis (axis of ordinates) Oy coincides with the line of intersection between
the horizontal projection plane П1 and the profile projection plane П3
(П1 \ П3 = Oy).
The z-axis (axis of applicates) Oz coincides with the line of intersection between
the frontal projection plane П2 and the profile projection plane П3 (П2 \ П3 = Oz).
The projection planes П1, П2, П3 coincide respectively with coordinate planes
Oxy, Oxz, Oyz.
The choice of octant defines the location of views of a product in the drawing.
According to the International Standard Organization (ISO) measurement system,
the basic octant is the first octant, in the UK—the fifth octant, and in the US—the
seventh octant.
3.2 The Essence of the Method of Gaspard Monge
Developed by Gaspard Monge, the method of forming a drawing of a product is

realized through the following stages:
1. A product is orthogonally projected onto three mutually perpendicular planes
П1, П2, П3. Thus, a three-dimensional geometrical model of the projection of the
product is formed.
2. A three-dimensional geometrical model of projection of a product is transformed
into a two-dimensional geometrical model.
References 17
References
1. Brailov AY (2013) Engineering Geometry. Caravella, Kiev, 456 p. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

(in Russian)
2. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry. M.: Mashinostroenie, 223 p (in Russian)
Handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed). K: Karavella, 328 p (in Russian)
structurally logic schemes and algorithms of graphic constructions in solving typical problems)
for students of non-mechanical specialties. OSPU, Odessa, 83 p (in Russian)
Chapter 4
Geometrical Models and an Analytical
Model of a Point
Consider the realization of the method of Gaspard Monge using an example of the
basic linear geometric image of the three-dimensional space—a point [1–3].
1. At the first stage a point A is orthogonally projected onto three mutually per-
pendicular planes П1, П2, П3. The generated three-dimensional geometrical
model of the projection of the point A is represented in Fig. 4.1. The projecting
rays AA1, AA2, AA3 are accordingly perpendicular to the corresponding planes
of projection П1, П2, П3.
The points A1, A2, A3 of intersection of projecting rays AA1, AA2, AA3 with the
planes of projections П1, П2, П3 are denoted as:
A1 is a horizontal projection of the point A (AA1 \ П1 = A1);
A2 is a frontal projection of the point A (AA2 \ П2 = A2);
A3 is a profile projection of the point A (AA3 \ П3 = A3).
The points A13, A21, A23 located on the intersection of projections of projecting
rays AA1, AA2, AA3 with the corresponding coordinate axes, namely the axis of
ordinates Oy, an axis of abscissas Ox and an axis of applicates Oz, are called the
Cartesian (orthogonal) coordinate reference points. These points A13, A21, A23 are
also located on the intersection of the principal projections of projecting rays AA1,
AA2, AA3. Reference points A13, A21, A23 are located respectively on the axes of
coordinates Oy, Ox, Oz.
By convention of the ISO measurement system, the principal horizontal, frontal
and profile projection planes П1, П2, П3 used to show the top, front and side views of
a three-dimensional object are the respective coordinate planes Oxy (z = 0),
Oxz (y = 0), Oyz (x = 0). Combinations of projection planes П1, П2, П3 and
coordinate planes Oxy, Oxz, Oyz can be different. Therefore, lengths jOA21 j;
jOA13 j; jOA23 j of line segments OA21, OA13, OA23 and segments OA21,
OA13, OA23 characterize both the analytic and geometric positions of point A in
space with respect to the selected orthogonal coordinate system Oxyz.

20 4 Geometrical Models and an Analytical Model of a Point
Fig. 4.1 A three-dimensional

model of the point A
Numerical values XA ¼ jOA21 j; YA ¼ jOA13 j; ZA ¼ jOA23 j of the lengths

jOA21 j; jOA13 j; jOA23 j of the segments OA21, OA13, OA23 are referred to as
coordinates of the point A. Respectively to the axes Ox, Oy, Oz, the coordinate XA
in the axis Ox is called the abscissa, the coordinate YA in the axis Oy is called the
ordinate, the coordinate ZA in the axis Oz is called the applicate. In SI units,
numerical values of the coordinates XA, YA, ZA can be measured in millimeters,
meters, kilometers, etc.
A set of coordinates XA, YA, ZA is an analytical model or a determinant A
(XA, YA, ZA) of the point A. These are referred to as the coordinates (XA, YA, ZA)
of the point A, as they define unequivocally the position of the point in space.
Examining the point A in the cabinet pictorial shown in Fig. 4.1 enables one to
observe the following length relationships among the twelve edges of a rectangular
parallelepiped with eight angles O, A, A1, A2, A3, A21, A13, A23:
XA ¼ AA3 ¼ A1 A13 ¼ A2 A23 ¼ OA21 ;

YA ¼ AA2 ¼ A1 A21 ¼ A3 A23 ¼ OA13 ;
ZA ¼ AA1 ¼ A2 A21 ¼ A3 A13 ¼ OA23 :
The module sign j j, designating the length of a segment, is omitted in the further
text to simplify writing geometric parities in the given relations.
Superposition (sum) of projections A2A21 and A21A1, A2A23 and A23A3, A1A13
and A13A3 of projecting rays AA1 and AA2, AA3 and AA2, AA3 and AA1
accordingly on the plane of projection П2 and П1, П2 and П3, П1 and П3 form the
lines of projective connections A2A1, A2A3, A1A3 (Fig. 4.1).
4 Geometrical Models and an Analytical Model of a Point 21
Lines of projective connections are the lines connecting the projections of a

geometric image.
2. At the second stage of realization of the method of Gaspard Monge, a
three-dimensional geometric model of the point A (Fig. 4.1) is transformed into
its two-dimensional geometric model.
Transformation of a three-dimensional geometric model into a two-dimensional
geometric model consists of three operations:
– point A and projecting rays АА1, АА2, АА3 project outward, in the mind’s eye,
from a three-dimensional geometric model;
– a horizontal plane of projection П1 rotates downwards round the axis Ox to the
full coincidence with a frontal plane of projection П2;
– a profile plane of projection П3 turns right round the axis Oz to the full coin-
cidence with the frontal plane of projection П2.
In the course of the last two operations, the axis Oy, the reference point A13 and
the straight line of projective connection A1A3 are transformed into two axes OY13,
two reference points A13 and two lines of projective connections A1A3. Thus, these
two lines of projective connections A1A3 are perpendicular to each other and are
intersected at the point belonging to a special straight line K.
As a result, the single broken line of projective connection A1A3 is formed.
A special straight line K is a projection of the bisectorial plane, passing through the
axes OY13 in the first and eighth octants (Fig. 4.2).
As a result of such three operations, there is a two-dimensional geometric model
of a point or its complex drawing (Fig. 4.2).
A complex drawing is a graphic image of, at least, two projections of a geo-
metrical image that are connected by the lines of projective connections according
to the laws of projective connections.
Z 23 1 Z23 3
2 3
2 3 A2 23 3
A2 23 3
2 2
ZA
ZA
A 21 XA YA A 13 A 21 XA YA A 13
X 21 O Y 13 O
X 21 Y 13
YA
YA
A1 A 13 K
3 A1 A 13 K 3
1
Y 13 1 1 Y 13 3
Fig. 4.2 A two-dimensional geometric model of the point A

22 4 Geometrical Models and an Analytical Model of a Point
4.1 The Laws of Projective Connections
1. The first law of projective connections. Frontal A2 and horizontal A1 projections

of the point A are located on the same line of projective connection 1–1, which
is perpendicular to the axes OX21 and passes through the reference point A21
corresponding to the coordinate XA of the point A: 1–1 ⊥ X21 (Fig. 4.2).
2. The second law of projective connections. Frontal A2 and profile A3 of the
projection of the point A are located on the same line of projective connection 2,
which is perpendicular to the axes OZ23 and passes through the reference point
A23 corresponding to the coordinate ZA of the point A: 2–2 ⊥ Z23 (Fig. 4.2).
3. The third law of projective connections. Horizontal A1 and profile A3 projec-
tions of the point A are located on the same polygonal line of projective con-
nection 3–3, that is perpendicular to the axes OY13 and passes through the
reference points A13 corresponding to the coordinate YA: (3–3 ⊥ Y13).
The polygonal line of projective connection 3–3 is formed by two infinite
mutually perpendicular straight lines (Fig. 4.2).
The laws of projective connections enable an engineer to check the correctness
of the drawing construction of any product.
4.2 Classification of Points
The basic classification feature of geometric images in the method of orthogonal

projection are their locations in relation to the planes of projection.
A point in the location concerning the planes of projection can occupy the
general or special position.
A point of the general position does not belong to any of the planes of projections
П1, П2, П3. All three coordinates of the point of the general position are not equal to
zero.
Points of special position can be characterized as one of the following:
– belong to any plane of projection, when one of three coordinates is equal to
zero;
– belong simultaneously to two planes of projection, located on the axis of
coordinates, when two of the three coordinates of the point are equal to zero;
– belong simultaneously to three planes of projections, locating at the center of the
coordinate system (where the lines intersect) called the origin, when all three
coordinates of the point are equal to zero.
4.3 Review Questions on the First Block (Chaps. 1–4) 23
4.3 Review Questions on the First Block (Chaps. 1–4)
1. Is the subject of descriptive geometry the study of the set of various geometric
images and relations between them?
2. What is the essence of the method of projection?
3. What components make up the mechanism of projection?
4. What operations facilitate the method of projection?
5. What criterion differentiate the types of projection divided into conic projection
and cylindrical projection?
6. What are basic properties of orthogonal projection?
7. What is the essence of the laws of projective connections?
References
1. Brailov AYu (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, p 456. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5
(in Russian)
handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed), K: Karavella, p 328 (in Russian)
for students of non-mechanical specialties. OSPU, Odessa, p 83 (in Russian)
Chapter 5
Geometric and Analytical Models
of a Straight Line
In the third century BC, centuries-old work of the Greek geometers was system-
atized by Euclid (330-275 BC) in the scientific work “Elements”. In each of the
thirteen volumes of the “Elements”, Euclid defined the fundamental concepts,
postulates and axioms. In the first book, the basic concepts of geometry were
defined. Here are some of them:
A point is that component that has no parts.
A line is breathless length.
The ends of a line are points.
A straight line is a line which lies evenly with the points on itself.
A surface is that component that has length and breadth only.
The edges of a surface are lines.
A plane surface is a surface which lies evenly with the straight lines on itself.
While the basic concepts of geometry were described only substantially, they
were based, in turn, on formally undefined concepts (a part, a length, a width).
A number of definitions could also be applied also to other concepts. For example,
the concept “circle” corresponds to Euclid’s straight line and the concept “plane”
corresponds to the concept “surface”. Whereas a plane is just an elementary surface,
a special case in the given class of geometric images, the definition of the concept
“surface” is broader than the concept “plane”.
Thus, a straight line, as well as a point, is basic and a formally undefined concept
of geometry. These concepts can be defined only substantially, using other con-
cepts. For example, a straight line is an uncountable set of points located on one
ray, the beginning of which is in infinity.

26 5 Geometric and Analytical Models of a Straight Line
5.1 Classification of Straight Lines
As for the location of projection planes, straight lines are divided into straight lines
either of general and special positions [1–6].
A straight line of general position is neither parallel nor perpendicular to any of the
planes of projection.
A straight line of special position is either parallel or perpendicular to any plane of
projection. A straight line can occupy six special positions in relation to the three
projection planes.
A straight line of special position, parallel only to one projection plane, is called a
level straight line. According to the names of projection planes, there is a horizontal
straight line of level, a frontal straight line of level and a profile straight line of level.
A straight line of special position, perpendicular to any plane of projection and
parallel to other two planes of projections, is called a projecting straight line.
According to the names of planes of projections, there is a horizontally projecting
straight line, a frontally projecting straight line and a profile projecting straight line.
A straight line is infinite. In engineering practice, a professional does not operate
with an infinite straight line but its finite part, named a segment. Therefore, in the
majority of situations, an engineer distinguishes between the concepts of a segment
of a straight line and a straight line.
5.2 Ways of Representation for a Line Segment

and Determinants of a Straight Line
A line can be segmented in the following ways:

– by two set points,
– by a ray and a point on this ray,
– by a set point; an algorithm for choosing any extremity point; and angles
between a segment and projection planes.
Therefore a geometric part of a determinant of a straight line n contains the
following identifiers:
– two points, n (A, B);
– a point and a projecting direction, n (A, s);
– a point and angles between a straight line n and projection planes, n (A, α, β, γ).
The angle between a straight line and a horizontal projection plane П1 is com-
monly denoted as angle α. The angle between a straight line and a frontal projection
plane П2 is commonly denoted as angle β. The angle between a straight line and a
profile projection plane П3 is commonly denoted as angle γ.
5.3 Geometric Model of a Straight Line of General Position 27
(a) (b)
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
2 =0 3 =0 A2 A23 A3
A2 A23
3
2 3
A 2
A3 A21 2 3 A13
3
X12 A21 2 X12 1 O Y13
1
O 1
3
1
A13 A13
A1 A1
1
=0
1
Y13 1 Y13
(c) 2 Z23 3
A2 A 23 A3
B23
A21 B2 B3 A13
X21 O Y13
B1
A1 A13 K
1 Y13
Fig. 5.1 Complex drawing of a straight line of general position
5.3 Geometric Model of a Straight Line

of General Position
A geometric model (a complex drawing) of a straight line of general position can be

constructed on the basis of two projections of a segment using the laws of pro-
jection connections (Fig. 5.1).
5.4 The Peculiarities of a Complex Drawing of a Straight

Line of General Position
Geometric features of a straight line of general position for the method of

orthogonal projection are:
1. By definition, a straight line of general position is neither parallel nor perpen-
dicular to any of the planes of projections. Therefore the angles between a
straight line of general position and corresponding planes of projections are not
equal to zero or 90° (α ≠ 0°, α ≠ 90°, β ≠ 0°, β ≠ 90°, γ ≠ 0°, γ ≠ 90°).
Figure 5.1a shows angles α, β, γ whereas corresponding projections α2, α3, β1,
β3, γ1, γ2 of angles α, β, γ are shown in Fig. 5.1b.
Figure 5.1c shows the complex drawing of a segment AB of a straight line of
general position.
2. Any two distinct non-coincident points A and B on a straight line of general
position have different coordinates with the same name (XA ≠ XB, YA ≠ YB,
ZA ≠ ZB), as the spatial locations of these points with respect to the same plane
of projection are not the same.
3. The length of a projection of any segment of a straight line of general position
into any plane of projection is less than the true length of this segment in space
(i.e.,│A1B1│< │AB│, │A2B2│ < │AB│, │A3B3│ < │AB│).
4. The angles between the projections of a segment of a straight line of general
position and the axes on the corresponding plane of projection are not equal to
the true angles of inclination of this straight line to the corresponding planes of
projections (α2 ≠ α, α3 ≠ α, β1 ≠ β, β3 ≠ β, γ1 ≠ γ, γ2 ≠ γ).
Thus, important features of a complex drawing of a straight line of general
position are that all projections of this line or any of its segment are shorter than the
true length of this line or the segment considered in space and are located at angles,
not equal to zero and 90°, relative to the axes of projection.
5.5 Geometric Models of a Level Line
By definition, a level line is parallel only to one plane of projection. Therefore, each
point of a straight line of level has one coordinate with the same value, equal to the
distance from a straight line to a parallel plane of projection. The values of two
other coordinates depend on the point position on a straight line and on the incli-
nation of the straight line to other two planes of projection.
The appearance of a geometric model (a complex drawing) of level line depends
on the plane of projection, to which a level line is parallel.
5.5.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontal Level Line

and Properties of This Model
A horizontal level line is parallel to a horizontal plane of projection—AB║П1

(Fig. 5.2). Therefore, the angle α between a horizontal level line AB and a hori-
zontal plane of projection П1 is equal to zero—α = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a horizontal level line are:
1. The frontal projection of a horizontal level line is parallel to the axis of
abscissas, i.e., A2B2║OX21.
5.5 Geometric Models of a Level Line 29
2 Z 23 2
Z 23 3
2 =0 3 =0 A2 B2 B3 3
A2 B2 A 23 B 23 23 B 23
B B3
3
A A3 A 21 B 21 B 13 A 13
X12 A 21 B 21 O
O X 21 Y13
1
B 13 B1
B1 1 = A13
1 A1 A13 K
=0
1 Y13 1 Y 13
Fig. 5.2 A horizontal level line
2. The profile projection of a horizontal level line is parallel to the axis of ordi-
nates, i.e., A3B3║OY13.
3. The horizontal projection of a horizontal level line is not parallel to both the axis
of abscissas and the axis of ordinates, i.e., A1B1¬║OX21, A1B1¬║OY13.
4. The length │A1B1│ of a horizontal projection A1B1 of the segment AB of a
horizontal level line is equal to the true length │AB│ of this segment
—│A1B1│ =│AB│.
5. The angles β1, γ1 between the horizontal projection A1B1 of the segment AB and
the axis of abscissas OX21, as well as the axis of ordinates OY13, are equal
accordingly to the true values │β│, │γ│ of the angles β, γ between the
horizontal level line AB and the frontal plane of projection П2, as well as the
profile plane of projection П3. Thus, the projections β1, γ1 of the angles β, γ
between the horizontal level line AB and the frontal plane of projection П2, as
well as the profile plane of projection П3, are equal to the true
values│β│,│γ│ of the angles β, γ—β1 = │β│, γ1 = │γ│.
5.5.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontal Level Line

A frontal level line is parallel to the frontal plane of projection—AB║П2 (Fig. 5.3).
Therefore, the angle β between the frontal level line of level AB and the frontal
plane of projection П2 is equal to zero—β = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a frontal level line are:
1. The horizontal projection of a frontal level line is parallel to the axis of
abscissas, i.e., A1B1║OX21.
2. The profile projection of a frontal level line is parallel to the axis of applicates,
i.e., A3B3║OZ23.
2 Z23 2
Z23 3
2 =0 3 =0 B2 B3
B2 A23 B23 B23
2
3 =0
2 = 3
A2 23 3
B
A2 B3 A21 B21 B13 A13
23
X12 A21 B21 X21 O Y13

O
A A3
A13 B13
1 B1 B13
A1 B1 K
A13
1 =0 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 5.3 A frontal level line
3. The frontal projection of a frontal level line is not parallel to the axis of abscissas
and the axis of applicates, i.e., A2B2¬║OX21, A2B2¬║OZ23.
4. The length │A2B2│ of a frontal projection A2B2 of the segment AB of a frontal
level line is equal to the true lengths │AB│ of the segment—│A2B2│ = │AB│.
5. Angles α2, γ2 between the frontal projection A2B2 of the segment AB and the
axis of abscissas OX21, as well as the axis of applicates OZ23, are equal
accordingly to the true values │α│, │γ│ of the angles α, γ between the frontal
level line AB and the horizontal plane of projection П1, as well as the profile
plane of projection П3. Thus, projections α2, γ2 of the angles α, γ between the
frontal level line AB and the horizontal plane of projection П1, as well as the
profile plane of projection П3, are equal to the true values │α│, │γ│ of the
angels α, γ—α2 = │α│, γ2 = │γ│.
5.5.3 A Geometric Model of a Profile Level Line

A profile level line is parallel to a profile plane of projection—AB║П3 (Fig. 5.4).

Therefore the angle γ between the profile level line AB and the profile plane of
projection П3 is equal to zero—γ = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a profile level line are:
1. The horizontal projection of a profile level line is parallel to the axis of ordi-
nates, i.e., A1B1║OY13.
2. The frontal projection of a profile level line is parallel to the axis of applicates,
i.e., A2B2║OZ23.
3. The profile projection of a profile level line is not parallel to the axis of ordinates
and the axis of applicates, i.e., A3B3¬║OY13, A2B2¬║OZ23.
5.5 Geometric Models of a Level Line 31
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
2 =0 2 =0 B2 B3
B2 B23 =0
3 B23
B B3 À23
3 A2 À3
A2 A23 3
A21 B21 B13 A13
3
X12 A21 X21 B1 O Y13

O A3 B13
B21 A
B1 B13
1 =0 1 =0 A13
À1 A1 A13 K
=0 Y13
1 1 Y13
Fig. 5.4 A profile straight line of level
4. The length │A3B3│ of the profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB of a

profile level line is equal to the true length │AB│ of this segment—
A3B3 = │AB│.
5. Angels α3, β3 between the profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB and the
axis of ordinates OY13, as well as the axis of applicates OZ23, are equal
accordingly to the true values │α│, │β│ of the angles α, β between a profile
straight line of level AB and the horizontal plane of projection П1, as well as the
frontal plane of projection П2. Thus, projections α3, β3 of the angles α, β
between a frontal straight line of level AB and a horizontal plane of projection
П1, as well as a frontal plane of projection П2, are equal to the true
values│α│,│β│ of the angles α, β—α3 = │α│, β3 = │β│.
5.5.4 Peculiarities of the Complex Drawing of a Level Line
A reference (base) plane of projection to define a level line is referred to as that

projection plane to which this level line is parallel.
The peculiarities of the complex drawing of a level line are:
1. A projection of a segment of a level line on the reference plane has of the same
length of that of the segment. And vice versa, the segment of a level line on the
reference plane corresponds to the projection, equal to the true length of the
segment. The projection of the segment with the axes forms natural angles of an
inclination of a straight line to the corresponding planes of projection.
2. Two other projections of the segment of a level line have shorter lengths than
that of the segment of the straight line.
3. Projections of a segment of a level line, which are shorter in true length, are
parallel to the axes that set the reference plane of projection.
5.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Straight Line
According to the definition, a projecting straight line is perpendicular only to one

plane of projection and is parallel to the two other planes of projection.
Therefore, each point of a projecting straight line has two coordinates with the
same value, equal to the distance from a straight line to the parallel planes of
projection. Values of the third coordinate depend on the point position on a pro-
jecting straight line according to a plane of projection, to which the straight line is
perpendicular.
A projection of a projecting straight line into a perpendicular plane of projection
is a point. It reveals the collective property of a projecting straight line.
The geometric essence of a collective property of a projecting straight line is that
projections of all points of the line to the perpendicular plane of projection coincide.
The analytical essence of a collective property of a projecting straight line is that
a one-dimensional projecting straight line to the perpendicular plane of projection is
projected to the collective point of zero measurement. Thus, one of the projections
of a projecting straight line has one dimension less than the geometric image itself.
Projections of a projecting straight line to the parallel planes of projections are
straight lines. These projections are set parallel to the axis that is formed by the planes
of projections parallel to a projecting straight line. Because of the properties of
orthographic projection, the length of projections of a segment of a projecting straight
line to the parallel planes of projection is equal to the true length of the segment.
The appearance of a geometric model (a complex drawing) depends on the plane
of projection to which a projecting straight line is perpendicular.

Straight Line and Properties of the Model
A horizontally projecting straight line is perpendicular to a horizontal plane of

projection—AB ? П1 (Fig. 5.5).
Therefore, the angle α between the segment AB of a horizontally projecting
straight line and the horizontal plane of projection П1 is equal to 90°—α = 90°. The
angle β between the segment AB of a horizontally projecting straight line and the
frontal plane of projection П2 is equal to zero degrees—β = 0°. The angle γ between
the segment AB of a horizontally projecting straight line AB and the profile plane
of projection П3 is equal to zero degrees—γ = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a horizontally projecting straight line are:
1. The frontal projection is parallel to the axis of applicates and perpendicular to
the axis of abscissas, i.e., A2B2║OZ23 and A2B2 ? OX21.
2. The profile projection is parallel to the axis of applicates and perpendicular to
the axis of ordinates, i.e., A3B3║OZ23 and A3B3 ? OY13.
5.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Straight Line 33
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
=0 A2 À3
A2 A23 =0 À23
3 B23
B2 B3
B2 A B23 A3
A21 B21 B13 A13
X12 A21 X21 O Y13
O
B21 B B3
A13 B13
B13 A13
A1 (B 1) K
À1=(B1) =90
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 5.5 A horizontally projecting straight line
3. The horizontal projection is neither parallel nor perpendicular accordingly to the

axis of abscissas and the axis of ordinates, as it is a point, i.e., A1B1¬║OX21,
A1B1¬ ? OX21, A1B1¬║OY13, A1B1¬ ? OY13, A1 ≡ (B1).
4. The length │A2B2│ of the frontal projection A2B2 of the segment AB of a
horizontally projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB │ of this
segment—│A2B2│ = │AB│.
5. The length │A3B3│ of the profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB of
a horizontally projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB│ of this
5.6.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontally Projecting Straight

Line and Properties of This Model
A frontally projecting geometric image (plane pattern) is perpendicular to a frontal

plane of projection.
A frontally projecting straight line is perpendicular to a frontal plane of pro-
jection—AB ? П2 (Fig. 5.6).
Therefore, the angle β between the segment AB of a frontally projecting straight
line and the frontal plane of projection П2 is equal to 90°—β = 90°. The angle α
between the segment AB of a frontally projecting straight line and the horizontal
plane of projection П1 is equal to zero—α = 0°. The angle γ between the segment
AB of a frontally projecting straight line AB and the profile plane of projection П3
is equal to zero—γ = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a frontally projecting straight line are:
1. The horizontal projection A1B1 of the segment AB of a frontally projecting
straight line is parallel to the axis of ordinates and is perpendicular to the axis of
abscissas, i.e., A1B1║OY13, A1B1 ? OX21.
2 Z 23 2 Z23 3
=90 A2 (B2) B3 À3
À2 =(B2) A23 =0 À23 B23
B B 23 B3 3
A A3
A21 B21 B13 A13
X12 A21 X21 O Y13
O B1
B21 B13
B1 B13 A13
A1 A13 K
A1 =0
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 5.6 A frontally projecting straight line
2. The profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB of a frontally projecting straight

line is parallel to the axis of ordinates and is perpendicular to the axis of
applicates, i.e., A3B3║OY13, A3B3 ? OZ23.
3. The frontal projection A2B2 of the segment AB of a frontally projecting straight
line is neither parallel nor perpendicular accordingly to the axis of abscissas and
the axis of applicates as it is a point, i.e., A2B2¬║OX21, A2B2¬ ? OX21,
A2B2¬║OZ23, A2B2¬ ? OZ23, A2 ≡ (B2).
4. The length │A1B1│ of the horizontal projection A1B1 of a segment AB of a
frontally projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB │ of this
5. The length │A3B3│ of the profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB of a
frontally projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB│ of
this segment—│A3B3│ = │AB│.
5.6.3 A Geometric Model of a Profiled Projecting Straight

Line and Properties of the Model
A profiled projecting straight line is perpendicular to the profile plane of projection

—AB ? П3 (Fig. 5.7).
Therefore, the angle γ between the segment AB of a profiled projecting straight
line and the profile plane of projection П3 is equal to 90°—γ = 90°. The angle α
between the segment AB of a profiled projecting straight line and the horizontal
plane of projection П1 is equal to zero—α = 0°. The angle β between the segment
AB of a profiled projecting straight line AB and the frontal plane of projection П2 is
equal to zero—β = 0°.
Properties of the geometric model of a profiled projecting straight line are:
5.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Straight Line 35
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
=0 A2 B2 À3 (B3)
A2 B2 A23 À23 B23
B23 =90
A B À3=(B3)
A21 B21 B13 A13
X12 A21 B21
3
X21 O Y13
O
A13 B13
B13 A13
A1 B1 K
A1 B1
1 =0 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 5.7 A profiled projecting straight line
1. A horizontal projection A1B1 of the segment AB of a profiled projecting straight

line is parallel to the axis of abscissas and perpendicular to the axis of ordinates—
A1B1║OX21, A1B1 ? OY13.
2. A frontal projection A2B2 of the segment AB of a profiled projecting straight line
is parallel to the axis of abscissas and perpendicular to the axis of applicates—
A2B2║OX21, A2B2 ? OZ23.
3. A profile projection A3B3 of the segment AB of a profiled projecting straight
line is neither parallel nor perpendicular accordingly to the axis of ordinates and
the axis of applicates as it is a point—A3B3¬║OY13, A3B3¬ ? OY13,
A3B3¬║OZ23, A3B3¬ ? OZ23.
4. The length │A1B1│ of a horizontal projection A1B1 of a segment AB of a
profile projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB │ of this
5. The length │A2B2│ of a frontal projection A2B2 of a segment AB of a profile
projecting straight line is equal to the true length │AB │ of this segment
—│A2B2│ = │AB│.
5.6.4 Peculiarities of the Complex Drawing of a Projecting

Straight Line
A reference (base) plane of projection to define a projecting straight line is the

plane to which the straight line is perpendicular.
The peculiarities of the complex drawing of a projecting straight line are:
1. A projection of a projecting straight line into a perpendicular reference plane of
projection is a point. This projection as a point includes the collective property
of the projecting straight line.
2. The length of the two other projections of the segment of a projecting straight
line into no other reference plane is equal to true length of this segment of the
line. These projections into no other reference planes have the true length.
3. Projections of a segment of a projecting straight line are perpendicular to the
axes of reference planes of projection.
5.7 Analytical Models of a Straight Line
Implicitly, the equation of a line can be represented as:
FðX; YÞ ¼ 0; ð5:1Þ
where X, Y are the orthogonal coordinates of a point on this line.

The equation of a straight line on a plane is linear, relating the orthogonal
coordinates X and Y:
AX þ BY þ C ¼ 0; ð5:2Þ
where A, B, C are the real numbers naming the coefficients.

Equation (5.2) defines a straight line. An inverse statement is also fair: each
straight line can be defined by a linear Eq. (5.2). When C = 0, a straight line passes
through the coordinates origin, i.e., the point O.
The equation of the straight line that passes through two given not coincident
points A(XA, YA) and B(XB, YB) of the plane, is:
Y YA X XA
¼ ; ð5:3Þ
YB YA XB XA

X Y 1

XA YA 1 ¼ 0; ð5:4Þ

XB YB 1
where XA, YA, XB, YB are the orthogonal coordinates of the points A and B.
The equation of the straight line passing through two given not coincident points
A(XA, YA, ZA) and B(XB, YB, ZB) of the three-dimensional space is represented as:
Y YA X XA Z ZA
¼ ¼ ; ð5:5Þ
YB YA XB XA ZB ZA
where XA, YA, ZA, XB, YB, ZB are the orthogonal coordinates of points A and B.
References 37
References
1. Brailov A. Yu (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, p 456. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

(in Russian)
2. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry (in Russian). Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 223 p
3. Mihajlenko VE (2001) Engineering and computer graphics. In: Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VМ,
Podkorytov AN, Skidan ІА (in Russian). Vishcha shkola, Kiyv, 350 p
handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed) (in Russian), Karavella, 328 p
for students of non-mechanical specialties (in Russian). ОSPU, Odessa, 83 p
6. Frolov SА (1978) Descriptive geometry (in Russian). Mashinostroenie, Moscow, 240 p
Chapter 6
Geometric Models and Analytical Models
of a Plane
As one of the fundamental concepts of geometry, a plane, as well as a point and a

straight line, is not formally defined. This concept can be defined only intuitively,
using other concepts as, for example a point, a straight line, flatness, and an ori-
entation, which are also not formally defined. For example, a plane is a limiting
state of the flatness having an identical orientation throughout.
A plane in space is infinite. A projection of a plane into any plane of projection is
all infinite planes of projection. Therefore, in the complex drawing, an infinite plane
cannot be given. The infinite plane coincides with the infinite projection. An
engineer creates final finite objects.
To apply the method of orthographic projection for creating the final objects
effectively, an engineer needs to know the classification of planes.
6.1 Classification of Planes
Relating to a particular location of a plane with respect to the planes of projection,

planes are classified into planes of general position and planes of special position
[1–14].
A plane of general position is neither parallel nor perpendicular to any planes of
projection.
A plane of special position is parallel or perpendicular to any plane of projection.
Depending on the location of a plane with respect to three planes of projection, a
plane can occupy any of six special positions.
A plane of special position, parallel to any plane of projection and perpendicular
to the other two planes of projection, is called a plane of level. According to the
names of planes of projection, there are the horizontal plane of level, frontal plane
of level and profile plane of level.

40 6 Geometric Models and Analytical Models of a Plane
A plane of special position, perpendicular only to one plane of projection, is

called a projecting plane. According to the names of planes of projection, there are
the horizontally projecting plane, frontally projecting plane and profile projecting
plane.
To solve practical problems effectively, it is necessary for an engineer to know
the ways of providing the determinants of the plane.
6.2 Ways of Representation of a Plane in the Complex

Drawing. Plane Determinants
A plane can be uniquely assigned by means of the following determinants:

– three not coincident points,
– a point and a straight line not coincident with it,
– two not coincident parallel straight lines;
– two intersecting straight lines;
– a flat figure named a segment (a compartment) of a plane.
Therefore the geometric part of a plane determinant contains the following
identifiers:
– three not coincident points, Σ (A, B, C) [A 62 B, B 62 C];
– a point and a straight line, which do not belong to each other, Τ (A, b) [A 62 b];
– two not coincident parallel straight lines, Υ (b, c) [b║c];
– two intersecting straight lines, Φ (d, e) [d \ e];
– a flat figure, e.g., of the vertices A, B and C of a triangle, Ψ (ABC) [A 62 B, B 62
C]—(Fig. 6.1).
B2 A2
c2 B2
C2 B2
C2
A2 A2
b2 b2
d2 e2
b1 b1 e1 A1
A1 d1
C1 C1
B1 B1
A1 c1 B1
(A, B, C) T (A, b) Y (b, c) (d, e) (ABC)

[A B, B C] [A b] [b c] [d e] [A B, B C]
Fig. 6.1 Ways of giving a plane and its determinants
6.2 Ways of Representation of a Plane in the Complex Drawing … 41
The algorithmic part of a plane determinant in square brackets contains the

symbolical description of relations between the geometric figures representing a
plane in the complex drawing. The plane is considered to be given if there are
constructed, at least, two projections of each figure from the geometric part of a
determinant (Fig. 6.1).
6.3 A Geometric Model of a Plane of General Position
A geometric model (the complex drawing) of a plane of general position can be

constructed on the basis of two projections of the plane using the laws of projective
links (Fig. 6.2).
A flat figure, giving a plane of general position, is projected into all three planes
of projection with distortion of the true size. The projections of the angles between
the plane of general position and the corresponding planes of projection П1, П2, П3
do not show the true size of these angles.
6.4 Peculiarities of the Complex Drawing of a Plane

of General Position
Geometric peculiarities of a plane of general position for the method of ortho-

graphic projecting are as follows:
1. According to the definition, a plane of general position is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to any of the planes of projection. Therefore, the angles α, β, γ,
between the plane of general position and the corresponding planes of projection
П1, П2, П3, as well as the angles between the plane of general position and the
2 Z23 2
Z 23 3
A2 23 3
A2 A 23 C2 C23
C2 C3
C23 A3 B23
A 3
C B23 A 21 C21 B2 B3 A13 C13
C3
B2 O
X12 A21 B3 X 21 Y13
C21 B21 B O
B1 B1 B13
B13 A 13 A13
A1 C13 A1 K
C1 C13
C1
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.2 The complex drawing of a plane of general position

axes of coordinates X12, Y13, Z23, are not equal to zero and 90° (α ≠ 0°, α ≠ 90°,
β ≠ 0°, β ≠ 90°, γ ≠ 0°, γ ≠ 90°).
2. No projection of a plane of general position is a straight line.
3. The size of a projection of the flat figure, indicating a plane of general position, in the
corresponding plane of projection, is less than the true size of this flat figure in space
(│A1B1C1│<│ABC│, │A2B2C2│<│ABC│, │A3B3C3│<│ABC│).
4. Projections of the angles between a plane of general position and the corre-
sponding planes of projection П1, П2, П3 are not equal to the true angles of the
inclination of this plane to these planes of projection (α2 ≠ α, α3 ≠ α, β1 ≠ β,
β3 ≠ β, γ1 ≠ γ, γ2 ≠ γ).
5. Projections of the angles between the plane of general position and the axes of
coordinates X12, Y13, Z23 in the corresponding planes of projection are not equal
to the true angles of the inclination of this plane to the corresponding axes of
coordinates.
Rules 4 and 5 will be proved in the next sections.
Thus, the peculiarities of the complex drawing of a plane of general position is
that all projections of a plane of general position are not straight lines and are
located at angles, not equal to zero and 90°, relative to the axes of the projections;
and projections of the flat figure, indicating a plane of general position, are less than
the true size of this flat figure in space.
6.5 Geometric Models of a Plane of Level
According to the definition, a plane of level is parallel only to one plane of pro-
jection and perpendicular to the other two planes of projection. Therefore, each
point of the plane of level has one coordinate with the same value, equal to the
distance from the plane of level to the parallel plane of projection. The values of the
other two coordinates depend on the position of a considered point in the plane of
level.
The projections of a plane of level into the perpendicular planes of projection are
straight lines. This constitutes a collective property of a plane of level.
The geometric essence of the collective property of a plane of level is that the
projections of all flat figures of this plane of level in the perpendicular planes of
projection coincide.
The analytical essence of the collective property of a plane of level is that any
two-dimensional flat figure of this plane of level is projected in the perpendicular
plane of projection to a collective straight line of one dimension. Thus, two pro-
jections of a plane of level have one dimension less than the geometric image.
The appearance of a geometric model (the complex drawing) of a plane of level
depends on the plane of projection to which the investigated plane of level is
parallel.
6.5 Geometric Models of a Plane of Level 43
6.5.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontal Plane of Level

A horizontal plane of level is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection and

perpendicular to the frontal and profile planes of projection—Σ(ABC)║П1,
Σ(ABC) ? П2, Σ(ABC) ? П3 (Fig. 6.3). Therefore, the angle α between the hori-
zontal plane of level Σ(ABC) and the horizontal plane of projection П1 is equal to
zero—α = 0°. The angles β and γ between the horizontal plane of level Σ(ABC) and
the frontal plane of projection П2, as well as the profile plane of projection П3, are
accordingly equal to 90°—β = 90° and γ = 90°.
The properties of the geometric model of a horizontal plane of level are as
follows:
1. The frontal and profile projections of a horizontal plane of level Σ are straight
lines and possess a collective property—A2B2 ≡ A2C2 ≡ B2C2, A3B3 ≡ A3C3 ≡
B3C3.
2. The frontal projection of a horizontal plane of level Σ is parallel to the axis of
abscissas and perpendicular to the axis of applicates—Σ2(A2B2C2)║OX21,
Σ2(A2B2C2) ? OZ23.
3. The profile projection of a horizontal plane of level Σ is parallel to the axis of
ordinates and perpendicular to the axis of applicates—Σ3(A3B3C3)║OY13,
Σ3(A3B3C3) ? OZ23.
4. The horizontal projection of a horizontal plane of level Σ is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the axis of abscissas and the axis of ordinates accordingly
—Σ1(A1B1C1)¬║OX21 and Σ1(A1B1C1)¬ ? OX21, Σ1(A1B1C1)¬║OY13 and
Σ1(A1B1C1)¬ ? OY13.
5. The area of the horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of a flat figure Σ(ABC) of a
horizontal plane of level Σ is equal to the true size │Σ(ABC)│ of this flat figure
in space—│Σ1(A1B1C1)│=│Σ(ABC)│.
6. The angle γ2 between the frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a flat figure Σ(ABC)
of a horizontal plane of level Σ and the axis of applicates OZ23 is equal to the
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
=90 A 2 C2 B2 B 3 C3 À 3
A 2 C2 B2 A23 =90 À23 B23
C B B23 B3
C3
À3 A21 C21 B21 B13 C13 A13
A
X12 A21 C21 3 X21 O Y13
B21 O C1 B1
C1 B1 B13 HB C13
C13 A13 A1 A13 K
A1 =0
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.3 A horizontal plane of level

true value │γ│ of the angle γ between a horizontal plane of level Σ and the
profile plane of projection П3 and is 90°—γ2 = │γ│ = 90°.
7. The angle β3 between the profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a flat figure Σ(ABC)
of a horizontal plane of level Σ and the axis of applicates OZ23 is equal to the
true value │β│ of the angle β between a horizontal plane of level Σ and the
frontal plane of projection П2 and is 90°—β3 = │β│ = 90°.
Thus, the projections β3, γ2 of the angles β, γ between a horizontal plane of level
Σ and the frontal plane of projection П2, as well as the profile plane of projection
П3, are accordingly equal to the true values │β│, │γ│ of these angles β,
γ—β3 = │β│, γ2 = │γ│.
6.5.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontal Plane of Level

A frontal plane of level is parallel to the frontal plane of projection and perpendicular
to the horizontal and profile planes of projection—Σ(ABC)║П2, Σ(ABC) ? П1,
Σ(ABC) ? П3 (Fig. 6.4).
Therefore, the angle β between the frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) and the frontal
plane of projection П2 is equal to zero—β = 0°. The angles α and γ between the
frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) and the horizontal plane of projection П1, as well as
the profile plane of projection П3, are accordingly equal to 90°—α = 90° and
γ = 90°.
The properties of the geometric model of a frontal plane of level are:
1. The horizontal Σ1(A1B1C1) and profile Σ3(A3B3C3) projections of a frontal plane
of level Σ(ABC) are straight lines and possess a collective property—A1B1 ≡
A1C1 ≡ B1C1, A3B3 ≡ A3C3 ≡ B3C3.
2 Z23 2 Z23 3
=0 =90 B2 B23 B3
C2
B2 A23 B23 HB C3
C2 C23
C23 A2 À3
3
B À23
B3 A21 Ñ21 B21 B13 A13
A2 C À23 C3 X21 O C13 Y13
X12 A21 Ñ21 O
B21 A3 A13 B13
A
B1 C13 B13 A 1 C1 B1 C13 K
À1 C1 A13
1 =90 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.4 A frontal plane of level

2. The horizontal Σ1(A1B1C1) projection of a frontal plane of level Σ(ABC)

is parallel to the axis of abscissas and perpendicular to the axis of
ordinates—Σ1(A1B1C1)║OX21, Σ1(A1B1C1) ? OY13.
3. The profile Σ3(A3B3C3) projection of a frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) is
parallel to the axis of applicates and perpendicular to the axis of
ordinates—Σ3(A3B3C3)║OZ23, Σ3(A3B3C3) ? OY13.
4. The frontal Σ2(A2B2C2) projection of a frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) is nei-
ther parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of abscissas and the axis of appli-
cates accordingly—Σ2(A2B2C2)¬║OX21 and Σ2(A2B2C2)¬ ? OX21,
Σ2(A2B2C2)¬║OZ23 and Σ2(A2B2C2)¬ ? OZ23.
5. The area│Σ2(A2B2C2)│ of a frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of the flat figure
Σ(ABC) of a frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) is equal to the true size │Σ(ABC)│
of this flat figure in space—│Σ2(A2B2C2)│=│Σ(ABC)│.
6. The angle γ1 between the horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of a flat figure
Σ(ABC) of a frontal plane of level Σ(ABC) and the axis of ordinates OY13 is
equal to the true value │γ│ of the angle γ between the frontal plane of level Σ
and the profile plane of projection П3 and equal to 90°—γ1 = │γ│ = 90°.
7. The angle α3 between the profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a flat figure Σ(ABC)
of a frontal plane of level Σ and the axis of ordinates OY13 is equal to the true
value │α│ of the angle α between the frontal plane of level Σ and the horizontal
plane of projection П1 and equal to 90°—α3 = │α│ = 90°.
Thus, the projections α3, γ1 of the angles α, γ between the frontal plane of level
Σ(ABC) and the horizontal plane of projection П1, as well as the profile plane of
projection П3, are accordingly equal to the true size │α│, │γ│ of these angles α,
γ—α3 = │α│, γ1 = │γ│.
6.5.3 A Geometric Model of a Profile Plane of Level

A profile plane of level is parallel to a profile plane of projection and perpendicular to

frontal and horizontal planes of projection—Σ(ABC)║П3, Σ(ABC) ? П2,
Σ(ABC) ? П1 (Fig. 6.5). Therefore, the angle γ between the profile plane of level
Σ(ABC) and the profile plane of projection П3 is equal to zero—γ = 0°. The angles β
and α between the profile plane of level Σ(ABC) and the frontal plane of projection
П2, as well as the horizontal plane of projection П1, are accordingly equal to 90°
—β = 90° and α = 90°.
The properties of the geometric model of a profile plane of level are:
1. The frontal Σ2(A2B2C2) and horizontal Σ1(A1B1C1) projections of a profile
plane of level Σ are straight lines and possess a collective property—
A2B2 ≡ A2C2 ≡ B2C2, A1B1 ≡ A1C1 ≡ B1C1.
Z23 2 Z23 3
2
=0 B2 B3
B23 C3
=90 C2
B2 B23 C23
C2 C23 B3 A2 À23 À3 HB
3
B
A2 A23 A21 B21 B13 A13 C13
C C3 O
X12 A21 X21 C21 Y13
O B1 B13
B21 C21A A3 A13
B1 B13 (A1)
À1 A13 K
C13 C1 C13
1 C1 =90 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.5 A profile plane of level
2. The frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a profile plane of level Σ is parallel to the axis
of applicates and perpendicular to the axis of abscissas—Σ2(A2B2C2)║OZ23,
Σ2(A2B2C2) ? OX21.
3. The horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of a profile plane of level Σ is parallel to the
axis of ordinates and perpendicular to the axis of abscissas—Σ1(A1B1C1)║OY13,
Σ1(A1B1C1) ? OX21.
4. The profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a profile plane of level Σ is neither par-
allel nor perpendicular to the axis of applicates and the axis of ordi-
nates accordingly—Σ3(A3B3C3)¬║OZ23 and Σ3(A3B3C3)¬ ? OZ23,
Σ3(A3B3C3)¬║OY13 and Σ3(A3B3C3)¬ ? OY13.
5. The area│Σ3(A3B3C3)│ of the profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a flat figure
Σ(ABC) of a profile plane of level Σ is equal to the true size │Σ(ABC)│ of this
flat figure in space—│Σ3(A3B3C3)│=│Σ(ABC)│.
6. The angle α2 between the frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a flat figure Σ(ABC)
of a profile plane of level Σ and the axis of abscissas OX21 is equal to the true
value │α│ of the angle α between the profile plane of level Σ and the horizontal
plane of projection П1 and is 90°—α2 = │α│ = 90°.
7. The angle β1 between the horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of a flat figure
Σ(ABC) of the profile plane of level Σ and the axis of abscissas OX21 is equal to
the true value │β│ of the angle β between the profile plane of level Σ and the
frontal plane of projection П2 and equal to 90°—β1 = │β│= 90°.
Thus, the projections β1, α2 of the angles β, α between the profile plane of level Σ
and the frontal plane of projection П2, as well as the horizontal plane of projection П1,
are accordingly equal to the true values │β│, │α│ of the angles β, α—β1 = │β│,
α2 = │α│.

of a Plane of Level
The reference (base) plane of projection, to define a plane of level, is referred to as

that projection plane to which the plane of level is parallel to.
The peculiarities of the complex drawing of a plane of level are as follows:
1. A projection of a flat figure of a plane of level into the reference plane is a figure
of true size. That is, the area of the projection of the flat figure of a plane of level
is equal to the true size of this figure. The projection of the flat figure is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of coordinates of the reference plane of
projection.
2. Two other projections of a plane of level are collective straight lines.
3. Projections of a plane of level in the form of collective straight lines are parallel
to the axis of the reference plane and perpendicular to the axis of the orthogonal
reference plane of projection.
4. Projections of a plane of level in the form of collective straight lines with the
axis, that orthogonal reference plane, have the true angles of the inclination of a
plane of level to non-reference planes of projection.
5. Such true angles of the inclination of a plane of level to non-reference planes of
projection are equal to 90°. The angle of the inclination of a plane of level to the
reference plane is equal to zero degrees.
6.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Plane
By definition, a projecting plane is perpendicular to only one plane of projection.

Therefore, each point of a projecting plane has one coordinate with the value
equal to the distance from the considered point to a perpendicular plane of pro-
jection. The values of two other coordinates depend on the point position in the
projecting plane relating the planes of projection to which this projecting plane is
neither perpendicular nor parallel.
A projection of a projecting plane into a perpendicular plane of projection is a
straight lineonstitutes. It constitutes a collective property of a projecting plane.
The geometric essence of a collective property of a projecting plane is that
projections of all flat figures on this projecting plane into a perpendicular plane of
projection coincide.
The analytical essence of a collective property of a projecting plane is that a
two-dimensional projecting plane into a perpendicular plane of projection is pro-
jected into a collective straight line of one-dimensional measurement. Thus, one of
the projections of a projecting plane possesses one measurement less than the
geometric image.
Projections of a projecting plane into non-perpendicular and non-parallel planes

of projection are its segments (compartments) in the form of flat figures. Due to the
properties of orthogonal projecting, the area of such projections of a flat figure of a
projecting plane into non-perpendicular and non-parallel planes of projection is less
than the true size of this flat figure.
The appearance of a geometric model (the complex drawing) depends on the
plane of projection towhich a projecting plane is perpendicular.
6.6.1 A Geometric Model of a Horizontally Projecting Plane

A horizontally projecting plane is perpendicular to a horizontal plane of projection

—Σ(ABC)? П1 (Fig. 6.6).
Therefore, the angle α between a horizontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the
horizontal plane of projection П1 is equal to 90°—α = 90°. The angle β1 between a
horizontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the frontal plane of projection П2 is equal
to the true value—β1 = │β│. The angle γ1 between a horizontally projecting plane
Σ(ABC) and the profile plane of projection П3 is equal to the true value—γ1 = │γ│.
Properties of the geometric model of a horizontally projecting plane are as
follows:
1. The area of frontal projection Σ(A2B2C2) of the flat figure ΔABC of a hori-
zontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the figure in space
—│Σ(A2B2C2)│<│Σ(ABC)│.
2. The area of profile projection Σ(A3B3C3) of the flat figure ΔABC of a hori-
zontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the flat figure in
space—│Σ(A3B3C3)│<│Σ(ABC)│.
3. The horizontal projection Σ(A1B1C1) of a horizontally projecting plane Σ(ABC)
is a straight line with a collective property—A1B1 ≡ A1C1 ≡ B1C1.
2 Z 23 2 Z23 3
1
A2 À 23 À3
1
A2 A23 C2 C3
C2 C23 B23 C23
3 B2 B3
B2 C C3 A3 A21 B21 C21 B13 A13
A B23 O C13
X12 A21 X21 Y13
C21 O C1 C13
B21 B3
B C13
1 C1 B13 A13
1
A1 (B1) A13 B13 K
À1 (B1) =90
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.6 A horizontally projecting plane

6.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Plane 49
4. The horizontal projection Σ(A1B1C1) of a horizontally projecting plane Σ(ABC)

in the form of a collective straight line is neither parallel nor perpendicular
accordingly to the axis of abscissas and the axis of ordinates—Σ1(A1B1C1)
¬║OX21, Σ1(A1B1C1)¬ ? OX21, Σ1(A1B1C1)¬║OY13, Σ1(A1B1C1)¬ ? OY13.
5. The angle β1 between a horizontal projection Σ1 (A1B1C1) of the horizontally
projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the axis of abscissas OX21 is equal to the true
value │β│ of the angle β between the horizontally projecting plane Σ
(ABC) and the frontal plane of projection П2—β1 = │β│.
6. The angle γ1 between a horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of the horizontally
projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the axis of ordinates OY13 is equal to the true
value │γ│ of the angle γ between the horizontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and
the profile plane of projection П3—γ1 = │γ│.
7. A horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of the two-dimensional horizontally pro-
jecting plane Σ(ABC) in the form of the collective straight line A1B1 ≡ A1C1 ≡
B1C1 has one dimension.
6.6.2 A Geometric Model of a Frontally Projecting Plane

A frontally projecting plane is perpendicular to a frontal plane of projection

—Σ(ABC)? П2 (Fig. 6.7).
Therefore, the angle β between a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the
frontal plane of projection П2 is equal to 90°—β = 90°. The angle α2 between a
frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the horizontal plane of projection П1 is equal
to the true value—α2 = │α│. The angle γ2 between a frontally projecting plane
Σ(ABC) and the profile plane of projection П3 is equal to the true value—γ2 = │γ│.
Z23 2 Z23 3
2
=90 A2 (B2) B3
2
À3
À2 (B2) A23 À23 B23
B23 B3 C2 C23 C3
3
B 2
A3
C2 A21 B21 C21 B13 C13 A13
A C23
X12 A21
2
X21 O Y13
C21 O B1
B21 C3 B13
C C1 C13
B1 B13 C13
A13 A1 A13
A1 C1
1 2 Y13 1 Y13 K
Fig. 6.7 A frontally projecting plane

The properties of the geometric model of a frontally projecting plane are as

follows:
1. The area │Σ1(A1B1C1)│ of a horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of the flat figure
ΔABC of a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the flat
figure in space—│Σ1(A1B1C1)│<│Σ(ABC)│.
2. The area │Σ3(A3B3C3)│ of a profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of the flat figure
ΔABC of a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the flat
3. The frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) is a
straight line with a collective property—A1B1 ≡ A1C1 ≡ B1C1.
4. The frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) in the
form of a collective straight line is neither parallel nor perpendicular accordingly
to the axis of abscissas and the axis of applicates—Σ2(A2B2C2)¬║OX21,
Σ2(A2B2C2)¬ ? OX21, Σ2(A2B2C2)¬║OZ23, Σ2(A2B2C2)¬ ? OZ23.
5. The angle α2 between the frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a frontally projecting
plane Σ(ABC) and the axis of abscissas OX21 is equal to the true value │α│ of
the angle α between the frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the horizontal
plane of projection П1—α2 =│α│.
6. The angle γ2 between the frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a frontally projecting
plane Σ(ABC) and the axis of applicates OZ23 is equal to the true value │γ│ of
the angle γ between a frontally projecting plane Σ(ABC) and a profile plane of
projection П3—γ2 = │γ│.
7. A frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a two-dimensional frontally projecting plane
Σ(ABC) in the form of a collective straight line A2B2 ≡ A2C2 ≡ B2C2 has one
dimension.
6.6.3 A Geometric Model of a Profiled Projecting Plane

A profiled projecting plane is perpendicular to a profile plane of projection

—Σ(ABC)? П3 (Fig. 6.8).
Therefore, the angle γ between a profiled projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the
profile plane of projection П3 is equal to 90°—γ = 90°. The angle α3 between a
profiled projecting plane Σ(ABC) and the horizontal plane of projection П1 is equal
to the true value—α3 = │α│°. The angle β3 between a profiled projecting plane
Σ(ABC) and the frontal plane of projection П2 is equal to the true value—β3 =│β│.
6.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Plane 51
2 Z 23 2 Z23 3
3
A2 B2 À3 (B3)
A2 B2 A 23 À23 B23
B23 =90 C23 C3
C2
A B À3 (B3)
C2 3
A21 C21 B21 C13 B13 A13
X12 A21 C C23 3
3
X 21 O Y13
C1
C21 B21 O C3 C13
C1 A13 B13
C13
A13 B13 K
A1 B1 A1 B1
1 3 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 6.8 A profiled projecting plane
The properties of the geometric model of a profiled projecting plane are as

follows:
1. The area │Σ1(A1B1C1)│ of a horizontal projection Σ1(A1B1C1) of a flat figure
ΔABC of a profiled projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the flat
2. The area │Σ2(A2B2C2)│ of a frontal projection Σ2(A2B2C2) of a flat figure
ΔABC of a profiled projecting plane Σ(ABC) is less than the true size of the flat
3. The profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a flat figure ΔABC of a profiled projecting
plane Σ(ABC) is a straight line with a collective property—A3B3 ≡ A3C3 ≡ B3C3.
4. The profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a profiled projecting plane Σ(ABC) in the
form of a collective straight line is neither parallel nor perpendicular accordingly
to the axis of ordinates and the axis of applicates—Σ3(A3B3C3)¬║OY13,
Σ3(A3B3C3)¬ ? OY13, Σ3(A3B3C3)¬║OZ23, Σ3(A3B3C3)¬ ? OZ23.
5. The angle α3 between the profile projection Σ3(A3B3C3) of a profiled projecting
plane Σ (ABC) and the axis of ordinates OY13 is equal to the true value │α│ of
the angle α between a profile projecting plane Σ (ABC) and a horizontal plane of
projection П1—α3 = │α│.
6. The angle β3 between a profile projection Σ(A3B3C3) of a profiled projecting
plane Σ(ABC) and the axis of applicates OZ23 is equal to the true value │β│ of
the angle β between a profile projecting plane Σ(ABC) and a frontal plane of
projection П2—β3 = │β│.
7. The profile projection Σ(A3B3C3) of a two-dimensional profiled projecting plane
Σ(ABC) in the form of a collective straight line A3B3 ≡ A3C3 ≡ B3C3 has one
dimension.

of a Projecting Plane
The reference (base) plane of projection to define a projecting plane is the plane of
projection to which a projecting plane is perpendicular.
The peculiarities of the complex drawing of a projecting plane are as follows:
1. A projection of a projecting plane into the perpendicular reference plane of
projection is a straight line. A one-dimensional projection in the form of a
straight line represents a collective property of a two-dimensional projecting
plane.
2. Two other projections of a projecting plane are its parts in the form of flat
figures. The area of projections of these parts is less than the true size of the flat
figure in space.
3. A projection of a projecting plane in the form of a collective straight line with
the axes of the reference plane of projection forms true angles of an inclination
of a projecting plane to non-reference planes of projection.
6.7 Analytical Models of a Plane
The plane equation implicitly looks like:
FðX; Y; ZÞ ¼ 0; ð6:1Þ
where X, Y, Z are the orthogonal coordinates of a point.

The plane equation, which is linear relating the orthogonal coordinates X, Y and
Z, looks like:
AX þ BY þ CZ þ D ¼ 0; ð6:2Þ
where A, B, C, D are the real numbers’ named coefficients.

Each Eq. (6.2) defines a plane. The converse statement is also true: each plane
can be defined by the linear Eq. (6.2). When D = 0, a straight line passes through
the origin of coordinates, the point 0.
The equation of the plane which passes through three given, not coincident
points A(XA, YA, ZA), B(XB, YB, ZB), C(XC, YC, ZC) of the plane, looks like the
following:

X Y Z 1

XA YA ZA 1

XB YB ZB 1 ¼ 0; ð6:3Þ

XC YC ZC 1
where XA, YA, ZA, XB, YB, ZB are the orthogonal coordinates of the points A and B.
6.8 The Main Lines of a Plane 53
6.8 The Main Lines of a Plane
The horizontal is a straight line (Fig. 6.9), which belongs to a plane and is parallel
to a horizontal plane of projection—h (h1, h2, h3).
The frontal is a straight line, which belongs to a plane and is parallel to a frontal
plane of projection—f (f1, f2, f3).
The profile straight line is a straight line, which belongs to a plane and is parallel
to a profile plane of projection—p (p1, p2, p3).
Figures 6.9, and 6.10 show the properties of geometric models of the main lines
of a plane. The horizontal h(h1, h2, h3) coincides with the segment A1
(A111, A212, A313), the frontal f(f1, f2, f3) coincides with the segment A2
(A121, A222, A323) and the profile straight line p (p1, p2, p3) coincides with the
segment C3(C131, C232, C333). Two of the three projections of each main line of the
plane are parallel to the corresponding axes of coordinates.
The line of the greatest inclination (a bias, a slope) is a straight line, perpen-
dicular to the main line of a plane.
There is an infinite amount of horizontals, frontals, profile straight lines and lines
of the greatest inclination (Fig. 6.10).
The line of the greatest inclination n(n1, n2, n3) of the plane Σ(ABC) to the
horizontal plane of projection П1 is perpendicular to the horizontal h(h1, h2, h3). As
the horizontal h(h1, h2, h3) is parallel to the horizontal plane of projection П1 and
the line of the greatest inclination n(n1, n2, n3) is perpendicular to the horizontal by
the definition and the essence, the horizontal projection n1 ≡ 3141 of the line of the
greatest inclination n is perpendicular to the horizontal projection h1 ≡ A111 of the
horizontal h and the corner between them is equal to the full size of 90°. This is the
essence of the theorem of a right-angle projection.
Fig. 6.9 The horizontal, the

frontal and the profile straight
line of a plane
Fig. 6.10 A line of the

greatest inclination of a plane
À
À
6.9 Review Questions for Chap. 5 and this Chapter
1. How are straight lines classified in orthogonal projection?

2. What does the geometric part of a determinant of a straight line contain?
3. What are the features of the geometric model (the complex drawing) of a
straight line of general position?
straight line of level?
projecting straight line?
6. What planes of projection are called the base planes to define a straight line of
special position?
7. What is the geometric essence of the collective property of a projecting straight
line?
8. What is the analytical essence of the collective property of a projecting straight
line?
9. Give examples of an analytical model of a straight line on the plane.
10. Give an example of an analytical model of a straight line for three-dimensional
space.
11. How are planes in orthogonal projection classified?
12. By what means is a plane indicated in the complex drawing?
13. What does the geometric part of a determinant of a plane contain?
14. What does the algorithmic part of a determinant of a plane contain?
15. What are the features of a geometric model (the complex drawing) of the plane
of general position?
16. What planes of projection are called the reference planes to define a plane of
special position?
17. What are the features of the geometric model (the complex drawing) of the
plane of level?
6.9 Review Questions for Chap. 5 and this Chapter 55
18. What is the geometric essence of the collective properties of a plane of level?
19. What is the analytical essence of the collective propertiesof a plane of level?
20. What are the features of a geometric model (the complex drawing) of a pro-
jecting plane?
21. What is the geometric essence of the collective properties of a projecting plane?
22. What is the analytical essence of the collective properties of a projecting plane?
23. Give an example of an analytical model of a plane for three-dimensional space.
24. What straight lines are called the main lines of a plane?
25. What is a horizontal?
26. What is a frontal?
27. What line is called a profile straight line of a plane?
28. What line is called a line of the greatest inclination (a bias, a slope) of a plane?
29. What are the features of geometrical models of the main lines of a plane?
References
1. Brailov AY (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, p 456. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

(in Russian)
2. Bubennikov AV, Gromov МY (1973) Descriptive geometry. М.: Vishaya shkola, p 416 (in
Russian)
3. Kolotov SМ, Dolski ЕЕ, Mihajlenko VE et al (1961) Course of descriptive geometry. К.:
Gosstrojizdat USSR, p 314 (in Russian)
ground of computer. In: Tevlin АМ (ed). М.: Vishaya shkola, p 175 (in Russian)
5. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry. М.: Mashinostroenie, p 223 (in Russian)
6. Ivanov YN, Podkoritov АN, Strigo YS (1962) Descriptive geometry. Омsк: Омsкаya pravda,
p 232 (in Russian)
Handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed). K: Karavella, p 328 (in Russian)
Podkorytov AN, Skidan ІА (eds). Kiyv: Vishcha shkola, p 350 (in Russian)
problems) for students of non-mechanical specialties. ОSPU, Odessa, p 83 (in Russian)
10. Frolov SА (1978) Descriptive geometry. Mashinostroenie, Moscow, p 240 (in Russian)
11. Brailov AY (2008) A theoretical approach to transformations of two-dimensional and
three-dimensional models of the product. In: Proceedings of the thirteenth international
conference on geometry and graphics. ISGG, Dresden, Germany, pp 58–59
12. Brailov AY (2010) Fundamental principles of design and technological development of an
engineering product. In: Proceedings of the fourteenth international conference on geometry
and graphics. ISGG, Kyoto, Japan, pp 324–325
13. Brailov AY (2011) Principles of product development. In: Brailov AY (ed) Engineering
graphics BALTGRAF11 proceedings of the eleventh international conference, Tallinn,
ESTONIA—IAB, Tallinn University of Technology, pp 95–104
14. Brailov AY (2012) Laws of projective connections. In: Proceedings of the fifteenth
international conference on geometry and graphics. ISGG, Montreal, Canada, pp 121–122
Chapter 7
Geometric and Analytical Models
of a Surface
The notion of a “surface”, as well as a “point” and a “line”, are the basic yet
formally undefined notions of geometry. This notion can be meaningfully “defined”
only using other undefined concepts.
The essence of the term “surface” can be understood only intuitively when its
inherent abstract components such as “points”, “straight lines”, “curved lines”, and
“planes” are represented graphically or constructed in the form physical models.
A surface is a complex geometric image which consists of a number of points
and lines [1–48].
Any real part contains the construction components named surfaces. Therefore,
many engineering problems in various branches of human activity are associated
with designing the surfaces.
For effective professional work, an engineer should know the ways of formation,
description and classification of surfaces.
7.1 Ways of Formation, Description and Mapping,

and Classification of Surfaces
Any surface is, ultimately, formed by a line named a generating line.

The ways of formation of surfaces include the following:
– any movement of a generating line in space;
– a discrete movement of a generating line in the parametric number of points or
lines (a carcass way);
– a continuous movement of a generating line in the lines named guiding lines (a
kinematic way);
– surface generation as an enveloping surface of the family of generating lines;
– other ways: for example, surface formation in interpolating a discrete set of
lines.

58 7 Geometric and Analytical Models of a Surface
Continuous development of techniques and technologies is accompanied by

working out new ways for the formation of surfaces and the creation of new kinds
of surfaces. Therefore, to classify all surfaces, a systemization of classification
conditions (bases) is necessary.
The bases of surface classification include the following:
– the way of surface formation;
– the form and character of movement of a generating line;
– the form and character of position of a guiding line;
– quantity of guiding lines;
– ability of a surface to combine fully and mutually biuniquely with a plane
without formation of ruptures, folds and stretching during development;
– the way of describing and mapping a surface;
– other conditions.
The ways of describing and mapping (indicating) a surface include analytical,
graphic-analytic and graphic ways.
The analytical way of surface description facilitates defining a surface by means
of the equation (algebraic, transcendental, and differential).
The graphic-analytic way of describing and mapping a surface facilitates
defining a surface by means of the equation and the number of geometric images
(points, lines).
The graphic way of describing and mapping a surface facilitates defining a
surface by means of the number of geometric images (points, lines, and planes).
Because of the considerable number of various kinds of surfaces and their
classification conditions, to develop an open universal and simultaneously simply
understandable scheme of classification of such geometric images is a difficult
problem [13, 31, 37].
Depending only on the way of formation or the way of description of a surface,
the same surface can be attributed to various classes. As a result, the development
of a classification scheme leads to the duplication of surfaces and the presence of
self-loops in the line of classification.
Let’s consider one of the possible schemes of classifications of surfaces
(Fig. 7.1).
Depending on whether the law of formation of a surface is known or unknown,
all varieties of surfaces can be divided into two classes: regular and irregular.
Irregular (casual) surfaces include topographical surfaces and carcass surfaces.
Topographical surfaces are the surfaces obtained by a discrete or continuous
number of lines of level. Such a way of surface description is applied in topogra-
phy, building, the mining industry, and aircraft design, shipbuilding, light industry,
etc.
Carcass surfaces are the surfaces obtained by a discrete number of lines or
points. The discrete number of lines or points belonging to a surface is called a
carcass of surface. Carcass surfaces, as a rule, can’t be described analytically.
Regular surfaces include kinematic surfaces.
7.1 Ways of Formation, Description and Mapping, and Classification of Surfaces 59
Fig. 7.1 Classifications of

surfaces
Surfaces
Regular Irregular
Ruled Non-ruled Topographical
D U Revolution G G Carcass surfaces

e n Cilindr, e e
v d Cone. n n Canal surfaces
Sphere,
e e Torus,
e e
l v r r Determinants of
Ellipsoid, straight undeveloped
o e Paraboloid, a a surfaces:
Hyperboloid.
p l t t (l, m, n, ) [l ,
a o o o l m, l n, m∈ P ⊥ ,
Cilindroid l– generating line;
b p r r m, n – directing lines
Conoid
l a or curves, – plane of
Hyperbolic C V parallelism]
e b paraboloid
l o a
Helicoid n r.
e Screw s. Tubular surfaces
Cilindrical, prismatical (l, m, s) [l s, l m]

Conical, piramidal (l, m, S)[S ∈ l, l m, l - line]
Torsical (l, m) [l – a tangent straight line to m is curve]
Kinematic surfaces are the surfaces formed by a moving generating line inter-
secting the directional lines.
A surface, formed by a straight line, is called a ruled surface.
A surface, formed by a curve, is called a non-ruled surface or a curvilinear
surface.
According to the quantity of directional lines, surfaces can be with one, two or
three directional lines.
A ruled surface, brought into coincidence with a plane without ruptures, folds or
stretching, is called a developable surface.
A surface, that can’t be brought into coincidence with a plane without forming
ruptures, folds or stretching, is called an undevelopable surface.
Depending on the character of movement of a generating line, surfaces of
parallel transposition, revolution surface, and screw surfaces are formed.
A surface of parallel transposition is a surface generated by the generating line,
intersecting the directional lines in translational movement along these directional
lines.
A surface of revolution is a surface generated by the generating line in its
revolutionary movement relative to a straight line, named the axis of revolution.
The determinant of a surface of revolution can be represented as: Ф(l, i) [the
generating line l revolves round the axis i].
A screw surface is a surface generated by the generating line in its screw

movement relative to the axis of revolution. Screw movement is a simultaneous
combination (superposition) of translational and rotational movements.
Depending on the character of change of the form of a generating line, surfaces
with a generating line of constant form, for example, screw or tubular, are formed,
as well as surfaces with a generating line of disposal variable form, for example,
canal surfaces.
To explain the representation of a surface in a complex drawing, it is necessary
to introduce the concepts of a surface contour and a surface sketch (outline of
surface projection).
7.2 A Surface Contour and a Surface Sketch. The Way

of Representing a Surface in a Complex Drawing
A surface contour is defined as a geometric place of tangency points of projecting

rays of the given surface. Thus, a contour is a certain limit line generated by the
stream of tangential projecting rays onto the surface of a product.
A surface sketch is a projection of a contour of a surface in a plane of projection.
In the complex drawing, any surface can be indicated by a horizontal sketch, a
frontal sketch, or a profile sketch and projections of geometric figures, with which
this surface is formed. Using this way of obtaining a surface, visualization of the
image is obtained by the construction of projections of a carcass of dense generating
lines, projections of guiding lines and a sketch.
A surface sketch is represented by sketch lines.
7.3 Ruled Developable Surfaces with One Directional Line
A cylindrical surface is a surface generated by a rectilinear generating line parallel

to the given direction, which intersects a smooth curvilinear directional line in
translational movement along this directional line. The two generating lines are
intersected at an infinitely remote ideal point of a cylindrical surface.
A cylindrical surface is a surface of parallel transposition. The determinant of a
cylindrical surface can be written as: Ф(l, m, s) [l ║ s, l \ m, l1 \ l2 = S → ∞],
where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a rectilinear generating line, m is a
smooth curvilinear directional line, s is the given direction, and S is a ideal point of
a cylindrical surface, S 62 Ф.
A cylindrical surface can be among the class of non-ruled surfaces, if a constant
directional line is a smooth curve line, and a directional line is a straight line parallel
to the given direction (Fig. 7.2).
7.3 Ruled Developable Surfaces with One Directional Line 61
(l l s, l m , l' l ]
S
F n D2 n 2 E 2 F2 2
E
D
s2 l2
s l
A2 m2 B2 C2
X 12 F1
n1 E1
1 D1 C1
m1
1 s1 l1 B1
1 1 A1 m1 1
Fig. 7.2 A cylindrical surface
If the oriented edges of a smooth curvilinear directional line of a cylindrical

surface (Fig. 7.2) are interpolated by the segments of straight lines, a prismatic
surface will be the result (Fig. 7.3).
A prismatic surface is a cylindrical surface where a directing line consists of
segments of straight lines.
Therefore, the structure of the determinant of a prismatic surface is the same as
that for a cylindrical surface, i.e., Ф(l, m, s) [l ║ s, l \ m, l1 \ l2 = S → ∞], where
Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a rectilinear generating line, m is a
polygonal directional line, s is the given direction, and S is an ideal point of a
prismatic surface, S 62 Ф.
Thus, a prismatic surface differs from a cylindrical surface only by the type of a
directional line.
A conic surface is a surface generated by a rectilinear generating line which
intersects a smooth curvilinear directional line in its rotation about this directional
line, provided that one point of the generating line is motionless and is at an finite
distance from the directional line.
(l, m, s) [l s, l m , l' l"=S ]

S
F n D2 n2 E2 F2 2
D E
s2 l2
s l
A2 m 2 B 2 C2
X12
n1 E1 F1
C C1 D1 C1
m m1
B B1 s1 l 1 m1 B1
1 A A1 A1 1
Fig. 7.3 A prismatic surface

A motionless point of a generating line is called the apex of a conic surface. Any
two generating lines areintersected at this proper point of a conic surface (Fig. 7.4).
The determinant of a conic surface can be written as: Ф(l, m, S) [l \ m, S 2 l,
S 62 m, l1 \ l2 = S], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a rectilinear
generating line, m is a smooth curvilinear directional line, S is a motionless point of
a generating line located on the finite distance from the directional line, S 2 l; and S
is an proper point of a conic surface, S 2 Ф.
A conic surface can be considered as a special type of canal non-ruled surface, if
a smooth curve is a changeable generating line, and a directional line is a straight
line passing through the ideal apex of the surface (Fig. 7.4).
When the arc (oriented edge) of a smooth curvilinear directional line of a conic
surface (Fig. 7.4) is interpolated by segments of straight lines, the result is a
pyramidal surface (Fig. 7.5).
A pyramidal surface is a conic surface where the directional line represents a
polygonal line consisting of the segments of straight lines.
( l, m, S) [S l, S m, l m, l ' l "=S]
S S2
l l2
2
A 2 m2 B 2 C2
X12
C 1 S1
m1 1 l1 C1
B B1 B1
1 A A1 A1 m1
Fig. 7.4 A conic surface
(l, m,S) [S l, S m , l m , l' l"= S]

S S2
l l2
2
A 2 m2 B 2 C2
X12
C C1 S1
m m1 1 l1 C1
B B1
1 A A1 A1 m1 B 1
Fig. 7.5 A pyramidal surface

7.3 Ruled Developable Surfaces with One Directional Line 63
Therefore, the determinant of a pyramidal surface is the same as that of a conic

surface, i.e., Ф(l, m, S) [l \ m, S 2 l, S 62 m, l1 \ l2 = S], where Ф is an identifier
(name) of a surface, l is a rectilinear generating line, m is a polygonal directional
line, S is a motionless point of a generating line located on the finite distance from
the directional line, and S 2 l; S is an proper point of a pyramidal surface, S 2 Ф.
Thus, a pyramidal surface differs from a conic surface only by the type of
directional line.
Let’s consider one more general type of ruled developable surfaces called a torso
or a surface with an edge of regression (Fig. 7.6).
A torso developable surface is a ruled developable surface where the directional
line is a spatial smooth curved line and the generating straight line is tangent to any
point of the directional line (Fig. 7.6).
The determinant of a torso surface can be written as: Ф(l, m) [m is spatial
smooth curve line; l is a tangent straight line to curve line m in its any point], where
Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a rectilinear generating line, and m is a
spatial smooth curve directional line.
Thus, a torso surface is a surface generated by a rectilinear generating line which
is tangent to a smooth curvilinear directional line at all the points in the translation
and rotational movement along this directional line.
In the normal (perpendicular) section of a directional line, in any of its point,
curved line develops with a point of regression of the first kind. In graphical
representation of a torso surface, this point of regression of the first kind is point B
(Fig. 7.6) in the section D-D.
Thus, a spatial smoothly-curved directional line of a torso surface is a geo-
metrical locus of points of regression of the first kind and consequently it is called
an edge of regression.
A torso surface is the most common type of ruled developable surfaces.
A cylindrical surface and a conic surface are just special cases of a torso surface.
A cylindrical surface is a surface with a degenerate edge of regression in infinitely
remote ideal point. A conic surface is a surface with an edge of regression in the
form of proper point located on a certain finite distance from the formed surface.
(l, m) [l is a tangent straight line to curve line m in its any point]

B" D D
C" A"
B C 2 m2
m B2
l D A2
2 l
D C 2
B
A X12 C1
m1
C' 1
B1
1 A' B' l1 A1
Fig. 7.6 A torso surface

In the ideal or proper point of a ruled developable surface, intersection of two

infinitely near generating lines occurs. Two intersected straight generating lines
define a unique plane. Therefore, part of a surface, limited by these two generating
lines, can be brought into coincidence with a plane.
Ruled developable surfaces are widely applied in designing, constructing and
manufacturing various products. The examples are boxes and tank for storing
materials, pipelines for transporting liquid and gas products, modern buildings and
various constructions.
Next, let’s consider ruled undevelopable surfaces.
7.4 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Two Directional

Lines and a Plane of Parallelism
Ruled undevelopable surfaces with two directional lines and a plane of parallelism
are called the surfaces of Catalan after a French and Belgian mathematician Eugene
Charles Catalan (1814–1894), who studied, for the first time, their properties in 1852.
Two infinitely close generating straight lines of a ruled undevelopable surface
are intersected. However, these skewed straight lines do not define a unique plane.
Therefore, part of the surface, limited by these two generating lines, cannot be
brought into coincidence with a plane without forming ruptures, folds and
stretching.
Catalan investigated the surfaces of direct cylindroids, a direct conoid and a
hyperbolic paraboloid, formed by means of a plane of parallelism.
A plane of parallelism is a plane to which a straight generating line is always
parallel, at any point of the surface.
A right cylindroid is a surface generated by a rectilinear generating line which is
parallel to a plane of parallelism and intersects two smooth curvilinear directional
lines in translational movement along these directional lines, one of which is
located in a plane perpendicular to the plane of parallelism (Fig. 7.7).
(l, m, n, ) [l ,l m, l n, m ]
2 D2
m
D C2 m2
C l l2
n n2
B B2
E
E2
A2 F
A F
E1 X12 C1
E1
m1 n1
C1 B1 D1 B1
l1 D1
1 A1 1 A1 l1
Fig. 7.7 A right cylindroid

7.4 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Two Directional Lines … 65
The determinant of a direct cylindroid can be written as: Ф(l, m, n, Σ, Ψ) [l ║ Σ,

l \ m, l \ n, m 2 Ψ, Ψ ⊥ Σ], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a
rectilinear generating line, m is a smooth curvilinear directional line, n is a smooth
curvilinear directional line, Σ is a plane of parallelism, and Ψ is a plane which
possesses one of the smooth curvilinear directional lines provided that this plane Ψ
is perpendicular to the plane of parallelism Σ.
Pipe connectors (connecting the pipes of different diameters); large-sized air
ducks, mould-board surfaces of ploughs and cultivators, a number of roofing
materials for buildings and constructions, etc. are made in cylindroidal shape.
A right conoid is a surface generated by a rectilinear generating line which is
parallel to a plane of parallelism and intersects a straight directional line and a
smooth curvilinear directional line in translational movement along these direc-
tional lines provided that the straight directional line is located in a plane, per-
pendicular to the plane of parallelism (Fig. 7.8).
The determinant of a direct conoid can be written as: Ф(l, m, n, Σ, Ψ) [l ║ Σ,
l \ m, l \ n, m 2 Ψ, Ψ ⊥ Σ], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a
rectilinear generating line, m is a straight directional line, n is a smooth curvilinear
directional line, Σ is a plane of parallelism, and Ψ is a plane which possesses a
straight directional line provided that this plane Ψ is perpendicular to the plane of
parallelism Σ.
Side surfaces of screw conveyors (devices moving liquid or granular materials),
diffusers of ventilation systems, and conic rectangular springs have the shape of a
conoid. Also having the form of a conoid are the rudders of submarines, hydrofoil
wings of boats, and the noses of ice breakers. Pillars of bridge supports, openings in
cylindrical water towers, arches of windows and doors in right walls of buildings
and their roofing each has the shape of the right conoid.
A hyperbolic paraboloid (an oblique plane) is a surface generated by a recti-
linear generating line which is parallel to a plane of parallelism and intersects two
skewed straight directional lines in translational movement along these directional
lines (Fig. 7.9).
(l, m, n, ) [l , l m , l n, m ]
D
2
C2 D2
C m2 l 2 n2
l
m E B2
B n E2
A2 F
A F
n1 X12 C1
E1 m1 E1
C1m1 n1
D1 B1
B1 l1 D1
A1 l1
1 1 A1
Fig. 7.8 A right conoid

(l, m, n, ) [l ,l m, l n, m n, m ]
2
C2 D2
D
C l m2 l 2 n2
m E
n B2 E2
B
A F A2 F
n1 X 12 C1
m1 E1 E1
m1
C1 B1 n1
l1 D1
B1 A1 D1
1 1 A1 l1
Fig. 7.9 A right hyperbolic paraboloid (a right oblique plane)
The determinant of a hyperbolic paraboloid (an oblique plane) can be written

:
as: Ф(l, m, n, Σ) [l ║ Σ, l \ m, l \ n, m ! n], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a
surface, l is a straight generating line, m is a straight directional line, n is a straight
directional line skewing a straight directing line m, and Σ is a plane of parallelism.
A plane of parallelism is an ideal third directional line which does not belong to
a surface of a hyperbolic paraboloid.
A hyperbolic paraboloid can be considered as a surface with two planes of
parallelism, two systems of directional lines and two straight generating lines.
Let’s suppose a straight line m ≡ AC belongs to a plane Ψ to which a straight
line n ≡ DF (Fig. 7.9) is parallel. An identical surface to a hyperbolic paraboloid is
formed by means of the plane of parallelism Ψ, a straight generating line n ≡ DF
and non-intersected straight directional lines AD, CF. Thus, each straight gener-
ating line in all positions is intersected by the other straight generating line in all its
positions.
Depending on the size of the angle between planes of parallelism Σ and Ψ, a
right hyperbolic paraboloid (Fig. 7.9) and an oblique hyperbolic paraboloid are
distinguished.
A right hyperbolic paraboloid is a hyperbolic paraboloid where the planes of
parallelism are mutually perpendicular—Ψ ⊥ Σ.
A hyperbolic paraboloid (an oblique plane) is used for building the embank-
ments and slopes of automobile routes and railways, the walls of quays, break-
waters, piers and other hydraulic engineering constructions in places conjugating
with slopes of various angles of inclination. The roofs of buildings and various
other constructions can have an oblique plane form.
A hyperbolic paraboloid can be generated by means of three proper straight
guiding lines.
7.5 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Three Directional Lines 67
7.5 Ruled Undevelopable Surfaces with Three Directional

Lines
Distinguishing the subclass of ruled undevelopable surfaces with three directional

lines requires no different kind of geometric images among the class of surfaces, but
rather the use of different ways of description, representation and formation of
surfaces.
A right hyperbolic paraboloid (a oblique right plane) can be generated by means
of three guiding lines parallel to a some plane. For example, a right hyperbolic
paraboloid (Fig. 7.9) is formed by a straight generating line DF and three directional
lines AD, BE, CF, parallel to a plane Σ.
In the most common case, a ruled undevelopable surface is formed by a straight
generating line moving with intersection of the three curve directional lines
(Fig. 7.10).
The determinant of a ruled undevelopable surface with three directional lines
can be written as: Ф(l, k, m, n) [l \ k, l \ m, l \ n], where Ф is an identifier (name)
of a surface, l is a straight generating line and k, m, n are smooth curvilinear
directional lines.
Professor Mihaylenko considered a ruled undevelopable surface with three
directional lines [26–30].
Any point A on a smooth curvilinear directional line k and a smooth curvilinear
directional line n define a conic surface (Fig. 7.10). A smooth curvilinear directional
line m is intersected with this conic surface in the point B. Two points A and B of
the conic surface unequivocally give the position of a straight generating line l in
the ruled undevelopable surface and in space [26].
(l, k, m, n) [l k, l m, l n]
n 2 C2
C" C n2
C' m2 B2
B" B
m B' l2
l k2 A2
k X12 n1 C1
m1 B1
A' A A"
1 l1
1 k1 A1
Fig. 7.10 A ruled undevelopable surface with three directional lines

7.6 Screw Surfaces
Screw surfaces, depending on the kind of a generating line, are divided into ruled
and non-ruled surfaces.
Screw ruled surfaces are formed by a straight generating line.
Screw non-ruled (curvilinear) surfaces are formed by a curve generating line.
A screw ruled surface is called a helicoid.
A right helicoid is called a screw surface where the angle between a generating
line and the surface axis is equal to 90°—φ = 90°, (Fig. 7.11).
The determinant of a right helicoid can be written as: Ф(l, m, i, Σ) [l \ m, l \ i,
l ║ Σ, i ⊥ Σ, φ = 90°], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a straight
generating line; m is a smooth curvilinear directional screw line, i is the axis of a
screw surface, and Σ is a plane of parallelism.
A oblique helicoid is a screw surface where the angle between a generating line
and the surface axis is not 90 or zero angle degrees—φ ≠ 90°, φ ≠ 0°.
The determinant of a oblique helicoid can be written as: Ф(l, m, i, Ω) [l \ m,
l \ i, l ║Ω, φ ≠ 90°, φ ≠ 0°], where Ф is an identifier (name) of a surface, l is a
straight generating line, m is a smooth curvilinear directional screw line, i is the axis
of a screw surface, and Ω is a surface of a directional cone replacing an ideal
directional line [13, 26–28, 31, 37].
Right and oblique helicoids can be closed and open.
A closed helicoid is a screw surface where the generating line and the surface
axis are intersected.
Closed ruled screw surfaces in the section by a right plane, perpendicular to the
axis, form the Archimedean spiral [26].
An open helicoid is a screw surface where the generating line and the surface
axis are not intersected.
(l, m, i, ) [l m , l i, l ,i , ]
ML M2 l 2 i2
2
K J L2
K2 I2
I J2 H2
m G2
H m2
C 2 F2
G B2 E2
A2 D2
l F
X12 L1 K1 J1 I1
E H1
M1 = (A 1) l1
C D G1
B B1 i 1 F1
A A1 G1 m1
C1
B1C1 F1 1
D 1 E1
1 D1 E1
Fig. 7.11 A right helicoid

7.6 Screw Surfaces 69
Open straight screw surfaces in the section by a right plane, perpendicular to the
axis, form an evolvent (evolutes, involute).
The eccentricity (the shoulder) of helicoids is the least distance between a
straight generating line and the axis of a screw surface.
The convolute helicoid is a surface where the screw movement of the point of a
generating line, nearest to the axis, corresponds to a line of narrowing of a surface
[13, 26, 38]. Convolute helicoids in the right section, perpendicular to the screw
axis, have a contracted or rack trochoid (extended) evolvent (involute).
Only an open ruled screw surface, in the right section of which an ordinary
evolvent (involute) is formed, is a developable screw surface. A developable screw
surface has a straight generating line which in any position is a tangent line to the
directional screw line. Therefore, such a surface is called a tors-helicoid.
A minimal helicoid is a ruled screw surface generated by the family of the main
normals of a directional screw line of a constant gradient.
Each point of a generating line in the screw movement moves along a screw line.
There are cylindrical screw lines, generated in a cylindrical surface, and conic
screw lines, generated in a conic surface.
A cylindrical screw line of a constant gradient is called a helix. The angle
between a tangent line in any point of the helixes and a plane of parallelism is
constant. A helix, as a straight line and a circumference (e.g., circular curve or the
periphery of a circle), possesses the property of displacement (elation), i.e., any
section of a screw line can be displaced (discolated) along this line.
Any of the screw lines, generated by the points of a generating line, is a guiding
line of a screw surface. These lines are called screw parallels.
The pitch of a screw surface is the size of translational displacement of any point
of a generating line along the axis, corresponding to one full turn of a generating
line round the axis of a screw surface.
The pitch of a helix is the width of one complete helix turn, measured parallel to
the axis of the helix.
All screw parallels have an identical pitch P, which is the step of a screw surface.
An individual pitch of a screw surface is the pitch corresponding to the turn of
the generating line at the angle, equal in size to one radian—P0 = P/2π.
The property of displacement (elation) of a screw surface consists in the fact that
any section of a screw surface, making a screw movement, is displaced (slides) on
this surface.
Screw surfaces are widely used in the details of carving connections, in chip
flutes of the twist drills, reamers, end mills, and threading taps, a tool for the
creation of holes, in springs, rowing and air screws of vehicles, blades of the
turbines of nuclear reactors, stairs and many other objects and constructions.
7.7 Surfaces of Revolution and Their Analytical Models
Depending on the kind of a generating line, surfaces of revolution are divided into
ruled and non-ruled surfaces.
Ruled surfaces of revolution are formed by a straight generating line (generatrix).
Non-ruled (curvilinear) surfaces of revolution are formed by a curve generating
line.
Each point of a generating line, rotating round the axis, generates a circumfer-
ence (e.g., circular curve or the periphery of a circle) with the centee on this axis.
The circumferences, formed by the points of the generating line, is positioned in the
planes which are perpendicular to the revolution axis. All these circumferences are
parallel to each other (Fig. 7.12).
A parallel of a surface of revolution is a circumference (periphery of a circle)
with the center on the axis of rotation, generated by any point of a generating line.
The equator of a surface of revolution is the greatest parallel. An equator is a
contour of a surface of revolution. A projection of the equator in the plane of
projection is a sketch of a surface of revolution.
A throat (neck) of a surface of revolution is the least parallel.
To define the visibility of geometric figures, belonging to a surface of revolution,
the secant planes are used identifying (“passing through”) the axis of rotation. Such
planes intersect a surface of revolution in certain lines.
A meridian plane of a surface of revolution is a plane identifying the axis of
rotation.
The main meridian plane of a surface of revolution is a plane parallel to the
plane of projection.
The main meridian plane separates a visible part of a surface of revolution from
an invisible part. Thus, the main meridian plane is a criterion of defining the
visibility of geometric figures belonging to a surface of revolution.
(l, i) [generating line l is revolutioning round the axis i]
i 2
A2
Parallel
A B2
l2 i2
Neck B C2
l
Equator C D2
X12
D D1
l1 i1
1
B1 A1 C1
ABCD - meridian l 2
Fig. 7.12 A surface of revolution

7.7 Surfaces of Revolution and Their Analytical Models 71
A meridian of a surface of revolution is a line, in which a meridian plane

intersects a surface of revolution.
The main meridian of a surface of revolution is a meridian, which is parallel to a
plane of projection. The main meridian is a contour of a surface of revolution. The
projection of the main meridian in the plane of projection is a sketch of a surface of
revolution.
Consider some surfaces of revolution of the second order:
A cylinder of revolution (a right circular cylinder) is a surface formed by the
revolution of a straight generating line round the axis parallel to it (Fig. 7.13).
A cone of revolution (a right circular cone) is a surface formed by the revolution
of a straight generating line around the axis intersecting it (Fig. 7.14). The point of
intersection of a straight generating line with the axis of revolution is called the top
of a cone.
(l, i)[generating line l is revolutioning round the axis i, l i]

2 2 2 i 2 A2 Z 23
X +Y =R i2
A
l2
l
B2
O
X 12
B
l1 i1 A1
1 R
R (B1)
AB - generating line l Y13
1
Fig. 7.13 A right circular cylinder

2 2 2 2
(X +Y )K =Z K=h/R=ctg S2 2 Z23
l2
S i2
h
S=l i
h l i B2
O
X12
B
l 1 i1 S 1 B1
1
R
R
SB - generating line l 1 Y13
Fig. 7.14 A right circular cone

A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat

base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or
vertex.
A sphere is a surface formed by the revolution of a circle (semi circumference)
round the axis intersecting it (Fig. 7.15).
A sphere is a surface of revolution of a circle around an axis which runs through
the center of the circle.
Analytical models of surfaces of revolution of the second order are illustrated in
the corresponding drawings.
A torus is a surface formed by revolution of a circle round the axis, positioned in
the plane of this circle (Fig. 7.16).
A torus is a surface of revolution of a circle around an axis which is outside the
circle.
An open torus is a torus where the main axis of revolution i for a circle l,
generating it, does not belong to this circle l (Fig. 7.16).

2 2 2 2
X +Y +Z =R l2 i2 2 Z23
O2
l i B2
O A2
B
R O
X12
A l1 i 1 O1 B1
1
R (A1)
O - center of generating line l 1 Y13
Fig. 7.15 A sphere
(l, i) [generating line l is revolutioning round the axis i, l i]

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(X +Y +Z +R -r ) =4R (X +Y ) r i2 (O2) (B 2) 2 Z23
l - generating line is circle l2
A2
r ir i Or 2
R>r O
l X12
Or O B Or 1
A
R i1 O 1 B1
l1 A1
Or - center of l
1 R
O - center of open torus 1
Y13
Fig. 7.16 An open torus

7.7 Surfaces of Revolution and Their Analytical Models 73
(l, i) [generating line l is revolutioning round the axis i, l i]

2 2 2 2 22 2 2 2 ir i2 (O 2)
(X +Y +Z +R -r ) =4R (X +Y ) 2 Z23
l -generating line is circle l 2 (Or 2) (B 2) A2
l ir i R<= r
r
r
B A R
O
Or X12
O
R i1 (O 1) A1
1 l1
(Or 1) (B 1)
Or - center of generating line l
O - center of close torus 1
Y13
Fig. 7.17 A closed torus
Point A belongs to the equator of the open torus. Point B belongs to the throat of
the open torus. The equator and the throat are lines belonging to the surface of the
open torus.
A closed torus is a torus where the main axis of revolution i for a circle l,
generating it, belongs to this circle l (Fig. 7.17).
Point A belongs to the equator of the closed torus. Point B belongs to a gen-
erating line l of the torus. But the point B does not belong to the surface of the
closed torus, as the point B is located on a segment of the generating line l which
does not form the surface of the closed torus.
To define the incident (coincidence) of a point and a surface, it is necessary to
take into account an indication of a point belonging to a surface.
7.8 An Indication of a Point Belonging to a Surface
A point belongs to a surface only when it belongs to any line of this surface.
This simple definition simplifies the representation of the above-discussed sur-
faces in drawings (Figs. 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 7.10, 7.11, 7.12, 7.13,
7.14, 7.15, 7.16, 7.17).
7.9 Review Questions the Third Block (This Chapter)
Define each of the following terms:

1. The ways of formation of surfaces.
2. Classification conditions (the bases for classification) of surfaces.
3. Ways of describing and mapping (giving) a surface.
4. Regular and irregular surfaces.

5. Topographic surfaces.
6. Frame surfaces.
7. Kinematic surfaces.
8. A straight surface.
9. A non-straight surface.
10. A developed surface.
11. A surface of parallel transposition.
12. A surface of revolution.
13. A screw surface.
14. A contour of a surface.
15. A sketch of a surface.
16. A cylindrical surface and its determinant.
17. A prismatic surface and its determinant.
18. A conic surface and its determinant.
19. A pyramidal surface and its determinant.
20. A torus surface and its determinant. A edge of regression.
21. Undevelopable surfaces.
22. A plane of parallelism.
23. A right cylindroid and its determinant.
24. A right conoid and its determinant.
25. A hyperbolic paraboloid (a oblique plane) and its determinant.
26. A right hyperbolic paraboloid (a right oblique plane) and its determinant.
27. A determinant of a straight undeveloped surface with three guiding lines.
28. Screw ruled surfaces.
29. Screw non-ruled (curvilinear) surfaces.
30. A right helicoid and its determinant.
31. A oblique helicoid and its determinant.
32. A closed helicoid.
33. An open helicoid.
34. An eccentricity (a shoulder) of a helicoid.
35. A pitch of a screw surface.
36. An individual step of a screw surface.
37. A property of displacement of a screw surface.
38. Ruled revolution surfaces.
39. Non-ruled (curvilinear) surfaces of revolution.
40. A parallel of a surface of revolution.
41. An equator of a surface of revolution.
42. A throat (a neck) of a surface of revolution.
43. A meridian plane.
44. The main meridian plane.
45. A meridian of a surface of revolution.
46. The main meridian of a surface of revolution.
47. A cylinder of revolution (a right circular cylinder), its determinant and an
analytical model.
7.9 Review Questions the Third Block (This Chapter) 75
48. A cone of revolution (a right circular cone), its determinant and an analytical
model.
49. A sphere, its determinant and an analytical model.
50. An open torus, its determinant and an analytical model.
51. A closed torus, its determinant and an analytical model.
52. An indication of a point belonging to a surface.
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Chapter 8
Positional Problems
8.1 The Concept and Classification of Positional Problems
Positional problems are the problems that require defining the kind of relative
positioning, mutual belonging and mutual intersection of geometric images.
Proceeding from this definition, positional problems can be divided into three
groups [1–59]:
1. The problems defining the kind of relative positioning of geometric images.
2. The problems defining the kind of mutual belonging of geometric images.
3. The problems defining the kind of mutual intersection of geometric images.
The central aspect of positional problems is to define the visibility of coincident
projections of geometric images non-coincident in space, solving a direct problem
of descriptive geometry, and defining the visibility of geometric images
non-coincident in space using the complex drawing of coincident projections of
these geometric images, and so solving the inverse problem of descriptive
geometry.
The method of competing points solves the problem of visibility of geometric
images coinciding in projection and non-coincident in space.
8.2 The Concept of Competing Points. The Rule to Define

the Visibility of Constructive Elements of a Product
Competing points are the points which are located on the same projecting beam but
do not coincide with each other.
Using the method of competing points, an engineer defines the visibility of the
constructive elements of a three-dimensional product on the basis of the complex

80 8 Positional Problems
drawing. A visible constructive element of a product possesses a visible geometric

image which is a set of visible points.
The rule to define the visibility of constructive elements of a product is the
following: a constructive element is visible if it possesses some visible set of
competing points.
The rule to define the visibility of competing points will be considered in
Sect. 8.3.1 together with a non-coincidence condition (nonexistence of coincidence)
of the points.
The rule to define the visibility of competing points is formulated by means of
the rule to define the visibility of coincident projections of competing points (also in
Sect. 8.3.1).
8.3 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging

of the Same Linear Geometric Images to Each Other
Linear geometric images include a point, a straight line and a plane [26–30].
A point is the basic elementary image of three-dimensional space. A straight line
and a plane consist of any set of points. Since any set of points is called a geometric
figure, linear geometric images (a point, a straight line, a plane) are also called the
basic geometric figures.

of Points to Each Other. The Rule to Define
the Visibility of Competing Points
Since a point is an elementary image of the three-dimensional space, all three

groups of positional problems are equivalent for a point.
The equivalence of three groups of positional problems implies the performance
of three axioms. The axiom of reflexivity: the relationship of equality a = a is in
effect. The axiom of symmetry: from a = в follows в = a. The axiom of transitivity:
from a = в and в = c follows a = c.
Due to the equivalence of all three groups of positional problems for a point,
when solving the problem of the mutual positioning of points, the problems of
mutual belonging and mutual intersection of points are solved at the same time.
Thus, for problems where the initial geometric image is a point, all three groups
of positional problems are solved simultaneously.
To solve engineering positional problems in the complex drawing, we will
formulate a postulate about points: points in three-dimensional space can coincide
or can non-coincide.
8.3 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging … 81
From the postulate about points follows the conditions which enable obtaining a
solution to positional problems for points in the complex drawing.
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of points for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry: points of three-dimensional space coincide only in the case
that their corresponding projections in the complex two-dimensional drawing
coincide too.
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of points for an inverse problem of
descriptive geometry: the corresponding projections of points in the complex
two-dimensional drawing coincides only in the case that the points of
three-dimensional space coincide (Fig. 8.1).
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of points for a direct
problem of descriptive geometry: points of three-dimensional space do not coincide
only in the case that at least one pair of their corresponding projections in the
complex two-dimensional drawing does not coincide.
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of points for an inverse
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: any pair of the corresponding pro-
jections of points in the complex two-dimensional drawing does not coincide only
in the case that the points of three-dimensional space do not coincide (Fig. 8.2).
Fig. 8.1 A sign of A = B <= => A1 = B1 and A2 = B2

coincidence (incident) of
points 2 Z23 2 Z23
A2 = B2
A2 =B2
A=B
A12 = B12
A12 = B12 O
O X12
X12
A1=B1
A1=B1
1
Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 8.2 A sign of <= =>

non-coincidence
(non-incident) of points
Non-coincident points A and B, located on the same frontally projecting ray, by

definition are competing points (Fig. 8.2). Non-coincident points C and D, located
on the same horizontally projecting ray, also by definition are competing points
(Fig. 8.2).
The point A is located farther from the frontal plane of projection П2 than the
point B. Correspondingly, a horizontal projection A1 of the point A in the hori-
zontal plane of projection П1 is allocated farther from the axis X12 between the
planes of projection П1 and П2, than the horizontal projection B1 of the point B.
The point C is located farther from the horizontal plane of projection П1 than the
point D. Correspondingly, the frontal projection C2 of the point C in the frontal
plane of projection П2 is allocated farther from the axis X12 between the planes of
projection П1 and П2 than the frontal projection D2 of the point D. Having
investigated the complex drawings of these pairs of points, the rule of defining the
visibility of coincident projections of competing points can be formulated.
The rule of defining the visibility of coincident projections of competing points is
as follows: between two coincident projections of competing points, that projection
is visible which corresponds to the remoter projection of a point from the axis of
coordinates in the pair of non-coincident projections of competing points. The
designation of an invisible projection of a competing point has the parentheses
(Fig. 8.2).
The rule of defining the visibility of competing points is as follows: the remoter
projection of a point from the axis of coordinates in the pair of non-coincident
projections of competing points corresponds to a visible competing point.
The rule of defining the visibility of geometric images: a geometric image is
visible if it possesses a visible competing point.
A visible geometric image belongs to a visible constructive element of a product.

of Straight Lines to Each Other
To solve engineering positional problems in the complex drawing, we will for-

mulate a postulate about straight lines: straight lines in three-dimensional space
can coincide or not coincide; those that do not coincide can be parallel, skewed or
intersecting.
The postulate about straight lines follows the conditions enabling the solution to
positional problems for straight lines in the complex drawing.
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of straight lines for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: straight lines of three-dimensional space coin-
cide only in the case that their corresponding projections in the complex
two-dimensional drawing coincide (Fig. 8.3).
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of straight lines for an inverse problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: the corresponding projections of straight lines in
Fig. 8.3 A sign of <= =>

coincidence (incidence) of
straight lines
the complex two-dimensional drawing coincide only in the case that the straight
lines of three-dimensional space coincide (Fig. 8.3).
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of straight lines for a
direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: straight lines of
three-dimensional space do not coincide only in the case that at least one pair of
their corresponding projections in the complex two-dimensional drawing does not
coincide.
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of straight lines for a
inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: any pair of corresponding
projections of straight lines in the complex two-dimensional drawing does not
coincide only in the case that straight lines of three-dimensional space do not
coincide (Fig. 8.4).
Straight lines of the three-dimensional space, in a non-coincidence situation, can
be parallel, skewed or intersecting.
Let’s formulate the conditions enabling the determination of the result of solving
positional problems in the complex drawing for all three kinds of non-coincident
straight lines.
Fig. 8.4 A sign of

parallelism of straight lines of
general position
A condition of parallelism of straight lines for a direct problem of descriptive

geometry is as follows: straight lines of three-dimensional space are parallel only in
the case that their corresponding projections in the complex two-dimensional
drawing are parallel (Fig. 8.4).
A condition of parallelism of straight lines for a inverse problem of descriptive
geometry is as follows: corresponding projections of straight lines in the complex
two-dimensional drawing are parallel only in the case that the straight lines of
three-dimensional space are parallel (Fig. 8.4).
To prove the necessity and sufficiency of parallelism of straight lines of general
position, a two-picture complex two-dimensional drawing is enough (Fig. 8.4).
To prove the necessity and sufficiency of parallelism of straight lines of special
position, a three-picture complex two-dimensional drawing is necessary (Fig. 8.5),
as it is required to exclude a situation of skewed straight lines. Two out of three
projections of skewed straight lines of special position can satisfy the conditions of
parallelism of straight lines of general position.
In Fig. 8.5, frontal and horizontal projections of the skewed profile straight lines
of level a and c (b and c) satisfy the conditions of parallelism of straight lines of
general position. Therefore, for proving the necessity and sufficiency of parallelism
of profile straight lines of level a, b and c, profile projections of these straight lines
are necessary. The full three-picture complex two-dimensional drawing with profile
projections of the straight lines a, b and c enables one to prove that straight lines of
special position a and b are parallel, and the straight lines a and c (b and c) are
skewed (Fig. 8.5).
A condition of skewing of straight lines for a direct problem of descriptive
geometry is as follows: straight lines of three-dimensional space are skewed only in
the case that at least one pair of their corresponding projections in the complex
two-dimensional drawing is not parallel, and for projections of both lines there are
no projections of the general point satisfying the laws of projective links.
Fig. 8.5 A sign of parallelism of straight lines of special position

Fig. 8.6 A sign of skewing of straight lines of general position
A condition of skewing of straight lines for a inverse problem of descriptive

geometry is as follows: at least one pair of corresponding projections of straight
lines in the complex two-dimensional drawing is not parallel, and for projections of
both lines there are no projections of the general point satisfying the laws of
projective links, only in the case that straight lines of three-dimensional space are
skewed (Fig. 8.6).
A condition of skewing of straight lines of special position is reflected in
Fig. 8.5.
A sign of skewing of straight lines of general position is reflected in Fig. 8.6.
A condition of intersection of straight lines for a direct problem of descriptive
geometry is as follows: straight lines of three-dimensional space are intersected only
in the case that their corresponding projections in the complex two-dimensional
drawing have the corresponding projections of the general point satisfying the laws
of projective links (Fig. 8.7).
Fig. 8.7 A sign of intersection of straight lines of general position

A condition of intersection of straight lines for a inverse problem of descriptive

geometry is as follows: the corresponding projections of straight lines in the
complex two-dimensional drawing have the corresponding projections of the
general point satisfying the laws of projective links only in the case that straight
lines of three-dimensional space are intersected (Fig. 8.7).
To prove the necessity and sufficiency of intersection of straight lines of general
position, a two-picture complex two-dimensional drawing is enough (Fig. 8.7).
In Fig. 8.7, the general point belonging to both straight lines a and b, is point E.
Let’s prove that fact. Point E coincides with points 1 and 2 which belong to
different straight lines. Point 1 belongs to a straight line a. Point 2 belongs to a
straight line b. As points 1 and 2, belonging to different straight lines a and b,
coincide with each other and coincide with point E, point E is really the common
point for the straight lines a and b.
To prove the necessity and sufficiency of intersection of straight lines of special
position, a three-picture complex two-dimensional drawing is required (Fig. 8.8),
because a situation of coincidence of straight lines must be excluded. Two out of
three projections of intersecting straight lines of special position can satisfy the
conditions of coincidence of straight lines of general position.
In Fig. 8.8, the general point belonging to three straight lines a, b and c, is point
G. Frontal and horizontal projections of all three straight lines coincide:
a1 ≡ b1 ≡ c1, a2 ≡ b2 ≡ c2. As profile projections of two straight lines a and
b coincide (a3 ≡ b3), these lines are coincident straight lines. Profile projections of
each pair of straight lines a, c and b, c are intersected in point G: G3 = a3 \ c3,
G3 = b3 \ c3. Therefore, the straight line c does not coincide with the coincident
straight lines a and b. And, hence, point G is a point of intersection of the straight
lines a, c and b, c: G = a \ c, G = b \ c, in spite of the fact that frontal and
horizontal projections of each pair of straight lines coincide.
Fig. 8.8 A sign of intersection of straight lines of special position

Using the second 2-2 and the third 3-3 laws of projective links, the frontal G2
and horizontal G1 projections of point G are constructed for intersecting straight
lines of special position: G2 = a2 \ 2-2, G1 = b1 \ 3-3.
Consider the conditions of mutual location, intersection and belonging of such
same linear geometric images as planes.

of Planes to Each Other
To solve engineering positional problems in the complex drawing, we will for-

mulate a postulate about planes: planes in three-dimensional space can coincide or
not coincide; the latter can be parallel, perpendicular or intersect at an angle, not
equal to 90°.
The postulate about planes is followed by the axioms and the conditions
enabling the determination of the result of solving positional problems for planes in
the complex drawing.
The axiom of coincidence of planes is as follows: planes coincide (belong to each
other) if two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly coincide with two
intersecting straight lines of the other plane (Fig. 8.9).
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of planes for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: planes of three-dimensional space coincide only
in the case that, in the complex two-dimensional drawing, the projections of two
intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly coincide with projections of two
intersecting straight lines of the other plane (Fig. 8.9).
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of planes for a inverse problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: in the complex two-dimensional drawing, the
projections of two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly coincide with
Fig. 8.9 A sign of coincidence (incidence) of planes

Fig. 8.10 A sign of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of planes in a situation of their

parallelism
the projections of two intersecting straight lines of the other plane only in the case
that the planes of three-dimensional space coincide (Fig. 8.9).
The axiom of non-coincidence of planes is as follows: planes do not coincide (do
not belong to each other) if two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly
do not coincide with two intersecting straight lines of the other plane.
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of planes for a direct
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: the planes of three-dimensional
space do not coincide only in the case that, in the complex two-dimensional
drawing, the projections of two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly
do not coincide with the projections of two intersecting straight lines of the other
plane (Fig. 8.10).
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of planes for a inverse
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: in the complex two-dimensional
drawing the projections of two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly
do not coincide with the projections of two intersecting straight lines of the other
plane only in the case that the planes of three-dimensional space do not coincide
(Fig. 8.10).
The planes of the three-dimensional space, in a non-coincidence situation
(absence of belonging to each other), can be parallel, perpendicular or intersecting.
Let’s formulate the axioms and conditions enabling the determination of the
solution to positional problems in the complex drawing for all three kinds of non-
coincident planes.
The axiom of parallelism of planes is as follows: planes are parallel, if two
intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly are parallel to two intersecting
straight lines of the other plane.
A condition of parallelism of planes for a direct problem of descriptive geometry
is as follows: planes of three-dimensional space are parallel only in the case that, in
the complex two-dimensional drawing, the projections of two intersecting straight
lines of one plane accordingly are parallel to the projections of two intersecting
straight lines of the other plane (Fig. 8.10).
A condition of parallelism of planes for a inverse problem of descriptive
geometry is as follows: in the complex two-dimensional drawing the projections of
two intersecting straight lines of one plane accordingly are parallel to the projec-
tions of two intersecting straight lines of the other plane only in the case that the
planes of three-dimensional space are parallel (Fig. 8.10).
The axiom of perpendicularity of planes is as follows: planes are perpendicular,
if one of the planes identifies (“incorporate”, “coincide with”, “passes through”) a
perpendicular (a normal) to the other plane.
The solution of the problem of the construction of the perpendicular planes is
founded on the axiom about perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane
(Sect. 8.4.3) and the axiom about coincidence of the straight line and the plane
(Sect. 8.4.3).
The conditions of perpendicularity of planes are considered in subsection
“Perpendicularity of straight line and plane (the problem 14)”—Sect. 9.2.2 and
“Perpendicularity of two planes”—Sect. 9.2.3.
Formulations of the conditions of perpendicularity of planes for direct and
inverse problems of descriptive geometry are self-evident by analogy.
The axiom of intersection of planes is as follows: planes intersect if they have
one common straight line.
The conditions of the intersecting planes are considered in subsection
“Construction of a line of intersection of two planes (problem 6). The second basic
positional problem of descriptive geometry”—Sect. 8.7.5.
Formulation of the signs of intersection of planes for direct and inverse prob-
lems of descriptive geometry are evident in themselves by analogy.

of Different Types of Linear Geometric Images
to Each Other
In this section are considered the postulates, axioms and conditions for solving
positional problems for different-type linear geometric images: a point and a
straight line, a point and a plane, a straight line and a plane.

of a Point and a Straight Line
Among the two considered geometric images (a point and a straight line) a point is
an elementary image of three-dimensional space, for this pair of images all three
groups of positional problems are equivalent. It means that to solve the problem of
mutual positioning of a point and a straight line also solves, at the same time, the
problems of mutual intersection and mutual belonging of a point and a straight line.
To solve engineering positional problems in the complex drawing, we formulate
a postulate of a point and a straight line: a point and a straight line in
three-dimensional space can coincide or not coincide.
From the postulate of a point and a straight line follows the conditions enabling
the solution o positional problems for a point and a straight line in the complex
drawing.
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a straight line for a direct
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a straight line of
three-dimensional space coincide only in the case that their corresponding projec-
tions in the complex two-dimensional drawing coincide (Fig. 8.11).
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a straight line for an
inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: the corresponding projec-
tions of a point and a straight line in the complex two-dimensional drawing coin-
cides only in the case that a point and a straight line of three-dimensional space
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a straight
line for a direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a straight
line of three-dimensional space do not coincide only in the case that at least one pair
of their corresponding projections in the complex two-dimensional drawing does
not coincide (Fig. 8.12).
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a straight
line for an inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: any pair of the
corresponding projections of a point and a straight line in the complex
two-dimensional drawing does not coincide only in the case that a point and a
straight line of three-dimensional space do not coincide (Fig. 8.12).
Fig. 8.11 A sign of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a straight line

Fig. 8.12 A sign of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a straight line

of a Point and a Plane
Between two considered geometric images (a point and a plane) a point is an

elementary image of three-dimensional space, for this pair of images all three
groups of positional problems are equivalent. It means that solving the problem of
mutual positioning of a point and a plane, at the same time solves the problems of
both mutual intersection and mutual belonging of a point and a plane.
To solve engineering positional problems, the postulate of a point and a plane is
formulated so: a point and a plane in three-dimensional space can coincide or not
coincide.
From the postulate of a point and a plane follows the axioms and the conditions
enabling the solution of the positional problems for a point and a plane in the
complex drawing.
The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of points and planes for a direct problem
of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a plane of three-dimensional space
coincide only in the case that the corresponding projections of a point and any
geometric figure of this plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing coincide
(Figs. 8.13 and 8.15).
The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a plane for an inverse
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: the corresponding projections of a
point and any geometric figure of a plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing
coincides only in the case that a point and a plane of three-dimensional space
The axiom of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a plane for
a direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a plane of
three-dimensional space do not coincide only in the case that at least one pair of the
corresponding projections of a point and any geometric figure of a plane in the
complex two-dimensional drawing does not coincide (Figs. 8.14 and 8.16).
Fig. 8.13 The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a plane
The axiom of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a plane for

an inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: any pair of the corre-
sponding projections of a point and any geometric figure of a plane in the complex
two-dimensional drawing do not coincide only in the case that a point and a plane
of three-dimensional space do not coincide (Fig. 8.14).
The conditions for solving of positional problems with a point and a plane in the
complex drawing are formulated based on an example of a geometric figure of this
plane.
For example, a condition of coincidence (belonging, incidence) of a point and a
plane for a direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point belongs to
a plane of three-dimensional space only in the case that the corresponding pro-
jections of a point and a straight line (a curve line, a point, a closed polygonal line
or any geometric figure) of this plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing
Thus, an engineer can formulate conditions for incidence of a point and a plane
based on an example of the geometric figure of this plane in the solving problem: a
point of a plane, a straight line, a smooth curve, a closed polygonal line, any flat
figure. The belonging of the corresponding projections of a point and the corre-
sponding projections of a figure are the only necessary conditions.
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of belonging, incidence) of a point and
a plane for a direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point does not
belong to a plane of three-dimensional space only in the case that the corresponding
projections of a point and a straight line (a curve, a point, a closed polygonal line or
any geometric figure) of this plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing do not
Fig. 8.14 The axiom of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a plane

of a Straight Line and a Plane
To solve engineering positional problems, we will formulate a postulate of a

straight line and a plane: a straight line and a plane in three-dimensional space can
coincide or not coincide; in the latter case they can be parallel, perpendicular or
intersect at an angle not equal to 90°.
From the postulate of a straight line and a plane follows the axioms and the
conditions enabling the solution of positional problems for a straight line and a
plane in the complex drawing.
The axiom of coincidence of a straight line and a plane is as follows: a straight
line and a plane coincide (belong together) if the straight line identifies (“passes
through”) two points of this plane.
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of a straight line and a plane for a direct
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a straight line and a plane of
three-dimensional space coincide only in the case that, in the complex
two-dimensional drawing, the corresponding projections of a straight line coincide
with the corresponding projections of two points of this plane (Fig. 8.15).
A condition of coincidence (incidence) of a straight line and a plane for an
inverse problem of descriptive geometry: in the complex two-dimensional drawing
the corresponding projections of a straight line coincide with the corresponding
projections of two points of a plane only in the case that a straight line and a plane
of three-dimensional space coincide (Fig. 8.15).
The axiom of non-coincidence of a straight line and a plane is as follows: a
straight line and a plane do not coincide (do not belong to each other) if the straight
line does not identify (“does not pass through”) two points of this plane.
A sign of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a straight line and a plane
for a direct problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a straight line and a plane
of three-dimensional space do not coincide only in the case that, in the complex
Fig. 8.15 A sign of coincidence (incidence) of a straight line (a point) and a plane
Fig. 8.16 A sign of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a straight line (a point) and a plane
two-dimensional drawing, at least one pair of the corresponding projection of the

straight line and the corresponding projections of two points of this plane do not
A condition of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a straight line and a
plane for an inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: in the complex
two-dimensional drawing at least one pair of the corresponding projection of a
straight line and the corresponding projections of two points of this plane do not
coincide only in the case that a straight line and a plane of three-dimensional space
do not coincide (Fig. 8.16).
A straight line and a plane of three-dimensional space, in the situation of non-
coincidence (absence of belonging each other), can be parallel, perpendicular or
intersect.
Let’s formulate the axioms and the conditions enabling the solutions of posi-
tional problems in the complex drawing for all three kinds of non-coincidence of a
straight line and a plane.
Fig. 8.17 A sign of parallelism of a straight line and a plane
The axiom of parallelism of a straight line and a plane is as follows: a straight

line and a plane are parallel if the straight line is parallel to, at least, any straight line
of this plane.
A sign of parallelism of a straight line and a plane for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: a straight line and a plane of three-dimensional
space are parallel only in the case that, in the complex two-dimensional drawing,
the corresponding projections of a straight line are parallel to the corresponding
projections of, at least, any straight line of this plane (Fig. 8.17).
A condition of parallelism of a straight line and a plane for an inverse problem
of descriptive geometry is as follows: in the complex two-dimensional drawing, the
corresponding projections of a straight line are parallel to the corresponding pro-
jections of, at least, any straight line of a plane only in the case that a straight line
and a plane of three-dimensional space are parallel (Fig. 8.17).
The axiom of perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane is as follows: a
straight line and a plane are perpendicular, if the straight line is perpendicular to two
intersecting straight lines of this plane.
The conditions of perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane are considered in
subsection “Perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane (problem 14)”—Sect. 9.2.2.
Formulation of the conditions of perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane
for direct and inverse problems of descriptive geometry is evident itself by analogy.
The axiom of intersection of a straight line and a plane is as follows: a straight
line and a plane are intersected, if they have one common point.
The signs of the intersection of a straight line and a plane are considered in
subsection “Construction of a point of intersection of a straight line and a plane
(problems 8.4, 8.5). This constitutes the first basic positional problem of descriptive
geometry—Sect. 8.7.4.
Formulation of the conditions of intersection of a straight line and a plane for
direct and inverse problems of descriptive geometry are self-evident by analogy.

of a Point and a Surface
Among two considered geometric images (a point and a surface), a point is an

elementary image of three-dimensional space and, for this pair of images, all three
groups of positional problems are equivalent. This means that solving the problem
of mutual positioning of a point and a surface also solves, at the same time,
problems of mutual belonging and mutual intersection of a point and a surface.
To solve engineering positional problems, the postulate about a point and a
surface is formulated so: a point and a surface in three-dimensional space can
coincide or not coincide. The postulate about a point and a surface follows from the
axioms and conditions enabling the solution of positional problems for a point and a
surface in the complex drawing.
The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a surface for a direct
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a surface of
three-dimensional space coincide only in the case that the corresponding projections
of the point and any geometric figure of this surface in the complex
two-dimensional drawing coincide (Fig. 8.18).
The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a surface for a inverse
problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: the corresponding projections of a
point and any geometric figure of a surface in the complex two-dimensional
drawing coincide only in the case that a point and a surface of three-dimensional
space coincide (Fig. 8.18).
The axiom of non-coincidence of a point and a surface for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry is as follows: a point and a surface of three-dimensional space
do not coincide only in the case that at least one pair of the corresponding pro-
jections of a point and any geometric figure of a surface in the complex
two-dimensional drawing do not coincide (Fig. 8.19).
Φ
Φ
Φ
Φ
Φ
Fig. 8.18 The axiom of incidence of a point and a surface

8.5 Mutual Location, Intersection … 97
Φ
Φ
Φ
Φ
Φ
Fig. 8.19 The axiom of non-coincidence of a point and a surface
The axiom of non-coincidence (absence of incidence) of a point and a surface

for an inverse problem of descriptive geometry is as follows: at least one pair of the
corresponding projections of a point and any geometric figure of a surface in the
complex two-dimensional drawing do not coincide only in the case that a point and
a surface of three-dimensional space do not coincide (Fig. 8.19).
The conditions for solving the positional problems of a point and a surface in the
complex drawing are formulated based on an example of the geometric figure of
this surface.
For example, a condition of coincidence (belonging, incidence) of a point and a
surface is as follows: a point belongs to a surface of three-dimensional space only in
the case that the corresponding projections of a point and a straight line (a curve
line, a point, a closed broken line or any geometric figure) of this surface in the
complex two-dimensional drawing coincide (Figs. 8.18, 8.19 and 8.20).
Thus, an engineer can formulate the condition of incidence of a point and a
surface based on an example of the considered geometric figure of this surface in a
solved problem containing: a point of a surface, a straight line, a smooth curve line,
a closed polygonal line, and any figure. It is only necessary that the corresponding
projections of the point and the corresponding projections of the figure belong to
each other.
The forming lines or directing lines of an investigated surface can be considered
as the lines of a surface.
A condition of discrepancy (absence of belonging, incidence) of a point and a
surface is as follows: a point does not belong to a surface in three-dimensional
space only in the case that the corresponding projections of a point and a straight
line (a curve line, a point, a closed polygonal line or any geometric figure) of this
surface in the complex two-dimensional drawing do not coincide (Fig. 8.20).
Consider the problems of the relative intersection of various geometric images.
Φ
Φ
Φ
Φ
Fig. 8.20 The signs of incidence of a point and a surface
8.6 Application of the Indications of Incidence

of Geometric Images to Solve Engineering Problems
8.6.1 A Problem of Belonging of a Straight Line to a Plane

(Problem 1)
Problem 1 A geometric image of a plane Σ is given by a triangle (ΔABC).

Construct the complex drawing of any straight line n belonging to the plane
Σ(ΔABC).
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is the analogue of a problem
of the construction of the beams in the planes of a roof or covering and the
development of the necessary design documentation for achievement of the task
(Fig. 8.21).
The analysis of initial data and the given problem: given the plane Σ by the
triangle (ΔABC), four out of five possible methods for the construction of the
complex drawing of this plane can be realized (see Sect. 6.2, Fig. 6.1). The plane Σ
is unequivocally given by the following methods (Fig. 8.21):
– three not coincident points: A, B, C;
– a point and a straight line not coincident with it: A and BC, B and AC, C and
AB;
– two intersecting straight lines: AB and BC, BC and CA, CA and AB;
– a flat figure—a three segments polygonal line enclosing a compartment of the
plane—ΔABC.
Straight lines AB, BC and CA already belong to the plane Σ according to the
statement of problem. Therefore, these straight lines cannot be considered as a new
result of solving the given problem. The problem is applicable for constructing the
complex drawing of any straight line n belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC).
8.6 Application of the Indications of Incidence … 99
Fig. 8.21 Construction of the complex drawing of a straight line n belonging to the plane Σ
(ΔABC)
The algorithm of the solution: to solve the problem, we use the indications of
belonging of a point to a plane (Sect. 8.2.2, Fig. 8.13) and belonging of a straight
line to a plane (Sect. 8.2.3, Fig. 8.15).
1. To define the solution strategy, the indication of belonging of a straight line n to
the plane Σ is used. The straight line n and the plane Σ of three-dimensional
space coincide only in the case that in the complex two-dimensional drawing the
corresponding projections n1, n2 of the straight line n coincide with the corre-
sponding projections of two points of this plane. According to the statement of
problem, three points A, B, C of the plane Σ are already given by their complex
drawings from two projections A(A1, A2), B(B1, B2), C(C1, C2). To solve the
problem, it is rational to use the available complex drawing of any given point
A, B or C.
Choose a point A(A1, A2) of the plane Σ as one of two necessary points for the
construction of the straight line n(n1, n2).
2. To construct the complex drawing of any point 1(11, 12) of the plane Σ, the
indication of belonging of a point to a plane is used. Point 1(11, 12) belongs to
the plane Σ of three-dimensional space only in the case that the corresponding
projections (11, 12) of point 1 and, for example, the projections (B1C1, B2C2) of
the straight line BC of this plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing,
coincide: 11 ≡ B1C1, 12 ≡ B2C2.
The complex drawing of any point 1(11, 12) of the plane Σ (Fig. 8.21) is under
construction.
2:1 The frontal projection 12 of point 1 is allocated and designated in any way
on the frontal projection B2C2 of the straight line BC of the plane Σ.
2:2 Through the frontal projection 12 of point 1, the line of projective links 1-1
of the first law is drawn perpendicularly to the axis X21 until the inter-
section point with the horizontal projection B1C1 of the straight line BC.
2:3 In the place of intersection of the line of projective links 1-1 of the first law
and the horizontal projection B1C1 of the straight line BC, the horizontal
projection 11 of point 1 is allocated and designmated. The complex
drawing of any point 1(11, 12) of the plane Σ is constructed (Fig. 8.21).
3. The complex drawings A(A1, A2), 1(11, 12) of any two points A and 1 of the
plane Σ enables one to construct the complex drawing of any straight line n
belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC).
3:1 The frontal projection A2 of the point A and the frontal projection 12 of
point 1 are linked by the frontal projection n2 of the straight line n.
3:2 The horizontal projection A1 of the point A and the horizontal projection 11
of point 1 are linked by the horizontal projection n1 of the straight line n.
The complex drawing n(n1, n2) of any straight line n belonging to the plane
Σ(ΔABC) is constructed.
Conclusions. In the complex two-dimensional drawing (Fig. 8.21), the corre-
sponding projections n1 and n2 of the straight line n coincide n1 ≡ A1, n1 ≡ 11 and
n2 ≡ A2, n2 ≡ 12 with the corresponding projections A1, 11 and A2, 12 of two points
A and 1 of the plane Σ only in the case that the straight line n and the plane Σ of
three-dimensional space coincide on the basis of the sign of coincidence (incidence)
of a straight line and a plane for a inverse problem of descriptive geometry.
Thus, any straight line n belongs to the plane Σ(ΔABC).
On the basis of the achieved geometric determination, the design documentation
is developed, for example, for the engineering problem of placing a beam in the
plane of the roof.
8.6.2 The Problem of a Point Belonging to the Plane

(Problem 2)
Consider the problem of constructing the complex drawing of any point D

belonging to a plane Σ of general position. The position of point D in the plane Σ
can impose some conditions.
Problem 2 A geometric image of the plane Σ of general position is given by a
triangle (ΔABC). Construct the complex drawing of any point D belonging to the
plane Σ(ΔABC). The points D and B should be located in the plane Σ at the same
level relating to a horizontal plane of projection П1.
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is analogous to the prob-
lem of construction roof bar in the plane of roof of a building and the development
of the necessary design documentation for satisfactory achievement of the task.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: given the plane Σ of general
position by the triangle (ΔABC), four out of five possible methods of construction
Fig. 8.22 Construction of the complex drawing of the point D belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC) of
general position
of the complex drawing of this plane can be realized (see Sect. 6.2, Fig. 6.1). The
plane Σ is unequivocally given by following methods (Fig. 8.22):
– three not coincident points: A, B, C;
– a point and a straight line not coincident with it: A and BC, B and AC, C and
AB;
– two intersecting straight lines: AB and BC, BC and CA, CA and AB;
– a flat figure—a three segments polygonal line enclosing a compartment of a
plane—ΔABC.
Points A, B and C already belong to the plane Σ of general position according to
the problem condition. The points A and C are located in the plane Σ relating the
point B at different horizontal levels. Therefore, the points A and C do not satisfy
the problem condition. The point D cannot coincide with the point B as the solution
will be nonsense. Hence, the points A, B and C cannot be considered as a new
result of solving the given problem. The problem makes sense for constructing in
the plane Σ(ΔABC) the complex drawing of any point D located at the same
horizontal level with the point B. In this situation, the coordinates Z of the points D
and B have the same value. The solving of the given problem will enable an
engineer to define the coordinates X and Y of any point D which links with the
point B by the horizontal of the plane Σ of general position.
The algorithm of the solution: to solve the problem, the sign of belonging of a
point to a plane (Sect. 8.2.2, Fig. 8.13), the concept of a horizontal of a plane and
the sign of belonging of a straight line of a plane (Sect. 8.2.3, Fig. 8.15) are used.
1. To construct the complex drawing of any point D(D1, D2) of the plane Σ, we use
the condition of belonging of a point to a plane. The point D(D1, D2) belongs to
the plane Σ of three-dimensional space only in the case that the corresponding
projections (D1, D2) of the point D and the projections (B1E1, B2E2) of the
straight line BE of this plane in the complex two-dimensional drawing coincide
—D1 ≡ B1E1, D2 ≡ B2E2.
The point D is located in the plane Σ at the same horizontal level with the point
B in the case that the straight line BE is a horizontal h of this plane Σ. Then the
solution to the problem is any point of the horizontal BE = h, except the point B.
To construct the horizontal BE = h, we use the condition of belonging of a
straight line h to the plane Σ. The straight line h and the plane Σ of
two-dimensional drawing, the corresponding projections h1, h2 of the straight
line h coincide with the corresponding projections of two points of this plane.
According to the problem condition, three points A, B, C of the plane Σ are
already indicated by their complex drawings from two projections A(A1, A2), B
(B1, B2), C(C1, C2). So, to solve the problem, it is reasonable to use the available
complex drawing of the given point B.
Let’s choose a point B(B1, B2) of the plane Σ as one of two necessary points for
the construction of a horizontal straight line of level h(h1, h2).
2. Construct the complex drawing (h1, h2) of the horizontal BE = h, using the
complex drawing (B1, B2) of the point B.
2:1 Draw a frontal projection h2 of the horizontal h through the frontal pro-
jection B2 of the point B, in parallel to the coordinate axis X21 according to
the features of the complex drawing of a horizontal straight line of level.
2:2 At the intersection of the frontal projection h2 of the horizontal h and the
frontal projection A2C2 of the straight line AC of the plane Σ, we allocate
and designate the frontal projection E2 of the point E.
2:3 Through the frontal projection E2 of the point E perpendicularly to the axis
X21, we draw a line of projective link 1-1 of the first law until the point of
intersection with the horizontal projection A1C1 of the straight line AC.
2:4 At the intersection of the line of projective link 1-1 of the first law and the
horizontal projection A1C1 of a straight line AC, we allocate and designate
the horizontal projection E1 of the point E.
2:5 Connect the horizontal projection B1 of the point B and the horizontal
projection E1 of the point E of the horizontal projection h1 of the straight
line h.
The presence of the complex drawings B(B1, B2), E(E1, E2) of two points B and
E of the plane Σ enable one to construct the complex drawing (h1, h2) of the
horizontal BE = h belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC). Having in the plane Σ the
complex drawing (h1, h2) of the horizontal BE = h which possesses the point B,
and choosing any point D(D1, D2) on this horizontal, we reach the required
result. The sequence of achievement of the required result is stated in the third
point of the algorithm.
3. Build the complex drawing of any point D(D1, D2) of the plane Σ (Fig. 8.22).
3:1 On the frontal projection B2E2 of the straight line BE of the plane Σ, we
allocate and designate the frontal projection D2 of the point D.
3:2 Through the frontal projection D2 of the point D perpendicularly to the axis
X21, we draw a line of projective link 1-1 of the first law till the place of
intersection with the horizontal projection B1E1 of the straight line BE.
horizontal projection B1E1 of the straight line BE, we allocate and desig-
nate the horizontal projection D1 of the point D.
Thus, the complex drawing of any point D(D1, D2), located on the same hori-
zontal level with the point B for the plane Σ of general position (Fig. 8.22), is
constructed.
The algorithm for solving the problem for the plane Σ of special position will not
change. A geometric model of solving the problem for profiled projecting plane Σ is
presented in Fig. 8.23.
The constructed geometric model for solving the problem (Fig. 8.23) proves that
the horizontal is the profiled projecting straight line for this kind of plane Σ.
Conclusions. In the complex two-dimensional drawing (Fig. 8.22), the corre-
sponding projections h1, h2 of the straight line h of the plane Σ coincide h1 ≡ D1,
h2 ≡ D2 with the corresponding projections D1, D2 of the point D of the plane Σ
only in the case that the point D and the plane Σ of three-dimensional space
coincide on the basis of the indication of coincidence (incidence) of a point and a
plane for an inverse problem of descriptive geometry.
Thus, any point D belongs to the plane Σ(ΔABC), as the point D belongs to the
straight line BE = h of this plane Σ.
Since the points D and B belong to the same horizontal BE of the plane Σ, these
points are located in the plane Σ at the same level relating to the horizontal plane of
projection П1.
Thus, the condition of the problem, imposed on the location of any point D in
the plane Σ(ΔABC), is accomplished.
Fig. 8.23 Construction of the complex drawing of the point D belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC) of
special position
The constructed geometric model enables an engineer to define coordinates X

and Y of any point D which links to the point B by the horizontal of the plane Σ of
general position.
is developed, for example, for an engineering problem of placing a beam in the roof
plane of a building.
8.6.3 The Problem of Parallel Planes (Problem 3)
Consider a problem of construction of the complex drawing of any plane Ф parallel

to a plane Σ of general position. The location of the plane Ф relating the plane Σ can
be conditioned in various ways.
Problem 3 A geometric image of the plane Σ of general position is given by a
triangle (ΔABC). Construct the complex drawing of any plane Ф parallel to the
plane Σ(ΔABC). The plane Ф should be located relating to the plane Σ at some
distance and pass through some point D.
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is the analogous to the
problem of constructing the roof from parallel flat coverings and the development of
the necessary design documentation for satisfactory satisfactory achievement of the
task.
The analysis of the given problem and initial data: the problem of parallel planes
has an infinite number of solutions, as, for any given plane, it is possible to con-
struct infinitely many parallel planes.
The given problem acquires real sense, when the location of the parallel plane
relating to the given plane is conditioned; for example, passing (identification) of
the parallel plane through some point of space.
The parallel plane can be located relating to the given plane at the distance equal
to zero. Then the parallel plane will coincide with the given plane.
Giving the plane Σ of general position by the triangle (ΔABC), four out of
possible five methods of construction of the complex drawing of this plane can be
realized (see Sect. 6.2, Fig. 6.1).
The plane Σ is given by three not coincident points: A, B, C. At the coincidence of
identification point D with any of these three points, the required parallel plane Ф will
coincide with the given plane Σ. Thus, the solution to the problem is the plane Σ ≡ Ф.
At the coincidence of the point D, given for identification of the plane Ф, with
any straight line D ≡ n 2 Σ or a geometric figure of the plane Σ, the solution to the
problem is also the plane Σ ≡ Ф. The required parallel plane Ф coincides with the
given plane Σ. Therefore, before constructing the complex drawing of the required
parallel plane Ф for any point D, it is necessary to check on the truth of the axiom of
coincidence (incidence) of the point D and the plane Σ for a inverse problem of
descriptive geometry (see Sect. 8.2.2, Figs. 8.13 and 8.15). And then, using the
condition of parallelism of planes, reach the solution to the problem.
According to the condition of parallelism of planes for a direct problem of

descriptive geometry, planes of three-dimensional space are parallel only in the case
that, in the complex two-dimensional drawing, the projections of two intersecting
straight lines of one plane are accordingly parallel to the projections of two inter-
secting straight lines of the other plane (see Sect. 8.1.3, Fig. 8.10).
The condition of parallelism of planes is formulated for the planes given by two
intersecting straight lines. Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the method
of locating the plane Σ by two intersecting straight lines: AC and CB, CB and BA,
BA and AC.
To solve the problem, any pair of intersecting segments of the straight lines give
the plane Σ. Parallel to the chosen pair of intersecting segments in the point D, the
intersecting segments of the straight lines give the plane Ф under construction.
Thus, the algorithm of solution consists of two stages:
1. The axiom of coincidence (incidence) of the point D and the plane Σ for an
inverse problem of descriptive geometry is confirmed as true. Depending on the
results of confirming the truth for the axiom of incidence of the point D and the
plane Σ, the location of the required parallel plane Ф relating the given plane Σ is
fixed.
2. According to the condition of parallelism of planes for a direct problem of
descriptive geometry, the complex drawing of the required parallel plane Ф is
under construction as follows (Fig. 8.24).
The algorithm of solution: to solve the problem, the following indications are
used: the indication of belonging of a point to a plane (see Sect. 8.2.2, Fig. 8.13);
the indication of belonging of a straight line to a plane (see Sect. 8.2.3, Fig. 8.15);
and the indication of parallelism of planes (see Sect. 8.1.3, Fig. 8.10).
0. To confirm the truth of the axiom of coincidence (incidence) of the point D and
the plane Σ, the indication of belonging of a point to a plane is used. The point D
(D1, D2) belongs to the plane Σ of three-dimensional space only in the case that
Fig. 8.24 Construction of the complex drawing of the plane Ф parallel to the plane Σ (ΔABC)
the corresponding projections (D1, D2) of the point D and the projections
(B1E1, B2E2) of the straight line BE 2 Σ of this plane in the complex
two-dimensional drawing coincide: D1 ≡ B1E1, D2 ≡ B2E2.
To construct the straight line BE, the indication of belonging of the straight line
BE to the plane Σ is used. The straight line BE and the plane Σ of
two-dimensional drawing, the corresponding projections BE1, BE2 of the
straight line BE coincide with the corresponding projections of two points of
this plane. According to the condition of the problem, three points A, B, C of the
plane Σ are already given by their complex drawings from two projections of
these points A(A1, A2), B(B1, B2), C(C1, C2). For solving the problem, it is
reasonable to use the available complex drawing of the given point B.
The point B(B1, B2) of the plane Σ is chosen as one of the two necessary points
to construct the straight line BE(BE1, BE2) with the help of which the belonging
of the point D to the plane Σ is defined.
1. The complex drawing (B1E1, B2E2) of the straight line BE is under construction,
using the complex drawing (B1, B2) of the point B and the complex drawing
(D1, D2) of the point D.
1:1 The frontal projection B2D2 of the straight line BD is drawn through the
frontal projection B2 of the point B and the frontal projection D2 of the
point D.
1:2 At the intersection of the frontal projection B2D2 of the straight line BD
and the frontal projection A2C2 of the straight line AC of the plane Σ, the
frontal projection E2 of point E is allocated and designated.
1:3 Through the frontal projection E2 of the point E, perpendicularly to the axis
X21, the line of projective link 1-1 of the first law is drawn until the point of
horizontal projection A1C1 of the straight line AC, the horizontal projec-
tion E1 of the point E is.
1:5 The horizontal projection B1 of the point B and the horizontal projection E1
of the point E are linked by the horizontal projection B1E1 of the straight
line BE.
The presence of the complex drawings B(B1, B2), E(E1, E2) of the two
points B and E of the plane Σ enable on to construct the complex drawing
(B1E1, B2E2) of the straight line BE 2 Σ belonging to the plane Σ(ΔABC).
1:6 As in the plane Σ the complex drawing (B1E1, B2E2) of the straight line BE
is constructed, the frontal projection B2E2 which possesses the frontal
projection D2 of the point D, for the identification of the horizontal pro-
jection D1 of the point D, the horizontal projection B1E1 of the straight line
BE is extended until the point of intersection of the line of projective link
1-1 of the first law for the point D(D1, D2).
1:7 The validity of the axiom of coincidence (incidence) of the point D and the
plane Σ is confirmed.
If the horizontal projection B1E1 of the straight line BE identifies (“passes

through”, “intersects”) the horizontal projection D1 of the point D, the point D
belongs to the plane Σ (Fig. 8.24).
If the point D occupies, for example, position D′, the horizontal projection B1E1
of the straight line BE does not identify (“does not pass through”, “does not
intersect”) the horizontal projection D1 of the point D. So the point D in the
position D′ does not belong to the plane Σ (Fig. 8.24).
The sequence of the construction of the complex drawing of the required parallel
plane Ф relating to the given plane Σ is stated in the second section of the
algorithm.
2. To construct the complex drawing of the required parallel plane Ф in the plane
Σ, the pair of intersected in the point C sections AC and CB of the straight lines
(Fig. 8.24) are chosen.
Parallel to the chosen pair of intersecting sections AC and CB of the plane Σ in
the point D, the intersecting sections of the straight lines k and m, giving the
plane Ф, are under construction.
2:1 Through the frontal projection D2 of the point D parallel to the frontal
projection A2C2 of the section AC, a frontal projection k2 of the straight
line k is under construction, and parallel to the frontal projection C2B2 of
the section CB the frontal projection m2 of the straight line m is under
construction. The intersecting frontal projections k2 and m2 of the straight
lines k and m represent a frontal projection Ф2 of the plane Ф.
2:2 Through the horizontal projection D1 of the point D parallel to the hori-
zontal projection A1C1 of the section AC, a horizontal projection k1 of the
straight line k is under construction, and parallel to the horizontal pro-
jection C1B1 of the section CB the horizontal projection m1 of the straight
line m is under construction. The intersecting horizontal projections k1 and
m1 of the straight lines k and m represent a horizontal projection Ф1 of the
plane Ф.
Thus, the complex drawing (Ф1, Ф2) of the parallel plane Ф is constructed,
located at zero distance from the plane Σ of general position, as the point D(D1, D2)
of the plane Ф also belongs to the plane Σ (Fig. 8.24). The determinant of the
parallel plane Ф looks like—Ф (k, m, D) [D = k \ m].
To construct the complex drawing of the parallel plane Ф located and relating to
the plane Σ at some final distance; the point D occupies position D′.
Executing similarly Sects. 2.1 and 2.2 of the given algorithms for the point D in
position D′, we will achieve the complex drawing of the parallel plane Ф in position
Ф′, located and relating to the plane Σ at some final distance │DD′│ (Fig. 8.24).
In particular, when the section DD′ is a frontally projecting straight line, its hori-
zontal projection D1 D01 is equal in length to the distance between the parallel planes
Ф and Σ—D1 D01 = │DD′│. The determinant of the parallel plane Ф in position Ф′
looks like—Ф′ (k′, m′, D′) [D′ = k′ \ m′].
The constructed geometric model of the solution (Fig. 8.24) proves the necessity
of confirming the coincidence of parallel planes.
Conclusions. In the complex two-dimensional drawing (Fig. 8.24), the projec-
tions k1, k2, m1, m2 of the two intersecting straight lines k, m of the plane Ф are
accordingly parallel to the projections A1C1, A2C2, C1B1, C2B2 of the two inter-
secting straight lines AC, CB of the plane Σ only in the case that the planes Ф and Σ
of three-dimensional space are parallel on the basis of the condition of parallelism
of planes for a inverse problem of descriptive geometry.
Any point D belongs to the plane Σ(ΔABC), as the point D belongs to the straight
line BE = n 2 Σ of this plane Σ.
The distance between the parallel plane Ф, passing through the point D, and the
plane Σ is equal to zero. The distance between the parallel plane Ф ≡ Ф′, passing
through the point D in position D′, and the plane Σ is equal to the length │DD′│
of the section DD′.
In the specific case, the horizontal projection D1 D01 of the frontally projecting
section DD′ is equal in length to the distance between the parallel planes Ф ≡ Ф′
and Σ—D1 D01 = │DD′│.
Thus, the condition of the problem, imposed on the location of the parallel plane
Ф and any point D relating the plane Σ(ΔABC), is confirmed and accomplished.
The constructed geometric model enables an engineer to define coordinates X, Y
and Z of any point D, in which the parallel planes Ф and Σ of general position will
coincide.
is developed for a parametric engineering problem of construction of the roof of
parallel flat coverings.
Consider the methods for solving the problems of mutual intersection of
geometric images.
8.7 Mutual Intersection of Geometric Images
The previous Sects. (8.3–8.5) consider the strategies for solving positional problems
of mutual location and mutual belonging of geometric images.
In actual engineering practice, the majority of tasks involve using the methods
for solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images.
We now consider the classification of positional problems of mutual intersection,
which depends on the kinds of relevant initial geometric images.
8.7 Mutual Intersection of Geometric Images 109
8.7.1 Classification of Positional Problems of Mutual

Intersection of Geometric Images
Positional problems of mutual intersection, depending on the kind of initial geo-

metric images, can be divided into five groups.
1. Problems of construction of a line m of intersection of two surfaces Σ and Ф—
m = Σ \ Ф.
2. Problems of construction of a line m of intersection of a plane Σ and a plane Г—
m = Σ \ Г.
3. Problems of construction of points Ki, i = 1, N of intersection of a surface Σ and
a straight line l—Ki = Σ \ l, i = 1, N. Number N belongs to the set of natural
numbers.
4. Problems of construction of a line m of intersection with two planes T and Г—
m = T \ Г.
5. Problems of construction of a point K of intersection of a plane T and a straight
line l—K = T \ l.
The problem from the fifth group of constructions of the point K of intersection
of a straight line l with the plane T is traditionally considered the first basic
positional problem of descriptive geometry, as a large number of problems with
initial polyhedral geometric images are reducible to this problem [26–30].
For the same reason, the problem from the fourth group of construction of the
line m of intersection of two planes T and Г is considered the second basic posi-
tional problem of descriptive geometry [26–30].
For all five groups of positional problems of construction of geometric figures of
intersection of two geometric images on the basis of the kind of the end result, it is
possible to reduce them to two types of problems.
1. Problems of construction of points Ki, i = 1, N of intersection of a line q and a
geometric image Θ—Ki = q \ Θ, i = 1, N.
2. Problems of construction of a line n of intersection of two geometric images S
and R—n = S \ R.
Professor Ryzhov Nikolay Nikolaevich named the problem of the first type the
first main positional problem, and the problem of the second type he named the
second main positional problem [34, 35].
Positional problems of all five groups are solved by means of intermediaries.
8.7.2 The Concept and Criterion of a Choice

of the Intermediary for Positional Problems
An intermediary is called an auxiliary geometric figure that is used to construct the

lines of its intersection with the initial geometric images.
An intermediary can be a plane of special position, a plane of general position, a

sphere, a cylindrical surface, a ruled screw surface (helicoid) or other kinds of
surfaces.
The criterion for choosing the intermediary is as follows: the lines of intersec-
tion of the intermediary with the initial geometric images should be extremely
simple: straight lines, circles or other curves of the second order.
The choice of the intermediary is one of the important stages of solving posi-
tional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images. We will state the
method for solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images
in the form of algorithm.
8.7.3 Algorithm for Solving Positional Problems of Mutual

Intersection of Geometric Images
The algorithm for solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric

images consists of seven steps (Fig. 8.25).
1. According to the criterion of simplicity of lines of intersection of the interme-
diary with the initial geometric images, the preferred type intermediary is
logically deduced on the basis of the mental three-dimensional representation of
the intermediary, via construction of its two-dimensional image. The result of
the first stage is the complex drawing of the intermediary: Δ(Δ1, Δ2).
2. The first auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with the first initial
geometric image Σ is under construction—a = Δ \ Σ. The result of the second
stage is the complex drawing of the first auxiliary line a—a(a1, a2).
3. The second auxiliary line b of intersection of the same intermediary Δ with the
second initial geometric image Ф is constructed—b = Δ \ Ф. The result of the
third stage is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary line b—b(b1, b2).
4. Points of intersection Ki, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second
auxiliary line b are defined—Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N. The number N belongs to the
set of natural numbers. The result of the fourth stage are complex drawings of
the points of intersection Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the

second auxiliary line b—Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 , i = 1, N.
5. Confirmation of the sufficiency of the resultant number of points of intersection
Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b is
done to determine and identify the result of solving the positional problem.
If the points of intersection Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and
the second auxiliary line b are enough to achieve the end result, the seventh and
final step of the algorithm is performed.
If the points of intersection Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and
the second auxiliary line b are not enough to achieve the end result, the sixth
step is performed.
Fig. 8.25 The scheme of the 0.

algorithm for solving
positional problems
1.
2. a
3. b
4. K i , i=1,N
+ –
5. K i?
6.
J=1,M
j
6.1.
6.2. a j
6.3. b j
6.4. K ij
–
6.5 K ij?
7. K i, K ij
6. Additional points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M are defined for unequivocal determi-

nation and identification of the result.
The first value one is assigned j = 1 to the accumulator j of additional inter-
mediaries Δj, j = 1, M.
drawing of a new intermediary Δ , j = 1, M is constructed:

j
6:1 The
complex
Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set of natural numbers.
For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, Sects. 6.2, 6.3, 6.4 of the given
algorithm are performed as in Sects. 2, 3, 4.
6:2 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line aj, j = 1, M is under
construction for the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M : aj ðaj1 ; aj2 Þ:
6:3 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line bj, j = 1, M is under
construction for the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M : bj bj1 ; bj2 :
6:4 The complex drawings of new points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1, N,

j = 1, M areunder construction for the new auxiliary lines aj, bj, j = 1, M:
Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
6:5 Determination of the of unambiguity of the constructed result of the
solution is effected. If the quantity of the points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M,
belonging simultaneously to two initial geometric images and different
intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M, is enough for unequivocal determination and
identification of the solution, the seventh step is performed. Otherwise, the
value of the accumulator j of additional intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M
increases by one (j = j + 1). The complex drawing of the new intermediary
Δj, j = 1, M is constructed, and new points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj,
i = 1, N, j = 1, M of the new auxiliary lines aj, bj, j = 1, M are defined, i.e.,
the sixth step is repeated.
7. The solution to the problem is determined and identified by connecting a smooth
line between the resultant points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of triple-wise incidence
taking into account their visibility in the complex drawing.
The detailed flow-chart for the solution algorithm for positional problems of
mutual intersection of geometric images reflects the reiteration of the first five steps
at the sixth step for new intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M (Fig. 8.25).
The algorithm flow-chart contains only the standard logic blocks of operators for
programming in a high-level language.
Initial geometric images Σ, Ф, Г, T, l relative to the planes of projection П1, П2,
П3 can occupy special or general positions.
In a situation where the initial geometric images occupy special positions, the
use of the algorithm for solving positional problems becomes simpler.
Simplification of the solution of positional problems are done at the expense of
some of the features and properties of geometric models of images of special
position (Sects. 5.5, 5.6, 6.5, 6.6).
In all five groups of positional problems for two initial geometric images, three
variants of combination of positions of these images are possible:
1. Both initial geometric images occupy special positions (a special variant).
2. One of two initial geometric images occupies special position; the other initial
geometric image occupies a general position (a combined variant).
3. Both initial geometric images occupy general positions relative to the planes of
projection П1, П2, П3 (a general variant).
Thus, before using the algorithm for solving positional problems of mutual
intersection of geometric images, it is necessary to analyze the spatial position of
the given images and to define the characteristic (e.g., extreme, point of inflexion)
points of intersection of these initial images.
The analysis of spatial position and definition of extreme points of intersection
of the initial geometric images is an obligatory preliminary stage for solving a
problem or a zero stage of the algorithm of solving positional problems of mutual

intersection of geometric images.
Performance of a preliminary stage of solving the problem results in the defi-
nition of a variant of combination of positions and characteristic points of inter-
section of the initial geometric images.
For each of three possible variants of combination of positions of images, to
achieve solution, it is necessary to use the following recommendations.
1. When both initial geometric images occupy special positions, the solution of the
problem is determined and identified directly at the intersection of characteristic
projections of geometric images of special position. Characteristic projections
of geometric images of special position possess a collective property and have
much smaller spatial dimension than the images.
2. When one of two initial geometric images occupies special position and the
other initial geometric image occupies a general position; the part of the solution
can be allocated and designated directly in a characteristic projection of a
geometric image of special position on the basis of the properties of the geo-
metric model of such an image. The remaining part of the end result occurs by
means of characteristic (extreme, point of inflexion, etc.) points, laws of pro-
jective links, and signs of identification of images.
3. If both initial geometric images occupy general positions relative to the planes
of projection П1, П2, П3, the end result occurs by means of the algorithm of
solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images
(Fig. 8.25).
Now consider the application of the given recommendations and the algorithm
for solving positional problems of all five groups. We will begin the consideration
from the simplest problems of the fifth group. Then, using a research principle
“from a simple element to a difficult one”, we will analyze the problems of the
fourth, third, second and first groups.
8.7.4 Construction of a Point of Intersection of a Straight

Line and a Plane (Problems 4, 5). The First Basic
Positional Problem of Descriptive Geometry
Problem 4 A geometric image of the plane T is given by a triangle (ΔABC).

Construct a complex drawing of the point K of intersection of a straight line l and
the plane T—K = l \ T. It is necessary to define the visibility of the initial
geometric images of the straight line l and the plane T (Fig. 8.26).
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is analogous to the problem of
defining a point of attachment between a bar in a plane of a roof and developing the
necessary design documentation for satisfactory achievement of the task.
The solution begins with the analysis of the initial data and problem statement.
Fig. 8.26 Models of initial geometric images of the first basic positional problem
The analysis of the initial data and the given problem: given a plane T defined
by a triangle (ΔABC), four out of five possible ways of construction of the complex
drawing of this plane are possible (see Sect. 6.2, Fig. 6.1).
As frontal ΔA2B2C2 and horizontal ΔA1B1C1 projections of the plane T are
two-dimensional triangles, the plane T is the plane of general position (Fig. 8.26).
As frontal l2 and horizontal l1 projections of a straight line l according to the
problem condition do not possess a collective projecting property and are not the
lines of level, the straight line l is the straight line of general position (Fig. 8.26).
Thus, the variant of combination of positions of the images given in the problem
is defined: both initial geometric images occupy general positions relating the
planes of projection П1, П2, П3 (a general variant).
Therefore the end result can be found by means of the algorithm of solving
positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
The solution of the given positional problem is the unique characteristic point of
intersection of the initial geometric images: K = l \ T.
The position of a point of intersection in an operating field of the drawing or the
design document depends on mutual location of the initial geometric images in
space. In some mutual location of the initial geometric images, the result can be
outside of the operating field of the design document. This circumstance must be
factored into the graphic construction the initial geometric images, the solution of a
problem and the development of the design documentation.
The algorithm for solving the problem: to obtain the result, use the algorithm for
solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images
(Sect. 8.7.3).
1. According to the criterion of simplicity of the lines of intersection of the
intermediary with the initial geometric images, the preferred type of interme-
diary is logically deduced.
A frontally projecting plane (Δ ⊥ П2) which will contain the given straight line
(l 2 Δ). is the expedient choice.
On the basis of the conceived three-dimensional representation of the inter-

mediary Δ, its two-dimensional image is constructed.
As the intermediary Δ is a frontally projecting plane (Δ ⊥ П2) and it identifies
(contains) the given straight line (l 2 Δ), a frontal projection Δ2 of the inter-
mediary Δ coincides with a frontal projection l2 of a straight line l—Δ2 ≡ l2. The
line ΔП2 of intersection of the intermediary Δ and the frontal plane of projection
П2 coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ and the frontal
projection l2 of the straight line l—ΔП2 = Δ \ П2, ΔП2 ≡ Δ2 ≡ l2.
The horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the horizontal
plane of projection П1—Δ1 ≡ П1. Due to the axiom of reflexivity, the reverse
coincidence is also truer—П1 ≡ Δ1. The line ΔП1 of intersection of the frontally
projecting intermediary Δ and the horizontal plane of projection П1 is perpen-
dicular to the axes of abscissas X12—ΔП1 = Δ \ П1, ΔП1 ⊥ X12 (Fig. 8.27).
The result of the first step is the complex drawing of the intermediary—Δ
(Δ1, Δ2).
geometric image l is constructed—a = Δ \ l.
According to the condition of the choice of the intermediary, i.e., that the
straight line belongs to the plane of the intermediary (l 2 Δ), this straight line l is
the first auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with the first initial
geometric image l—a = Δ \ l ≡ l, l 2 Δ. The line a is the line of double
incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and l—a 2 Δ, a 2 l.
Thus, the complex drawing (a1 ≡ l1, a2 ≡ l2) of the first auxiliary line a is the
complex drawing of the straight line given in the problem l—a ≡ l (Fig. 8.27).
The result of the second step is the complex drawing of the first auxiliary line a—
a(a1, a2) ≡ l(l1, l2).
second initial geometric image T is under construction—b = Δ \ T.
In Euclid’s geometry, a straight line is a line of intersection of two planes, so the
plane of the intermediary Δ and the given plane T intersect at a straight line.
Fig. 8.27 A geometric model of construction of the point of intersection of a straight line and a
plane
Therefore, the second auxiliary line b is a straight line. The line b is a line of
double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and T: b 2 Δ, b 2 T.
In the sub-problem of constructing the second auxiliary line b, a spatial position
of the initial planes Δ and T corresponds to the combined variant of a combi-
nation of positions of these images. The constructed plane of the intermediary Δ
occupies special position. The given plane T occupies a general position.
Therefore, a part of the result is allocated and designated directly on a char-
acteristic projection of a geometric image of special position on the basis of the
properties of a geometric model of such an image. The rest of the result occurs
by means of characteristic points, laws of projective links, and conditions for
identification of images (Sects. 8.3–8.5).
Due to the collective property of the frontally projecting plane Δ (Δ ⊥ П2), the
frontal projection b2 of the line b, belonging to the plane Δ (b 2 Δ), coincides
with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—b2 ≡ Δ2.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of the line b, it is necessary to construct
the complex drawings of extreme points of intersection of geometric images of
the intermediary Δ and the plane T.
The plane Δ intersects a segment (compartment) ΔABC of the plane T in points
1 and 2 of the edges AC and AB accordingly. Therefore, the segment 12
coincides with the line b of intersection of the planes Δ and T—b ≡ [12]. Points
1 and 2 are characteristic points of intersection of geometric images Δ and T in
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing of the second auxiliary
line b of intersection of the images Δ and T consists of five steps.
3:1 At the intersection of a frontal projection Δ2 of the plane Δ and frontal
projections A2C2, A2B2 of the edges AC and AB of the segment (com-
partment) ΔABC of the plane T, frontal projections 12, 22 of the points 1
and 2 are allocated and designated—12 = Δ2 \ A2C2, 22 = Δ2 \ A2B2. The
frontal projection b2 of the line b coincides with the frontal projection 1222
of the segment 12—b2 ≡ 1222.
3:2 Through the frontal projection 12 of the point 1 perpendicularly to the axis
X21, a line of projective link 1-11 of the first law is drawn until the point of
Through the frontal projection 22 of the point 2 perpendicularly to the axis
X21, a line of projective link 1-12 of the first law is drawn to the point of
intersection with the horizontal projection A1B1 of the straight line AB.
tion 11 of the point 1 is determined and identified. The complex drawing of
a characteristic point 1(11, 12) of intersection of the images Δ and T is
constructed (Fig. 8.27).
At the intersection of the line of projective link 1-12 of the first law and the
horizontal projection A1B1 of the straight line AB, a horizontal projection
21 of the point 2 is allocated and designated. The complex drawing of the
characteristic point 2(21, 22) of intersection of the images Δ and T is

3:4 The horizontal projection b1 of the straight line b is drawn by the con-
nection of the horizontal projection 11 of the point 1 and the horizontal
projection 21 of the point 2 by the segment 1121 of the straight line—
b1 ≡ 1121.
3:5 A frontal b2 and a horizontal projection b1 of the straight line b are des-
ignated. The result of the third step is the complex drawing of the second
auxiliary line b of intersection of the images Δ and T—b(b1, b2) ≡ 12
(1121, 1222), b = Δ \ T (Fig. 8.28).
4. The points of intersection Ki, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second
auxiliary line b are defined—Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N.
For the initial geometric images of the straight line l and the plane T, the number
N of points Ki, i = 1, N of intersection of the first auxiliary line a and the second
auxiliary line b is equal to one—N = 1.
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of intersection of the
same intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: the straight line
l and the plane T—a = Δ \ l, b = Δ \ T, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ, a 2 l, b 2 T.
The auxiliary lines a and b of double incidence belong to the same intermediary
Δ and to different geometric images—the straight line l and the plane T (a 2 l,
b 2 T). Therefore, lines a and b, if they are not parallel, are intersected in a
plane of the general intermediary Δ for them in point K—a \ b = K, K 2 Δ.
Hence, the point K also belongs simultaneously to different geometric images:
the straight line l and the plane T—K 2 l, K 2 T.
Thus, the point K is the point of intersection of the straight line l and the plane T—
K = l \ T.
The point K, belonging to three geometric images (K 2 Δ, K 2 l, K 2 T), is
called a point of triple incidence.
The complex drawing of the point K(K1, K2) of intersection of the straight line
l and the plane T (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28) is thus constructed.
Fig. 8.28 A semiotic model of the construction of the complex drawing of the point K of
intersection of the straight line l and the plane T—K = l \ T
4:1 At the intersection of the horizontal projection b1 ≡ 1121 of the straight lines
b ≡ 12 and the horizontal projection a1 ≡ l1 of the straight line a ≡ l, the
horizontal projection K1 of the point K is allocated and designated.
4:2 Through the horizontal projection K1 of the point K perpendicularly to the
axis X21, the line of projective link 1-1K of the first law is drawn to the point
of intersection with the collective frontal projection Δ2 ≡ l2 ≡ a2 ≡ b2 ≡ 1222
of the intermediary Δ.
4:3 At the intersection of the line of projective link 1-1K of the first law and the
collective frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ, a frontal projection K2
of the point K is allocated and designated.
The result of the fourth stage is the complex drawing of a point of intersection
Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N, N = 1 of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary

line b—Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 , i = 1, N, N = 1.
Thus, the complex drawing K(K1, K2) of the point K = l \ T of intersection of
the straight line l and the plane T is constructed (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28).
5. The visibility of the initial geometric images of the straight line l and the plane T
is defined by means of the mechanism of competing points (Sects. 8.2, 8.3.1).
5:1 To define the visibility of the initial geometric images of the straight line
l and the plane T in the frontal plane of projection П2, a frontally projecting
beam with competing points 1 and 3 is chosen.
According to the definition, the competing points 1 and 3 are located on the
same projecting beam and do not coincide with each other. To use the
competing points 1 and 3, solving the problem of visibility of the straight
line l and the plane T is possible only in the case that each of the competing
points belongs only to one geometric image. As point 1, owing to the
previous constructions, already belongs to the plane T, point 3 should
belong to the straight line l—1 2 T, 3 2 l.
Due to the collective property of the frontally projecting beam 13, the
frontal projections 12, 32 of the points 1, 3 coincide and belong to the
frontal projections T2, l2 of the plane T and the straight line l accordingly—
12 ≡ 32, 12 ≡ T2 ≡ A2C2, 32 ≡ l2. On the frontal plane of projection П2 the
frontal projection 32 of point 3 is designated.
5:2 As point 3 belongs to the straight line l, horizontal projection 31 of point 3
belongs to the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l and the line of
projective link 1-13 of the first laws—31 2 l1, 31 2 1-13.
T the intersection of the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l and the
line of projective link 1-13 of the first law of the frontal projection 32 of
point 3, a horizontal projection 31 of point 3 is allocated and designated—
31 = l1 \ 1-13.
5:3 For solving the problem of visibility of the initial geometric images of the
straight line l and the plane T, complex drawings of the pair of points 1 and
3 are investigated (Sects. 8.2, 8.3.1, Fig. 8.2).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of coincident projections of
competing points from two coincident projections 12 ≡ 32 of competing
points 1 and 3, a visible one is the projection which corresponds to the

remotest projection of the point from the axis of coordinates in a pair of not
coincident projections 11, 32 of these competing points.
As in the general line of projective link (1-11 ≡ 1-13) of the first law 1-1 for
frontal projections 12, 32 of points 1, 3 from the axis of abscissas X12 in pair of
not coincident projections, the horizontal projection 11 of point 1 is the
remotest, the frontal projection 12 of point 1 corresponding to it is visible.
A coordinate Y1 of point 1 is larger than a coordinate Y3 of point 3—Y1 > Y3.
The frontal projection 32 of point 3 is invisible (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28).
The designation of invisible projection 32 of the competing points 3 con-
sists in parentheses—12 ≡ (32).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of competing points, the
remotest from the axis of coordinates X12 projection 11 of points 1 in a pair
of not coincident projections 11, 31 of the competing points 1 and 3 cor-
responds with a visible competing point 1—1 ≡ (3).
Thus, point 1is visible; point 3 is invisible.
According to the rule of defining the visibility of geometric images, a
geometrical image is visible if it possesses a visible competing point.
As the visible competing point 1 belongs to the plane T and the invisible
competing point 3 belongs to the straight line l, in the frontal plane of
projection П2 from the point K of intersection of the initial geometric
images in the direction of point 1, the plane T is visible, and the straight
line l is invisible.
The invisible part of the frontal projection l2 of the straight line l is rep-
resented by a dashed line (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28).
l and the plane T in the horizontal plane of projection П1, a horizontally
projecting beam 45 with the competing points 4 and 5 is chosen.
According to the definition, competing points 4 and 5 are located on the
same projecting beam and do not coincide with each other. The use of
competing points 4 and 5 in solving the problem of visibility of the straight
line l and the plane T is possible only in the case that each of the competing
points belongs only to one geometric image. Let us assume that the point 4
belongs to the plane T, and the point 5 belongs to the straight line l—4 2 T,
5 2 l.
Due to the collective property of the horizontally projecting beam 45, the
horizontal projections 41, 51 of points 4, 5 coincide and belong to the
horizontal projections T1, l1 of the plane T and the straight line l accord-
ingly—41 ≡ 51, 41 ≡ T1, 51 ≡ l1. In a horizontal plane of projection П1, a
horizontal projection 41 of point 4 and a horizontal projection 51 of point 5
are allocated and designated.
The allocated and designated horizontal projection 41 of point 4 belongs to
the horizontal projection B1C1 of the segment BC of the triangle ΔABC,
giving the plane T—41 ≡ B1C1.
5:5 As point 4 belongs to the plane T, the frontal projection 42 of point 4

belongs to the element B2C2 of the frontal projection T2 of the plane T and
the line of projective link 1-1 of the first laws—42 2 T2, 42 2 1-1.
At the intersection of the frontal projection B2C2 of the segment BC of the
triangle ΔABC of the plane T (B2C2 2 T2) and the line of projective link
1-1 of the first law of the horizontal projection 41 of point 4, a frontal
projection 42 of point 4 is allocated and designated so—42 = B2C2 \ 1-14.
As point 5 belongs to the straight line l, the frontal projection 52 of point 5
belongs to the frontal projection l2 of the straight line l and the line of
projective link 1-1 of the first law—52 2 l2, 52 2 1-1.
At the intersection of the frontal projection l2 of the straight line l and the
line of projective link 1-1 of the first law of the horizontal projection 51 of
point 5, a frontal projection 52 of point 5 is allocated and designated—
52 = l2 \ 1-15.
5:6 To solve the problem of visibility of the initial geometric images of the
straight line l and the plane T in a horizontal plane of projection П1,
complex drawings of the pair of points 4 and 5 are studied (Sects. 8.2,
8.3.1, Fig. 8.2).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of conterminous projections of
competing points, between two conterminous projections 41 ≡ 51 of competing
points 4, 5, the visible one is the projection that corresponds to the remotest from
the axis of coordinates X12 projection of a point in a pair of not coincident pro-
jections 42, 52 of these competing points.
As on the general line of projective link 1-1 of the first law for horizontal
projections 41, 51 of points 4, 5 from the axis of abscissas X12, the remotest one is a
frontal projection 42 of point 4, i.e., the horizontal projection 41 of point 4, cor-
responding to it, is visible coordinate Z4 of point 4 is more than a coordinate Z5 of
point 5—Z4 > Z5. The horizontal projection 51 of point 5 is invisible (Figs. 8.27 and
8.28).
The designation of invisible projection 51 of competing point 5 resides in
parentheses—41 ≡ (51).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of caompeting points, the remotest
from the axis of coordinate X12 projection 42 of point 4 in apair of not coincident
projections 42, 52 of competing points 4 and 5 corresponds to a visible competing
point 4—4 ≡ (5).
Thus, point 4 is visible, point 5 is invisible.
According to the rule of defining the visibility of geometric images, a geometric
image is visible if it possesses a visible competing point.
competing point 5 belongs to the straight line l, on a horizontal plane of projection
П1 from point K of intersection of the initial geometric images in the direction of
point 4, the plane T is visible, and the straight line l is invisible.
The invisible part of a horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l is represented
by a dashed line (Figs. 8.27 and 8.28).
Conclusions.
1. To solve the given problem, the preliminary step and the four steps of the
algorithm for solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric
images are executed.
2. The rational choice of the intermediary Δ (Δ ⊥ П2, l 2 Δ) enables construction
of the complex drawing a(a1, a2) ≡ l(l1, l2) of the first auxiliary line a without
the analysis of spatial position and definition of extreme points of intersection of
the plane Δ and the straight line l.
3. The analysis of spatial position and definition of extreme points of intersection
of the plane of the intermediary Δ and the plane T was carried out by the
construction of the second auxiliary line b.
4. At the construction of the second auxiliary line b, the positional problem for the
combined variant of combination of positions of the initial geometric images is
solved: a frontally projecting plane of the intermediary Δ and the given plane T
of general position.
Points 1 and 2 are characteristic points of intersection of straight lines AC and
AB of the given plane T with the plane of the intermediary Δ.
5. The constructed complex drawing (K1, K2) of the point K of intersection of the
straight line l and the plane T (K = l \ T) is within of the operating field of the
drawing or the design document.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing (K1, K2) of the point K at
the fourth step of the realized method consists of three actions: determination and
identification of the horizontal projection K1 of the point K—a1 \ b1 = K1,
construction of a line of projective link 1-1K of the first law—K1 2 1-1K ⊥ X21,
and determination and identification of the frontal projection K2 of the point K—
1-1K \ Δ2 = K2.
6. To define the visibility of elements of the initial geometric images in the
complex drawing, we can use the concept of competing points, the rule of
defining the visibility of conterminous projections of competing points, the rule
of defining the visibility of competing points and the rule of defining the visi-
bility of geometric images.
A projecting beam with competing points is perpendicular to the plane of
projection which defines the visibility of elements of the initial geometric
images.
In a pair of not coincident projections of competing points, the coordinate of a
visible projection is greater than the coordinate of an invisible projection.
Designation of a projection of an invisible competing point resides in paren-
theses in the plane of projection where this designation of the projection of the
invisible competing point coincides with the designation of the projection of the
visible competing point (Figs. 8.27, 8.28).
Invisible elements of the initial geometric images are represented by a dashed
line.
7. The condition model for solving the problem (Fig. 8.28) contains the following
parities: Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ ⊥ П2, l 2 Δ]; a = Δ \ l, a(a1, a2) ≡ l(l1, l2); b = Δ \ T, b
(b1, b2) ≡ 12(1121, 1222); a \ b = K, K = l \ T.
On the basis of the geometric solution (Fig. 8.27), the design documentation is
developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define an attachment point
on a beam in a roof plane.
A fragment of the engineering design of a compartment of the plane of roofing
and the attached beam is a three-dimensional geometric model of compartment
ABC of the plane T and the straight line l (Fig. 8.28).
Consider the solution of the first basic positional problem when both initial
geometric images occupy special positions relative to the planes of projection П1,
П 2, П 3.
Problem 5 A geometric image of the plane T is given by a triangle (ΔABC) of
special position. Construct the complex drawing of the point K of intersection of the
straight line l of special position and the plane T—K = l \ T. It is necessary to
define the visibility of the initial geometric images of the straight line l and the
plane T of special position.
The solution to the positional problem begins with the analysis of spatial
position of the given geometric images (Fig. 8.29).
As a horizontal projection T1 of the plane T is a segment A1B1C1 of a straight
line and a frontal projection T2 of the plane T is its segment (compartment)
ΔA2B2C2 in the form of the triangle ΔABC, the plane T is a horizontally projecting
plane.
As the frontal projection l2 of the straight line l is parallel to the axis of coor-
dinates X21, and the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l is not parallel to the
axis of coordinates X21, the straight line l is a horizontal straight line of level.
Hence, both initial geometric images occupy special positions relating the planes
of projection П1, П2, П3 (a special variant).
Fig. 8.29 Models of the initial geometric images of the first basic positional problem in a special
variant
Fig. 8.30 A geometric model of the construction of a point of intersection of a straight line and a
plane in special variant
A characteristic projection of the plane T is the horizontal projection T1, pos-

sessing a collective property and having one order less spatial dimension—two
dimensions, than the three dimensions of the image.
Therefore, the result of solving the problem is allocated and designated directly
at the intersection of characteristic of the horizontal projection T1 of the plane T and
the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l (Fig. 8.30).
The algorithm for solving the problem:
1. Define the characteristic points of intersection of the initial geometric images.
For a plane and a straight line, such points will be unique.
At the intersection of the horizontal projection T1 of the plane T and the hori-
zontal projection l1 of the straight line l, a horizontal projection K1 of the point
K is allocated and designated—K1 = T1 \ l1.
2. Through the horizontal projection K1 of the point K perpendicularly to the axis
X21, a line of projective link 1-1K of the first law is drawn to the point of
intersection with a frontal projection l2 of the straight line l—K1 2 1-1K.
3. At the intersection of the line of projective link 1-1K of the first law and the
frontal projection l2 of the straight line l, a frontal projection K2 of the point K is
allocated and designated—K2 = 1-1K \ l2.
4. The visibility of the initial geometric images of the straight line l and the plane T
is defined by means of the mechanism of competing points (Sects. 8.2, 8.3.1).
l and the plane T in the frontal plane of projection П2, a frontally projecting
beam with competing points 1 and 2 projects outward.
According to the definition, competing points 1 and 2 are located on the
same projecting beam and do not coincide with each other. To use com-
peting points 1 and 2, solving the problem of visibility of the straight line
l and the plane T, is possible only in the case that each of the competing
points belongs only to one geometric image. Let point 1 belong to the
plane T, point 2 should belong to the straight line l—1 2 T, 2 2 l.
Owing to the collective property of the frontally projecting beam 12,

frontal projections 12, 22 of points 1, 2 coincide and belong to the frontal
projections T2, l2 of the plane T and the straight line l accordingly—
12 ≡ 22, 12 ≡ T2 ≡ A2B2, 22 ≡ l2.
4:2 As point 1 belongs to the plane T, the horizontal projection 11 of point 1
belongs to the horizontal projection T1 of the plane T and the line of
projective link 1-11 of the first law—11 2 T1, 11 2 1-11.
At the intersection of the horizontal projection T1 of the plane T and the
line of projective link 1-11 of the first law of the frontal projection 12 of
11 = T1 \ 1-11, 11 ≡ T1 ≡ A1B1.
4:3 As point 2 belongs to the straight line l, the horizontal projection 21 of
point 2 belongs to the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l and the
line of projective link 1-12 of the first laws—21 2 l1, 21 2 1-12.
At the intersection of the horizontal projection l1 of the straight line l and
the line of projective link 1-12 of the first law of the frontal projection 22 of
21 = l1 \ 1-12.
4:4 To solve the problem of visibility of the initial geometric images of the
straight line l and the plane T, complex drawings of the pair of points 1 and
2 are investigated (Sects. 8.2, 8.3.1, Fig. 8.2).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of conterminous projections of
competing points, between two conterminous projections 12 ≡ 22 of competing
points 1, 2, a visible projection is the projection which corresponds to the remotest
from the axis of coordinate projection of a point in a pair of not coincident pro-
jections 11, 21 of these competing points.
As on the general line of projective link (1-11 ≡ 1-12) of the first law 1-1 for
frontal projections 12, 22 of points 1, 2 from the axis of abscissas X12 in a pair of not
coincident projections, a horizontal projection 11 of point 1 is the remotest, the
frontal projection 12 of point 1, corresponding to it, is visible. The coordinate Y1 of
point 1 is greater than coordinate Y2 of point 2: Y1 > Y2. The frontal projection 22
of point 2 is invisible (Fig. 8.30).
The designation of invisible projection 22 of competing point 2 resides in
parentheses—12 ≡ (22).
According to the rule of defining the visibility of competing points, the remotest
from the axis of coordinate X12 projection 11 of point 1 in a pair of not coincident
projections 11, 21 of competing points 1 and 2, corresponds to the visible competing
point 1—1 ≡ (2).
Thus, point 1 is visible, point 2 is invisible.
According to the rule of defining the visibility of geometric images, a geometric
image is visible if it possesses a visible competing point.
competing point 2 belongs to the straight line l, from the point K of intersection of
the initial geometric images in the direction of point 1, the plane T is visible, and
the straight line l is invisible (Figs. 8.30 and 8.31).
Invisible parts of a frontal projection l2 and a horizontal projection l1 of the
straight line l are represented by a dashed line (Figs. 8.30 and 8.31).
Thus, the condition model of solving the problem contains four basic parities:
T1 \ l1 ¼ K1 ;
K1 2 11k ;
11k \ l2 ¼ K2 ;
Y1 [ Y2 :
These condition parities reflect the geometric essence of the steps in solving the
problem. Therefore, they form the basis of a semiotic model of solving the problem
(Fig. 8.31).
The constructed two-dimensional geometric model of solving the problem
allows constructing a three-dimensional model of objects (Fig. 8.31). Thus, the
inverse problem of descriptive geometry is solved.
Conclusions.
1. The end result is achieved without the use of the iterative algorithm of solving
positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images, consisting of
seven steps (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
2. To achieve the end result, one should conduct a preliminary zero step of the
analysis of spatial position of the given images and definition of extreme points
of intersection of these initial images.
3. Without the use of an auxiliary geometric image (intermediary), on the basis of
the properties of the initial geometric images of special position, part of the
result is allocated and designated directly on horizontal projections of these
images.
Fig. 8.31 A semiotic model of construction of the complex drawing of the point K of intersection
of the straight line l and the plane T in special variant—K = l \ T
4. The remainder of the solution is reached on the basis of the first law of
projective links.
5. A fragment of engineering design of a compartment of a roofing plane and an
attached beam is a three-dimensional geometric model of the segment (ΔABC)
of the plane T and the straight line l (Fig. 8.31).
The fragment of the engineering design is found by reverse projection in a
three-dimensional geometric model as the result of solving the inverse problem of
descriptive geometry.
8.7.5 Construction of a Line of Intersection of Two Planes

(Problem 6). The Second Basic Positional Problem
of Descriptive Geometry
Problem 6 A geometric image of a plane T is given by a triangle (ΔABC), and a

geometric image of a plane Г is given by two intersecting straight lines (h \ f).
Construct the complex drawing of a straight line m of intersection of the plane T
and the plane Г—m = T \ Г.
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is, for example, analogous to
the problem of defining a line of intersection of flat opposite slopes of a roof and
development of the necessary design documentation for satisfactory achievement of
the task.
The solution begins with the analysis of initial data and the problem statement.
The analysis of initial data and the given problem: the horizontal h and the
frontal f of the plane Г are intersected at point D—D = h \ f. Because frontal
ΔA2B2C2, h2 \ f2 and horizontal ΔA1B1C1, h1 \ f1 projections accordingly of the
planes T, Г are two-dimensional triangles, and profile projections of these planes
are not collective straight lines, the planes T and Г are the planes of general position
(Figs. 8.32 and 8.33).
Thus, the variant of a combination of positions, given in the images, is defined
so: both initial geometric images occupy the general position relative to the planes
of projection П1, П2, П3 (the general variant).
Fig. 8.32 Three-dimensional

models of initial geometric
images of the second basic
positional problem
Fig. 8.33 Two-dimensional

models of initial geometric
images of the second basic
positional problem
Therefore, the solution is reached by means of the algorithm for solving posi-
tional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
The end result of solving the given positional problem will be the single straight
line of intersection of initial geometric images—m = T \ Г.
The algorithm for solving the problem: to define the result, the algorithm of
solving positional problems of relative intersection of geometric images
(Sect. 8.7.3) is used.
1. According to the simplicity criterion of lines of intersection of the intermediary
with initial geometric images, the type of intermediary is logically deduced.
As the intermediary, it is expedient to choose a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1).
On the basis of three-dimensional representation of the intermediary Δ
(Fig. 8.34), its two-dimensional image is constructed (Fig. 8.35).
As the intermediary Δ is a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), a frontal projection
Δ2 of the intermediary Δ are a straight line that is parallel to the axis of
co-ordinates X12—Δ2 || X12.
Fig. 8.34 A three-dimensional geometric model of construction of a straight line of intersection of

two planes
Fig. 8.35 A two-dimensional geometric model of construction of a straight line of intersection of

two planes
The line ΔП2 of intersection of the intermediary Δ and the frontal plane of
projection П2 coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ—
ΔП2 = Δ \ П2, ΔП2 ≡ Δ2.
The horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the horizontal
plane of projection П1: Δ1 ≡ П1. By reason of the axiom of reflexivity, an
inverse coincidence is also true—П1 ≡ Δ1.
(Δ1, Δ2).
2. The first auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ is constructed with
the first initial geometric image T—a = Δ \ T.
As in Euclid’s geometry, a straight line is a line of intersection of two planes,
and plane of the intermediary Δ and the given plane T are intersected in the
straight line. Therefore, the first auxiliary line a is a straight line. The line a is
the line of double incidence, as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and T—
a 2 Δ, a 2 T.
In a sub-problem of construction of the first auxiliary line a, spatial position of
the initial planes Δ and T correspond to the combined variant of combination of
positions of these images. The constructed plane of the intermediary Δ occupies
special position. The given plane T occupies a general position.
Therefore, a part of the result is allocated and designated directly on a char-
acteristic projection of the geometric image of special position on the basis of
the properties of the geometric model of this image. The remainder of the result
is found by means of characteristic points, laws of projective links, and con-
ditions of identification of the images (Sect. 8.3–8.5).
By reason of the collective property of a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), the
frontal projection a2 of the line a, belonging to the plane Δ(a 2 Δ), coincides
with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—a2 ≡ Δ2.
To construct a horizontal projection a1 of the line a, it is necessary to construct

complex drawings of characteristic points of intersection of geometric images
of the intermediary Δ and the plane T.
The plane Δ intersects a segment (compartment) ΔABC of the plane T in points
1 and B of the segment AC and the vertex B of the triangle accordingly.
Therefore, the Sect. 1B coincides with the line a of intersection of planes Δ and
T—a ≡ [1B]. Points 1 and B are characteristic points of intersection of geo-
metric images of planes Δ and T in the complex drawing.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing of the first auxiliary line
a of intersection of images of planes Δ and T consists of five steps as follows:
2:1 At the intersection of the frontal projection Δ2 of the plane Δ and the
frontal projection A2C2 of the segment AC of the compartment (ΔABC) of
the plane T, a frontal projection 12 of point 1 is allocated and designated—
12 = Δ2 \ A2C2. The frontal projection a2 of the line a coincides with the
frontal projection 12B2 of the Sect. 1B—a2 ≡ 12B2.
2:2 Through the frontal projection 12 of point 1 perpendicularly to the axis X21,
a line of projective link 1-11 of the first law is drawn to the point of
tion of 11 of point 1 is allocated and designated. The complex drawing of
the characteristic point 1(11, 12) of intersection of the images Δ and T is
The complex drawing of the characteristic point B(B1, B2) of intersection
of the images Δ and T is constructed according to the problem condition
(Figs. 8.32 and 8.33).
2:4 The horizontal projection a1 of the straight line a is drawn by connecting
the horizontal projection 11 of point 1 and the horizontal projection B1 of
the point B by the segment 11B1 of the straight line—a1 ≡ 11B1.
2:5 A frontal a2 and horizontal projection a1 of the straight line a are
designated.
The result of the second step is the complex drawing of the first auxiliary line
a of intersection of the images Δ and T—a(a1, a2) ≡ 1B(11B1, 12B2), a = Δ \ T
(Figs. 8.34 and 8.35).
3. The second auxiliary line b of intersection of the same intermediary Δ is con-
structed with the second initial geometric image Г—b = Δ \ Г.
As in Euclid’s geometry, a straight line is a line of intersection of two planes, a
plane of the intermediary Δ and the given plane Г are intersected in the straight line.
Therefore, the second auxiliary line b is also a straight line. The line b is a line of
double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and Г—b 2 Δ, b 2 Г.
In the sub-problem of construction of the second auxiliary line b, a spatial
position of initial planes Δ and Г corresponds to the combined variant of com-
bination of positions of these images. The constructed plane of the intermediary
Δ occupies special position. The given plane Г occupies a general position.
Therefore, a part of the result is allocated and designated directly in a charac-

teristic projection of the geometric image of special position on the basis of the
properties of a geometric model of such an image. The remainder of the result is
reached on the basis of the property of parallelism of horizontals of a plane,
characteristic points, laws of projective links, and conditions of identification of
images (Sects. 8.3–8.5).
with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—b2 ≡ Δ2.
To construct the horizontal projection b1 of the line b, it is necessary to construct
the complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of the intermediary
Δ with the plane Г and to use the property of parallelism of horizontals of a
plane.
The plane Δ intersects the segment (compartment) ΔDEF of the plane Г in point
2 of the segment DF. Therefore, the Sect. 2K (K 2 b) will coincide with the line
b of intersection of the planes Δ and Г—b ≡ [1K]. The point 2 is a characteristic
point of intersection of the geometric images Δ and Г in the complex drawing.
line b of intersection of the images Δ and Г consists of five steps:
3:1 At the intersection of the frontal projection Δ2 of the plane Δ and the
frontal projection D2F2 of the edge DF of the segment (compartment)
ΔDEF of the plane Г, the frontal projection 22 of the point 2 is allocated
and designated—22 = Δ2 \ D2F2. The frontal projection b2 of the line
b coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the plane Δ and the frontal
projection 22 of the point 2—b2 ≡ Δ2, b2 ≡ 22.
3:2 Through the frontal projection 22 of the point 2 perpendicularly to the axes
X21, a line of projective link 1-12 of the first law is drawn to the point of
intersection with the horizontal projection D1F1 of the straight line DF.
horizontal projection D1F1 of the straight line DF, a horizontal projection
21 of point 2 is allocated and designated. The complex drawing of the
characteristic point 2(21, 22) of intersection of the images Δ and Г is
3:4 Parallel to the horizontal projection D1E1 of the horizontal DE through the
horizontal projection 21 of the point 2, a horizontal projection b1 of the
straight line b is constructed—b1 ≡ 21, b1 || D1E1.
3:5 The frontal projection b2 and the horizontal projection b1 of the straight
line b are designated.
The result of the third step is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary line
b of intersection of the images Δ and Г—b(b1, b2) ≡ (b1 || D1E1, b1 ≡ 21; b2 ≡ Δ2,
b2 ≡ 22), b = Δ \ Г (Fig. 8.36).
Fig. 8.36 A semiotic model of construction of a straight line of intersection of two planes
Since the auxiliary lines a and b are straight lines, the quantity N of points Ki,
i = 1, N of intersection of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line
b is equal to one—N = 1.
The first and the second auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of intersection of the
same intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: the plane T and the
plane Г—a = Δ \ T, b = Δ \ Г, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ, a 2 T, b 2 Г.
The auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence, as they belong to
the same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: the plane T and the
plane Г (a 2 T, b 2 Г). Therefore, the lines a and b, if they are not parallel,
intersect in a plane of the common intermediary Δ in the point K—a \ b = K,
K 2 Δ. Hence, the point K also belongs simultaneously to different geometric
images: the plane T and the plane Г—K 2 T, K 2 Г.
Thus, the point K is also a point of intersection of these different images: the
plane T and the plane Г—K = T \ Г.
The point K, belonging to three geometric images (K 2 Δ, K 2 T, K 2 Г), is a
point of triple incidence.
5. Confirmation of the sufficiency of the quantity of points of intersection
Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b is
carried out to determine and identify the solution of the problem.
The result of solving the second basic positional problem is a straight line.
To construct a straight line, one accertained point K (K1, K2) is not enough; the
following sixth step of the algorithm is performed.
drawing of a new intermediary Δ , j = 1, M is constructed so—
j
6. The complex
Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set of natural numbers.
6:1 For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, Sects. 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4 of the
given algorithms are carried out similarly. The complex drawings of the
M forthe new intermediary Δ , j = 1, M are
j j j
new auxiliary lines
a , b, j = 1,
constructed—aj aj1 ; aj2 , bj bj1 ; bj2 : The complex drawings of newly
identified points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1, N,j = 1, Mfor the new

auxiliary lines aj, bj, j = 1, M are constructed—Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, N,
j = 1, M.
6:2 The result of the analogous use of steps 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4 for the
new intermediary Δ1 is a complex drawing LðL1 ; L2 Þ K1 K11 ; K12 of the
point L ≡ K1, which also belongs simultaneously to different geometric
images: the plane T and the plane Г—L 2 T, L 2 Г.
6:3 Thus, the point L ≡ K1 is a point of intersection of these different images:
the plane T and the plane Г—L = T \ Г.
6:4 The point L ≡ K1, belonging to three geometric images (L 2 Δ1, L 2 T,
L 2 Г), is a point of triple incidence.
6:5 The determination of the unambiguity of construction of the solution is
accomplished. Since the quantity of the points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M,
belonging simultaneously to two initial geometric images and different
intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M is enough for unequivocal determination and
identification the solution, the seventh step of the algorithm is performed.
7. The result of solving the problem is allocated and designated by means of the
connection of a straight line of the received points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of triple
incidence taking into account their visibility in the complex drawing.
In the complex drawing, invisible sites of geometric images, projecting beams,
lines of projective links are represented by a dashed line (Fig. 8.36).
The complex drawing m(m1, m2) of the required line of intersection m = T \ Г
of the given planes T and Г is done by means of connecting the horizontal pro-
jections K1, L1 and the frontal projections K2, L2 of the accertained points K, L by
the segments K1L1, K2L2 of the straight lines m1, m2 accordingly—
m(m1, m2) ≡ KL(K1L1, K2L2).
Conclusions.
1. To solve the problem, all seven steps of the algorithm for solving positional
problems of relative intersection of geometric images are executed.
The end result is achieved without the use of the iterative property of this
algorithm at the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
2. The rational choice of the intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ B] enabled us to
make the complex drawing a(a1, a2) ≡ 1B(11B1, 12B2), a = Δ \ T of the first
auxiliary line a on the basis of the analysis of spatial position of the intermediary
Δ and the given characteristic point B of intersection of the plane Δ and the
plane T.
3. The analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point 2 of
intersection of the plane of the intermediary Δ and the plane Г was performed
with construction of the second auxiliary line b.
The point 2 is a characteristic point of intersection of the straight line DF of the
given plane Г with the plane of the intermediary Δ.
4. Constructing the second auxiliary line b solves a positional problem for the
combined variant of combination of positions of initial geometric images: a
horizontal plane of the intermediary Δ and the given plane Г of general position.
The auxiliary line b = Δ \ Г, belonging to the horizontal plane of the inter-
mediary Δ and the given plane Г of general position, is a horizontal of the plane
Г. Horizontals of any plane are parallel to each other. This property of paral-
lelism of horizontals is used for construction of the complex drawing of the line
b—b(b1, b2) ≡ 2 K(21K1, 22K2), b || DE, DE ≡ h.
5. The constructed complex drawing (K1, K2) of the point K of intersection of the
plane T and the plane Г (K = l \ Г) is within the boundaries of a operating field
of the drawing or the design document.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing (K1, K2) of the point K
at the fourth step of the method consists of three actions: allocation and des-
ignation of a horizontal projection K1 of the point K—a1 \ b1 = K1, con-
struction of a line of projective link 1-1K of the first law—K1 2 1-1K ⊥ X21,
allocation and designation of a frontal projection K2 of the point K—
1-1K \ Δ2 = K2.
6. To construct the complex drawing m(m1, m2) of the required line of intersection
m = T \ Г of the given planes T and Г, one certain point K = T \ Г is not
enough. It is necessary to define one more point K1 ≡ L, belonging to the given
planes T and Г—L = T \ Г.
Constructing the complex drawing (L1, L2) of the point L at the sixth step,
actions similar to the first five steps for solving the problem are repeated.
7. The condition model for solving the problem (Fig. 8.36) contains seven groups
of correlations:
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ B];
2. a = Δ \ T, a(a1, a2) ≡ 1B(11B1, 12B2);
3. b = Δ \ Г, b(b1, b2) ≡ 2 K(21K1, 22K2);
4. a \ b = K, K = T \ Г, K(K1, K2);
5. Ki, i = 1, N?;
6. Δj, j = 1, M;

6:1 D1 ðD11 ; D12 Þ D1 jj P1 ;
6:2 a1 ¼ D1 \ T; a1 ða11 ; a12 Þ 35ð31 51 ; 32 52 Þ;
6:3 b1 ¼ D1 \ C; b1 ðb11 ; b12 Þ 2Lð21 L1 ; 22 L2 Þ;
6:4 a1 \ b1 ¼ L; L ¼ T \ C; LðL1 ; L2 Þ;
6:5 Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M; K1 ≡ L;
7. m(m1, m2) ≡ KL(K1L1, K2L2).
On the basis of the geometric conclusion (Figs. 8.34 and 8.35), the design
documentation is developed, for example, for an engineering problem of definition
of a line of intersection of flat opposite slopes of a roof.
Part of the engineering design of compartments of planes of a roof, that define a

line of intersection of the flat opposite slopes, includes three-dimensional geometric
models of segments (compartments) ABC, DEF of the plane T and the plane Г
(Figs. 8.34 and 8.36).
This part of the engineering design is done by inverse projection in the
three-dimensional geometric model as the result of solving an inverse problem of
descriptive geometry (Fig. 8.36).
Thus, positional problems of relative intersection of geometric images of the fifth
and fourth groups are considered (see Sect. 8.7.1).
Consider the solution to a positional problem of the construction of points of
intersection of a straight line and a surface:
According to the classification of positional problems of relative intersection of
geometric images, such a problem concerns the third group of problems of con-
struction of the points Ki, i = 1, N of intersection of the surface Σ and the straight
line l—Ki = Σ \ l, i = 1, N. Number N belongs to the set of natural numbers.
8.7.6 Construction of Points of Intersection of a Straight

Line and a Surface (Problem 7)
Problem 7 A geometric image of a straight line is given by the segment of a

straight line l, and a geometric image of a surface is given by a surface of a direct
circular cone S (Fig. 8.37). Construct a complex drawing of points Ki, i = 0, N of
intersection of the straight line l and the surface S—Ki = l \ S, i = 0, N. Number N
belongs to the set of natural numbers.
the problem of defining points of intersection of a beam with a surface of a conic
column and development of the necessary design documentation for satisfactory
achievement of the task.
The solution begins with the analysis of the initial data and the statement of the
problem.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: the straight line l is a hori-
zontal straight line of level, as its frontal projection l2 is parallel to the axis of
abscissas X12, and a horizontal projection l1 is not perpendicular to the axis of
ordinates Y13. Since the lateral surface of the direct circular cone S is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to any projection plane П1, П2, П3, the surface of the
cone S is a surface of general position (Fig. 8.37).
Thus, a variant of a combination of positions of the images given in the problem
is defined so: one of the two initial geometric images (a straight line l) occupies
special position; the other initial geometric image (a cone S) occupies a general
position in respect to projection planes П1, П2, П3 (a combined variant).
Fig. 8.37 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of the initial geometric images of
straight line and surface
Either of the projections of the straight line l of special position does not possess
a collective property. Therefore, part of the end result of solving the problem cannot
be allocated and designated directly for any projection of the straight line l.
Hence, the solution is reached by means of the algorithm for solving positional
problems about mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
The end result of solving the given positional problem can be a pair of inter-
section points, one intersection point or an absence of intersection points of the
initial geometric images—Ki = l \ S, i = 0, 1, 2.
The algorithm for solving the problem: to get the result, the algorithm of solving
positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images (Sect. 8.7.3) is
used.
1. According to the criterion of simplicity of lines of intersection of the interme-
diary with the initial geometric images, a type of this intermediary is logically
deduced.
It is expedient t to choose a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1) as intermediary.
On the basis of three-dimensional representation of the intermediary Δ, its two-
dimensional image is constructed (Fig. 8.38).
As the intermediary Δ is a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), a frontal projection
Δ2 of the intermediary’s Δ is a straight line which is parallel to the axis of
coordinate’s X12—Δ2 || X12.
To simplify the following second step of the algorithm, it is expedient to draw
the plane of the intermediary through the straight line l—l 2 Δ. The frontal
projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the frontal projection l2 of the
straight line l—Δ2 ≡ l2.
The line ΔП2 of intersection of the intermediary Δ and the frontal projection
plane П2 coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary
Δ—ΔП2 = Δ \ П2, ΔП2 ≡ Δ2.
Fig. 8.38 Geometric models of construction of points of intersection of a straight line and a
surface
A horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ coincides with a horizontal

projection plane П1—Δ1 ≡ П1. By reason of the axiom of reflexivity, an inverse
coincidence is also true—П1 ≡ Δ1.
(Δ1, Δ2).
geometric image l is constructed—a = Δ \ l.
According to the construction of the intermediary, the straight line l belongs to
the plane of the intermediary Δ (l 2 Δ), the auxiliary intersection line a of the
intermediary Δ with this straight line l is directly the straight line l—a = Δ \ l,
l 2 Δ, a ≡ l.
Therefore, the first auxiliary line a is a straight line l. And, the line a is the line
of double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and l—a 2 Δ, a 2 l.
frontal projection a2 of the line a, belonging to the plane Δ (a 2 Δ), coincides
with a frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—a2 ≡ Δ2.
As the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the frontal
projection l2 of the straight line l (Δ2 ≡ l2), so, by reason of the axiom of
transitivity, the frontal projection a2 of the line a coincides with the frontal
projection l2 of this straight line l—a2 ≡ Δ2, Δ2 ≡ l2, a2 ≡ l2.
As the auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with the straight line
l is directly the straight line l, the horizontal projection a1 of the line a coincides
with the horizontal projection l1 of the line l—a1 ≡ l1.
second initial geometric image S is constructed—b = Δ \ S.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the basis of the direct circular cone S,
the intermediary Δ intersects a lateral surface of cone S in a circle. Therefore, the
second auxiliary line b is a circle. And, the line b is a line of double incidence as
it belongs to two geometric images Δ and S—b 2 Δ, b 2 S.
In the sub-problem of construction of the second auxiliary line b, a spatial

position of the intermediary plane Δ and the lateral surface of the cone S
corresponds to the combined variant of combination of positions of these ima-
ges. The constructed intermediary plane Δ occupies special position. The given
lateral surface of the cone S occupies a general position.
Therefore, the part of the result is allocated and designated directly on a char-
acteristic projection of a geometric image of special position on the basis of the
properties of the geometric model of this image. The remainder of the result is
achieved on the basis of characteristic points of intersection of the considered
geometric images, laws of projective connections, and conditions of identifi-
cation of images (Sects. 8.3–8.5).
By reason of the collective property of the horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), the
with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—b2 ≡ Δ2. The frontal projection b2
of the line b is limited by sketch generating lines A2S2 and B2S2 of the lateral
surface of the cone S.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of the line b, it is necessary to construct a
complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of the intermediary Δ
with the lateral surface of the cone S and to use the property of arrangement of
the circle center of the line b on the axis i of the direct circular cone S.
The intermediary plane Δ intersects the sketch generating line AS of the lateral
surface of the cone S in point R—R = Δ \ AS, R 2 Δ, R 2 AS. The distance
from the point R to the axis i is equal to the radial length of the circle of the line
b of intersection of the plane Δ and the cone S—r = [iSR]. The point R is a
characteristic point of intersection of the geometric images Δ and S in the
complex drawing.
line b of intersection of images Δ and S consists of five steps:
3:1 At the intersection of frontal projection Δ2 of the plane Δ and the frontal
projection A2S2 of the generating line AS of the surface of the cone S,
frontal projection R2 of point R is allocated and designated so—
R2 = Δ2 \ A2S2, R2 2 Δ2, R2 2 A2S2.
The frontal projection b2 of the line b coincides with the frontal projection
Δ2 of the intermediary plane Δ and a border frontal projection R2 of point R
belongs to the frontal projection b2 of the line b—b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2.
3:2 Through the frontal projection R2 of point R perpendicularly to the axis of
abscissas X21, the line of projective connection 1-1R of the first law is
drawn to the point of intersection with the horizontal projection A1S1 of the
generating line AS.
3:3 At the intersection of the line of projective connection 1-1R of the first law
and the horizontal projection A1S1 of the generating line AS, horizontal
projection R1 of point R is allocated and designated—R1 2 A1S1. The
complex drawing of the characteristic point R(R1, R2) of intersection of the
images Δ and S is constructed (Fig. 8.38).
3:4 A horizontal projection b1 of the circle b is constructed from the point S1 as

the circle center with radius r = [iSR] through the horizontal projection R1
of point R—R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1].
3:5 A frontal b2 and horizontal projections b1 of the circle b are designated.
The result of the third step is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary line b of
intersection of the images Δ and S—b(b1, b2) ≡ (R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1];
b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S (Fig. 8.38).
auxiliary line b are defined so—Ki = a \ b, i = 1, N.
As the auxiliary line a is a straight line and the auxiliary line b is a circle, the
quantity of points Ki, i = 0, N of intersection of the first auxiliary line a and the
second auxiliary line b can be equal to two, one or zero—i = 2, 1, 0.
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are lines of intersection of the same
intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: straight line l and lateral
surface of the cone S—a = Δ \ l, b = Δ \ S, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ, a 2 l, b 2 S.
Auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence as they belong to the
same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: straight line l and cone S
(a 2 l, b 2 S). Therefore, lines a and b are intersected in the intermediary plane
Δ in general for them in points K1 ≡ 1, K2 ≡ 2—a \ b = K1, K1 2 Δ, a \ b = K2,
K2 2 Δ. Hence, points K1, K2 belong simultaneously to different geometric
images: straight line l and cone S—K1 2 l, K1 2 S, K2 2 l, K2 2 S.
Thus, points K1, K2 are the points of intersection of these different images:
straight line l and cone S—K1 = l \ S, K2 = l \ S.
Points K1, K2, belonging to three geometric images (K1 2 Δ, K1 2 l, K1 2 S;
K2 2 Δ, K2 2 l, K2 2 S), are the points of triple incidence.
5. Confirmation of the ascertained quantity of points of intersection Ki = a \ b,
i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b is made for
determination and identification of the solution.
As the end result of solving the given positional problem can be a pair of
intersection points of the initial geometric images (Ki = l \ S, i = 0, 1, 2), the
problem is solved.
Designate the points K1, K2 as points 1, 2. To determine and identify the
solution to the problem, it is enough to construct complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2
(21, 22) of points 1, 2, there is no necessity to carry out the following sixth step
of the algorithm.
6. The problem is solved. The sixth step is omitted.
7. The result of solving the problem is allocated and designated by means of
construction of complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22) of points 1 and 2.
In the complex drawing, invisible sites of geometric images, projecting rays,
lines of projective connections are represented by a dashed line (Figs. 8.38
and 8.39).
Fig. 8.39 Semiotic model of construction of points of intersection of a straight line and a surface
Conclusions.
1. To solve the given problem, the first five steps and the seventh step of the
algorithm for solving positional problems of relative intersection of geometric
images are executed.
The end result is obtained without the performance of the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3,
Fig. 8.25).
2. The rational choice of intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ l] enabled to us to
obtain the complex drawing a(a1, a2) ≡ l(l1, l2), a = Δ \ l of the first auxiliary
line a on the basis of the analysis of spatial position of the intermediary Δ and
the given straight line l.
3. Analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point R of
intersection of intermediary plane Δ and cone S was carried out by constructing
the second auxiliary line b.
Point R is a characteristic point of intersection of the forming straight line AS
of the given lateral surface of cone S with the intermediary plane Δ.
4. Constructing the second auxiliary line b solves the positional problem for the
combined variant of combination of positions of the initial geometric images: a
horizontal intermediary plane Δ and the given lateral surface of cone S of
general position.
The auxiliary line b = Δ \ Г, belonging to the horizontal intermediary plane Δ
and the given lateral surface of cone S of general position, is a horizontal line of
level.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the circular basis of cone S, the
auxiliary line b is a circle the center of which belongs to the cone axis. This
property of arrangement of the circle center of line b on the e axis of the cone is
used at the construction of the complex drawing of the line b—b(b1, b2) ≡ b
(R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1], b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S.
5. The constructed complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22) of points K1 ≡ 1, K2 ≡ 2
of intersection of the straight line l and the cone S (K = l \ S) are in limits of the
working field of the drawing or design document.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing (K1, K2) of any point K
at the fourth step of the completed method consists of three actions: allocation
and designation of the horizontal projection K1 of point K—a1 \ b1 = K1,
construction of the line of projective connection 1-1K of the first law—
K1 2 1-1K ⊥ X21, and allocation and designation of the frontal projection K2 of
point K—1-1K \ Δ2 = K2.
6. The end result of solving the given positional problem can be a pair of inter-
section points, one intersection point or an absence of intersection points of the
initial geometric images—Ki = l \ S, i = 0, 1, 2.
The situation of one intersection point of auxiliary lines a and b corresponds to
the contact of the straight line l and the cone S in this point.
The situation of an absence of intersection points of the auxiliary lines a and
b corresponds to the absence of intersection of the straight line l and the cone S.
Having a pair of intersection points of the auxiliary lines a and b, the straight
line l intersects the cone S in two points.
7. The condition (semiotic) model for solving the problem (Fig. 8.39) contains
seven groups of correlations:
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ l];
2. a = Δ \ l, a(a1, a2) ≡ l(l1, l2);
3. b = Δ \ S, b(b1, b2) ≡ b(R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1], b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2);
4. a \ b = Ki, Ki = l \ S, Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 , i = 1,2;
5. Ki, i = 1, 2?;
6. Δj, j = 0;
7. K1 ≡ 1, K2 ≡ 2, 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22).
On the basis of the obtained geometric conclusion (Fig. 8.38), design docu-
mentation is developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define the
points of fastening of a beam to a conic column.
Elements of the engineering design of fastening of a beam to a conic column are
three-dimensional geometric models of the straight line l and the cone S (Figs. 8.38
and 8.39).
The element of the engineering design is obtained by reverse projection in a
three-dimensional geometric model as the result of solving a inverse problem of
Thus, positional problems of relative intersection of geometric images of the
fifth, fourth and third groups are considered (Sect. 8.7.1).
Consider the solving of a positional problem of construction of the line of
intersection of a plane and a surface.
According to classification of positional problems of relative intersection of
geometric images, this problem concerns the second group of problems of con-
struction of line m of intersection of surface Σ and plane Г—m = Σ \ Г.
Fig. 8.40 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of the initial geometric images of a
plane and a cone
8.7.7 Construction of the Line of Intersection of a Plane

and a Surface (Problem 8)
Problem 8 A geometric image of the plane is given by a frontally projecting plane

Г, and the geometric image of the surface is given by the surface of a direct circular
cone S (Fig. 8.40). Construct a complex drawing of intersection line m of plane Г
and surface S—m = Г \ S.
In engineering practice the given geometric problem is, for example, analogous to
the problem of defining a line of intersection of a flat solar battery and surface of a
conic column and development of the necessary design documentation for satis-
factory achievement of the task.
The solution begins with the analysis of the initial data and the problem
statement.
The analysis of the initial data and the given problem: plane Г is a frontally
projecting plane and is perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2. Therefore,
its frontal projection Г2 represents a collective straight line, and the horizontal
projection Г1 coincides with the horizontal projection plane П1. Plane Г intersects
the horizontal projection plane П1. The line of intersection ГП1 of planes Г and П1
is perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and is parallel to the axis of ordinates
Y13. Plane Г is a plane of special position.
The base of the circular cone S belongs to the horizontal projection plane П1. As
the lateral surface of the direct circular cone S is neither parallel nor perpendicular
to any projection planes П1, П2, П3, the surface of cone S is a surface of general
position.
Thus, the variant of combination of positions of the images given in the problem,
is defined so—one of two initial geometric images (plane Г) occupies special
position, and the other initial geometric image (cone S) occupies a general position
concerning the projection planes П1, П2, П3 (a combined variant).
A frontal projection Г2 of plane Г of special position possesses the collective

property (Fig. 8.40). Therefore, part of the solution is allocated and designated
directly on this projection.
The remainder of the solution is obtained by means of the algorithm for solving
positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
The lsolution to the given positional problem is the smooth curve of intersection
of the initial geometric images—m = Г \ S.
Algorithm for solving the problem:
1. The frontal projection m2 of line m of intersection of plane Г and surface S is
limited by a sketch A2B2S2 of the cone. The frontal projection m2 of the
required line m is limited by frontal projections 12, 22, 32 of characteristic points
1, 2, 3 of intersection of plane Г and cone S (Fig. 8.41).
Characteristic point 1 is allocated on the sketch generating line BS of cone S.
Characteristic points 2, 3 belong to a line of intersection of plane Г and the flat
base of the cone S. Complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32) of char-
acteristic points 1, 2, 3 comply with the laws of projective connections.
The required frontal projection m2 of the line m of intersection of plane Г and
surface S is allocated and designated directly on the frontal projection Г2 of
plane Г.
2. To define the required horizontal projection m1 of the line m of intersection of
plane Г and surface S, the algorithm for solving positional problems about
mutual intersection of geometric images is used (Sect. 8.7.3).
2:1 According to the criterion of simplicity of lines of intersection of the
intermediary with the initial geometric images, a type of this intermediary
is logically deduced.
It is expedient to choose a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1, Δ ⊥ П2) as an
intermediary.
A two-dimensional image is constructed on the basis of three-dimensional
presentation of the intermediary Δ (Fig. 8.41).
Fig. 8.41 Geometric models of construction of a line of intersection of a plane and a surface
As the intermediary Δ is a horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), a frontal

projection Δ2 of intermediary Δ is a straight line which is parallel to the
axis of abscissas X12—Δ2 || X12.
The line ΔП2 of intersection of the intermediary Δ and the frontal projection
plane П2 coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ—
ΔП2 = Δ \ П2, ΔП2 ≡ Δ2.
The horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the
horizontal projection plane П1—Δ1 ≡ П1. By reason of the axiom of
reflexivity, a reverse coincidence is also true—П1 ≡ Δ1.
The result of the first stage is the complex drawing of the intermediary—Δ
(Δ1, Δ2).
2:2 The first auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with the first
initial geometric image Г is constructed—a = Δ \ Г.
The auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary plane Δ with plane
Г is a line of intersection of two planes which are perpendicular to the
frontal projection plane П2—a = Δ \ Г, Δ ⊥ П2, Г ⊥ П2.
Therefore, the first auxiliary line a is straight line 45 and perpendicular to
the frontal projection plane П2—a ≡ 45, 45 = Δ \ Г, 45 ⊥ П2. And, the
line a is a line double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ
and Г—a 2 Δ, a 2 Г.
By reason of the collective property of the auxiliary line a (a ≡ 45,
45 = Δ \ Г, 45 ⊥ П2, a ⊥ П2), the frontal projection a2 of the line a is
projected in a point—a2 ⊥ П2, a2 ≡ 4252, 42 ≡ 52.
As the auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with plane Г is
perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2, the horizontal projection
a1 of the line a is perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and complies
with the first law of projective connections—a1 ⊥ X12, a1 2 1-145,
1-145 ⊥ X12. Hence, the horizontal projection a1 of the line a coincides
with the line of projective connection 1-145 for points 4 and 5—a1 ≡ 1-145.
2:3 The second auxiliary line b of intersection of the same intermediary Δ with
the second initial geometric image S is constructed—b = Δ \ S.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the base of the direct circular
cone S, intermediary Δ intersects a lateral surface of cone S in a circle.
Therefore, the second auxiliary line b is a circle. The line b is a line of
double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and S—b 2 Δ,
b 2 S.
In the sub-problem of constructing the second auxiliary line b, a spatial
position of the intermediary plane Δ and the lateral surface of cone S
correspond to the combined variant of the combination of positions of these
images. The constructed plane of the intermediary Δ occupies special
position. The given lateral surface of cone S occupies a general position.
Therefore, part of the result is allocated and designated on a characteristic
projection of a geometric image of special position on the basis of the
properties of the geometric model of this image. The remainder of the
result is obtained on the basis of characteristic points of intersection of the

considered geometric images, laws of projective connections, and condi-
tions of identification of images (Sects. 8.3–8.5).
By reason of the collective property of the horizontal plane of level (Δ ||
П1), the frontal projection b2 of the line b, belonging to plane Δ (b 2 Δ),
coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—b2 ≡ Δ2. The
frontal projection b2 of the line b is limited by sketch generating lines A2S2
and B2S2 of the lateral surface of the cone S.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of the line b, it is necessary to
construct a complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of the
intermediary Δ with a lateral surface of cone S and to use the property of
arrangement of the circle center of the line b on the axis i of the direct
circular cone S.
The intermediary plane Δ intersects the sketch generating line BS of the
lateral surface of cone S in point R—R = Δ \ BS, R 2 Δ, R 2 BS. The
distance from point R to the axis i is equal to the length of the circle radius
of the line b of the intersection of plane Δ and cone S—r = [iSR]. Point R is
a characteristic point of intersection of the geometric images Δ and S in
The algorithm of constructing the complex drawing of the second auxiliary
2:3:1 At the intersection of the frontal projection Δ2 of plane Δ and the
frontal projection B2S2 of the generating line BS of the surface of
cone S, frontal projection R2 of point R is allocated and designated—
R2 = Δ2 \ B2S2, R2 2 Δ2, R2 2 B2S2.
The frontal projection b2 of the line b coincides with the frontal
projection Δ2 of the intermediary plane Δ and the boundary frontal
projection R2 of point R belongs to the frontal projection b2 of the
line b—b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2.
2:3:2 Through the frontal projection R2 of point R perpendicularly to the
axis of abscissas X21, a line of projective connection 1-1R of the
first law is drawn to the point of intersection with the horizontal
projection B1S1 of the generating line BS.
2:3:3 At the intersection of line of projective connection 1-1R of the first
law and the horizontal projection B1S1 of the generating line BS, a
horizontal projection R1 of the point R is allocated and designated—
R1 2 B1S1. The complex drawing of the characteristic point R
(R1, R2) of intersection of images Δ and S is constructed (Fig. 8.38).
2:3:4 The horizontal projection b1 of the circle b is constructed from
point S1 as the circle center with radius r = [iSR] through the
horizontal projection R1 of point R—R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1].
2:3:5 A frontal projection b2 and a horizontal projection b1 of circle b are
designated.
The result of the third stage is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary
line b of intersection of images Δ and S—b(b1, b2) ≡ (R1 2 b1,
r1 = [S1R1]; b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S (Fig. 8.38).
2:4 Points of intersection Ki, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of intersection of
the same intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: plane Г
and the lateral surface of cone S—a = Δ \ Г, b = Δ \ S, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ,
a 2 Г, b 2 S.
Auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence as they belong to
the same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: plane Г and
cone S (a 2 Г, b 2 S). Therefore, lines a and b are intersected in the
intermediary plane Δ general for them in points K1 ≡ 4, K2 ≡ 5—
a \ b = K1, K1 2 Δ, a \ b = K2, K2 2 Δ. Hence, points K1, K2 belong
simultaneously to different geometric images: plane Г and cone S—
K1 2 Г, K1 2 S, K2 2 Г, K2 2 S.
Thus, points 4 ≡ K1, 5 ≡ K2 are also the points of intersection of these
different images: plane Г and cone S—4 ≡ K1 = Г \ S, 5 ≡ K2 = Г \ S.
Complex drawings 4(41, 42), 5(51, 52) of points 4, 5 are constructed.
Points 4 ≡ K1, 5 ≡ K2, belonging to three geometric images (4 ≡ K1 2 Δ,
4 ≡ K1 2 Г, 4 ≡ K1 2 S; 5 ≡ K2 2 Δ, 5 ≡ K2 2 Г, 5 ≡ K2 2 S), are the
points of triple incidence.
2:5 Confirmation The sufficiency of the resultant number of points of inter-
section 4 = a \ b, 5 = a \ b of the first auxiliary line a and the second
auxiliary line b of the intermediary Δ and characteristic points 1, 2, 3 is
checked to allocate and designate the end result of solving the problem.
To define the required horizontal projection m1 of line m of intersection of
plane Г and surface S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are not enough; so
the sixth stage of the algorithm of solving positional problems about
mutual intersection of geometric images (Sect. 8.7.3) is used.
2:6 For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3,
4 ≡ 6.4, 5 ≡ 6.5 of the described algorithm are carried out similarly
(Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
the new intermediary Δ , j = 1, M is

j
2:6:1 The complex drawing
of
constructed—Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set
of natural numbers.
2:6:2 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line aj, j = 1, M is
constructed for the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M—aj ðaj1 ; aj2 Þ.
2:6:3 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line bj, j = 1, M is
constructed for the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M—bj bj1 ; bj2 :
2:6:4 Complex drawings of new points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1,

N, are constructed for new auxiliary lines aj, bj, j = 1, M—
j = 1, M
Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
The result of the similar performance of steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2,
3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4 for the new intermediary Δ21 is 21
1
complex drawings
6ð61 ; 62 Þ K K1 ; K2 , 7ð71 ; 72 Þ K K1 ; K21
11 11 11
2 of points
6≡K ,7≡K .
11 21
Points 6 and 7 belong simultaneously to different geometric ima-

ges: plane Г and surface of cone S—6 2 Г, 6 2 S, 7 2 Г, 7 2 S.
Thus, points 6 ≡ K11, 7 ≡ K21 are the points of intersection of these
different images: plane Г and a surface of cone S—6 = Г \ S,
7 = Г \ S.
Points 6 ≡ K11, 7 ≡ K21, belonging to three geometric images
(6 2 Δ1, 6 2 Г, 6 2 S, 7 2 Δ1, 7 2 Г, 7 2 S), are the points of triple
incidence.
2:6:5 A determination is made of the uniqueness of constructing the end
result of solving the problem.
plane Г and surface S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 are not enough;
so the sixth step of the algorithm of solving positional problems on mutual
intersection of geometric images recurs (Sect. 8.7.3).
Steps 2.6.1–2.6.5 of the given algorithm recur.
The complex drawing of a new intermediary Δ2 is constructed.
The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line a2 is constructed.
The complex drawing of a new auxiliary lineb2 is constructed.
Complex drawings 8ð81 ; 82 Þ K12 K12 1 ; K2 ; 9ð91 ; 92 Þ K
12 22
1 ; K2
K22 22
of new intersection points 8 ≡ K12, 9 ≡ K22 are constructed for new

auxiliary lines a2, b2.
As points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 are enough for unequivocal allocation and
designation of the result of solving the problem, the seventh step of the
algorithm is carried out.
2:7 The required horizontal projection m1 of line m of intersection of plane Г
and surface S is allocated and designated by means of connecting a
straight line of characteristic points 2, 3 and a smooth curve of the obtained
points 2, 4, 6, 8, 1, 9, 7, 5, 3, taking into account their visibility in the
complex drawing.
lines of projective connections are represented by dashed lines (Figs. 8.40, 8.41 and
8.42).
Fig. 8.42 Semiotic model of construction of a line of intersection of a plane and a surface
Conclusions.
1. To solve the given problem, all seven steps of the algorithm for solving posi-
tional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images are executed.
The end result is obtained by means of the iterative property of this algorithm at
the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25). Steps 2.6.1–2.6.5 of the given algorithm
are repeated.
2. The rational choice of intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ l] enables us to
obtain the complex drawing a(a1, a2) ≡ Г(Г1, Г2), a = Δ \ Г of the first auxiliary
line a on the basis of analysis of spatial position of intermediary Δ and the given
plane Г using the first law of projective connections.
3. Analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point R of
intersection of the intermediary plane Δ and cone S was carried out by con-
struction of the second auxiliary line b.
Point R is a characteristic point of intersection of the forming straight line BS of
the given lateral surface of cone S with the intermediary plane Δ.
4. Constructing the second auxiliary line b, positional problem is solved for the
combined variant of the combination of positions of the initial geometric ima-
ges: horizontal plane of the intermediary Δ and the given lateral surface of cone
S of general position.
The auxiliary line b = Δ \ S, belonging to the horizontal intermediary plane Δ and
the given lateral surface of cone S of general position, is a horizontal line of level.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the circular base of cone S, the
auxiliary line b is a circle, the center of which belongs to the cone axis. This
property of arrangement of the circle center of the line b on the cone axis is used
in constructing the complex drawing of the line b—b(b1, b2) ≡ b
(R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1], b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2).
of intersection of plane Г and cone S (K = Г \ S) are in the working field of the
drawing or design document.
The algorithm for constructing the complex drawing (K1, K2) of any point K at
the fourth step of the method consists of three actions: allocation and
Fig. 8.43 Intersection of a 1 2 1-1 a straight line 7 5

1 6
cylinder and a cone by a plane
i2 2-2 a rectangle
i2
2
4 3-3 a circle S2
4
4-4 an ellipse
3 3 3 3
5-5 a triangle
4 6-6 a parabola 4 7
5
1 2 7-7 a hyperbola 1 6
designation of the frontal projection K2 of point K—1-1K \ Δ2 = K2, con-

struction of line of projective connection 1-1K of the first law—
K1 2 1-1K ⊥ X21, and allocation and designation of the horizontal projection K1
of point K—a1 \ b1 = K1.
6. The end result of intersection of a smooth curvilinear surface and the base of
cone S by plane Г is hyperbola 2-4-6-8-1-9-7-5-3 and straight line 23, combined
in points 2 and 3 of the base (bottom) of cone S.
The line of intersection of a surface and a plane is a geometric locus of points
which simultaneously belongs both to the surface and to the plane. These points
are called the points of double incidence.
By intersecting a direct circular cylinder by various planes, a straight line, a
rectangle, a circle, ellipses are formed (Fig. 8.43).
Intersecting a direct circular cone by various planes, a straight line, a triangle, a
circle, an ellipse, a parabola, hyperbolas are formed (Fig. 8.43).
Intersecting a polyhedron by a plane, a closed polygonal line is formed, the cut
vertexes of which are located on its edges.
When a sphere and a plane intersect, a circle is formed.
7. The condition model of solving the problem (Fig. 8.42) contains seven groups of
correlations:
0. 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32);
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ ⊥ П2];
2. a = Δ \ Г, a(a1, a2) ≡ Г(Г1, Г2);

4. a \ b = Ki, Ki = l \ S, Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 , i = 1, 2; K1 ≡ 4, K2 ≡ 5;
5. 1, 2, 3, Ki, i = 1, 2 ?; 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42), 5(51, 52) ?
6. Δj, aj, bj, j = 1, 2; 6(6 1, 62), 7(71, 72), 8(81, 82), 9(91, 92); 1, 2, 3,
Kij = aj \ bj, Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, 2, j = 1, 2 ?;

7. 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 5(51, 52), 7(71, 72), 9(91, 92), 1(11, 12), 8(81, 82), 6
(61, 62), 4(41, 42), 2(21, 22); 2-4-6-8-1-9-7-5-3-2.
On the basis of the generated geometric solution (Fig. 8.41), design documen-
tation is developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define a line of
intersection of a flat solar battery with a surface of a conic column.
Elements of engineering design for fastening the flat solar battery to the conic
column are the three-dimensional geometric models of plane Г and cone S
(Figs. 8.41 and 8.42).
The element of engineering design is obtained by the reverse projection in the
three-dimensional geometric model as result of solving a inverse problem of
Thus, positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images of the
fifth, fourth, third and second groups are considered (Sect. 8.7.1)
Consider the solution of a positional problem of the first group about the con-
struction of an intersection line m of two surfaces Σ and Ф—m = Σ \ Ф.
8.7.8 Construction of the Line of Intersection of Two

Surfaces (Problems 9, 10, 11)
Problem 9 A geometric image of the first surface is given by a frontally projecting

surface of a direct circular cylinder Σ, and a geometric image of the second surface
is given by a surface of a direct circular cone S (Fig. 8.44). Construct the complex
drawing of line m of intersection of surface Σ and surface S—m = Σ \ S.
the problem of defining the line of intersection of the cylindrical surface of a
ventilating collector with the surface of a conic column, and development of the
statement.
Analysis of the initial data and problem statement: the surface of the direct
circular cylinder Σ is the frontally projecting surface and is perpendicular to the
frontal projection plane П2. Therefore, its frontal projection Σ2 represents a col-
lective circle, and the horizontal projection Σ1 represents a rectangle.
Fig. 8.44 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of the initial geometric images of two
surfaces
Horizontal projections of contour generating lines of the cylindrical surface Σ are

perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and parallel to the axis of ordinates Y13.
Horizontal projections of the bases (bottoms) of the cylinder Σ are parallel to the
axis of abscissas X12 and perpendicular to the axis of ordinates Y13. The cylinder
bottom Σ most remote from the observer belongs to the frontal projection plane П2.
Its horizontal projection coincides with the axis of abscissas X12. The surface of the
direct circular cylinder Σ is the surface of special position.
The bases of the direct circular cone S belongs to the horizontal projection plane
П1. As the lateral surface of the direct circular cone S is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to any projection planes П1, П2, П3, the cone surface S is the surface
of general position.
is defined so: one of two initial geometric images (cylinder Σ) occupies special
position, and the other initial geometric image (cone S) occupies a general position
in respect to projection planes П1, П2, П3 (the combined variant).
The frontal projection Σ2 of cylinder Σ of special position possesses the col-
lective property (Fig. 8.43). Therefore, part of the end result of solving the problem
is allocated and designated directly in this projection.
The rest part of the end result is obtained by means of the algorithm for solving
positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
The end result of solving the given positional problem is the smooth curve of
intersection of the initial geometric images—m = Σ \ S.
1. The frontal projection m2 of line m of intersection of cylindrical surface Σ and
conic surface S is limited by the sketch A2B2S2 of the cone. The frontal pro-
jection m2 of the required line m is limited by frontal projections 12, 22 of
characteristic points 1, 2 of intersection of cylinder Σ and cone S (Fig. 8.45).
Characteristic points 1 and 2 are allocated on the sketch generating line AS of
cone S. Complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22) of characteristic points 1, 2
comply with the laws of projective connections.
Fig. 8.45 Geometric models of the construction of intersection line of two surfaces
The required frontal projection m2 of the line m of intersection of cylindrical

surface Σ and conic surface S is allocated and designated directly in frontal
projection Σ2 of cylinder Σ between frontal projections 12, 22 of characteristic
points 1, 2.
2. To define the required horizontal projection m1 of the intersection line m of
cylindrical surface Σ and conic surface S, the algorithm for solving positional
problems about mutual intersection of geometric images is used (Sect. 8.7.3).
2:1. According to the criterion of simplicity of intersection lines of intermediary
with the initial geometric images, the type of this intermediary is logically
deduced.
It is expedient to choose a horizontal plane of level as intermediary (Δ || П1,
Δ ⊥ П2).
On the basis of three-dimensional representation of the intermediary Δ, its
two-dimensional image is constructed (Fig. 8.45).
As the intermediary Δ is the horizontal plane of level (Δ || П1), the frontal
projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ is a straight line which is parallel to the
axis of abscissas X12—Δ2 || X12.
Intersection line ΔП2 of the intermediary Δ and the frontal projection plane
П2 coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of the intermediary Δ—
ΔП2 = Δ \ П2, ΔП2 ≡ Δ2.
The horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ coincides with the
horizontal projection plane П1—Δ1 ≡ П1. By reason of the reflexivity
axiom, a reverse coincidence is also true—П1 ≡ Δ1.
(Δ1, Δ2).
2:2 The first auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with the first
initial geometric image Σ is constructed—a = Δ \ Σ.
The auxiliary line a of intersection of the plane of intermediary Δ and
cylinder Σ is the line of intersection of the plane and the surface which are
perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2—a = Δ \ Σ, Δ ⊥ П2,
Σ ⊥ П2.
As the intermediary plane Δ is tangent to the cylindrical surface Σ, the first
auxiliary line a is a straight line 34 which is perpendicular to the frontal
projection plane П2—a ≡ 34, 34 = Δ \ Σ, 34 ⊥ П2. Line a is a line of double
incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and Σ—a 2 Δ, a 2 Σ.
By reason of the collective property of the auxiliary line a (a ≡ 34,
34 = Δ \ Σ, 34 ⊥ П2, a ⊥ П2), the frontal projection a2 of the line a is
projected in a point—a2 ⊥ П2, a2 ≡ 3242, 32 ≡ 42.
As the auxiliary line a of intersection of the intermediary Δ with surface Σ
is perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2, the horizontal projection
a1 of line a is perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and complies with
the first law of projective connections—a1 ⊥ X12, a1 2 1-134, 1-134 ⊥ X12.
Hence, the horizontal projection a1 of line a coincides with the line of
projective connection 1-134 for points 3 and 5—a1 ≡ 1-134.
2:3 The second auxiliary line b of intersection of the same intermediary Δ with
the second initial geometric image S is constructed—b = Δ \ S.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the bases of the direct circular
cone S, intermediary Δ intersects the lateral surface of cone S by a circle.
Therefore the second auxiliary line b is a circle. And the line b is the line of
double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ and S—b 2 Δ,
b 2 S.
In the sub-problem of constructing the second auxiliary line b, the spatial
position of the intermediary plane Δ and the lateral surface of cone S
correspond to the combined variant of a combination of positions of these
images. The constructed intermediary plane Δ occupies a private position.
The given lateral surface of cone S occupies a general position.
Therefore, part of the result is allocated and designated directly in the
characteristic projection of the geometric image of special position on
the basis of the properties of the geometric model of that image. The rest of
the result is obtained on the basis of characteristic points of intersection
of the considered geometric images, laws of projective connections, and
consitions of identification of images (Sects. 8.3–8.5).
By reason of the collective property of the horizontal plane of level
(Δ || П1) the frontal projection b2 of line b, belonging to plane Δ (b 2 Δ),
coincides with the frontal projection Δ2 of this plane Δ—b2 ≡ Δ2. The
frontal projection b2 of line b is limited by sketch generating lines A2S2
and B2S2 of the lateral surface of cone S.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of line b, it is necessary to construct
the complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of interme-
diary Δ with the lateral surface of cone S and to use the property of
arrangement of the circle center of line b on the axis i of the direct circular
cone S.
The intermediary plane Δ intersects the sketch generating line BS of the
lateral surface of cone S in point R—R = Δ \ BS, R 2 Δ, R 2 BS. The
distance from point R to the axis i is equal to the radial length of the circle
of line b of plane of intersection Δ and cone S—r = [iSR]. Point R is a
characteristic point of intersection of geometric images Δ and S in the
complex drawing.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing of the second
auxiliary line b of intersection of images Δ and S consists of five steps;
2:3:1 At the intersection of the frontal projection Δ2 of plane Δ and the
frontal projection B2S2 of the generating line BS of the surface of
cone S, frontal projection R2 of point R is allocated and designated—
R2 = Δ2 \ B2S2, R2 2 Δ2, R2 2 B2S2.
The frontal projection b2 of line b coincides with the frontal projection
Δ2 of the intermediary plane Δ and the contour frontal projection R2 of
point R belongs to the frontal projection b2 of line b—b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2.
2:3:2 Through the frontal projection R2 of point R perpendicularly to the

axis of abscissas X21, the line of projective connection 1-1R of the
first law is drawn to the point of intersection with the horizontal
projection B1S1 of the generating line BS.
2:3:3 At the intersection of the line of projective connection 1-1R of the
first law and the horizontal projection B1S1 of the generating line
BS, the horizontal projection R1 of point R is allocated and desig-
nated—R1 2 B1S1. The complex drawing of characteristic point R
(R1, R2) of intersection of images Δ and S is constructed (Fig. 8.45).
2:3:4 The horizontal projection b1 of circle b is constructed through point
S1 as the circle center with radius r = [iSR] through the horizontal
projection R1 of point R—R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1].
2:3:5 The frontal b2 and the horizontal projection b1 of circle b are
designated.
The result of the third step is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary
line b of intersection of images Δ and S—b(b1, b2) ≡ (R1 2 b1,
r1 = [S1R1]; b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S (Fig. 8.44).
2:4 Points of intersection Ki, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and the second
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of intersection of
the same intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: cylindrical
surface Σ and lateral surface of cone S—a = Δ \ Σ, b = Δ \ S, a 2 Δ,
b 2 Δ, a 2 Σ, b 2 S.
Auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence as they belong to
the same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: cylinder Σ and
cone S (a 2 Σ, b 2 S). Therefore, lines a and b are intersected in plane of
the general and, for them, intermediary Δ in points K1 ≡ 3, K2 ≡ 4—
a \ b = K1, K1 2 Δ, a \ b = K2, K2 2 Δ. Hence, points K1, K2 also belong
simultaneously to different geometric images: cylinder Σ and cone S—
K1 2 Σ, K1 2 S, K2 2 Σ, K2 2 S.
Thus, points 3 ≡ K1, 4 ≡ K2 are the points of intersection of these different
images: cylinder Σ and cone S—3 ≡ K1 = Σ \ S, 4 ≡ K2 = Σ \ S.
Complex drawings 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42) of points 3, 4 are under
construction.
3 ≡ K1 2 Σ, 3 ≡ K1 2 S; 4 ≡ K2 2 Δ, 4 ≡ K2 2 Σ, 4 ≡ K2 2 S), are the
points of triple incidence.
2:5 The sufficiency of the resultant number of points of intersection 3 = a \ b,
4 = a \ b of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b of
intermediary Δ and characteristic points 1, 2, 3 is checked for allocation
and designation of the end result of solving the problem.
To define the required horizontal projection m1 of intersection line m of the
cylindrical surface Σ and the lateral surface of cone S, the obtained points
1, 2, 3, 4 are not enough; so the sixth step of the algorithm of solving
positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images is used

(Sect. 8.7.3).
2:6 For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3,
4 ≡ 6.4, 5 ≡ 6.5 of the described algorithms are carried out similarly
(Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
of the new intermediary Δ , j = 1, M is

j
2:6:1 The complex drawing

constructed: Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set of
natural numbers.
2:6:2 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line aj, j = 1, M for the
new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is underconstruction—aj ðaj1 ; aj2 Þ:
2:6:3 The complex drawing of a new auxiliary line bj, j = 1, M for the
new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is underconstruction—bj bj1 ; bj2 .
2:6:4 Complex drawings of new points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1,
N, j = 1, M for new auxiliary
lines aj, bj, j = 1, M are under
construction—Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
The result of the similar performance of stepes 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2,
3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4 for the new intermediary Δ
1
is complex drawings
5ð51 ; 52 Þ K K1 ; K2 ; 6ð61 ; 62 Þ K K21
11 11 11 21
1 ; K 21
2 of points
5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21.
Points 5 and 6 belong simultaneously to different geometric ima-
ges: plane Σ and the surface of cone S—5 2 Σ, 5 2 S, 6 2 Σ, 6 2 S.
Thus, points 5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21 are the intersection points of these
different images: cylinder Σ and cone S—5 = Σ \ S, 6 = Σ \ S.
Points 5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21, belonging to three geometric images
(5 2 Δ1, 5 2 Σ, 5 2 S, 6 2 Δ1, 6 2 Σ, 6 2 S), are the points of triple
incidence.
2:6:5 The determination of unambiguity of construction of the end result
of solving the problem is made.
To define the required horizontal projection m1 of intersection line m of
plane Σ and surface S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 are not enough; so
the sixth step of the algorithm for solving positional problems about mutual
intersection of geometric images is repeated (Sect. 8.7.3).
Steps 2.6.1–2.6.5 of the given algorithm are repeated.
Complex drawing of the new intermediary Δ2 is under construction.
Complex drawing of a new auxiliary line a2 is under construction.
Complex drawing of a new auxiliary line b2 is under construction.
Complex drawings 7ð71 ; 72 Þ K12 K12 1 ; K2 ; 8ð81 ; 82 Þ K
12 22
1 ; K2
K22 22
of new points 7 ≡ K12, 8 ≡ K22 of intersection for new auxiliary lines a2, b2
are under construction.

plane Σ and surface S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 are not
enough; so the sixth step is repeated (Sect. 8.7.3).
Steps 2.6.1–2.6.5 of the given algorithm are repeated.
Complex drawing of the new intermediary Δ3 is under construction.
Complex drawing of a new auxiliary line a3 is under construction.
Complex drawing of a new auxiliary line b3 is under construction.
Complex drawings 9ð91 ; 92 Þ K12 K12
1 ; K2 ; 10ð101 ; 102 Þ K
12 22
1 ; K2
K22 22
of new intersection points 9 ≡ K12, 10 ≡ K22 for new auxiliary lines a3, b3
are under construction.
2:7 The required horizontal projection m1 of intersection line m of the surface
of cylinder Σ and the surface of cone S is allocated and designated by
means of connecting a smooth curve of the obtained points 1, 4, 6, 8, 10, 2,
9, 7, 5, 3, 1, taking into account their visibility in the complex drawing
(Figs. 8.45 and 8.46).
and lines of projective connections are represented by a curved line
(Figs. 8.44, 8.45, 8.46).
Conclusions.
The end result is obtained with the help of use of the iterative property of this
algorithm at the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25). Steps 2.6.1–2.6.5 of the given
algorithm are repeated twice.
2. The rational choice of intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ \ l] enables one to
achieve the complex drawing a(a1, a2) ≡ Σ(Σ1, Σ2), a = Δ \ Σ of the first
auxiliary line a on the basis of the analysis of spatial position of the intermediary
Fig. 8.46 Semiotic model of construction of a line of intersection of two surfaces

Δ and the given surface Σ with the help of the use of the first law of projective
connections.
3. The analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point R of
intersection of a plane of the intermediary Δ and cone S is carried out to
construct the second auxiliary line b.
Point R is a characteristic point of intersection of the forming straight line BS of
the given lateral surface of cone S with the intermediary plane Δ.
4. Constructing the second auxiliary line b, the positional problem for the com-
bined variant of combination of positions of the initial geometric images is
solved: i.e., the horizontal plane of the intermediary Δ and the given lateral
surface of cone S of general position.
The auxiliary line b = Δ \ Σ, belonging to the horizontal intermediary plane Δ
and the given lateral surface of cone S of general position, is a horizontal line of
level.
As the intermediary plane Δ is parallel to the circular base of cone S, the
auxiliary line b is a circle, the center of which belongs to the cone axis. This
property of arrangement of the circle center of line b on the cone axis is used to
construct the complex drawing of line b—b(b1, b2) ≡ b(R1 2 b1, r1 = [S1R1],
b2 ≡ Δ2, R2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S.
of intersection of cylinder Σ and cone S (K = Σ \ S) are in the working field of
the drawing or design document.
the fourth step of the method consists of three actions: allocation and desig-
nation of frontal projection K2 of point K—1-1K \ Δ2 = K2, construction of the
line of projective connection 1-1K of the first law—K121-1K ⊥ X21, and allo-
cation and designation of horizontal projection K1 of point K—a1 \ b1 = K1.
6. The end result of solving the given positional problem is the smooth closed
spatial curve 1-4-6-8-10-2-9-7-5-3-1.
The line of surface intersection is a geometric locus of points which belong to
both surfaces. Those points are called the points of double incidence.
of correlations:
0. 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22);
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2)[Δ || П1, Δ ⊥ П2];
2. a = Δ \ Σ, a(a1, a2) ≡ Σ(Σ1, Σ2);

4. a \ b = Ki, Ki = Σ \ S, Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 , i = 1, 2; K1 ≡ 4, K2 ≡ 5;
5. 1, 2, Ki, i = 1, 2?; 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42)?
6. Δj, aj, bj, j = 1,2; 5(51, 52), 6(61, 62), 7(7
1, 72), 8(81, 82), 9(91, 92), 10
(101, 102); 1, 2, Kij = aj \ bj, Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, 2, j = 1, 2, 3 ?;
7. 1(11, 12), 4(41, 42), 6(61, 62), 8(81, 82), 10(101, 102), 2(21, 22), 9(91, 92), 7
(71, 72), 5(51, 52), 3(31, 32), 1(11, 12); 1-4-6-8-10-2-9-7-5-3-1.
On the basis of the obtained geometric decision (Fig. 8.45), design documen-
tation is developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define the inter-
section line of a cylindrical surface of a ventilating collector with the surface of a
conic column.
Elements of the engineering construction of the fastening of the ventilating
collector to a conic column are three-dimensional geometric models of cylinder Σ
and cone S (Figs. 8.45 and 8.46).
The element of the engineering construction is obtained by means of reverse
projection in a three-dimensional geometric model as a result of solving the inverse
problem of descriptive geometry (Fig. 8.46).
The name of the method for solving a positional problem about mutual inter-
section of geometric images reflects the kind of intermediary used.
For example, in the method of section by planes of level, the intermediary is the
set of level planes (Sects. 8.7.7, 8.7.8). In the section method by projecting planes,
the intermediary is the set of projecting planes.
The advantage of the method of cutting planes is the possibility to construct a
line of intersection of two surfaces in the situation when the axes of these surfaces
do not intersect.
The disadvantage of the method of cutting planes is the necessity of using at
least two projections of each geometric image of preferably special position.
In a situation when the geometric images occupy general positions relative tothe
projection planes П1, П2, П3, the method of section by planes of general position is
applied (advantage).
The disadvantage of the method of section by planes of general position is the
complexity involving construction of the complex drawing of intermediary and the
necessity of belonging of the basis of the initial geometric image of any projection
plane П1, П2, П3.
The method of section by planes of general position is considered in detail in the
literature in engineering geometry [13, 26–32].
The method of cutting spheres is widely used in engineering practice. In the
method of cutting spheres, the intermediary is the sphere.
The method of cutting spheres is applied to construct the line of intersection of
rotation surfaces in a situation when the axes of these surfaces are intersected and
parallel to one of the projection planes П1, П2, П3. The sphere-intermediary center
is located on the axis of the rotation surface. The sphere-intermediary intersects
each rotation surface by a circle. These circles are perpendicular to the projection
planes, to which the axes of the initial rotation surfaces are parallel. Therefore, the
circles (auxiliary lines a and b) are projected in a projection plane in the form of
collective segments of straight lines. Auxiliary lines a and b (circles) are intersected
at the points belonging to both rotation surfaces. These points of double incidence
are the points of the required intersection line of the given images.
The advantage of the method of cutting spheres: to construct a line of inter-
section of two rotation surfaces, one projection of each of these images is enough.
The disadvantage of the method of cutting spheres: an increased iquantity of the
constructed auxiliary lines a and b.
There are two variations of the method of cutting spheres: the method of con-
centric spheres and the method of eccentric spheres.
In the method of concentric spheres, the centers of all sphere-intermediaries
coincide with the intersection point of the rectilinear axes of both rotation surfaces.
The minimum radius of a sphere-intermediary is equal to the sphere radius which
is tangent to one rotation surface and intersects the other rotation surface.
The maximum radius of sphere-intermediary is equal to the sphere radius which
possesses the intersection point of sketches of rotation surfaces that are the most
remote from the point of axes intersection.
The radial length of the additional sphere-intermediary is in a range between the
values of the minimum radius and the maximum radius.
In the method of eccentric spheres, the centers of all spheres-intermediaries
move along a rectilinear axis of one of the conjugated rotation surfaces. The other
interfaced rotation surface has a curvilinear axis.
Consider the problems with application of the method of spheres:
Problem 10 A geometric image of the first surface is given by a frontal surface of
level of direct circular cylinder Σ, and a geometric image of the second surface is
given by a surface of direct circular cone S (Fig. 8.47). Construct the complex
drawing of the intersection line m of the surface of cylinder Σ and surface of cone S—
m = Σ \ S.
In engineering practice, the given geometric problem is, for example, analogous
to the problem of defining the line of intersection of a cylindrical surface and a
conic surface of channels of a ventilating collector, and also development of the
The solution with the analysis of the initial data and the problem statement that is
also consistent with the (zero) step of solving the problem.
0. Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: the surface of the direct
circular cylinder Σ is a frontal surface of level, because its forming straight line is
parallel to the frontal projection plane П2. Therefore, the frontal projection Σ2 of
Fig. 8.47 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of initial geometric images of two
rotation surfaces
cylinder Σ is a rectangle, and the horizontal projection Σ1 comprises two parallel

sketch straight lines and bases in the form of ellipses.
Horizontal projections of contour generating lines of the cylindrical surface Σ are
parallel to the axis of abscissas X12 and perpendicular to the axis of ordinates Y13.
Frontal projections of the bases (bottoms) of cylinder Σ are perpendicular to the
frontal projection plane П2. The surface of direct circular cylinder Σ is a surface of
special position.
The axis j of cylinder Σ and the axis i of cone S are straight lines and parallel to the
frontal projection plane П2. These axes are intersected at the point C (Fig. 8.47)—
C = j \ i.
The base of direct circular cone S belongs to the horizontal projection plane П1.
As the lateral surface of direct circular cone S is neither parallel nor perpendicular
to any projection plane П1, П2, П3, the surface of cone S is the surface of general
position.
is defined as: one of two initial geometric images (cylinder Σ) occupies special
position; the other initial geometric image (cone S) occupies a general position in
respect to projection planes П1, П2, П3 (the combined variant).
The frontal projection Σ2 of cylinder Σ of special position does not possess the
collective property (Fig. 8.47). Therefore, only the minimum part of the end result
of solving the problem can be allocated and designated directly in this projection.
This minimum part of the end result in the given problem is the set of characteristic
points 1, 2, 3, 4 of the intersection line of the initial geometric images. Most of the
end result (actually the line of intersection) is defined by means of the algorithm for
solving positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric images
(Fig. 8.25).
Thus, the end result in total can be obtained only by means of the algorithm for
(Fig. 8.25).
The end result of solving the given positional problem is the spatial smooth
curve of intersection of the initial geometric images—m = Σ \ S.
The frontal projection m2 of line m of intersection of cylindrical surface Σ and
conic surface S is limited by sketch A222S2 of the cone and the cylinder sketch.
Therefore, the frontal projection m2 of the required line m is limited by frontal
projections 12, 22, 32, 42 of characteristic points 1, 2, 3, 4 of intersection of cylinder
Σ and cone S (Fig. 8.47).
Characteristic points 1 and 4 are located on the sketch generating line AS of cone
S. Characteristic points 2 and 3 are located on the sketch-generating line 2S of cone
S. Complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42) of characteristic points
1, 2, 3, 4 correspond to the laws of projective connections.
1. As the axis j of cylindrical rotation surface Σ and the axis i of conic rotation
surface S are straight lines, the axes j and i are parallel to the frontal projection
plane П2,; also as these axes are intersected at point C, it is expedient to apply
the method of concentric spheres to solve the given problem.
As spheres are defined as the intermediary, their centers coincide with point
C = j \ i of intersection of rectilinear axes j and i.
On the basis of three-dimensional representation of intermediary Δ, construction
of its two-dimensional image is carried out.
As intermediary Δ is a sphere, the frontal projection Δ2 of intermediary Δ is a
circle with the center in the frontal projection C2 of point C.
The horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ is a circle with the center at
horizontal projection C1 of point C.
The minimum radius Rmin of the sphere-intermediary is equal to the sphere
radius Δ, which is tangent to cylindrical rotation surface Σ and intersects conic
rotation surface S.
The maximum radius Rmax of the sphere-intermediary is equal to the sphere
radius which possesses the most remote point C of intersection axes j and i point
2 of intersection of sketches of rotation surfaces—Rmax = │C2│ = │C222│.
Complex drawings of spheres-intermediaries are constructed on the basis of
defining the position of their center and length of the radiuses.
The result of the first step is the complex drawing of the sphere-intermediary Δ
with the minimum radius Rmin and the centee at point C (Fig. 8.48)—Δ(Δ1, Δ2).
As the end result can be obtained on the basis of only one frontal projection Δ2
of the intermediary Δ, the horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ is not
represented.
2. The first auxiliary line a of intersection of intermediary Δ with the first initial
geometric image Σ is under construction—a = Δ \ Σ.
The auxiliary line a of intersection of sphere-intermediary Δ with the minimum
radius Rmin and cylinder Σ is the line of contact of the sphere and the cylindrical
surface—a = Δ \ Σ.
As center C of sphere-intermediary Δ is located on the axis j of cylindrical
surface Σ, the auxiliary line a is a circle—CΔ 2 j. This circle a is perpendicular
Fig. 8.48 Geometric models of constructing a line of intersection of two rotation surfaces
to the axes j which is parallel to the frontal projection plane П2—a = Δ \ Σ, Σ ||

П2, CΔ 2 j, a ⊥ j, j || П2.
Therefore, the first auxiliary line a is perpendicular to the frontal projection
plane П2 and is projected in the frontal projection plane П2 in the form of a
collective segment coinciding with straight line C272—a = Δ \ Σ, a ⊥ П2,
a2 ≡ C272. This collective segment is limited by sketch lines of a cylindrical
surface.
The line a is a line of double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ
and Σ—a 2 Δ, a 2 Σ.
By reason of the collective property of the auxiliary line a (a2 ≡ C272, a ⊥ П2),
each point of the frontal projection a2 of line a, except points of sketch-cylinder
lines, coincides with projections of two points of circle a—a2 ⊥ П2, a2 ≡ C272,
72 ≡ 8 2.
As the auxiliary line a of intersection of intermediary Δ with surface Σ is
perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2 and is a circle, the horizontal
projection a1 of line a is an ellipse and complies with the first law of projective
connections.
As the end result can be obtained on the basis of only the frontal projection a2 of
line a, the horizontal projection a1 of line a is not constructed.
second initial geometric image S is under construction—b = Δ \ S.
As center C of sphere-intermediary Δ is located on the axis i of direct circular
cone S, intermediary Δ intersects a lateral surface of cone S in a circle—
CΔ 2 i. As sphere-intermediary Δ with the minimum radius Rmin intersects cone
S in two sites of the surface, the second auxiliary line b represents two circles.
These circles b are perpendicular to the axes i which is parallel to the frontal
projection plane П2—b = Δ \ S, CΔ 2 i, i || П2, b ⊥ i.
Therefore, the second auxiliary line b is perpendicular to the frontal projection
plane П2 and is projected in the frontal projection plane П2 in the form of two
collective segments. These collective segments are limited by sketch lines of
conic surface and are parallel to the frontal projection of the cone basis.
The line b is a line of double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ
and S—b 2 Δ, b 2 S.
The frontal projection b2 of line b is limited by sketch-generating lines A2S2 and
22S2 of the lateral surface of cone S and by sketch-generating lines of cylinder Σ.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of line b, it is necessary to construct the
complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of intermediary Δ with
the lateral surface of cone S and to use the property of arrangement of the circle
center of line b on the axis i of direct circular cone S.
The sphere-intermediary Δ intersects the sketch-generating line AS of the lateral
surface of cone S in point P—P = Δ \ AS, P 2 Δ, P 2 AS. The distance from
point P to the axis i is equal to the length of the circle radius of line b of
intersection of sphere Δ and cone S—r = [iSP]. Point P is a characteristic point
of intersection of geometric images Δ and S in the complex drawing.
3:1 At the intersection of the frontal projection Δ2 of sphere Δ and the frontal
projection A2S2 of the generating line AS of the surface of cone S, frontal
projection P2 of point P is allocated and designated—P2 = Δ2 \ A2S2,
P2 2 Δ2, P2 2 A2S2.
The frontal projection b2 of line b is perpendicular to the frontal projection
i2 of the axes i. The boundary frontal projection P2 of point P belongs to the
frontal projection b2 of line b—b2 ⊥ i2, P2 2 b2.
3:2 Through the frontal projection P2 of point P perpendicularly to the axis of
abscissas X21, line of projective connection 1-1P of the first law is drawn to
the point of intersection with the horizontal projection A1S1 of the gen-
erating line AS.
3:3 At the intersection of line of projective connection 1-1P of the first law and
the horizontal projection A1S1 of the generating line AS, a horizontal
projection P1 of point P is allocated and designated—P1 2 A1S1. The
complex drawing of characteristic point P(P1, P2) of intersection of images
Δ and S is constructed (Fig. 8.48).
3:4 The horizontal projection b1 of circle b is constructed from point S1 as the
circle center with radius r = [iSP] through the horizontal projection P1 of
point P—P1 2 b1, r1 = [S1P1].
3:5 The frontal b2 and horizontal projection b1 of circle b are designated.
Similarly, the second circle of the top site of the auxiliary line b is under
construction.
The result of the third stage is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary line
b of intersection of images Δ and S—b(b1, b2) ≡ (P1 2 b1, r1 = [S1P1];
b2 ≡ Δ2, P2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S (Fig. 8.48).
The definition of intersection points Ki, i = 1, N of the first auxiliary line a and
the second auxiliary line b is described only for the lower circle of line b.
Intersection points of line a with the second circle of the upside of the auxiliary
line b are similarly defined. The same technique and algorithm are used to define
intersection points Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of line aj and line bj of
additional intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M.
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are intersection lines of the same
intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: cylindrical surface Σ and
the lateral surface of cone S—a = Δ \ Σ, b = Δ \ S, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ, a 2 Σ, b 2 S.
Auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence, as they belong to the
same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: cylinder Σ and cone S
(a 2 Σ, b 2 S). Therefore, lines a and b are intersected in the surface of the
general and, for them, intermediary Δ in points K1 ≡ 7, K2 ≡ 8—a \ b = K1,
K1 2 Δ, a \ b = K2, K2 2 Δ. Hence, points K1, K2 also belong simultaneously to

different geometric images: cylinder Σ and cone S—K1 2 Σ, K1 2 S, K2 2 Σ,
K2 2 S.
Thus, points 7 ≡ K1, 8 ≡ K2 are intersection points of these different images:
cylinder Σ and cone S—7 ≡ K1 = Σ \ S, 8 ≡ K2 = Σ \ S.
Complex drawings 7(71, 72), 8(81, 82) of points 7, 8 are under construction.
7 ≡ K1 2 Σ, 7 ≡ K1 2 S; 8 ≡ K2 2 Δ, 8 ≡ K2 2 Σ, 8 ≡ K2 2 S), are the points of
triple incidence.
For the toe segment of line b, these points are points 5 ≡ K3, 6 ≡ K4.
5. The sufficiency of the resultant number of points of intersection 5 = a \ b,
6 = a \ b, 7 = a \ b, 8 = a \ b of the first auxiliary line a and the second
auxiliary line b of intermediary Δ and characteristic points 1, 2, 3, 4 is checked
for allocation and designation of the end result of solving the problem.
Because the top site of intersection of cylindrical surface Σ and the lateral
surface of cone S is rather small, to construct the complex drawing of this site of
line m = Σ \ S of intersection of the initial images, points 3, 4, 5, 6 is enough.
The algorithm for constructing the complex drawings of points 3, 4, 5, 6 is
similar to the algorithm for constructing the complex drawing of characteristic
point P(P1, P2).
To define the lower segment of the required frontal projection m2 of line m and
the horizontal projection m1 of intersection line m of cylindrical surface Σ and
lateral surface of cone S, the obtained points 1, 2, 7, 8 are not enough; so the
sixth step of the algorithm for solving positional problems about mutual inter-
section of geometric images is used (Sect. 8.7.3).
6. For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, step 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4,
5 ≡ 6.5 of the described algorithm (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25) are carried out
similarly.
6:1 The complex drawing

the additional intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is under
of
construction—Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set of
natural numbers.
6:2 The complex drawing of an auxiliary line aj, j = 1, M for the additional
intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is under construction—aj ðaj1 ; aj2 Þ.
6:3 The complex drawing of an auxiliary line bj, j = 1, M for the additional
intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is under construction—bj bj1 ; bj2 :
6:4 Complex drawings of additional points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1, N,
j =1, M for new auxiliary lines aj, bj, j = 1, M are under construction—
Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 ; i ¼ 1; N; j ¼ 1; M.
The result of the similar performance of steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3,
4 ≡ 6.4 for the additional intermediary Δ1 are complex drawings

9ð91 ; 92 Þ K11 K111 ; K2 ; 0ð01 ; 02 Þ K
11 21
1 ; K2
K21 21
of points 9 ≡ K11,
0 ≡ K21.
Points 9 and 0 belong simultaneously to different geometric images:
cylinder Σ and surfaces of cone S—9 2 Σ, 9 2 S, 0 2 Σ, 0 2 S.
Thus, points 9 ≡ K11, 0 ≡ K21 are intersection points of these different
images: cylinder Σ and cone S—9 = Σ \ S, 0 = Σ \ S.
Points 9 ≡ K11, 0 ≡ K21, belonging to three geometric images (9 2 Δ1,
9 2 Σ, 9 2 S, 0 2 Δ1, 0 2 Σ, 0 2 S), are the points of triple incidence.
6:5 The determination of uniqueness of constructing the end result of solving
the problem is made.
To define the required frontal projection m2 of the line m and the horizontal
projection m1 of the line m of intersection of the cylinder Σ and the cone S, the
obtained points 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 0 are enough; the seventh step of the applicable
algorithm is carried out.
7. The required frontal projection m2 and the horizontal projection m1 of the line
m of intersection of the surface of the cylinder Σ and the surfaces of cone S are
allocated and designated by means of the connection of smooth curves of the
obtained points 1, 7, 9, 2, 0, 8, 1 and points 4, 5, 3, 6, 4, taking into account their
visibility in the complex drawing (Figs. 8.48 and 8.49).
In complex drawings, invisible sites of geometric images, projecting rays, lines
of projective connections are represented by a dashed line (Figs. 8.47, 8.48 and
8.49).
Conclusions.
tional problems on mutual intersection of geometric images are carried out.
The end result is obtained without the use of iterative property of this algorithm
at the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
2. The rational choice of intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2) enabled one to obtain the com-
plex drawings a(a1, a2) 2 Σ(Σ1, Σ2), a = Δ \ Σ, b(b1, b2) 2 S(S1, S2), b = Δ \ S
of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b without construction
Fig. 8.49 Semiotic model of construction of line of intersection of two rotation surfaces
of a horizontal projection Δ1 of the intermediary Δ on the basis of the first law of

projective connections.
The end result can be obtained on the basis of only a frontal projection a2 of the
line a, so the horizontal projection a1 of the line a is not constructed.
3. The analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point P of
intersection of sphere Δ and cone S was carried out by constructing the second
auxiliary line b.
Point P is a characteristic point of intersection of the forming-straight line AS of
the given lateral surface of cone S with the sphere of intermediary Δ.
4. The auxiliary line b = Δ \ Σ, belonging to sphere Δ and the given lateral surface
of cone S of general position, is a horizontal line of level.
As the center C of the sphere-intermediary Δ belongs to the axis i of the direct
circular cone S, the auxiliary line b is a circle which is parallel to the cone base.
This property of arrangement of the circle center of line b on the cone axis is
used in constructing the complex drawing of line b—b(b1, b2) ≡ b
(P1 2 b1, r1 = [S1P1], b2 ≡ Δ2, P2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S.
5. The constructed complex drawings 7(71, 72), 8(81, 82), 5(51, 52), 6(61, 62), 9
(91, 92), 0(01, 02) of points K1 ≡ 7, K2 ≡ 8, 5 ≡ K3, 6 ≡ K4, 9 ≡ K11, 0 ≡ K21 of
intersection of cylinder Σ and cone S (K = Σ \ S) are within the limits of the
working field of the drawing or the design document.
the fourth step of the method consists of three actions: allocation and desig-
nation of the frontal projection K2 of point K—1-1K \ Δ2 = K2, construction of
the line of projective connection 1-1K of the first law—K121-1K ⊥ X21, and
allocation and designation of the horizontal projection K1 of point K—
a1 \ b1 = K1.
spatial curves 1-7-9-2-0-8-1 and 4-5-3-6-4.
The line of intersection of surfaces is a geometric place of points which belong
to both surfaces. These points are called the points of double incidence.
of correlations:
0. 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42);
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2);
2. a = Δ \ Σ, a(a1, a2) ≡ Σ(Σ1, Σ2);
3. b = Δ \ S, b(b1, b2) ≡ b(P1 2 b1, r1 = [S1P1], b2 ≡ Δ2, P2 2 b2);

5. 1, 2, Ki, i = 1, 2?; 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 7(71, 72), 8(81, 82)?
6. Δj, aj, bj, j = 1, 2; 1(11, 12), 2(21
, 22), 7(71, 72), 8(81, 82), 9(91, 92), 0(01, 02);
1, 2, Kij = aj \ bj, Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, 2, j = 1?;
7. 1(11, 12), 7(71, 72), 9(91, 92), 2(21, 22), 0(01, 02), 8(81, 82), 1(11, 12); 4
(41, 42), 5(51, 52), 3(31, 32), 6(61, 62), 4(41, 42); 1-7-9-2-0-8-1, 4-5-3-6-4.
On the basis of the obtained geometric solution (Fig. 8.48), design documen-
tation is developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define the line of
intersection of the cylindrical and conic channels of a ventilating collector.
Elements of an engineering design of the connection of cylindrical and conic
channels of a ventilating collector are three-dimensional geometric models of the
cylinder Σ and the cone S (Figs. 8.48 and 8.49).
The element of the engineering design is obtained by means of reverse projec-
tion in a three-dimensional geometric model as a result of solving the inverse
problem of descriptive geometry (Fig. 8.49).
If the intermediary-sphere with the minimum radius is tangent to both mutually
intersected rotation surfaces of the second order, their spatial curve of intersection
consists of two flat lines. These flat curves are ellipses (Fig. 8.50).
The border of visible sites of these ellipses in a horizontal projection plane of the
complex drawing is defined by means of lines of intersection of the main meridian
plane and the planes of the ellipses.
Frontal projections of ellipses are straight lines.
If one of the channels is a rotation surface with a curvilinear axis, the method of
concentric spheres is not applied. To solve the geometric problem and to develop
the design documentation, the method of eccentric spheres is used.
In the method of eccentric spheres to preserve the auxiliary lines of intersection
of the sphere-intermediary with the rotation surfaces in the form of circles, the
center of the sphere-intermediary moves along the rectilinear axis.
Problem 11 A geometric image of the first surface is given by a frontal surface of
level of the torus Σ, and a geometric image of the second surface is given by a
surface of truncated direct circular cone S (Fig. 8.51). Construct the complex
drawing of a line m of intersection of the surface Σ and surfaces S—m = Σ \ S.
to the problem of defining the line of intersection of a toroidal surface and a conic
surface of the channels of a ventilating collector, and also development of the
Fig. 8.50 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of intersection of the inclined cylinder
and the truncated cone for the general intermediary-sphere with the minimum radius
Fig. 8.51 Three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of initial geometric images of a torus
and a truncated cone
The solution begins with the analysis of the initial data and the problem state-
ment. This analysis also consistent with the preliminary (zero) step of solving the
problem.
0. The analysis of the initial data and the given problem: the surface of the torus Σ
is a frontal surface of level, as its curvilinear axis j and sketch curves are parallel
to a frontal plane of projection П2. Therefore, the frontal projection Σ2 of a
quarter of the torus Σ consists of the arches of circles and collective frontal
projections of the forming circle of the torus. The horizontal projection Σ1 of a
quarter of the torus Σ consists of:two parallel sketch straight lines; a collective
horizontal projection of the forming circle of the torus in the form of a segment
of a straight line; and a horizontal projection of level of a generating line of the
torus in the form of a circle.
Horizontal projections of contour lines of the torus Σ in the form of straight lines
are parallel to the axis of abscissas X12 and perpendicular to the axis of ordinates
Y13. The collective horizontal projection of the forming torus circle in the form
of a straight line segment is perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and
parallel to the axis of ordinates Y13. The horizontal projection of level of a
torus-generating line is a circle and belongs to the horizontal projection plane
П 1.
Frontal projections of the bases (bottoms) of the torus quarter Σ are perpen-
dicular to the frontal projection plane П2. The torus surface Σ is a surface of
special position.
The rectilinear axis k of torus Σ is perpendicular to the frontal projection plane
П2: k ⊥ П2. The curvilinear axis j of the quarter of torus Σ is a circle arc. The
axis i of the truncated cone S is a straight line. Both axes are parallel to the
frontal projection plane П2—j || П2, i || П2. These axes are intersected at point
C—C = j \ i (Fig. 8.51).
The base of the truncated direct circular cone S belongs to the horizontal pro-
jection plane П1. As the lateral surface of the direct circular cone S is neither
parallel nor perpendicular to any projection plane П1, П2, П3, the surface of
cone S is the surface of general position.
Thus, a variant of combination of positions of the images given in the problem
is defined: one of two initial geometric images (torus Σ) occupies special
position; the other initial geometric image (cone S) occupies a general position
in respect to projection planes П1, П2, П3 (the combined variant).
The frontal projection Σ2 of torus Σ of special position does not possess the
collective property (Fig. 8.51). Therefore, only the minimum part of the end
result of solving the problem can be allocated and designated directly in this
projection. This minimum part of the end result in the given problem consists of
characteristic points 1, 2 of the line of intersection of the initial geometric
images. Most of the end result (actually the line of intersection) is defined by
means of the algorithm for solving positional problems about mutual intersec-
tion of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
Thus, the end result in total can be obtained only by means of the algorithm for
(Fig. 8.25).
The end result of solving the given positional problem is the spatial smooth
curve of intersection of the initial geometric images—m = Σ \ S.
The frontal projection m2 of line m of intersection of torus Σ and conic surface S
is limited by a sketch cone and a sketch torus. Therefore, the frontal projection
m2 of the required line m is limited by frontal projections 12, 22 of characteristic
points 1, 2 of intersection of torus Σ and cone S (Fig. 8.51).
Characteristic points 1 and 2 are located at the intersection of a contour line of
torus Σ and contour lines of cone S. Complex drawings 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22) of
characteristic points 1, 2 comply with the laws of projective connections.
The algorithm for solving the problem:
1. As the axis j of a toroidal rotation surface Σ is a curve, and the axis i of a conic
rotation surface S is a straight line, the axes j and i are parallel to the frontal
projection plane П2, it is expedient to apply the method of eccentric spheres to
solve the given problem.
The intermediary is the spheres whose centers are located on a rectilinear axis
i. The circles are the lines of intersection of these spheres with cone S.
As the intermediary Δ is a sphere, frontal projection Δ2 of intermediary Δ is a
circle. The horizontal projection Δ1 of intermediary Δ is also a circle.
Complex drawings of spheres-intermediaries are under construction on the
basis of definition of position of their centers and the lengths of their radiuses.
To preserve an auxiliary line a of intersection of the sphere-intermediary Δ and
the surface of torus Σ in the form of a circle, it is necessary that this circle is
located in a frontally projecting plane T which passes through a rectilinear axis
k of torus Σ.
A geometric locus of sphere centers, forming a circle in a cutting torus of plane
T, is a perpendicular PO, restored to plane T in point P of intersection of the
curvilinear axis j of torus Σ and this plane T.
To preserve the auxiliary line b of intersection of the same sphere-intermediary

Δ with the surface of cone S in the form of a circle, it is necessary that the center
O of the sphere Δ is located in the rectilinear axis i of cone S.
The center O of the sphere-intermediary Δ is located at the intersection with the
axis i of cone S of the perpendicular PO restored to plane T in point P of
intersection of a curvilinear axis j of torus Σ with this plane T.
The radial length of sphere-intermediary Δ is equal to the shortest length OR
from center O to point R of intersection of plane T with a contour of torus Σ.
The result of the first stage is the complex drawing of sphere-intermediary Δ
with radius OR and center O (Fig. 8.52)—Δ(Δ1, Δ2).
As the end result can be obtained on the basis of only one frontal projection Δ2
of intermediary Δ, the horizontal projection Δ1 of intermediary Δ is not
represented.
2. The first auxiliary line a of intersection of intermediary Δ with the first initial
geometric image Σ is under construction—a = Δ \ Σ.
The auxiliary line a of intersection of the sphere-intermediary Δ of radius OR
and torus Σ is a circle a, belonging to frontally projecting plane T which passes
through a rectilinear axis k of torus Σ—a = Δ \ Σ, a 2 T, k 2 T.
This circle a is perpendicular to the axes j and the frontal projection plane П2—
a = Δ \ Σ, Σ || П2, O 2 i, a ⊥ j, j || П2, a ⊥ П2.
Therefore, the first auxiliary line a is projected in a frontal projection plane П2 in
the form of the collective segment a2, coinciding with the frontal projection T2
of frontally projecting plane T—a = Δ \ Σ, a ⊥ П2, a2 ≡ T2. This collective
segment is limited by sketch lines of torus Σ.
The line a is a line of double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ
and Σ—a 2 Δ, a 2 Σ.
By reason of the collective property of the auxiliary line a (a2 ≡ T2, a ⊥ П2),
each point of the frontal projection a2 of line a, except the points of sketch torus
lines, coincides with projections of two points of circle a—a2 ⊥ П2, a2 ≡ T2,
32 ≡ 4 2.
Fig. 8.52 Geometric models of construction of a line of intersection of torus and truncated cone
As the auxiliary line a of intersection of intermediary Δ with surface Σ is

perpendicular to the frontal projection plane П2 and is a circle, the horizontal
projection a1 of line a represents an ellipse and complies with the first law of
projective connections.
As the end result can be obtained on the basis of only a frontal projection a2 of
line a, the problem of construction of a horizontal projection a1 of line a is not
described in the form of an ellipse.
second initial geometric image S is under construction—b = Δ \ S.
As the center O of the sphere-intermediary Δ is located in the axis i of the direct
circular cone S, intermediary Δ with radius OR intersects a lateral surface of
cone S in circle b: OΔ 2 i. This circle b is perpendicular to the axes i which is
parallel to frontal projection plane П2—b = Δ \ S, CΔ 2 i, i || П2, b ⊥ i.
Therefore, the second auxiliary line b is perpendicular to the frontal projection
plane П2 and is projected in the frontal projection plane П2 in the form of a
collective segment b2 of a straight line. This collective segment is limited by
sketch lines of a conic surface and is parallel to a frontal projection of the cone
basis.
The line b is a line of double incidence as it belongs to two geometric images Δ
and S—b 2 Δ, b 2 S.
To construct a horizontal projection b1 of line b, it is necessary to construct the
complex drawing of a characteristic point of intersection of intermediary Δ with
a lateral surface of cone S and to use the property of arrangement of the circle
center of line b in the axis i of the direct circular cone S.
The sphere-intermediary Δ intersects a sketch-generating line AS of a lateral
surface of cone S in point F—F = Δ \ AS, F 2 Δ, F 2 AS. The length from point
F to the axis i is equal to the radial length of a circle of line b of sphere Δ of
intersection and cone S—r = [iSF]. Point F is a characteristic point of inter-
section of geometric images Δ and S in the complex drawing.
3:1 At the intersection of frontal projection Δ2 of sphere Δ and a frontal pro-
jection A2S2 of the generating line AS of a surface of cone S, a frontal
projection F2 of point F is allocated and designated—F2 = Δ2 \ A2S2,
F2 2 Δ2, F2 2 A2S2.
The frontal projection b2 of line b is perpendicular to the frontal projection
i2 of the axes i. Boundary frontal projection F2 of point F belongs to frontal
projection b2 of line b—b2 ⊥ i2, F2 2 b2.
3:2 Through the frontal projection F2 of point F, perpendicularly to the axis of
abscissas X21, the line of projective connection 1-1F of the first law is
drawn to the point of intersection with horizontal projection A1S1 of the
generating line AS.
3:3 At the intersection of a line of projective connection 1-1F of the first law
and horizontal projection A1S1 of the generating line AS, horizontal pro-
jection F1 of point F is allocated and designated—F1 2 A1S1. The complex
drawing of characteristic point F(F1, F2) of intersection of images Δ and S
is constructed (Fig. 8.52).
3:4 The horizontal projection b1 is under construction from point O1 as the
circle center with radius r = [iSF] through horizontal projection F1 of point
F of circle b—F1 2 b1, r1 = [O1F1].
3:5 A frontal b2 and horizontal projection b1 of circle b are designated.
The result of the third step is the complex drawing of the second auxiliary line
b of intersection of images Δ and S—b(b1, b2) ≡ (F1 2 b1, r1 = [O1F1];
b2 || П1, F2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S (Fig. 8.52).
Points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of line aj and line bj of
additional intermediaries Δj, j = 1, M are similarly defined.
The first and second auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of intersection of the
same intermediary Δ with different initial geometric images: a toroidal surface Σ
and a lateral surface of cone S—a = Δ \ Σ, b = Δ \ S, a 2 Δ, b 2 Δ, a 2 Σ, b 2 S.
Auxiliary lines a and b are the lines of double incidence as they belong to the
same intermediary Δ and to different geometric images: torus Σ and cone S
(a 2 Σ, b 2 S). Therefore, lines a and b are intersected in a surface of the general
and, for them, intermediary Δ in points K1 ≡ 3, K2 ≡ 4—a \ b = K1, K1 2 Δ,
a \ b = K2, K2 2 Δ. Hence, points K1, K2 also belong simultaneously to
different geometric images: torus Σ and cone S—K1 2 Σ, K1 2 S, K2 2 Σ,
K2 2 S.
Thus, points 3 ≡ K1, 4 ≡ K2 are the points of intersection of different images:
torus Σ and cone S 3 ≡ K1 = Σ \ S, 4 ≡ K2 = Σ \ S.
Complex drawings 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42) of points 3, 4 are under construction.
3 ≡ K1 2 Σ, 3 ≡ K1 2 S; 4 ≡ K2 2 Δ, 4 ≡ K2 2 Σ, 4 ≡ K2 2 S), are the points of
triple incidence.
5. The sufficiency of the resultant number of points of intersection 3 = a \ b,
4 = a \ b of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b of inter-
mediary Δ and characteristic points 1, 2 is checked to allocate and designate the
end result of solving the problem.
To define the required frontal projection m2 of line m and a horizontal projection
m1 of line m of intersection of a toroidal surface Σ and a lateral surface of cone
S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4 are not enough`: so the sixth step of the
algorithm for solving positional problems about mutual intersection of geo-
metric images (Sect. 8.7.3) is used.
6. For the new intermediary Δj, j = 1, M, steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3, 4 ≡ 6.4,
5 ≡ 6.5 of the described algorithms are carried out similarly (Sect. 8.7.3,
Fig. 8.25).
6:1 The complex drawing

of the additional intermediary Δj, j = 1, M is under
construction: Dj Dj1 ; Dj2 , j = 1, M. Number M belongs to the set of
natural numbers.
6:2 The complex drawing of an auxiliary line aj, j = 1, M is under construction
for the additional intermediary Δj, j = 1, M—aj ðaj1 ; aj2 Þ.
6:3 The complex drawing of an auxiliary line bj, j = 1,
M is under
construction
for the additional intermediary Δj, j = 1, M—bj bj1 ; bj2 .
6:4 Complex drawings of additional points of intersection Kij = aj \ bj, i = 1,
j j
N, j =1, M are
under construction for new auxiliary lines a , b , j = 1, M
—Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
The result of the similar performance of steps 1 ≡ 6.1, 2 ≡ 6.2, 3 ≡ 6.3,
4 ≡ 6.4 for the additional intermediary Δ1 are the complex
drawings 5
(51, 52) ≡ K K1 ; K2 , 6(61, 62) ≡ K K1 ; K2 of points 5 ≡ K11,
11 11 11 21 21 21
6 ≡ K21.
Points 5 and 6 belong simultaneously to different geometric images: torus
Σ and surfaces of cone S—5 2 Σ, 5 2 S, 6 2 Σ, 6 2 S.
Thus, points 5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21 are the points of intersection of different
images: torus Σ and cone S—5 = Σ \ S, 6 = Σ \ S.
Points 5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21, belonging to three geometric images (5 2 Δ1,
5 2 Σ, 5 2 S, 6 2 Δ1, 6 2 Σ, 6 2 S), are the points of triple incidence.
6:5 The determination is made on the unambiguity of construction of the end
result of solving the problem.
To define the required frontal projection m2 of line m and a horizontal projection
m1 of line m of intersection of torus Σ and cone S, the obtained points 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6 are enough; so the seventh step of the applicable algorithm is carried out.
7. The required frontal projection m2 and a horizontal projection m1 of line m of
intersection of torus Σ and the surface of cone S are allocated and designated by
means of the connection by smooth curves of the obtained points 1, 5, 3, 2, 4, 6,
1, taking into account their visibility in the complex drawing (Figs. 8.52 and
8.53).
In complex drawings, invisible sites of geometric images, projecting rays, lines
of projective connections are represented by a dashed line (Figs. 8.51, 8.52 and
8.53).
Conclusions.
The end result is obtained without the use of iterative property of this algorithm
at the sixth step (Sect. 8.7.3, Fig. 8.25).
2. The rational choice of the intermediary Δ(Δ1, Δ2) enables one to obtain the
complex drawings a(a1, a2) 2 Σ(Σ1, Σ2), a = Δ \ Σ, b(b1, b2) 2 S(S1, S2),
b = Δ \ S of the first auxiliary line a and the second auxiliary line b without
Fig. 8.53 Semiotic model of construction of line of intersection of torus and truncated cone
construction of a horizontal projection Δ1 of intermediary Δ on the basis of the

first law of projective connections.
As the end result can be obtained on the basis of only a frontal projection a2 of
the auxiliary line a, to solve the problem of construction of a horizontal pro-
jection a1 of the auxiliary line a is not necessary.
3. The analysis of spatial position and definition of one characteristic point F of
intersection of sphere Δ and cone S was carried out by constructing the second
auxiliary line b.
Point F is a characteristic point of intersection of the forming straight line AS of
the given lateral surface of cone S with the sphere of intermediary Δ.
4. The auxiliary line b = Δ \ Σ, belonging to sphere Δ and the given lateral surface
of cone S of general position, is a horizontal line of level.
As the center O of the sphere-intermediary Δ belongs to the axis i of the direct
circular cone S, the auxiliary line b is a circle which is parallel to the cone basis.
This property of arrangement of the circle center of line b in the cone axis is
used to construct the complex drawing of line b—b(b1, b2) ≡ (F1 2 b1,
r1 = [O1F1]; b2 || П1, F2 2 b2), b = Δ \ S.
5. The constructed complex drawings 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42), 5(51, 52), 6(61, 62) of
points 3 ≡ K1, 4 ≡ K2, 5 ≡ K11, 6 ≡ K21 of intersection of torus Σ and cone S
(K = Σ \ S) are within the limits of the working field of the drawing or design
document.
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing (K1, K2) of any point K at
the fourth step of the method consists of three actions: allocation and designation
of frontal projection K2 of point K—1-1K \ Δ2 = K2; construction of a line of
projective connection 1-1K of the first law—K1 2 1-1K ⊥ X21; and allocation and
designation of horizontal projection K1 of point K—a1 \ b1 = K1.
spatial curve 1-5-3-2-4-6-1.
The line of surface intersection is a geometric locus of points which belong to
both surfaces. These points are called the points of double incidence.
of correlations:
0. 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22);
1. Δ(Δ1, Δ2);
2. a = Δ \ Σ, a(a1, a2) ≡ Σ(Σ1, Σ2);
3. b = Δ \ S, b(b1, b2) ≡ (F1 2 b1, r1 = [O1F1]; b2 || П1, F2 2 b2);
5. 1, 2, Ki, i = 1, 2?; 1(11, 12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42)?
6. Δj, aj, bj, j = 1, 2; 1(11,12), 2(21, 22), 3(31, 32), 4(41, 42), 5(51, 52), 6(61, 62);
1, 2, Kij = aj \ bj, Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 , i = 1, 2, j = 1?;
7. 1(11, 12), 5(51, 52), 3(31, 32), 2(21, 22), 4(41, 42), 6(61, 62), 1(11, 12);
1-5-3-2-4-6-1.
On the basis of the obtained geometric solving (Fig. 8.52), design documentation
is developed, for example, for an engineering problem to define a line of inter-
section of toroidal and conic channels of a ventilating collector.
Elements of engineering design of connection of toroidal and conic channels of a
ventilating collector are three-dimensional geometric models of torus Σ and cone S
in a uniform image (Figs. 8.52 and 8.53).
The element of engineering design is obtained by means of reverse projection in
a three-dimensional geometric model as result of solving the inverse problem of
Thus, positional problems are considered about mutual intersection of geometric
images of the fifth, fourth, third, second and first groups (Sect. 8.7.1).
Alongside positional problems in engineering geometry, one of the fundamental
fields of techniques comprises metric problems.
8.8 Review Questions to the Fourth Block (Chapter 8)
1. Concept and classification of positional problems.

2. Concept of competing points. The rule of defining the visibility of constructive
elements of a product.
3. Relative positioning, intersection (belonging) of points. The rule of defining the
visibility of competing points.
4. Relative positioning, belonging and intersection of straight lines.
5. Relative positioning, belonging and intersection of planes.
6. Relative positioning, intersection (belonging) of a point and a straight line.
7. Relative positioning, intersection (belonging) of a point and a plane.
8.8 Review Questions to the Fourth Block (Chapter 8) 175
8. Relative positioning, belonging and intersection of a straight line and a plane.

9. Relative positioning, intersection (belonging) of a point and a surface.
10. Classification of positional problems about mutual intersection of geometric
images.
11. Concept and criterion of choice of the intermediary for positional problems.
12. Algorithm of solving positional problems about mutual intersection of geo-
metric images.
13. Construction of a point of intersection of a straight line and a plane. The first
basic positional problem of descriptive geometry.
14. Construction of a line of intersection of two planes. The second basic positional
problem of descriptive geometry.
15. Construction of points of intersection of a straight line and a surface.
16. Construction of a line of intersection of a plane and a surface.
17. Construction of a line of intersection of two surfaces.
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Chapter 9
Metric Problems
A geometric image, its elements or the set of images are characterized by a set of
parameters [1–52]. Such parameters are length, width, height, radius, diameter,
area, volume, angle, etc.
The numerical values of the parameters, that characterize geometric images, are
called the characteristics of the images.
Metric characteristics of geometric images are the characteristics obtained by
measurement of distances and angles.
Metric problems of engineering geometry require one to evaluate the metric
characteristics of geometric images according to the given complex drawing or to
construct the complex drawing according to the given metric characteristics of
geometric images.
Based on the metric characteristic to be evaluated, metric problems can be
divided into two groups:
1. Problems to define the distances (areas, volumes).
2. Problems to define the angles.
Metric characteristics (metrics) can be defined both among elements (points,
lines, surfaces) of one geometric image, and among elements between various
geometric images.
Solving engineering problems in the majority of situations wherein a geometric
image occupies a general position relative to projection planes, projections of the
geometric image are deformed in shape and sizes relative to the image.
Therefore, to solve a metric problem, one of the basic steps is construction of the
true image of measured geometric element to be measured.
Construction of the true image of a geometric image or its elements is based on
the properties of orthogonal (parallel rectangular) projection. In particular, any flat
figure, parallel to a projection plane, is projected in this plane without distortions
(rather with true values), i.e., a projection of this parallel figure is congruent to the
figure.

180 9 Metric Problems
The true length of a straight line segment is defined by a method of rectangular

triangle. This method is based on the relationship of a straight line segment to its
orthogonal projection.
To solve a metric problem, positional properties of a geometric image are used,
namely, parallelism, perpendicularity and mutual belonging.
The theoretical basis of the solution to metric problem by means of the geometric
method is the theorem of a right angle projection.
9.1 The Theorem of a Right Angle Projection
The theorem of a right-angle projection: if one side BC of right angle ABC is

parallel to a projection plane, and the second side AB is not perpendicular to this
projection plane, this projection plane is projected by the right-angle true value
(Fig. 9.1).
The theorem of a right angle projection is considered in the literature in detail
[19].
Because side BC of right angle ABC is parallel to the horizontal projection plane
П1, its frontal projection B2C2 is parallel to the axis of abscissas, its profile pro-
jection B3C3 is parallel to the axis of applicates and the horizontal projection B1C1
has true value.
As sides DB and BC of the right angle DBC are parallel to the horizontal
projection plane П1, the frontal projection D2B2C2 of angle DBC is a straight line
segment which it is parallel to the axis of abscissas X12 (Fig. 9.2).
Projections A1B1C1 and D1B1C1 are right angles.
2 Z 23
T
Â
D T 2
C
A
O
X12 T 1
Â1
À1 D 1
1 C1 Y13
Fig. 9.1 The theorem of a right angle projection

9.2 Solving Metric Problems Without Transformation of the Complex Drawing 181
2 D2 2 C2 Z 23 D2 C 2 Z23
T 2
T 2 T 2
D
A2 C A2
A 2
O
O
X12 T1 X12 1
T1
1
1
1 D1
1 C1 Y13 1 D1
C1 Y13
Fig. 9.2 Geometric models of images to the theorem of a right-angle projection
9.2 Solving Metric Problems Without Transformation

of the Complex Drawing
9.2.1 Perpendicularity of Straight Lines (Problems 1, 2)
The theorem of a right angle projection enables proving the construction of geo-
metric models of perpendicular straight lines.
Construction from the given point of a perpendicular straight line to a straight
line of level (Problem 1):
Problem 1 A geometric image of a straight line is given by a segment AB of a
horizontal straight line of level. A geometric image of a point is given by point C
and its complex drawing (Fig. 9.3). Construct the complex drawing CD(C1D1,
C2D2) of segment CD that is perpendicular to the given horizontal straight line of
level AB—CD ⊥ AB.
to the problem of determining the point of fastening of a roof timber to the wall
2
C2 Z23 C2 Z23
C
A2 2 A2 2
T
A
2
O
O
X12 C1 X12
1 C1
1
1 Y13
1 T 1 Y13 1
1
Fig. 9.3 Geometric models of a point and a straight line of special position
2
C2 T 2
Z23 C2 T Z23
2
C
A2 D2 2 A2 D2 2
T
A D 2
O
O
X12 C1 X12 T1
1 C1
1
D1 1 Y13
1 T 1 Y13 1
D1 1
Fig. 9.4 Geometrical models of perpendicular straight lines
plate (mauerlat) and development of the necessary design documentation for sat-
isfactory achievement of the task.
statement.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: a straight line AB is a
horizontal straight line of level, because its frontal projection A2B2 is parallel to the
axis of abscissas X12, and the horizontal projection A1B1 is not perpendicular to the
axis of ordinates Y13.
As segment CD should be perpendicular to the given horizontal straight line of
level AB, angle ∠CDB will be a right angle. Hence, according to the theorem of a
right angle projection, a horizontal projection ∠C1D1B1 of angle ∠CDB is also a
right angle.
1. From the horizontal projection C1 of point C, the horizontal projection C1D1 of a
perpendicular of CD is restored (Fig. 9.4)—C1D1 ⊥ A1B1. Horizontal projection
C1D1 coincides with horizontal projection TП1 of horizontally projecting plane
T, which contains the straight line CD, perpendicular to the given horizontal
straight line of level AB.
2. On the basis of the first law of projective connections, the frontal projection D2
of point D is under construction—D2 2 1-1D.
3. The complex drawing CD(C1D1, C2D2) of segment CD, which is perpendicular
to the given horizontal straight line of level AB, is under construction—
CD ⊥ AB.
Construction of a perpendicular straight line to a straight line of general position
(Problem 2):
Problem 2 A geometric image of a straight line is given by segment AB of the
straight line of general position (Fig. 9.5). Construct the complex drawing BC
(B1C1, B2C2) of segment BC that is perpendicular to the given straight line AB of
general position—BC ⊥ AB.
2 2 Z23 2 Z23
A2 A2
A
2
O
O
X12 1 X12 1
1
1
1
1 Y13 Y13
Fig. 9.5 Geometrical model of straight line of general position
to the problem to define the point of fastening of the fender to a roof timber and
development of the necessary design documentation for satisfactory achievement of
the task.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: straight line AB is the line of
general position, as its frontal projection A2B2 is neither parallel nor perpendicular
to the axis of abscissas X12 in the axis of applicates Z23, and the horizontal pro-
jection A1B1 is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 in the
In the space through point B, it is possible to draw infinite number of straight
lines, perpendicular to straight line AB of general position. But two straight lines
among that infinite set of straight lines can be constructed on the basis of the
theorem of a right angle projection.
As segment BC should be perpendicular to the given straight line AB of general
position, angle ∠ABC will be a right angle. Hence, according to the theorem of a
right angle projection, horizontal projection ∠A1B1C1 of angle ∠ABC is also a
right angle.
1. The horizontal projection B1C1 of the perpendicular BC is restored from the
horizontal projection B1 of point B of perpendicular horizontal projection A1B1
of straight line AB (Fig. 9.6). According to the theorem of a right angle pro-
jection, the frontal projection B2C2 of the perpendicular BC should be parallel to
the axis of abscissas X12.
2. The frontal projection B2C2 of the perpendicular BC is constructed in parallel to
the axis of abscissas X12—B2 C2 jj X12 .
3. A complex drawing C(C1, C2) of point C is constructed according to the first
law of projective connections. Complex drawing BC(B1C1, B2C2) of the seg-
ment BC, which is perpendicular to the given straight line AB of general
position, is constructed—BC ⊥ AB.
2 Z23 Â2 Z23
Â2 C2 C2
Â
A2 A2
C D2
D2
A D
2
O
O
X12 Â1 X12 Â1 D1
D1 1
À1
C1 À1 C1
1 Y13 Y13
Fig. 9.6 Geometric models of perpendicular straight lines
Similarly, complex drawing BD(B1D1, B2D2) of segment BD, which is per-

pendicular to the given straight line AB of general position, is under construction
provided that segment BD is parallel to the frontal projection plane П2 (Fig. 9.6).
Frontal projection B2D2 of the perpendicular BD, according to the theorem of
right angle projection, should be perpendicular to the frontal projection A2B2 of line
AB. Horizontal projection B1D1 of the perpendicular BD is parallel to the axis of
abscissas X12.
To solve engineering problems, the theorem of perpendicularity of two straight
lines is used: two straight lines are perpendicular if one of them can be contained in
a plane perpendicular to the other straight line.
9.2.2 Perpendicularity of a Straight Line and a Plane

(Problem 3)
A straight line is perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to two intersected

straight lines of this plane.
Thus, the straight line, perpendicular to the plane, forms a right angle with each
of the corresponding intersected straight lines of this plane.
According to the theorem of right angle projection, projections of these right
angles are right angles, if each of the intersected straight lines of the plane is parallel
to the corresponding projection plane. These straight lines, parallel to the projection
plane, of the considered plane, are its main lines i.e., a horizontal, a frontal, and a
profile straight line.
As horizontal h is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1 by definition, the
angle between a perpendicular a to plane Σ and the corresponding horizontal h of
this plane Σ is projected in the horizontal projection plane П1 as a right angle.
As frontal f is parallel to frontal projection plane П2 by definition, the angle
between a perpendicular a to plane Σ and the corresponding frontal f of this plane Σ
is projected in frontal projection plane П2 as a right angle (Fig. 9.7).
Z23 Z23
2
A2 2 3 A3
A2 2 3 a2 f2 f3 a3
a2 A f2 f A3
p 3
h2
a Â2 h2 a3 h3
2
p2 Â2 O Â3 p3 3
X12 p2 Â h Â3 p1 Â1 f 1
X12 Y13
p1 Âf1 1 O
h1 1 h1
a1
A1 1
1
1
Y13 a1
À1 Y13
Fig. 9.7 Geometric models of a perpendicular straight line and a plane
As profile straight line p is parallel to profile projection plane П3 by definition,

the angle between a perpendicular a to plane Σ and the corresponding profile
straight line p of this plane Σ is projected in profile projection plane П3 as a right
angle.
Hence, if straight line a is perpendicular to plane Σ, its horizontal projection a1
is perpendicular to horizontal projection h1 of horizontal h, its frontal projection a2
is perpendicular to frontal projection f2 of frontal f, and its profile projection a3 is
perpendicular to profile projection p3 of profile straight line p (Fig. 9.7).
Problem 3 Restore a perpendicular AB from point A to plane Σ.
1. The absence of belonging of point A to plane Σ is checked, for example, by
means of the property of belonging of a point of a straight line to this plane.
2. Through horizontal projection A1 of point A, horizontal projection A1B1 of the
perpendicular AB to horizontal projection h1 of horizontal h is restored.
3. From frontal projection A2 of point A, frontal projection A2B2 of the perpen-
dicular AB to frontal projection f2 of frontal f is restored.
4. From profile projection A3 of point A, profile projection A3B3 of the perpen-
dicular AB to profile projection p3 of profile straight line p is restored (Fig. 9.7).
9.2.3 Perpendicularity of Two Planes
To solve engineering problems, the theorem of perpendicularity of two planes is

used: two planes are perpendicular, if one of them contains a straight line, per-
pendicular to the other plane.
One of the perpendicular planes contains a perpendicular to the other plane.
For example, plane Ψ, given by triangle ABC, is perpendicular to plane Σ as it
contains a perpendicular AB to plane Σ (Fig. 9.8).
Z23 Z23
2
A2 2 3 A3
A2 2 3 a2 a3
2 f2 f3
2 a2 A p f 2 f A3 3 C2 h2
3
a Â2 h2 Â3 a3 C3
C2
3
2
p2 Â2 O Â3p3 h3 3
X12 p2 Â h p1 Â1 f 1
C C3 X12 Y13
p1 Â1f 1 O h1
h 1
1
C1 Aa1 1 C1
1
1 a1 1
1 Y13 1
À1 Y13
Fig. 9.8 Geometric models of perpendicular planes Ψ and Σ
9.2.4 Angles Between Straight Lines
Two intersecting spatial straight lines form an angle. Angle projection is the angle
between projections of the two considered straight lines.
Two skew spatial straight lines also form an angle. The angle between the skew
straight lines is equal to the angle between the intersecting straight lines which are
parallel to the given skew straight lines.
The angle projection is equal to its true value if both sides of the angle are
parallel to a projection plane.
The angle projection is distorted and not equal to its true value, if at least one
side of an acute or obtuse angle is not parallel to the projection plane.
In the given Sect. 9.2 of solving metric problems, only the construction of angle
projections without defining their true value is considered without transformation of
In the following Sect. 9.3 of solving metric problems, the methods of defining
the true value of angles and flat figures are considered by means of transformation
of the complex drawing.
Consider the definition and construction of an angle between a straight line and a
plane.
9.2.5 Angle Between a Straight Line and a Plane

(Problem 4)
Angle φ between straight line AB and plane Σ is defined by an angle between

straight line AB and its projection AΣBΣ in plane Σ.
To construct a three-dimensional model of angle φ between straight line a and
plane Σ, it is necessary to solve the following problems:
1. For two any points A and B of straight line a, perpendiculars b and c are
constructed to the given plane Σ.
The base Problem 3 is solved (Sect. 9.2.2).
For any main lines h, f, p of plane Σ, complex drawings h(h1, h2), f(f1, f2), p(p1,
p2) are under construction. According to the theorem of right angle projection, in
complex drawings A(A1, A2), B(B1, B2) of points A and B perpendicularly to
projections of the main lines, complex drawings b(b1, b2), c(c1, c2) of perpen-
diculars b and c are under construction to the given plane Σ—b1 ⊥ h1, b2 ⊥ f2,
c 1 ⊥ h 1, c 2 ⊥ f 2.
The constructed complex drawings b(b1, b2), c(c1, c2) of perpendiculars b and
c are the result of solving a direct problem of descriptive geometry.
In complex drawings b(b1, b2), c(c1, c2) of perpendiculars b and c, perpendic-
ulars b and c are restored by means of inverse projection.
Perpendiculars b and c are the result of solving an inverse problem of descriptive
geometry (Fig. 9.9).
2. For each point A and B, the first basic positional problem of constructing the
complex drawings AΣ(A1Σ, A2Σ), BΣ(B1Σ, B2Σ) of points AΣ = b \ Σ, BΣ = c \ Σ
of intersection (bases) of perpendiculars with the given plane Σ is solved. The
base Problem 4 is solved (Sect. 8.7.4).
Graphically the base Problem 4 is solved for the construction of complex
drawing BΣ(B1Σ, B2Σ) of point BΣ of intersection of perpendicular c and plane Σ
(Fig. 9.9).
In complex drawings AΣ(A1Σ, A2Σ), BΣ(B1Σ, B2Σ) of bases AΣ, BΣ of perpen-
diculars b, c, points AΣ, BΣ of intersection of perpendiculars b, c and plane Σ are
restored by means of inverse projection.
Points AΣ, BΣ are the result of solving the inverse problem of descriptive
geometry (Fig. 9.9).
3. Projection aΣ ≡ AΣBΣ of straight line a ≡ AB in plane Σ and its complex
drawing aΣ(a1Σ, a2Σ) are under construction.
(a) (b)
2 A2 b2 f 2 Z23 2 Z23
C=AB c2 f 2 A2
2 A 3
D=AB 1 b2 f2 A3 2
a2 a b f 3 b3 3
a2 A f2 3 A3
AB a 2
B2 h2 h A2 a 3 3 b2 f f 3 b3 3
c2 A3 a b p
A =b B h
a2 f A c 3 B 3
3
h2 p 3
3
B2 A2
B =c B2 c c2 A 3 h3 a3
2 Ñ2
2 a B3 b3 p3 B p2 h
X12 D2 B p2 O 3 c3 p3 X12 D2 B2 ca2 a A c3 B3
O
C Ñ a1 f 1 C3 hB Ñ1 B a 1 A1 f 1 B3
B1 b1A1 h1 p3 Ñ2 2 c1B1 p1 B3
1 c1
3
D D1 p1 p D D1
1
b1 h1 C 3
Ñ1 B1 B1
a1 A 1 1 1
C Ñ a1 A 1 1 1
1 b1 h1 c1 h1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 9.9 Problems of defining angle φ between straight line AB and plane Σ
4. Point C = a \ aΣ of intersection of straight line a ≡ AB and its projections

aΣ ≡ AΣBΣ in plane Σ are under construction. Complex drawing C(C1, C2) of the
vertex of angle φ between straight line AB and plane Σ is constructed—
C1 = a1 \ a1Σ, C2 = a2 \ a2Σ.
5. An arc is allocated and angle φ is designated between straight line a and plane Σ.
The complex drawing φ(φ1, φ2) of angle φ is under construction (Fig. 9.9).
To construct the complex drawing of angle φ between a straight line a and plane
Σ, the following is necessary:
1. To construct complex drawings b(b1, b2), c(c1, c2) of perpendiculars b and c to
the given plane Σ for two any points A and B of straight line a. The base
Problem 3 is solved (Sect. 9.2.2).
2. To solve twice the first basic positional problem for construction of complex
drawings AΣ(A1Σ, A2Σ), BΣ(B1Σ, B2Σ) of points AΣ = b \ Σ, BΣ = c \ Σ of
intersection (bases) of perpendiculars with the given plane Σ. The base
Problem 4 is solved (Sect. 8.7.4).
3. To construct projections a1Σ, a2Σ of straight line aΣ in projection planes П1, П2,
connectg the corresponding projections A1Σ, B1Σ and A2Σ, B2Σ of the bases of
the perpendiculars—aΣ(a1Σ, a2Σ).
4. To construct complex drawing C(C1, C2) of intersection points C = a \ aΣ of the
given straight line a ≡ AB and its projection aΣ ≡ AΣBΣ in the given plane Σ—
C1 = a1 \ a1Σ, C2 = a2 \ a2Σ.
5. To allocate and designate the complex drawing φ(φ1, φ2) of angle φ between
straight line a and plane Σ (Fig. 9.9).
This method of construction of the complex drawing of the angle between a
straight line and a plane assumes the performance of a considerable quantity of
labor-consuming graphic operations. Therefore, the accuracy of defining the angle
decreases.
Besides, vertex C = a \ aΣ of the constructed angle φ between straight line
a ≡ AB and plane Σ can be located in another octant relative to the octant with the
initial geometric images. For example, straight line a ≡ AB and plane Σ can be
given in the first octant, and vertex C = a \ aΣ of the constructed angle φ between
straight line a ≡ AB and plane Σ can be located in the fourth octant (Fig. 9.9).
Vertex C = a \ aΣ is located below point D = a \ П1 of intersection of straight line
a and plane П1.
If the vertex of angle between a straight line and a plane is located outside of the
working field of the drawing, it is impossible to define the angle graphically.
It is expedient to define not the angle φ between straight line a ≡ AB and plane
Σ, but angle ψ = 90°–φ, supplementing the required angle φ to the right angle.
The supplementing angle ψ = 90°–φ is the angle between straight line a ≡ AB
and perpendicular b to plane Σ.
Thus, the problem of construction and definition of angle φ between straight line
a ≡ AB and plane Σ is reduced to the problem of construction and definition of the
Z23 2 Z23 3
2
A2 2 3 A3
A2 2 3
a2 3
a2 Af 2 A3 f 2
a3
3 p2 3
a p2 3 a3 p
B2 B2 O B3
3 h2 1
X12 h2 1 O B3 X12 Y13
B 1
h p1 3 p1 3
B1 p B1
a1 A1 1
h
1 1
1 Y13 a1
1 À1 Y13
Fig. 9.10 Geometric models of straight line and plane of general position
supplementing angle ψ = 90°–φ between straight line a ≡ AB and a perpendicular

b to plane Σ.
A geometric model of the required angle φ supplements the constructed valid
angle ψ to a right angle in the drawing—φ + ψ = 90°.
The supplementing angle ψ is measured by a protractor. The actual value of the
required angle φ between straight line a ≡ AB and plane Σ is calculated by the
formula φ = 90°–ψ.
Problem 4 To define the actual size of angle φ = 90°–ψ between straight line
a ≡ AB and plane Σ, it is necessary to construct the complex drawing of a sup-
plementing angle ψ = 90°–φ between straight line a ≡ AB and perpendicular b to
plane Σ (Fig. 9.10).
to the problem to define the fastening angle between a a timber of a publicity board
and a perpendicular timber to a roof slope, and also development of the necessary
design documentation for satisfactory achievement of the task.
Analysis of initial data and the given problem. The straight line a ≡ AB is the
straight line of general position as its frontal projection A2B2 is neither parallel nor
perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and the axis of applicates Z23, and
horizontal projection A1B1 is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of
abscissas X12 and the axis of ordinates Y13.
Plane of general position Σ is given by the zero main lines: zero horizontal h0,
zero frontal f0, and zero profile straight line p0.
To construct the complex drawing of supplementing angle ψ = 90°–φ, it is
required to restore a perpendicular b to plane Σ from point A.
1. Absence of point A belonging to plane Σ is checked, for example, by means of a
condition of belonging of a point to a straight line of this plane.
2. Horizontal projection b1 of perpendicular b to horizontal projection h01 of zero
horizontal h0 is restored through horizontal projection A1 of point A.
2 Z23 3
2 Z23
A2 2
3 A3
A2 2 2
3
b2 f f2 f3 b3
b2 a2
A f f2 f
3
2
A3 3 22 a3
a2 p B2 A 2 h2
B3
B2 a A2 h2 b3 3
2 A3 h3 p
A3 a3 21 p2 12 O p3
X12 p2 A h A1 f 1
B B3 X12 Y13
p1 A1 f 1 O h h1
1
h1 B 1
B1 a1 A1b1 h p 1
1 b1 1 11 1
1 Y13 a 1
1 À1 Y13
Fig. 9.11 Complex drawing of supplementing angle ψ = 90°− φ
3. Frontal projection b2 of perpendicular b to frontal projection f 02 of zero frontal f0

is restored from frontal projection A2 of point A.
4. Profile projection b3 of perpendicular b to profile projection p03 of zero profile
straight line p0 is restored from profile projection A3 of point A (Fig. 9.11).
5. Projections ψ1, ψ2, ψ3 of the supplementing angle ψ are designated and allocated
by arcs between the corresponding projections a1, a2, a3 of straight line a and
projections b1, b2, b3 of perpendicular b in plane Σ. The complex drawing ψ(ψ1,
ψ2, ψ3) of angle ψ is constructed (Fig. 9.11).
The first basic positional problem is also solved. Complex drawing AΣ(A1Σ, A2Σ)
of point AΣ = b \ Σ of intersection (basis) of perpendicular b and the given plane Σ
is constructed. The base Problem 4 is solved (Sect. 8.7.4).
For point AΣ = b \ Σ of intersection (base) of the perpendicular b and the given
plane Σ, complex drawings h(h1, h2), f(f1, f2), p(p1, p2) of horizontal h, frontal f,
profile straight line p are constructed.
To construct and define angle φ = 90°–ψ between straight line a ≡ AB and plane
Σ, it is necessary to construct the actual angle ψ and to define this supplementing
angle ψ = 90°–φ between straight line a ≡ AB and perpendicular b to plane Σ.
Methods for defining the true values of the angles and flat figures are considered
in the following Sect. 9.3 of solving metric problems by means of transformation of
9.2.6 Angle Between Planes
The angle between planes Φ and Σ (flat sides Φ and Σ) or a dihedral angle is
defined by linear angle φ, segments BD and DC of which belong to the given planes
and perpendicular to line DE of intersection of these planes Φ and
Σ—∠φ = BD \ DC, DC 2 Σ, BD 2 Φ, BD ⊥ DE, DC ⊥ DE, D = BD \ DC,
DE = Φ \ Σ.
2 A2 Z23 2 A2 Z 23
b2 c2 c2
C2 b2
Â2 2 2 Â2 C2
À 2 2
D 2 E2 E b c D2 E 2 E O
O
X12 E1 X12 E1
B C 1 1
1
1 1
1 b1 c1
B1 b1À1 D1 Dc1 C1 Y13 Â1 À1 D1 C1 Y13
Fig. 9.12 Geometric models of defining an angle φ between planes Φ and Σ
To define a dihedral angle φ in the complex drawing, line DE of intersection of

planes Φ and Σ is perpendicular to projection plane Πi, i = 1, 2, 3—DE ⊥ Πi, i = 1,
2, 3 (Fig. 9.12).
To construct the complex drawing of angle φ between planes Φ and Σ, the
following steps are necessary:
1. To construct complex drawing DE(D1E1, D2E2) of intersection line of the given
planes Φ and Σ—DE = Φ \ Σ. The second basic positional problem is solved
(Sect. 8.7.5).
2. To construct complex drawings BD(B1D1, B2D2), DC(D1C1, D2C2) of per-
pendiculars to line DE of intersection of the given planes Φ and Σ. Base
Problem 2 is solved twice (Sect. 9.2.1), under condition of belonging of straight
lines BD and DC to different planes and their intersection in point D—DC 2 Σ,
BD 2 Φ, D = BD \ DC.
3. To allocate and designate the complex drawing φ(φ1, φ2) of angle φ between
planes Φ and Σ (Fig. 9.12).
This method of complex drawing construction of angles between planes assumes
the performance of a considerable quantity of labor-consuming graphic operations.
Besides, lines DE of intersection of the given planes Φ and Σ can be located in
another octant relative to the octant with the initial geometric images. It creates
additional complexities when measuring a dihedral angle φ.
To measure a dihedral angle φ, it is necessary to transform complex drawings of
the constructed geometric images so that line DE of intersection of planes Φ and Σ
becomes perpendicular to any projection plane Πi, i = 1, 2, 3—DE ⊥ Πi, i = 1, 2, 3
(Fig. 9.12).
Additional necessary transformations reduce the accuracy of measuring the
angle.
It is expedient to measure not angle φ between planes Φ and Σ, but rather angle
ψ = 180°–φ supplementing the required angle φ to a double right angle 180°.
The supplementing angle ψ = 180°–φ is an angle between a perpendicular b to

plane Φ and perpendicular c to plane Σ. Perpendiculars b and c are restored to
planes Φ and Σ accordingly from any point A.
Thus, the problem to construct and measure the angle φ between planes Φ and Σ
is reduced to the problem of construction and determination of the supplementing
angle ψ = 180°–φ between perpendiculars b and c to planes Φ and Σ accordingly.
A geometric model of the required angle φ supplements the constructed actual
angle ψ to a double right angle in the drawing: φ + ψ = 180°.
The supplementing angle ψ is measured by a protractor. The required angle φ
between planes Φ and Σ is calculated by the formula φ = 180°–ψ.
The supplementing angle ψ = 180°–φ is constructed (Fig. 9.12) applying the
algorithm for the base Problem 4 (Sect. 9.2.5).
9.3 Solving Metric Problems by Means of Complex

Drawing Transformation
Solving problems of engineering geometry becomes simpler, if a geometric image,

its elements or set of images occupy special position relative to projection planes.
When a geometric image of general position occupies special position in respect to
projection planes, that is becomes either parallel or perpendicular to any projection
plane, the complex drawing of this image is reconstructed (transformed).
Consider the classification of transformation methods of the complex drawing of
a geometric image.
9.3.1 Classification of Transformation Methods

of the Complex Drawing of a Geometric Image
Transformation methods of the complex drawing of a geometric image can be

divided into two groups:
1. Methods of complex drawing transformation in invariable (motionless) position
of a geometric image in space.
2. Methods of complex drawing transformation at changeable (mobile) position of
a geometric image in space.
The first group include the methods in which a geometric image (a point, a line,
and a surface) does not change position in space; the system of projection planes is
replaced by the expedient system, and the principle of orthogonal projection
remains.
9.3 Solving Metric Problems by Means of Complex Drawing Transformation 193
In the first group of the methods of complex drawing transformation in in-

variable (motionless) position of a geometric image in space, two subgroups of the
methods are distinguishable:
1. A method of change of projection planes with introduction of planes and
coordinate axes out of a geometric image and its projections.
2. A method of change of projection planes with introduction of planes and
coordinate axes through the elements of a geometric image and its projections,
known as a method of rectangular triangle.
The second group include the methods in which a geometric image changes the
position in space; the system of projection planes is not replaced by the expedient
system, and the principle of orthogonal projection remains.
In the second group of methods of complex drawing transformation in
changeable (mobile) position of a geometric image in space, five methods are
distinguished.
1. A method of revolution of a geometric image round a straight line (axis) of
general position.
2. A method of revolution of a geometric image around a straight line, perpen-
dicular to a projection plane. A method of revolution of a geometric image
around a projecting axis.
3. A method of rotation of a geometric image around a straight line of level.
4. A method of coincidence of a plane of general position with projection planes by
means of revolution around zero main lines.
5. A method of rotation of a geometric image without setting the axes of revolution
in an invariable system of projection planes; this method of plane-parallel
movement continues until it assumes special position realative to projection
planes.
9.3.2 Methods of Complex Drawing Transformation

for a Motionless Geometric Image
The essence of methods: when a geometric image is motionless, the system of

projection planes changes so that the image occupies special position in order to
determine its metric characteristic.
We next consider the basic laws of methods of complex drawing transformation
for a motionless geometric image.
9.3.2.1 A Method of Change of Projection Planes with Introduction

of Planes and Coordinate Axes Out of a Geometric Image
and Its Projections (Problem 5)
Problem statement: a geometric image (point A, segment AB of a straight line, etc.)

is orthogonally projected in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1
(Fig. 9.13).
Construct a system of projection planes П4/П1 where the geometric image
occupies special position relative to the introduced projection plane П4—П2/
П1 → П4/П1.
It is necessary to transform the obtained three-dimensional model into a
two-dimensional model of an image, i.e., to construct the complex drawing of a
geometric image in the created system of projection planes П4/П1—A(A1, A4).
Problem solution:
1. Projection plane П4 orthogonally to projection plane П1 is under construction so
that, in the created system of projection planes П4/П1, the geometric image
occupies special position relative to projection plane П4. A line of intersection
between projection planes П4 and П1 is the axis of coordinates X14.
2. The axis of coordinates X14 between projection planes П4 and П1 is allocated
and designated.
3. A geometric image (point A, line segment AB, etc.) is orthogonally projected in
the constructed projection plane П4.
4. Projection plane П2 is mentally removed from the constructed system of pro-
jection planes П4/П1.
5. To construct the complex drawing of a geometric image in the created system of
projection planes П4/П1, according to the method of Gaspard Monge, the image
and projecting rays are mentally removed from three-dimensional model and
projection plane П4 rotates around the axis X14 until it coincides with projection
plane П1.
2
A2 Z23 2 2/ 1 - 4/ 1
A2 4 1
A4 A1 4 X14
A
4 A4 14=A2A12
A12 A4
A12 X12
O A14
X12
1
A1 A1
1 X14 Y13 1 X 14 4
Fig. 9.13 Geometric models of images to the method of change of projection planes
The described algorithm for solving the given problem enables allocation of the
laws of change method of projection planes.
1. To observe the principle of orthogonal projection, the introduced projection
plane is perpendicular to the remained projection plane—П4 ⊥ Π1.
2. As the projecting rays are perpendicular to the introduced projection plane, the
introduced line of projective connection is perpendicular to the constructed axis
of coordinates—A1A4 ⊥ X14.
3. As the geometric image does not change position in space relaive to the
remaining projection plane, the distance from the image to the retained pro-
jection plane does not change.
Therefore, distance A4A14 from the constructing projection A4 of the geometric
image to the constructed axis of coordinates X14 in the created system of projection
planes П4/П1 is equal to the distance from the remaining projection A2 to the
remaining axis of coordinates X12—A4A14 = A2A12.
The laws of the change method of projection planes correspond to the algorithm
for constructing the complex drawing of a geometric image in the change of pro-
jection plane system.
Algorithm for constructing the complex drawing of a geometric image in a
unitary system change of projection planes consists of five steps:
1. A projection of a geometric image and a defined coordinate axis, which are
removed from the initial complex drawing.
2. The coordinate axis in respect to the retained projection of a geometric image is
under construction so that the geometric image occupies special position in
respect to the introduced projection plane.
3. Lines of projective connections are constructed from the remaining projection of
the geometric image perpendicularly to the created coordinate axis.
4. In the constructed lines of projective connections from the created coordinate
axis to the creating projection of the geometric image, notches mark the dis-
tances, equal respectively to the distances from the removed projection to the
removed coordinate axis.
5. The constructed projection of the geometric image is allocated and designated.
In the same engineering problem, the given algorithm can be applied multiple
times subject to two conditions.
Conditions of the multiple application of the change method of projection
planes:
1. One of two projection planes of the replaced system should be a component of
the introduced system of projection planes.
2. The introduced projection plane should be perpendicular to the remained pro-
jection plane.
Consider next basic Problem 5 to define the length of a line segment by means of
the change method of projection planes.
Fig. 9.14 Geometric models 2 Z23 2 A2

of line segment AB A2
A B2
A12
B2 X12
A12
X12 O
A1
1
A1 B
1 B1 Y13 B1
Problem 5 A geometric image of line segment AB is orthogonally projected in two

mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 9.14).
It is required to define the length of segment AB by means of the change method
of projection planes introducing the planes and coordinate axes out of the geometric
image and its projections.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: straight line a ≡ AB is the line
of general position, as its frontal projection A2B2 is neither parallel nor perpen-
dicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and the axis of applicates Z23, and horizontal
projection A1B1 is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and
the axis of ordinates Y13.
If projection plane П4 is introduced in parallel to segment AB, the size of
orthogonal projection A4B4 of segment AB in this projection plane П4 is equal to
the segment length (Fig. 9.15).
Algorithm for problem solving:
1. The introduced projection plane П4 is perpendicular to horizontal projection
plane П1—П4 ⊥ Π1.
A frontal projection A2B2 of a geometric image and the axis of abscissas X12 are
removed from the initial complex drawing as the frontal projection plane П2 is
replaced by the introduced projection plane П4.
2 4 1 Z23 2 A2 2/ 1- 4/ 1
A2 AB 1 A1B1 X14
A4B4=AB
A4 A1À4 X14
A B2 A4A14=A2A12
4 A12
B2 A4
X12 A14
A12
X12 O
A1
A1 B4 1
B4
B
1 B1 X14 Y13 B1 1 X14 4
Fig. 9.15 Complex drawing of line segment AB in the created system of projection planes П4/П1
2. The axis of coordinate’s X14 in respect to the retained projection A1B1 of a

geometric image is under construction so that the geometric image AB is par-
allel to the introduced projection plane П4. Thus, horizontal projection A1B1 is
parallel to the axis of coordinates X14 (Fig. 9.15).
3. Lines of projective connections A1A4, B1B4 from the kept projection A1B1 of a
geometric image in direction of the axis of coordinate’s X14 are under con-
struction. Lines of projective connections A1A4, B1B4 are perpendicular to the
created axis of coordinates X14.
4. On the constructed lines of projective connections A1A4, B1B4 from the created
axis of coordinates X14 to the creating projection A4B4 of geometric image AB,
distances equal to the distances from the removed projection A2B2 to the
removed axis of coordinates X12 are marked by means of notches—
A14A4 = A12A2, B14B4 = B12B2.
5. The constructed projection of geometric image A4B4, equal to segment length
AB, is allocated and designated.
9.3.2.2 A Method of Change of Projection Planes Introducing

the Planes and Axes of Coordinates Through the Elements
of a Geometric Image and its Projection. Rectangular Triangle
Method (Problem 6)
Rectangular triangle method is the simplified method of change of projection

planes, as the planes and axes of coordinates, introduced through the elements of a
geometric image and its projection, are not designated in the complex drawing.
Rectangular triangle method is applied to define the length of a line segment.
The essence of the method: the natural length of a line segment of general
position is equal to a hypotenuse of the rectangular triangle where one leg is a
segment projection to one of the initial projection planes, and the other leg is equal
to the disparity in distances between the segment ends from the projection plane,
where this rectangular triangle with the chosen segment projection is under
construction.
Consider basic Problem 6 to define the length of a line segment by means of the
rectangular triangle method.
Problem 6 A geometric image of line segment AB is orthogonally projected in two
mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 9.16).
Determine the length of segment AB by means of the rectangular triangle
method, i.e., use the method of change of projection planes introducing the planes
and axes of coordinates through a geometric image and its projections.
of general position, as its frontal projection A2B2 is neither parallel nor perpen-
dicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and the axis of applicates Z23, and horizontal
the axis of ordinates Y13.
2 Z23 2 A2
A2
ZA-ZB
A B2
A12
B2
X12
A12
X12 O
A1
A1 B
1 B1 Y13 1 B1
Fig. 9.16 Geometric models of line segment AB
2 Z14 Z23 2 A2 / 1 - 4/ 1
2
A2 2 1
AB A1B1 X14
4 ZA-ZB
A1À4 X14
A B2
4 A12 A4A14=ZA-ZB
B2 X12
A12 ZA-ZB
A4
X12 O
A1
A4 1 A14 A4B4=AB
A1 B B4
1 X14 B1=B4 Y13 B1 X14 4
Fig. 9.17 Defining the true length of line segment AB by means of the rectangular triangle
method
If projection plane П4 is introduced through segment AB, the length of

orthogonal projection A4B4 of segment AB in this projection plane П4 is equal to
the true length of this segment (Fig. 9.17).
1. The introduced projection plane П4 is perpendicular to the horizontal projection
plane П1—П4 ⊥ Π1.
The frontal projection A2B2 of the geometric image and the axis of abscissas
X12 is removed from the initial complex drawing as the frontal projection plane
П2 is replaced by the introduced projection plane П4.
To realize the rectangular triangle method, the horizontal projection plane П1
coincides with point B of segment AB by parallel moving. In the drawing, a new
position of horizontal projection plane П1 after the parallel moving and coin-
cidence with point B is not represented.
2. The axis of coordinates X14 through the remained projection A1B1 of geometric
image AB is under construction. Horizontal projection A1B1 coincides with the
axis of coordinates X14 (Fig. 9.17).
3. The line of projective connection A1A4 is constructed from the remaining
projection A1B1 of the geometric image perpendicularly to the created axes of
coordinates X14.
4. In the constructed line of projective connection A1A4 from the created axis of
coordinates X14 to the creation projection A4B4 of geometric image AB, the
distance is marked by a notch equal to the disparity ZA − ZB in distances of the
ends of segment AB from projection plane П1 where this rectangular triangle is
under construction with chosen horizontal projection A1B1 of the segment—
ZA − ZB.
5. The constructed projection of geometric image A4B4, equal to segment length
AB, is allocated and designated.
Conclusion: the rectangular triangle method reduces by half the volume of
graphic constructions.
Consider the second group of transformation methods of the complex drawing
when an image is in changeable position.
9.3.2.3 Algorithm of Multiple Application of the Method of Change

of Projection Planes
The algorithm for construction of the complex drawing of a geometric image at

multiple change of the system of projection planes consists of seven steps.
1. The quantity of introduced systems of projection planes is defined for allocation
and designation of the end result of solving a metric problem—j = M.
The counter j of newly introduced projection planes Δj, j = 1, M is appropriated
as zero—j = 0.
A projection of a geometric image and the axis of coordinates are defined which
remove from the initial complex drawing Ki ðKil ; Kim Þ, i = 1, N, l = 1, 4, 5, m = 2,
4, 5 for the introduced projection plane—Δ(Δl, l = 4, 5, Δm, m = 4, 5).
The axis of coordinates Xlm is under construction, l ≠ m in respect to the
remaining projection of a geometric image so that the geometric image occupies
special position in relation to the introduced projection plane—Δ(Δl, l = 4, 5, 6;
Δm, m = 4, 5, 6; l ≠ m).
2. Lines of projective connections from the remaining projection of a geometric
image are constructed perpendicularly to the created axis of coordinates—
a ⊥ Xlm, l ≠ m (an, n = 1, 2, 3, 4).
3. In the constructed lines of projective connections from the created axis of
coordinates to the creating projection of a geometric image, the distances are
marked by notches which are equal to the distances from the removed projection
to the removed axis of coordinates—b(bn, n = 1, 2, 3, 4).
4. The constructed projection of the geometric image is designated and allocated

by connection of characteristic points Ki, i ¼ 1; N Ki ðKil ; Kim Þ, i = 1, N, l = 1,
4, 5, m = 2, 4, 5, l ≠ m. Number N belongs to the set of natural numbers.
In the same engineering problem, the given algorithm can be repeatedly applied
under two conditions.
Conditions of the repeated application of the method of change of projection
planes:
One of the two projection planes of the replaced system should be a component
of the introduced system of projection planes.
The introduced projection plane should be perpendicular to the remaining
projection plane.
5. Sufficiency of the obtained quantity of newly introduced systems of projection
planes are checked to allocate and designate the end result of solving the
problem (Fig. 9.18).
If the quantity of the newly introduced systems of projection planes is enough to
obtain the end result, the seventh step of the given algorithm is carried out.
If the quantity of the new introduced systems of projection planes is not enough
to obtain the end result, the following sixth step of the given algorithm is carried
out.
6. Additional points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of a new geometric image are defined in
the new system of projection planes for unequivocal allocation and designation
of the end result of solving the problem.
Counter j of newly introduced projection planes Δj, j = 1, M possesses the first
value—j = 1.
6:1. The complex drawing of the new system of projection planes for a newly
introduced projection plane Δj, j ¼ 1; M Dj ðDjl ; Djm Þ, j = 1, M is under
construction. Number M belongs to the set of natural numbers.
The projection of a geometric image and the axis of coordinates are
defined, which remove from the initial complex drawing for the introduced
projection plane—Dj ðDjl ; Djm Þ, j = 1, M.
The axis of coordinates Xjlm , l ≠ m, j = 1, M is under construction in respect
to the remaining projection of the geometric image so that the geometric
image occupies special position in relation to the introduced projection
plane Dj ðDjl ; Djm Þ, j = 1, M.
For a newly introduced projection plane Δj, j = 1, M, similar to points 2, 3,
4, points 6.2, 6.3, 6.4 of the given algorithm are performed.
6:2. New lines aj, j = 1, M of projective connections are under construction
from the remaining projection of the geometric image perpendicularly to
the created axis of coordinates for the newly introduced projection plane
Δj, j = 1, M—aj ðajn l ; am ; n ¼ 1; 2Þ.
jn
Fig. 9.18 Scheme of

0.
algorithm of solving metric
problems
1.
2. a
3. b
4. K i , i=1,N
+ –
5. K i ?
6.
J=1,M
j
6.1.
6.2. a j
6.3. b j
6.4. K ij
–
6.5 K ij?
7. K i, K ij
6:3. In the constructed lines of projective connections from the created axis of
coordinates to the created projection of the geometric image, the distances
are marked by notches that are equal to the distances from the removed
projection to the removed axis of coordinates bj, j = 1, M for the newly
introduced projection plane Δj, j = 1, M—bj ðbjn l ; bm ; n ¼ 1; 2Þ.
jn
6:4. A newly constructed projection of the geometric image is allocated by

connection of characteristic points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M and designated for
the newly introduced projection plane Δj, j = 1, M—Kij ðKijl ; Kijm Þ, i = 1, N,

j = 1, M.
6:5. The determination is made concerning the unambiguity of construction of
the end result of solving the problem.
If the quantity of points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of the newly constructed
projection of a geometric image for the newly introduced projection plane Δj,
j = 1, M is enough for unequivocal allocation and designation of the metric
result of solving the problem, the seventh step of the given algorithm is carried
out.
Otherwise, the value of the counter j of the newly introduced projection plane
Δj, j = 1, M increases by one (j = j + 1).
The complex drawing of a new projection plane Δj, j = 1, M is under con-
struction, and new points Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of a new geometric image of the
newly introduced projection plane are defined, i.e., the performance of the sixth
step of the given algorithm is repeated.
7. The result of solving the problem is allocated and designated—a geometric
image with the demanded metric characteristic.
The developed structural scheme of the algorithm for solving metric problems
reflects the repetition of the first five steps at the sixth step for new projection
planes Δj, j = 1, M (Fig. 9.18).
The scheme of the algorithm oor solving metric problems (Fig. 9.18) corre-
sponds to the scheme of the algorithm for solving positional problems of mutual
intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25).
For the full correspondence of the structural scheme of the algorithm for solving
metric problems (Fig. 9.18) and the structural scheme of the algorithm for
solving positional problems of mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.
25), the symbolic designations by blocks are identical.
The structural scheme of the algorithm contains only standard logic blocks of
operators for programming in high-level languages.
9.3.3 Methods of Transformation of Complex Drawing

in Changeable (Mobile) Position of Geometric Image
in Space
9.3.3.1 Rotation Method of Geometric Image Around a Straight Line

(Axis) of General Position
The essence of the rotation method consists in the rotation of a geometric image
around the axis until assuming special position relative to an invariable system of
projection planes.
Elements of the rotation mechanism:

1. Rotation object—a geometric image (point A).
2. Rotation axis i—a straight line.
3. Plane of rotation Δ—a plane in which a rotation object moves (a geometric
image). The plane of rotation Δ is perpendicular to the axes of revolution I
—Δ ⊥ i.
4. Rotational center O is a point of intersection of the revolution axes and plane of
rotation—O = i \ Δ.
5. Radius of rotation R is a segment whose length jRj is equal to the distance jOAj
from the rotational center O to the set point A—R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB .
Solving of metric problems by means of the rotation method is based on the
construction of complex drawings of elements of the rotation mechanism
(Fig. 9.19).
Consider the algorithm for solving metric problems by the rotation method via
the example of a geometric figure (point A) which is an element of any geometric
image.
The algorithm for solving metric problems by rotation method consists of seven
steps:
1. The complex drawing of rotation object (a point, a straight line, a plane com-
partment, etc.) is under construction—A(A1, A2).
2. The complex drawing of the rotation axis is under construction—i(i1, i2).
3. The complex drawing of the plane of rotation is under construction—Δ(Δ1, Δ2).
Point A of the rotation object should belong to plane of rotation Δ—A 2 Δ.
4. The complex drawing of the rotational center is under construction—O(O1, O2).
5. The complex drawing of the radius of rotation is under construction—R(R1, R2).
6. The true length of the radius of rotation is determined—R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB .
2 Z23 3
2 Z23
i2 2 3 i3
i2 2
3
A2 f3
i A2 i3 3 22 R A3
p A h2 A2 h3
h2 R A3 O2 O3 A3 p
f f 2 21 p2 12 p3
O2
X12 f f 2 f p2 O h O3 À1
A h3 X 12
f 1 Y13
p1 h O1 h1
f1 A1 h 1
i1 O 1 h p À1
1
1 11
1 Y13 i1
1 Y13
Fig. 9.19 Elements of rotation mechanism in rotation method of a geometric image round the
axes of general position
7. The rotation of point A is carried out around corner φ with radius of rotation
R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB of true length until position Aʹ is reached at which point the
geometric image occupies special position relative to an invariable system of
projection plane П2/П1.
9.3.3.2 Rotation Method of a Geometric Image Around a Straight

Line, Perpendicular to the Projection Plane. Rotation Method
of a Geometric Image Around a Projecting Axis (Problem 7)
Consider a rotation method of a geometric image around a projecting axis via the
example of measuremen of the length of a line segment of general position
(Problem 7).
Problem 7 A geometric image of line segment AB of general position is orthog-
onally projected in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 9.20).
Define the segment length AB.
of general position as its frontal projection A2B2 is neither parallel nor perpen-
dicular to the axis of abscissas X12 and axis of applicates Z23 and horizontal
If rotation axis i is drawn perpendicularly through segment AB to projection
plane П1 and segment AB is rotated in parallel to projection plane П2, projection
Aʹ2B2 of segment AB in projection plane П2 is equal to the true length of this
segment.
The algorithm for solving metric problems by means of the rotation method
reflects the essence of the rotation method of a geometric image round a projecting
axis.
2
Â2 Z23 2
Â2 Z23
Â
A2 A2
A O
O X12
X 12 Â1
Â1
À1 À1
1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 9.20 Geometric models of line segment AB

2
Â2 i 2 Z23 2 Â2 Z23
i i2
Â A2B2=AB
A2
A2 R2 O 2 2 A2 A2 R2 2
O2
R O R A
A X12
X12 Â1 i1 1
Â1 i1 1 R1
À1 À1
À1 R1 À1
R1 HB
1
R1 1B1
Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 9.21 Definition of segment length by the method of rotation of a geometric image around a
projecting axis

1. The complex drawing of rotation object (point A) is constructed—A(A1, A2).
2. The complex drawing of rotation axis: i(i1, i2) is under construction. Rotation
axis i is drawn through point B of segment AB perpendicular to horizontal
projection plane П1—i ⊥ П1. Point B belongs to rotation axis i—
B 2 i. Therefore, point B, with the rotation of segment AB into special position,
does not move in space (Fig. 9.21).
3. The complex drawing of plane of rotation is under construction—Δ(Δ1, Δ2).
Point A of the rotation object belongs to the plane of rotation Δ—A 2 Δ. The
plane of rotation Δ is perpendicular to revolution axis i—Δ ⊥ i. The plane of
rotation Δ is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1.
4. The complex drawing of the center of revolution is under construction: O(O1,
O2). Rotation center O is the point of intersection of revolution axis i and the
horizontal plane of rotation Δ—O = i \ Δ.
5. The complex drawing of the radius of rotation is under construction—R(R1, R2),
OA(O1A1, O2A2). The length jRj of the radius of rotation R is equal to the
distance jOAj from the rotation center O to the set point A—R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB .
6. The length of the radius of rotation is defined—R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB . As the radius
of rotation R is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1, its horizontal pro-
jection R1 is equal to the length—R1 ¼ jO1 A1 j ¼ RHB ; OA jj P1 .
7. Point A with radius of rotation R1 ¼ jO1 A1 j ¼ RHB is rotated at angle φ of the
true measure until position Aʹ, where a geometric image occupies special
position in respect to the invariable system of projection plane П2/П1.
If segment AB is parallel to frontal projection plane П2, its frontal projection
A02 B2 is equal to the true length—A02 B2 ¼ AB.
Horizontal projection A1ʹB1 of segment AB in its necessary special position is
parallel to the axis of abscissas Х12—A01 B1 jj X12 .
Projections A01 ; A02 , of point Aʹ correspond to the first law of projective con-
nections and belong to projections of plane of rotation
0 A0 0 A0
Δ—A1 2 11 ; A2 2 11 .
After the construction of a line of projective connection of the first law for point
Aʹ, when the segment AB is parallel to the frontal projection plane П2, frontal
projection Aʹ2B2 is allocated and designated, equal to the true length of the set
segment АВ—A02 B2 ¼ AB.
A semiotic (condition) model for solving the problem consists of seven groups
of symbolic relations:
1. A(A1, A2);
2. i ⊥ П1, B 2 i, i(i1, i2);
3. A 2 Δ, Δ ⊥ i, Δ(Δ1, Δ2);
4. O = i \ Δ, O(O1, O2);
5. R ¼ jOAj, R(R1, R2), R1 ¼ jO1 A1 j, R2 ¼ jO2 A2 jOAðO1 A1 ; O2 A2 Þ;
6. R ¼ jOAj ¼ RHB ; R1 ¼ jO1 A1 j ¼ RHB ; OA jj P1 ;
7. φ, Aʹ, A01 B1 jj X12 , Aʹ1 2 1-1Aʹ, Aʹ2 2 1-1Aʹ, Aʹ2B2 = AB.
A semiotic model for solving the given problem corresponds to the algorithm for
solving metric problems by the the rotation method which consists of seven steps.
Semiotic models for solving metric Problems 1, 2 (Sect. 9.2.1.), 3 (Sect. 9.2.2.),
4 (Sect. 9.2.5.) are not described, as the simple solution algorithms consist of three
steps.
Semiotic models for solving metric Problems 5 (Sect. 9.3.2.1), 6 (Sect. 9.3.2.1)
are specified in drawings (Figs. 9.15 and 9.17).
9.3.3.3 A Method of Rotation of a Geometric Image Around a Straight

Line of Level (Problem 8)
The method of rotation of a geometric image around a straight line of level is also
called a method of revolution of a geometric image round the main line, as the
given method for measuring the true dimensions of a flat figure.
Method essence: by means of rotation of a flat geometric image around its main
line (a horizontal, a frontal, a profile straight line), it is possible to orient this image
parallel to the corresponding projection plane. After such a rotation, the initial flat
geometric image of general position occupies special position of level relative to the
corresponding projection plane. The image is projected in this projection plane in
true size.
It is expedient to choose any main line of the object as a rotation axis for all
points of the initial flat geometric image of general position. Since points of the
image belonging to the rotation axis, upon the rotation of the image, do not change
their position in space, the quantity of transient point’s decreases and the con-
struction of drawings is facilitated to solve engineering problems.
2
B2 Z23 2 B2
B A2
A2 C2
A12
C2 X12
A12 A C C1
X12
C1
1
A1 B1 A1 B1
1 Y13
Fig. 9.22 Geometric models of triangle ΔABC
Thus, in the given method, the main line of a flat geometric image is a rotation
axis.
Consider the method of revolution of a geometric image around a straight line of
level via the example of measuring the true size of a triangle of general position
(Problem 8).
Problem 8 A geometric image of triangle ΔABC of general position is orthogo-
nally projected in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 9.22).
Define the true size of triangle ΔABC.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem; triangle ΔABC is a com-
partment of a plane of general position, as its frontal projection ΔA2B2C2 and
horizontal projection ΔA1B1C1 are not collective segments of a straight line.
If a rotation axis i is drawn through point A in parallel to horizontal projection
plane П1 and rotational points B and C, triangle ΔABC is rotated in parallel to this
projection plane П1, and horizontal projection ΔA1B1C1 of triangle ΔABC in
projection plane П1 is equal to the true size of this triangle.
Thus, the solved problem is reduced to rotation of points B and C round hori-
zontal h which possesses point A—A 2 h.
The essence of the method of rotation of geometric image around a straight line
of level reflects the algorithm for solving metric problems by the rotation method.
Algorithm of solving the problem:
1. The complex drawing of the rotation object (point B) is constructed under the
problem condition—B(B1, B2).
2. The complex drawing of the rotation axis is under construction—i(i1, i2). For
triangle ΔABC as rotation axis i, the horizontal h ≡ A1 is under construction—
i = h ≡ A1. Rotation axis i is drawn through point A of triangle ΔABC in
parallel to horizontal projection plane П1—i jj P1 . Point 1 belongs to rotation
axis i and edge BC—1 2 i, 1 2 BC. Therefore points A and 1 rotating triangle
ΔABC into special position do not move in space. Point B rotating around
horizontal h ≡ A1 draws a circle which belongs to the plane of rotation ΔB
(Fig. 9.23).
2 i B2 Z23 2 B2
O=i S=ZB-ZO R2
RHB B A2 O2 S 12 i2=h 2
RHB
A2 i2=h2 O2 12 C2
B C
A12 O12
C2 Ñ 1 B
h X12 1 Ñ1
A12 A i O C B
C1
X12 B B 1 i1 O1 i1
1
O1 C 1 C1 h 1 h1 11 RHB
11 1 R1
S
A1 i1 A1 B1 C
B1 B1 C
Y13 1
1 1 RHB B1
Fig. 9.23 Definition of the true size of a triangle by a method of rotation of a geometric image
around a straight line of level
3. The complex drawing of the plane of rotation is under construction—DB ðDBP1 ; DBP2 Þ.
Point B of the rotation object belongs to the plane of rotation ΔB—B 2 ΔB. The
plane of rotation ΔB is perpendicular to the revolution axis i—ΔB ⊥ i. The plane of
rotation ΔB is perpendicular to horizontal projection plane П1 as the rotation axis
i for point B is the horizontal h ≡ A1 of triangle ΔABC—i = h ≡ A1.
Horizontal projection DBPi1 of plane of rotation ΔB (trajectories of revolution of
point B) is the collective straight line DBPi1 which possesses horizontal projection
B1 of point B—B1 2 DBP1 . Horizontal projection DBPi1 of the plane of rotation ΔB
is perpendicular to the horizontal projection h1 of horizontal h, which is rotation
axis i—DBP1 ? i1 ; i1 h1 .
4. The complex drawing of the revolution center is under construction—O(O1,
O2). Rotation center O is a point of intersection of rotation axis i and the plane of
rotation Δ—O = i \ Δ.
5. The complex drawing of the radius of rotation is under construction: R(R1, R2),
R1 ¼ jO1 B1 j; R2 ¼ jO2 B2 j, OB(O1B1, O2B2). The length jRj of the radius of
rotation R is equal to the distance jOBj from revolution center O to the set point
B—R ¼ jOBj ¼ RHB .
6. The true length of the radius of rotation is defined R ¼ jOBj ¼ RHB . In the
complex drawing, the true length RHB of radius of rotation R is defined as a
hypotenuse of a rectangular triangle. One leg of this rectangular triangle is
horizontal projection R1 of radius of rotation R of point B—R1 ¼ jO1 B1 j. The
second leg length is equal to the difference S = ZB − ZO of coordinates Z
between the ends of segment BO relative to horizontal projection plane П1—
R1 ⊥ S (Fig. 9.23).
7. Point B rotates at angle φ with the radius of rotation RHB of true length until
position Bʹ where the geometric image occupies special position in respect to the
invariable system of projection planes П2/П1.
If segment OB is parallel to the horizontal projection plane П1, its horizontal

projection Bʹ1O1 is equal to the true length—Bʹ1O1 = BO.
On the collective horizontal projection DBP1 of plane of rotation ΔB from hori-
zontal projection O1 of rotational center O, the true length RHB of radius of
rotation R of point B is marked. Horizontal projection Bʹ1O1 of segment BO in
this necessary special position is equal to the true length RHB of the radius of
rotation R—Bʹ1O1 = BO = RHB. Segment BO and triangle plane ΔABC are
parallel to horizontal projection plane П1—BO jj P1 , BO = R = RHB,
DABC jj P1 . Therefore, horizontal projection Bʹ1A1 is equal to the true length
of edge BA of triangle ΔABC.
8. To rotate point C into the demanded special position Cʹ where edge BC of
triangle ΔABC is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1, it is possible to
execute similarly all seven steps of the algorithm for solving metric problems by
the rotation method.
However, it is obvious, that point C, rotating into special position BʹCʹ of edge
BC of triangle ΔABC, coincides with plane of rotations ΔC which is perpen-
dicular to rotation axes i—ΔC ⊥ i, i ≡ h ≡ A1.
Horizontal projection DCP1 of plane of rotation ΔC (trajectory of rotation of point
C) is a collective straight line DCP1 which possesses the horizontal projection C1
of point C C1 2 DCP1 . Horizontal projection DCP1 of plane of rotation ΔC is
perpendicular to horizontal projection h1 of horizontal h, which is rotation axis
i—DCP1 ? i1 ; i1 h1 A1 11 .
Point 1, when edge BC of triangle ΔABC is rotated into special position BʹCʹ,
does not change the position in space, as it belongs to rotation axis i—1 2 i.
Point Bʹ belongs to edge BC of triangle ΔABC in the case that triangle plane
ΔABC is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1—Bʹ ≡ B.
Therefore, a straight line, which passes through points Bʹ and 1, is parallel to
horizontal projection plane П1 and intersects the plane of rotation ΔC of point C
in the required special position Cʹ.
To construct horizontal projection Bʹ1Cʹ1 of edge BC of triangle ΔABC, when
projected in true real length in horizontal projection plane П1, it is necessary to
extend horizontal projection Bʹ111 of segment Bʹ1 until the point of intersection
of horizontal projection DCP1 and plane of rotation ΔC of point C. At the inter-
section of horizontal projection B01 11 of segment Bʹ1 and horizontal projection
DCP1 of plane of rotation ΔC of point C, horizontal projection C01 of point Cʹ is
allocaed and designated—C01 ¼ B01 11 \ DCP1 ; B01 C01 .
9. After the construction of horizontal projection Bʹ1Cʹ1 of edge BC of triangle
ΔABC when it is projected full-scale (true length) in horizontal projection plane
П1, horizontal projections A1 B01 and A1 C01 of edges AB and AC are allocated
and designated, which are equal to the true length of the given segments AB and
AC—B01 C01 ¼ BC; A1 B01 ¼ AB; A1 C01 ¼ AC.
Horizontal projection ΔA1Bʹ1Cʹ1 of triangle ΔABC is equal to the true
size—ΔA1Bʹ1Cʹ1 = ΔABC.
A semiotic (condition) model for solving the problem consists of nine groups of
symbolic correlations:
1. B(B1, B2);
2. i jj P1 , i = h ≡ A1, A 2 i, 1 2 i, 1 2 BC, i(i1, i2);
3. B 2 ΔB, ΔB ⊥ i, B1 2 DBP1 ; DBP1 ? i1 , i1 ≡ h1, DB ðDBP1 ; DBP2 Þ;
4. O = i \ Δ, O(O1, O2);
5. R ¼ jOBj; R1 ¼ jO1 B1 j; R2 ¼ jO2 B2 j, R(R1, R2);
6. R1 ¼ jO1 B1 j, S = ZB − ZO, R1 ⊥ S, R ¼ jOBj ¼ RHB , OB jj P1 ;
7. φ, Bʹ1O1 = BO = RHB, B01 O1 jj P1 ; BO jj P1 ; DABC jj P1 ;
8. C 2 ΔC, ΔC ⊥ i, DCP1 ? i1 , i1 ≡ h1 ≡ A111, Bʹ ≡ B, 1 2 i, 1 2 BC,
C01 ¼ B01 11 \ DCP1 , B01 C01 ¼ BC;
9. B01 C01 ¼ BC; A1 B01 ¼ AB; A1 C01 ¼ AC; DA1 B01 C01 ¼ DABC:
The semiotic model for solving the given problem corresponds to the algorithm
for solving metric problems by the method of rotation which consists of seven steps
to rotate one point. The eighth and ninth steps to solve the given problem facilitae
the rotation of one additional point.
9.3.3.4 A Method of Coincidence of a Plane of General Position

with Projection Planes by Means of Rotation Around Zero
Main Lines (Problem 9)
The coincidence method is a special case of a method of rotation around a straight

line of level.
The essence of the coincidence method consists in the fact that, for the mea-
surement of the true size of a geometric image belonging to a plane of general
position, this plane of general position rotates around any of its line of intersection
with projection planes until it fully coincides with a corresponding projection plane.
Lines of intersection between a plane of general position and projection planes
П1, П2, П2 accordingly are called: zero horizontal h0, zero frontal f0, and zero
profile straight line p0 [26–30].
Therefore, the coincidence method, as a matter of fact, is a method of rotation
around zero main lines.
Consider features of the coincidence method via the example of the problem to
measure the true size of a geometric image belonging to a plane of general position.
These problems are solved in engineering practice, e.g., to determine the true size of
window apertures on flat roofs of general position.
Problem 9 A plane of general position Σ is given by two intersecting zero main
lines Σ(h0 \ f0): zero horizontal h0 and zero frontal f0 (Fig. 9.24).
Points M(M1, M2), N(N1, N2) belong to the given plane Σ—M(M1, M2) 2 Σ, N
(N1, N2) 2 Σ.
2 2
2
2
1
1
1 1
Fig. 9.24 Geometric models of plane Σ
And, points M, N are located in the same horizontal hN of the given plane Σ—
M 2 hN, N 2 hN.
Point M is a point of intersection between horizontal hN, which possesses point
N, and zero frontal f0 of the given plane Σ—M = hN \ f0. Therefore, point M
belongs to zero frontal f0—M 2 f0.
Point K(K1, K2) is a point of intersection between zero horizontal h0 and zero
frontal f0—K = h0 \ f0. Therefore, point K belongs to: zero horizontal h0; zero
frontal f0; the given plane Σ; horizontal projection plane П1; frontal projection plane
П2; and the axis of abscissas X12—K 2 h0, K 2 f0, K 2 Σ, K 2 П1, K 2 П2,
K 2 X12.
For any point L(L1, L2) of zero frontal f 0 ðf 01 ; f 02 Þ, define the true size of triangle
ΔLMN, formed by three points L, M, N of the given plane
Σ—LðL1 ; L2 Þ 2 f 0 ðf 01 ; f 02 Þ, L 2 Σ, M 2 Σ, N 2 Σ. The true size of triangle ΔLMN
should be measured by the coincidence method of the given plane Σ and horizontal
projection plane П1.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: because the plane of general
position Σ is given by two intersectingd zero main lines Σ(h0 \ f0), it is necessary to
analyze the complex drawings of zero horizontal h0 and zero frontal f0.
As zero horizontal h0 and zero frontal f0 belong accordingly to horizontal pro-
jection plane П1 and frontal projection plane П2, zero horizontal h0 and zero frontal
f0 coincide accordingly with horizontal projection h01 of zero horizontal h0 and
frontal projection f 02 of zero frontal f0—h0 h01 ; f 0 f 02 (Fig. 9.24).
Frontal projection h02 of zero horizontal h0 and horizontal projection f 01 of zero
frontal f0 coincide with the axis of abscissas X12 and with each other
—h02 X12 ; f 01 X12 ; h02 f 01 (Fig. 9.24).
Zero horizontal h0 is line ΣП1 of intersection between the given plane Σ and
horizontal projection plane П1—ΣП1 = h0 \ П1.
Zero frontal f0 is line ΣП2 of intersection between the given plane Σ and frontal
projection plane П2—ΣП2 = f0 \ П2.
As points K, L, M belong to zero frontal f0 in frontal projection plane П2, points

K, L, M coincide accordingly with their frontal projections K2, L2, M2: K ≡ K2,
L ≡ L2, M ≡ M2. Lengths K2L2, K2M2, L2M2 between frontal projections K2, L2,
M2 of points K, L, M are equal to the lengths KL, KM, LM between the points—
K2L2 = KL, K2M2 = KM, L2M2 = LM.
As point K belongs to zero horizontal h0 in horizontal projection plane П1, point
K coincides with their horizontal projection K1—K ≡ K2 ≡ K1.
Horizontal projections K1, L1, M1 of points K, L, M belong to horizontal pro-
jection f 01 of zero frontal f0, coinciding with the axis of abscissas
Х12—K1 2 f 01 ; L1 2 f 01 ; M1 2 f 01 ; f 01 X12 (Fig. 9.24).
Horizontal projection f 01 of zero frontal f0 coincides with frontal projection h02 of
zero horizontal h0 : f 01 h02 . Therefore, horizontal projections K1, L1, M1 of points
K, L, M belong also to frontal projection h02 of zero horizontal h0, coinciding with
the axis of abscissas Х12—K1 2 h02 ; L1 2 h02 , M1 2 h02 ; h02 X12 (Fig. 9.24).
As points M, N are located in the same horizontal hN of the given plane Σ, their
N
frontal projections M2, N2 belong to frontal projection hN 2 of this horizontal h , and
horizontal projections M1, N1 belong to horizontal projection hN 1 of this horizontal
hN—M2 2 hN 2 ; N2 2 h N
2 ; M 1 2 h N
1 ; N 1 2 h N
1 .
The true size of triangle ΔLMN is measured by the coincidence method of the
given plane Σ and horizontal projection plane П1 by means of rotation of plane Σ
around zero horizontal h0 h01 .
For plane Σ and horizontal projection plane П1 to coincide, it is necessary that
three points, of plane Σ by revolution around zero horizontal h0 h01 and horizontal
projection plane П1, also coincide.
It is rational to choose point K of plane Σ as the first point, since point K belongs
to zero horizontal h0 h01 of plane Σ and it coincides with horizontal projection
plane П1.
As the second point, it is expedient to choose point M of plane Σ, as point M
belongs to zero frontal f 0 f 02 of plane Σ and its coincidence with horizontal
projection plane П1 assures the coincidental position f0ʹ of zero frontal f0 in hori-
zontal projection plane П1—f0ʹ 2 П1.
Coincided zero frontal f0ʹ and zero horizontal h0 h01 fix the coincidental
position Σʹ of plane Σ in horizontal projection plane П1.
As the third point, it is rational to choose point O, belonging to zero horizontal
h0 h01 of plane Σ and being the center of rotation of point M, because point O thus
coincides with horizontal projection plane П1.
Zero horizontal h0 h01 with the rotational center O is the rotation axis i for
point M—i h0 h01 .
As points K and O belong to the motionless axis of rotation i h0 h01 , these
points, comprising coinciding plane Σ with horizontal projection plane П1, does not
change its position in space.
Thus, the problem to make plane Σ coincide with horizontal projection plane П1
is reduced to revolution of point M around horizontal h0 which possesses point O,
until it coincides with position Mʹ of point M in horizontal projection plane П1—
O 2 h0.
Coincidence of point M and horizontal projection plane П1 can be accomplished
by the method of revolution of a geometric image around a straight line of level
ði h0 h01 Þ.
The essence of the method of rotation of a geometric image around a straight line
of level reflects the algorithm for solving metric problems by the rotation method
(Sect. 9.3.3.1). By means of this algorithm, Problems 7 and 8 are solved.
Algorithm for solving a problem of coincidence of plane Σ and horizontal pro-
jection plane П1 by the rotation method:
1. The complex drawing of rotation object (point M) is constructed under the
problem condition—M(M1, M2).
2. The complex drawing of the rotation axis is under construction—i(i1, i2). As the
rotation axis i for point M, the constructed zero horizontal h0 h01 of plane Σ is
chosen—i h0 h01 ; i1 h01 ; i2 h02 (Fig. 9.25).
3. The complex drawing of the plane of rotation is under construction—
DM ðDM P1 ; DP2 Þ. Point M belongs to plane of rotation Δ —M 2 Δ . Plane of
M M M
rotation Δ is perpendicular to rotation axes I—Δ ⊥ i. Plane of rotation ΔM is

M M
perpendicular to horizontal projection plane П1, because the rotation axis i for
point M is zero horizontal h0 h01 of plane Σ—i ¼ h0 h01 .
Horizontal projection DM P1 of plane of rotation Δ (trajectory of point rotations)
M
is collective straight line DP1 which possesses horizontal projection M1 of point

M
M—M1 2 DM P1 . Horizontal projection DP1 of plane of rotation Δ

M M
is perpen-
dicular to horizontal projection h01 of zero horizontal h0, which is the axis of
rotation i—DM P1 ? i1 ; i1 h1 .
0
2 2
2
2
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
2 1 1
Fig. 9.25 Definition of true size of a triangle by the coincidence method

4. The complex drawing of the rotation center is under construction—O(O1, O2).

Rotation center O is a point of intersection between rotation axis i and the plane
of rotation Δ—O = i \ Δ.
5. The complex drawing of the radius of rotation is under construction—R(R1, R2).
The length jRj of radius of rotation R is equal to the length jOMj from the
rotation center O to the given point M—R ¼ jOMj ¼ RHB .
6. The true length of radius of rotation is defined—R ¼ jOBj ¼ RHB .
In the complex drawing, the true length RHB of the radius of rotation R is
defined as a hypotenuse of a rectangular triangle. One leg of this rectangular
triangle is horizontal projection R1 of the radius of rotation R of point M
—R1 ¼ jO1 M1 j. The second leg is equal in length to the difference S = ZM − ZO
of coordinates Z of the ends of segment MO relative to the horizontal projection
plane П1 (Fig. 9.25)—R1 ⊥ S.
7. Rotate at angle φ of point M with a radius of rotation RHB of the true measure
until position Mʹ is reached, where the geometric image then occupies special
position in relative to the invariable system of projection plane П2/П1.
If segment MO then coincides with horizontal projection plane П1, its horizontal
projection MʹO1 is equal to segment length MO—MʹO1 = MO.
The true length RНВ of radius of rotation R of point M is measured, from the
horizontal projection О1 of rotation center A, along the collective horizontal pro-
М
jection DMP1 of the plane of rotation Δ . Horizontal projection MʹO1 of segment MO
in this required special position is marked and is equal to the true length RHB of
radius of rotation R—MʹO1 = MO = RHB. Segment MO and plane Σ coincide with
horizontal projection plane П1—MO 2 П1, MO = R = RHB, Σ 2 П1.
Therefore, point K through coincident point Mʹ is under construction, combined
with zero frontal f0ʹ of plane Σ—KMʹ = f0ʹ, KMʹ 2 П1, KMʹ 2 Σ.
The intersection at point K of coincident zero frontal f0ʹ and zero horizontal
h h01 is assigned a coincident position Σ′ of plane Σ in the horizontal projection
0
0 0
plane П1—K ¼ f 0 \ h01 ; R0 ¼ f 0 \ h01 .
The combined point Mʹ in horizontal projection plane П1 can be obtained by the
coincidence method without determining the true size RHB of the radius of rotation
R of point M.
Steps of the coincidence method:
0. The zero horizontal h0 h01 of plane Σ, as constructed and based on the problem
conditions, is the rotation axis i for point M — i i1 h0 h01 (Fig. 9.25).
1. The complex drawing of plane of rotation ΔM for a coincident point M is under
construction.
Horizontal projection of rotation circle (movement trajectory) of point M
coincides with horizontal projection DM P1 of the plane of rotation Δ
M
of this
point. Horizontal projection M1 of point M belongs to horizontal projection DM P1
of plane of rotation ΔM. Horizontal projection DM P1 of plane of rotation Δ M
is
perpendicular to horizontal projection i1 of revolution axis i—DM P1 ? i 1 .
In the given problem, horizontal projection i1 of revolution axis i coincides with

zero horizontal h0 h01 —i1 h01 .
As segment KM belongs to zero frontal f0 of plane Σ and, hence, to frontal
projection plane П2 of frontal projection, K2M2 of this segment is equal to its
true length KM—K2M2 = KM.
Therefore, the distance from frontal projection M2 of point M to point K does
not change once plane Σ coincides with horizontal projection plane П1—
KMʹ = K2M2 = KM.
2. Hence, the circle arc (with a center at point K and radius KM2 equal to the
length from point K to frontal projection M2 of point M, until the point of
intersection with horizontal projection DMP1 of plane of rotation Δ ) is under
M
construction.
3. Intersection between the circle arc and the center at point K and true radius
length KM2 with horizontal projection DM P1 of plane of rotation Δ of point Mʹ,
M
coincident with horizontal projection plane П1, is allocated and designated—

M0 ¼ KM2 \ DM P1 .
Apply the described steps of the method of coincidence to obtain the required
result in the given Problem 9.
Algorithm for solving the problem by the coincidence method:
1. According to the four steps of the coincidence method, point Mʹ coincident with
the horizontal projection plane П1 is under construction.
2. Zero frontal f0ʹ, coincident with horizontal projection plane П1, connecting point
Mʹ with point K, is under construction—KMʹ = K ⋃ Mʹ, f0ʹ ≡ KMʹ.
3. Through point Mʹ in parallel to zero horizontal h0 h01 , coincident horizontal
hNʹ which possesses coincident point Nʹ is under construction
0 0
—M0 2 hN ; hN jj h01 .
4. The complex drawing of plane of rotation ΔN for coincident point N is under
construction—N 2 ΔN, ΔN ⊥ i, N1 2 DN P1 ; DP1 ? i1 , i1 h1 ; D ðDP1 ; DP2 Þ.
N 0 N N N
Nʹ
5. The point of intersection of coincident horizontal h and horizontal projection
DNP1 of plane of rotation Δ of point N of point Nʹ, coincident with horizontal
N
0
projection plane П1 is allocated and designated—N0 ¼ hN \ DN P1 .
6. According to the steps of the coincidence method, point Lʹ coincident with
horizontal projection plane П1 is under construction.
At the given stage of solving the given problem, there are three ways of con-
structing the coincident point Lʹ—L0 ¼ KL2 \ DLP1 , Lʹ = KL2 \ f0ʹ,
0
L0 ¼ DLP1 \ f 0 .
7. Segment LʹNʹ, coincident with horizontal projection plane П1 and equal to the
true length of the required edge LN of triangle ΔLMN is allocated and desig-
nated—LʹNʹ = LN.
Coincident image ΔLʹMʹNʹ of the required triangle ΔLMN which belongs to
plane Σ is allocated and designated.
Coincident image ΔLʹMʹNʹ of triangle ΔLMN is equal to its true size ΔLMN.
This equality is confirmed, as lengths LʹMʹ, MʹNʹ, LʹNʹ between coincident points
Lʹ, Mʹ, Nʹ are equal to lengths LM, MN, LN between points L, M, N of plane Σ—
LʹMʹ = LM, MʹNʹ = MN, LʹNʹ = LN, ΔLʹMʹNʹ = ΔLMN.
The semiotic (condition) model of solving the problem consists of the following
groups of symbolic correlations:
1. M(M1, M2);
2. i 2 Σ, i 2 П1, i i1 h0 h01 ; i1 h01 ; i2 h02 , i(i1, i2);
3. M 2 ΔM, ΔM ⊥ i, M1 2 DM P1 ; DP ? i1 ; i1 h1 ; D ðDP1 ; DP2 Þ;
M 0 M M M
4. O = i \ Δ, O(O1, O2);
5. R ¼ jOMj; R1 ¼ jO1 M1 j; R2 ¼ jO2 M2 j, R(R1, R2);
6. R1 ¼ jO1 B1 j, S = ZM − ZO, R1 ⊥ S, R ¼ jOMj ¼ RHB ;
7. φ, MʹO1 = MO = RHB, MʹO1 2 П1, MO 2 П1, KMʹ 2 П1;
8. KMʹ = K[Mʹ, f0ʹ ≡ KMʹ;
0 0
9. M0 2 hN ; hN jj h01 ;
10. N 2 ΔN, ΔN ⊥ i, N1 2 DN P1 ; DP1 ? i1 ; i1 h1 ; D ðDP1 ; DP2 Þ;
N 0 N N N
0
11. N 0 ¼ hN \ D N P1 ;
12. L 2 ΔL, ΔL ⊥ i, L1 2 DLP1 ; DLP1 ? i1 ; i1 h01 ; DL ðDLP1 ; DLP2 Þ;
0
13. KL0 ¼ K2 L2 ¼ KL ¼ jKL2 j, L0 ¼ KL2 \ DLP1 , Lʹ = KL2 \ f0ʹ, L0 ¼ DLP1 \ f 0 ;
14. LʹMʹ = LM, MʹNʹ = MN, LʹNʹ = LN, ΔLʹMʹNʹ = ΔLMN.
The first seven groups of symbolic parities describe the coincidence of point M
and horizontal projection plane П1 at the coincident position of Mʹ by means of the
method of rotation of a geometric image round a straight line of level ði h0 h01 Þ.
The semiotic model of solving the given problem corresponds to the algorithm for
solving metric problems by the method of rotation, which consists of seven steps
for a one-point rotation.
The eighth group of symbolic parities corresponds to construction of coincident
zero frontal f0ʹ.
The ninth group of symbolic parities corresponds to construction of coincident
zero horizontal hNʹ to allocate coincident point Nʹ.
The tenth group of symbolic parities describes the features of construction of the
complex drawing ðDN P1 ; DP2 Þ of the plane of rotation Δ for point N.
N N
The eleventh symbolic parity corresponds to construction of coincident point Nʹ.

The twelfth group of symbolic parities describes the features of construction of
the complex drawing ðDLP1 ; DLP2 Þ of the plane of rotation ΔL for point L. This group
of symbolic parities is necessary, if coincident position Lʹ of point L is defined by
0
means of plane of rotation ΔL for point L—L0 ¼ KL2 \ DLP1 ; L0 ¼ DLP1 \ f 0 . The
twelfth group of symbolic parities can be excluded from the semiotic model for
solving the given problem, if coincident position Lʹ of point L is defined by means
of the length from point K to point L ðKL0 ¼ K2 L2 ¼ KL ¼ jKL2 jÞ and coincident
zero frontal f0ʹ—Lʹ = KL2 \ f0ʹ.
The thirteenth group of symbolic parities describes the method of construction of

coincident point Lʹ.
The fourteenth group of symbolic parities corresponds to allocation and desig-
nation of coincident image ΔLʹMʹNʹ of the required triangle ΔLMN which belongs
to plane Σ.
Conclusions.
1. The coincidence method can be carried out without determining the true length
of the radius of rotation of a coinciding point if the plane of general position is
given by the main lines.
2. Lengths between points in the coincident main lines are equal to the true lengths
between these points in space.
3. The given method is effective in engineering practice to define the true size of
window apertures of any form on flat slopes of roofs of general position.
Consider the method of rotation of a geometric image without the axis of
rotation in the constant system of projection planes.
9.3.3.5 Method of Plane-Parallel Moving (Problem 10)
On 30 April, 1882, in Moscow Higher Technical College, master of applied

mathematics Nikolai Egorovich Zhukovsky (1847–1921) defended his dissertation
“On durability of movement” for the doctor’s degree of applied mathematics.
In 1885, the outstanding composition “On movement of firm body, having
cavities filled with homogeneous drop liquid” was published in the journal of the
Russian Physical and Chemical Society. In this work, Zhukovsky stated the general
method of solving problems of the movement of firm bodies with cavities of any
form. One of the conclusions of the formulated theory explained the cause of
planetary orbits around one of the main axes of inertia.
The method of plane-parallel moving is based on two theorems:
Theorem 1 When an object rotates around an axis, perpendicular to a projection
plane, the size of object projection in this plane remains invariable.
Theorem 2 (Nikolai E. Zhukovsky’s Theorem). Any movement of a invariable
system in parallel to the given plane can be obtained by one revolution around the
axis, perpendicular to this plane, and by parallel transport of the system to the
required position.
The essence of the method is that, at motionless mutually perpendicular pro-
jection planes, the projection object is rotated and transporte in space so that each
point moves in the plane that is parallel to a projection plane. Planes, in which
points of the projection object move with the plane-parallel movement and reletaive
to one of projection planes, are planes of level. The projection object moves to the
required special position relative to the invariable system of projection planes.
Consider the method of plane-parallel moving via the example of defining the
true size of a quadrangle of general position (Problem 10).
Z23 B2 2
2
B2
C2 O2
C2 O2 A2
A2 B
D2 D2
C O C12 B12 A12
D A
C12 X12 D1
X12 D1
A1 C1 A1
C1 O1 O1
1 B1 Y13 B1 1
Fig. 9.26 Geometric models of quadrangle ABCD
Problem 10 A geometric image of quadrangle □ABCD of general position is

orthogonally projected in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1
(Fig. 9.26).
Determine the true size of quadrangle □ABCD.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: quadrangle □ABCD is a
compartment of a plane of general position as its frontal projection □A2B2C2D2 and
horizontal projection □A1B1C1D1 do not represent collective line segments.
If rotation axis i is drawn through point A perpendicularly to horizontal pro-
jection plane П1, and quadrangle □ABCD is turned by means of points B, C, D in
parallel to horizontal projection plane П1 so that it became perpendicular to frontal
projection plane П2, in this special position of the image, frontal projection
□A2B2C2D2 of quadrangle □ABCD in projection plane П2 represents a collective
line segment—□ABCD ⊥ П2.
Now, if rotation axis i is drawn through frontal projection A2 of point A of
collective frontal projection □A2B2C2D2 of quadrangle □ABCD perpendicularly to
frontal projection plane П2, and quadrangle □ABCD is rotated by points B, C, D in
parallel to frontal projection plane П2 so that it becomes parallel to horizontal
projection plane П1, in this special position of the image, horizontal projection
□A1B1C1D1 of quadrangle □ABCD in this projection plane П1 represents the true
size of quadrangle—hABCD jj P1 , □A1B1C1D1 = □ABCD.
Traditional application of the algorithm of solving metric problems by the
rotation method requires: construction of complex drawings of five elements of the
rotation mechanism; determination of the true size of radius of rotation; and rotation
of a geometric image in special position relative to the projection planes.
On the basis of the theorem of Professor Nikolay E. Zhukovsky, the solved
problem is reduced to two revolutions and two parallel movements of quadrangle
□ABCD into the empty space and a complex drawing. Quadrangle □ABCD after
each revolution and plane-parallel movement occupies special position relative to
the invariable system of projection planes—□ABCD ⊥ П2, ABCD jj P1 .
To determine the true size of quadrangle □ABCD by the method of plane-
parallel moving, two rotations are required around the axis of rotation with parallel
2
B2 B
2 B12 A1 B1 C1 D1 2
Z23
C B1
A2B2C2D2 1
C2 2 C12
O2 A 1
A21B21C12D21= ABCD
h2 A2 2 A2
D2 B D2 A1 D22 A22 C22 B22
h C D O 1 1
h B2
C12 A D2 A
1 A2 Y13
2
X12 h1 D1 A11 C A1
1
A1 D1 B11 B B12
O1
1
D2 C2
C1 D11 D
1 D12
h 1 B1 h 1
2 1
h
1 C
1 h11 X12 C11 1 C12
Fig. 9.27 Definition of the true size of a triangle by the method of plane-parallel moving
movement of a geometric image to special position in respect to projection planes

(Fig. 9.27).
At the first turn, quadrangle □ABCD rotates in parallel to horizontal projection
plane П1 until the projecting position in respect to frontal projection plane
П2—□A1B1C1D1 ⊥ П2, h1 ⊥ П2.
At the second turn, projected in frontal projection plane П2 in the form of a
collective line segment, quadrangle □ABCD rotates in parallel to frontal projection
plane П2 until the horizontal position of level in respect to horizontal projection
plane П1—□A2 B2 C2 D2 jj P1 .
Then quadrangle □ABCD is projected full-scale in horizontal projection plane
П1—hA21 B21 C21 D21 ¼ hABCD (Fig. 9.26).
1. The complex drawing of object of plane-parallel moving (quadrangle □ABCD)
is constructed under the problem conditions—□ABCD (□A1B1C1D1,
□A2B2C2D2).
2. The complex drawing of a horizontal is under construction—h2 jj X12 ,
h2 2 □A2B2C2D2, h (h1, h2) (Fig. 9.27).
3. Quadrangle □ABCD is rotated and moved parallel in respect to horizontal
projection plane П1 until the projecting position □A1B1C1D1 in relation to
frontal projection plane П2—h1 ⊥ П2, □A1B1C1D1 ⊥ П2.
Horizontal projection □A1B1C1D1 of quadrangle □ABCD rotates so that the
horizontal projection h1 of horizontal h is perpendicular to the axis of abscissas
X12—h1 ⊥ X12. After this turn, horizontal projection □A1B1C1D1 of quadrangle
□ABCD moves to the empty field of the complex drawing into the new position
hA11 B11 C11 D11 —h11 ? X12 ; h11 2 hA11 B11 C11 D11 .
4. The complex drawing of the object of plane-parallel moving after the first turn is
under construction—hA1 B1 C1 D1 ðhA11 B11 C11 D11 ; hA12 B12 C12 D12 Þ.
Frontal projections DA 2 ; D2 ; D2 ; D2 of planes Δ , Δ , Δ , Δ of horizontal level,
B C D A B C D
where characteristic points A, B, C, D of quadrangle □ABCD move, are under

construction—DA 2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 .
B C D
Lines of projective connections 1-1A, 1-1B, 1-1C, 1-1D of the first law for
characteristic points A1, B1, C1, D1 of quadrangle □ABCD in its projecting
position are under construction—1-1A1 ⊥ X12, 1-1B1 ⊥ X12, 1-1C1 ⊥ X12,
1-1D1 ⊥ X12.
Frontal projections A12 ; B12 ; C12 ; D12 of characteristic points A1, B1, C1, D1 of
quadrangle □ABCD in its projecting position are points of intersection between
lines of projective connections 1-1A, 1-1B, 1-1C, 1-1D of the first law and frontal
projections DA 2 ; D2 ; D2 ; D2 of planes of horizontal level—A2 ¼ 11 \ D2 ,
B C D 1 A A
B2 ¼ 11 \ D2 , C2 ¼ 11 \ D2 , D2 ¼ 11 \ D2 (Fig. 9.27).

1 B B 1 C C 1 D D
5. The second turn and parallel movement of quadrangle □ABCD in respect to

frontal projection plane П2 until the level position in relation to horizontal
projection plane П1 is carried out—hA2 B2 C2 D2 jj P1 .
Frontal projecting projection hA12 B12 C12 D12 of quadrangle □ABCD turns until it
is in parallel position in respect to the axis of abscissas Х12—hA12 B12 C12 D12 jj X12 .
After this turn, frontal projecting projection hA12 B12 C12 D12 of quadrangle
□ABCD moves to a free field of the complex drawing into the new position
hA22 B22 C22 D22 (Fig. 9.28).
6. The complex drawing of the object of plane-parallel moving after the second
turn is under construction—hA2 B2 C2 D2 ðhA21 B21 C21 D21 ; hA22 B22 C22 D22 Þ.
Horizontal projections RA 1 ; R1 ; R1 ; R1 of planes Σ , Σ , Σ , Σ of frontal level,
B C D A B C D
where characteristic points A1, B1, C1, D1 of quadrangle □ABCD move, are
under construction—RA 1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 .
B C D
Lines of projective connections 1-1 , 1-1 , 1-1 , 1-1D of the first law for
A B C
characteristic points A2, B2, C2, D2 of quadrangle □ABCD in its horizontal

position of level are under construction—1-1A2 ⊥ X12, 1-1B2 ⊥ X12,
1-1C2 ⊥ X12, 1-1D2 ⊥ X12.
2
B2 B
2 B12
O2 C
2 C12 A21B12C12D21= ABCD
C2 A 1
h2 A2 2 A
2
1 2 2
D
2
h2 D 2 A 2
2 C 2 B22
D2
C12 B12 A12 D12
A
X12 D1 A11 B
1 A21
h1 1
A1 B11 D B12
C1 O1 1 1
D 1
D21
1 h2 X12 B1 h 1
1 X12 h 1
1
1
C
1
C
1 C12
Fig. 9.28 Definition of the true size of a triangle by the method of plane-parallel moving in the
complex drawing
Horizontal projections A21 ; B21 ; C21 ; D21 of characteristic points A2, B2, C2, D2 of
quadrangle □ABCD in its horizontal position are points of intersection between
lines of projective connections 1-1A, 1-1B, 1-1C, 1-1D of the first law and
horizontal projections RA 1 ; R1 ; R1 ; R1
B C D
of planes of frontal level—
A1 ¼ 11 \ R1 , B1 ¼ 11 \ R1 , C1 ¼ 11C \ RC1 , D21 ¼ 11D \ RD
2 A A 2 B B 2
1.
7. The true size of quadrangle □ABCD is allocated and designated.
In the second special position (hA2 B2 C2 D2 jj P1 ), the plane of quadrangle
□ABCD is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1—hABCD jj P1 .
Therefore, horizontal projection hA21 ; B21 ; C21 ; D21 of quadrangle □ABCD is
equal to its true size hABCD—hA21 ; B21 ; C21 ; D21 ¼ hABCD.
The essence of the method of plane-parallel moving is reflected by the conditin
(semiotic) model.
The semiotic model for solving the problem consists of the following groups of
symbolic correlations:
1. □ABCD(□A1B1C1D1, □A2B2C2D2);
2. h2 jj X12 , h2 2 □A2B2C2D2, h(h1, h2);
3. h1 ⊥ П2, □A1B1C1D1 ⊥ П2, h11 ? X12 ; h11 2 hA11 B11 C11 D11 ;
4. DA2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 ; D2 jj X12 ;
B C D
5. 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1D1 ⊥ X12;

A1 B1 C1
6. A12 ¼ 11A \ DA 2 ; B2 ¼ 11 \ D2 , C2 ¼ 11 \ D2 ; D2 ¼ 11 \ D2 ;

1 B B 1 C C 1 D D
7. hA1 B1 C1 D1 ðhA11 B11 C11 D11 ; hA12 B12 C12 D12 Þ;

8. hA2 B2 C2 D2 jj P1 ; hA12 B12 C12 D12 jj X12 ;
9. RA1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 ; R1 jj X12 ;
B C D
10. 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1 ⊥ X12, 1-1D2 ⊥ X12;

A2 B2 C2
11. A21 ¼ 11A \ RA 1 ; B1 ¼ 11 \ R1 , C1 ¼ 11 \ R1 ; D1 ¼ 11 \ R1 ;

2 B B 2 C C 2 D D
12. hA B C D ðhA1 B1 C1 D1 ; hA2 B2 C2 D2 Þ;

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
13. hA21 B21 C21 D21 ¼ hABCD:

Conclusions:
1. In the method of plane-parallel moving, constructions of complex drawings of
five elements of the rotation mechanism and determination of the true size of the
radius of rotation are not required.
2. To determine the true size of a flat geometric image, it is enough to effect two
plane-parallel moving of this image by the method of plane-parallel moving into
projecting position and into position of level relative to the invariable system of
projection planes.
3. The allocated sign (semiotic) model reflects the basic geometric relations of the
method.
9.4 Review Questions on the Fifth Block (This Chapter)
1. What are the characteristics of a geometric image?

2. What characteristics are metric characteristics of geometric images?
3. What problems of engineering geometry are metric problems?
4. What two groups and what signs are metric problems divided into?
5. What is the essence of the basic step of solving metric problems?
6. What is a theoretical basis of solving a metric problem?
7. What is the essence of the theorem of right angle projection?
8. What is the essence of the theorem of perpendicularity of two straight lines?
9. What is the condition of perpendicularity of a straight line of a plane.
10. What is the essence of the theorem of perpendicularity of two planes?
11. What is meant by the angle between two straight lines?
12. How does one define the angle between a straight line and a plane?
13. How does one define the angle between two planes?
14. How does one classify the methods of transformation of the complex drawing
of a geometric image?
15. What methods concern the first group of methods of transformation of the
complex drawing at invariable (motionless) position of a geometric image in
space?
16. What methods concern the second group of methods where the geometric
image changes its position in space?
17. Laws of the method of change of projection planes.
18. Conditions of multiple application of the method of change of projection
planes.
19. What is the essence of the method of rectangular triangle?
20. What elements make the mechanism of the method of rotation of a geometric
image?
21. What seven steps of the rotation method does the algorithm for solving metric
problems consists of?
22. What is the essence of the method of coincidence?
23. What theorems is the method of plane-parallel moving based on?
24. What advantages does the method of plane-parallel moving have?
25. What does the sign (semiotics) model of the method reflect?
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Chapter 10
Development of Surfaces
A surface development is a flat figure that is formed by means of unfolding the

object’s surfaces until they fully coincidence with a plane, without tension, ruptures
or folds.
10.1 Basic Properties of Development
1. Each point of the object surface corresponds to a point on the development of

this surface and to only one point (injection). And, on the contrary, each point of
development corresponds to a point on object surface and also to only one point
(surjection).
Thus, there is biunique conformity (bijection) between points of the object
surface and points of the development of this surface [1–6].
2. Each line of the object surface corresponds to a line on development of this
surface and to only line (injection). And, on the contrary, each line of devel-
opment corresponds to a line on object surface and to only line (surjection).
Thus, there is biunique conformity (bijection) between lines of object surface and
lines of development of this surface.
3. A straight line on the development of this surface (injection) corresponds to a
straight line of object surface. The inverse conclusion is not always true.
A curved line on the object surface can correspond to a straight line of
development.
4. Parallel straight lines on the development of this surface can correspond to
parallel straight lines of the object surface.

228 10 Development of Surfaces
5. Lengths of the corresponding line segments on the object surface and on the
development of this surface are equal.
6. Angles between the corresponding intersected lines on the object surface and on
the development of this surface are equal.
7. The areas of the corresponding figures on the object surface and on the
development of this surface are equal.
10.2 A Condition of Surface Development
Since not all surfaces can be developed, namely those coincident with a plane
without tension, ruptures or folds, these geometric images are divided into devel-
oped and non-developed surfaces.
A criterion of development of a surface in engineering practice is a condition of
expansion.
Theorem (development condition)
If a tangent plane at some point of a surface coincides with its forming line at all
points along its length, this surface is a developed surface.
A torus is developed surface. A torus is a surface formed by a straight line, a
tangent to a spatial curve at all its points.
Special cases of a torus are a cone, a cylinder, and plane.
Undeveloped surfaces include the following:
1. A linear surface with three directing lines.
2. Cylindroids are surfaces formed by movement of a straight line in parallel to a
plane of parallelism along two curve directing lines.
3. A conoid is a surface formed by movement of a straight line in parallel to a
plane of parallelism along a curved directing line and a directing line.
4. A hyperbolic paraboloid (skew plane) is a surface formed by movement of a
straight line in parallel to a plane of parallelism along two directing lines.
5. A helicoid is a surface formed by movement of a straight line along two
directing lines: a screw line and its axis.
6. Nonlinear rotation surfaces: a sphere, a torus, an ellipsoid, a paraboloid and
hyperboloid.
7. Cyclic surfaces formed by movement of a sphere.
10.3 The General Principle, Method and Algorithm

for Constructing Development of a Curvilinear
Developed Surface
The general principle of constructing development of a curvilinear developed

surface consists of the following:
10.3 The General Principle, Method and Algorithm … 229
1. An object surface is approximated with the required accuracy by means of a

polyhedral surface.
2. Development of the inscribed or circumscribed polyhedron is under
construction.
3. The points, obtained by development and corresponding to a surface line, are
linked by a smooth curve.
Method and algorithm for constructing development of a curvilinear developed
surface contain the following steps (Fig. 10.1):
Fig. 10.1 Diagram of the

0.
algorithm for constructing
development
1.
2. a
3. b
4. K i, i=1,N
+ –
5. K i ?
6.
J=1,M
j
6.1.
6.2. a j
6.3. b j
6.4. K ij
–
6.5 K ij ?
7. K i, K ij
1. In a curvilinear developed surface, between the two nearest forming lines, site Δ
is allocated.
2. The curvilinear surface between the allocated forming lines is replaced by flat
figure a.
3. The true size of the obtained flat figure b is determined.
4. The flat figure of true size is constructed in a plane (drawing)—Ki, i = 1, N.
Number N is the quantity of the identical flat figures of true size corresponding
to the allocated site Δ of a curvilinear developed surface.
5. The completeness of constructing the surface development is checked.
If all identical flat figures of true size, corresponding to the allocated site Δ of a
curvilinear developed surface, coincide with a plane, and other sites (Δj, j = 1, M)
are not allocated, the seventh step is carried out.
If flat figures of true size are not and constructed for all allocated sites of a
curvilinear surface, the sixth stage is carried out.
6. Points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 of the given algorithm for the next site of a curvilinear surface
are carried out—Δj, j = 1, M.
Counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of a curvilinear surface is assigned
the first value—j = 1.
6:1. The following site of a curvilinear surface is allocated—Δj, j = 1, M. This
site directly borders on the previous site of a curvilinear surface.
6:2. The curvilinear surface between the allocated forming lines is removed by a
flat figure—aj, j = 1, M.
6:3. The true size of the obtained flat figure is determined—bj, j = 1, M.
6:4. The flat figure of true size is constructed in a plane (drawing)—Kij, i = 1, N,
j = 1, M.
6:5. Completeness of the constructing development of a surface is checked—Kij,
i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
If all identical flat figures of true size, corresponding to the allocated site Δj,
j = 1, M of a curvilinear developed surface, coincide with a plane, and other sites
(Δj, j = 1, M) are not yet allocated, the seventh step is carried out.
If flat figures of true size are not yet determined and constructed for all allocated
sites (Δj, j = 1, M) of a curvilinear surface, the sixth step is carried out.
The value of counter j of the allocated sites Δj, j = 1, M increases by one
(j = j + 1). A complex drawing of an approximating flat figure aj, j = 1, M is under
construction. True size of the obtained flat figure is determined—bj, j = 1, M. The
flat figure of true size is under construction in a plane (drawing)—Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1,
M. That is, the sixth step of the given algorithm is repeated.
7. All sets of the constructed adjacent flat figures are allocated and designated by
smooth curves—Ki, i = 1, N; Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
The constructed set of adjacent flat figures is the approximate development of the
given curvilinear surface.
10.3 The General Principle, Method and Algorithm … 231
The structural diagram of the algorithm for constructing development of a

curvilinear surface consists of standard logic blocks (Fig. 10.1).
The structural diagram of the algorithm for constructing development of a
curvilinear surface corresponds to the structural diagram of the algorithm for
solving positional problems in mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25)
and the scheme of algorithm for solving metric problems (Fig. 9.18).
Comparing the structural diagrams of the algorithm for constructing develop-
ment of a curvilinear surface (Fig. 10.1), the algorithm for solving positional
problems in mutual intersection of geometric images (Fig. 8.25), and talgorithm for
solving metric problems (Fig. 9.18), one readily notes that the symbolic designa-
tions in blocks are identical.
The developed structural diagram of the algorithm for constructing development
of a curvilinear surface reflects the repeated application of the first five steps at the
sixth step for new sites Δj, j = 1, M (Fig. 10.1).
The structural diagram of the algorithm contains only standard logic blocks of
operators for programming in a high-level language.
10.4 Methods of Constructing Development
There are three methods of constructing development:

1. Triangulation (from Latin “triangulum”—triangle).
2. Unreeling.
3. Normal section.
10.5 Development of Cones and Pyramids (Problem 1)
According to the general principle of constructing development of a curvilinear

developed surface, construction of cone development consists of the following
steps:
1. The cone surface is approximated with the required accuracy by means of a
polyhedron pyramid surface.
2. Development of the inscribed or circumscribed polyhedron of a lateral surface
of a pyramid is under construction.
3. Pyramids of a point, corresponding to a line of a cone surface, obtained in
development, are linked by a smooth curve.
Development of a lateral cone surface is attached to its base.
Accuracy of constructing cone development depends on the difference between a
length of arc basis and a length of an approximating chord.
2 S2 Z23 2 S2 Z23
S
l
j2 j2
12 n2 22
12 n2 22 j
O X12 O
X12 S1 S1
j1 11 j1
1
1
1 21
1 1 Y13 1 Y13
Fig. 10.2 Geometric models of inclined cone S
Consider basic problem 1 on constructing development of a curvilinear devel-

oped cone surface.
Problem 1 A geometric image of inclined circular cone S is orthogonally projected
in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 10.2).
Construct development of a curvilinear cone surface.
Analysis of the initial data and the given problem the surface of inclined circular
cone S is a surface of rotation with axis j, rectilinear forming line S1 and directing
line in the form of a circle n(n1, n2).
Since axis j is parallel to frontal projection plane П2 (j║П2), frontal meridional
plane of level S12, which possesses axis j, contains forming lines S1, S2 which are
parallel to frontal projection plane П2—S1║П2, S2║П2.
Therefore, the sizes of orthogonal frontal projections S212, S222 of segments S1,
S2 of rectilinear forming lines in frontal projection plane П2 are equal to the true
sizes of these segments—S212 = S1, S222 = S2.
Directing line n of inclined circular cone S is a circle belonging to horizontal
projection plane П1—n 2 П1, n ≡ n1, 1 ≡ 11, 2 ≡ 21. Therefore, the horizontal
projection of a directing circle has true size—n1 = n, 1121 = 12.
Hence, to simplify the solution, it is expedien to divide the directing circle into
equal parts.
Method of solving the problem:
0. Directing circle n of the base of circular cone S is divided by points 1, 2, 3, 4
into four equal parts.
Points 1, 2, 3, 4 are linked by segments 13, 32, 24, 41 of straight lines. Segments
13, 32, 24, 41 of straight lines are approximating chords of arc of the directing
circle n. Thus, the closed curve directing line is replaced by the closed polygonal
line consisting of four parts. The circular cone bas n is replaced by the flat square
base 1234 (Fig. 10.3).
Points 1, 2, 3, 4 link to the apex S by segments S1, S2, S3, S4 of straight lines.
Triangular sections S13, S32, S24, S41 of planes are approximate flat sides of of a
10.5 Development of Cones and Pyramids (Problem 1) 233
2 S2 Z23 1
2
321
1
1 K
2 2 S
j2 i2 K 11
31 3
12 n2 1 1
K 21
32 2 22 32 2 3 K2
O 2
1 j i
S1 i1 4
1 j1 1 1 1 1
X12 1 1 1 4
1
1 1 1 Y13 1
Fig. 10.3 Approximation of a geometric model of an inclined circular cone S by a tetrahedral

model of pyramid
lateral curvilinear conic surface. Thus, the lateral curvilinear conic surface is
replaced by pyramidal surface S1324 with four triangular flat sides S13, S32, S24,
S41 (Fig. 10.3).
If the approximate flat square base 1234 is divided by a diagonal into two
triangles, the cone is replaced by a polyhedron surface consisting of triangles of the
base and triangles of the lateral surface of the pyramid.
Therefore, the method of triangulation is applied to construct the cone devel-
opment. True sizes of each approximating triangle are determined by the trans-
formation method of geometric image to special position. Triangles of true size are
attached to each other on adjacent sides (pyramidal edges) in a plane. Development
of the introduced polyhedron of the pyramid surface is performed.
Pyramids with a point (apex), corresponding to a line of cone surface, obtained
on development, are linked by a smooth curve (Fig. 10.3).
To apply the formal algorithm to construct the development of a curvilinear
surface and to exclude the errors in graphic construction at the preparatory (zero)
step, it is necessary to define the quantity of sites, approximation of which is carried
out—Δ; Δj, j = 1, M.
For each approximated site Δ; Δj, j = 1, M, of a curvilinear developed surface, it
is necessary to define the quantity of identical sites in the approximating polyhedron
surface—Ki, i = 1, N; Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
Then the problem is reduced to defining the true size of only various sites in the
approximating polyhedron surface—Ki, i = 1, N; Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
In the given problem, site Δ of a curvilinear surface between forming lines S1,
S3 corresponds in size to a site between forming lines S4, S1. Therefore, two sites
K1 and K2 are under construction in development corresponding to the true size of
one site Δ of a curvilinear surface between forming lines S1, S3.
Site Δ1 of a curvilinear surface between forming lines S3, S2 corresponds in
sizes to a site between forming lines S2, S4. Therefore, two sites K11 and K21,
corresponding to the true size of one site Δ1 of a curvilinear surface between
forming lines S3, S2, are under construction in development.
Algorithm for solving the problem.

1. In a curvilinear developed surface between two nearby forming lines S1, S3,
some site Δ is allocated.
2. The curvilinear surface between allocated forming lines S1, S3 is replaced by a
flat figure—a ≡ S13.
3. Thte rue size of the obtained flat figure is determined—b = S13.
Frontal projection S212 of edge S1 is equal to true size—S212 = S1.
Frontal projection S2 312 of edge S31 is equal to true size S3: S2 312 ¼ S3, as edge
S3 in position S31 is parallel to frontal projection plane П2—S31║П2
(Fig. 10.3).
Horizontal projection 1131 of edge 13 is equal to its true size as edge 13 belongs
to horizontal projection plane П1—13 2 П1, 1131 = 13.
4. Flat figure b = S13 of true size is under construction in a plane (drawing)—Ki,
i = 1, N. Number N is the quantity of identical flat figures of true size corre-
sponding to the allocated site Δ of a curvilinear developed surface.
As the quantity of identical S13 = S41 flat figures of true size b = S13, two K1
and K2, both figures are under construction in development—K1 = S13,
K2 = S41, b = S13 = S41, K1 = K2 = b.
5. Confirmaion of the completeness of construction of surface development is
checked.
If all identical flat figures of true size Ki = b, i = 1, N, corresponding to the
allocated site Δ of a curvilinear developed surface, coincide with a plane, and
other sites (Δj, j = 1, M) are not allocated, the seventh step is carried out
(Fig. 10.4).
If not all allocated sites of curvilinear surface Δ; Δj, j = 1, M, flat figures of true
size Ki = b, i = 1, N have been determined and constructed—Kij = bj, i = 1, N,
j = 1, M, the sixth step is carried out.
As true size of site Δ1 of a curvilinear surface between forming lines S3, S2 was
not determined yet and corresponding approximating flat two sites K11 and K21
are not constructed in development, the sixth step is carried out.
2 S2 1 2
321
K1
2
j2
1 i2 K 11
2
31 3 K 21
12 32 2 22 312 1
2
3
2 K2
X12 41
i1 4
j1 1
11 S1 1 1
1
1
1
4
21 1
1
1 31
Fig. 10.4 Development of a curvilinear surface of a cone

10.5 Development of Cones and Pyramids (Problem 1) 235
6. Items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 of the developed algorithm for the next site of a curvilinear

surface are carried out—Δj, j = 1, M.
Counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of a curvilinear surface assumes the
initial value of one—j = 1.
6:1. The following site of a curvilinear surface is allocated: Δj, j = 1, M. This
following site directly borders on the previous site of a curvilinear surface.
Site Δ1 is allocated between two nearest forming lines S3, S2.
6:2. The curvilinear surface between the allocated forming lines is replaced by a
The curvilinear surface Δ1 between allocated forming lines S3, S2 is
replaced by flat figure a1 ≡ S32.
6:3. The true size of the obtained flat figure is determined—bj, j = 1, M.
The true size b1 = S32 of the obtained flat figure a1 ≡ S32 is determined.
6:4. The flat figure of true size is under construction in a plane (drawing)—Kij,
i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
As the quantity of identical S32 = S24 flat figures of true size b1 = S32 two
K11 and K21, both figures are under construction in development—
K11 = S32, K21 = S24, b1 = S23 = S24, K11 = K21 = b1.
An adjacent side for these figures is side S2.
6:5. Confirmation of the completeness of construction of surface development is
checked—Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
If all identical flat figures of true size, corresponding to the allocated site Δj,
j = 1, M of a curvilinear developed surface, coincide with a plane, and other sites
(Δj, j = 1, M) are not yet allocated, the seventh step is carried out.
In the given problem, all additional flat figures K11 and K21 of true size b1 ≡ S32
are constructed in development; the seventh step is carried out.
The constructed set of adjacent flat figures K1, K2, K11, K21 is the approximate
development of the given curvilinear surface (Fig. 10.4).
The base is attached to the development of a lateral surface of the cone.
Conclusions.
1. The accuracy of construction of development iimproves, as the cone base is
divided into progressively more parts, e.g. eight, twelve, and sixteen parts.
2. The proposed structural scheme of the algorithm enables automation of the
construction of development of a curvilinear surface.
3. The algorithm accommodates the desired quantity of identical approximating
flat figures.
10.6 Development of Cylinders and Prisms (Problem 2)
According to the general principle of construction of development of a curvilinear

developed surface, construction of cylinder development consists of the following
steps:
1. The cylinder surface is approximated with the required accuracy by constructing
the polyhedron prism surface.
2. Development of the inscribed or circumscribed polyhedron of a prism lateral
surface is under construction.
3. The points obtained in prism development, corresponding to lines of a cylinder
surface, are linked by smooth curves.
Its two bases are attached to development of the lateral surface of a cylinder.
The accuracy of construction of cylinder development depends on the size of the
arc length along its basis and the length of an approximating chord.
The chord, approximating the arc, is the edge of prism base.
Thus, construction of cylinder development is reduced to the construction of
development of the inscribed or circumscribed prism.
The problem of construction of prism development can be solved by the method
of triangulation, if each lateral side of the prism is divided by diagonals into
triangles.
However, the method of triangulation includes the labor-consuming step of
deteriming the true sizes of all edges and diagonals of the prism sides.
Prism development is expedient to build in the method of unreeling in which
there is no stage of defining the true size of a diagonal of prism side. Absence of a
stage of defining the true size of a diagonal of prism side is the advantage of the
method of unreeling.
Essence of the method of unreeling:
1. The prism is located so that its lateral edges are parallel to the chosen base
projection plane (a limitation of the method of unreeling). In the complex
drawing, projections of lateral edges of general position are transformed to
special parallel position in respect to the base axis of coordinates and become
frontals, horizontals or profile straight lines. The base projection plane contains
projections of lateral edges of true size.
2. The true sizes of distances between lateral edges of the prism are determined.
3. Images of lateral edges of true size are under construction on the base projection
plane to maintain the true sizes of distances between these edges. Images of
lateral edges are linked by images of edges of the prism bases.
Consider problem 2 on construction of development of a curvilinear developed
surface of a cylinder:
Problem 2 A geometric image of inclined circular cylinder S is orthogonally
projected in two mutually perpendicular projection planes П2/П1 (Fig. 10.5).
10.6 Development of Cylinders and Prisms (Problem 2) 237
l2 2 Z23 2 l2 S2 Z23
n2
S2 i2
i2 n2 12
12
l
i S
n 1 O
X12
n1
X12 n1 i1
i1 Y13 11
l1 11 l1
S1 1 Ï1 S1 Y13
Fig. 10.5 Geometric models of an inclined cylinder S
Construct the development of a curvilinear surface of the cylinder.

Analysis of the initial data and the given problem: the surface of the inclined
circular cylinder S is the rotation surface with axis i, rectilinear forming line l and a
directing line in the form of circle n(n1, n2).
Rectilinear forming line l and axis i are parallel to frontal projection plane П2—
l ║ П2, i ║ П2. Directing line n(n1, n2) belongs to the plane that is perpendicular to
frontal projection plane П2—n ⊥ П2 (Fig. 10.5).
1. To construct the development of a curvilinear developed surface of the cylinder,
the surface of inclined circular cylinder S is approximated by a tetrahedral
surface of the prism (Fig. 10.6).
As rectilinear forming line l and axis i of cylinder S are parallel to frontal
projection plane П2, lateral edges of the approximating tetrahedral prism are also
parallel to frontal projection plane П2.
Therefore, owing to the properties of orthogonal projection, lateral edges of the
prism are projected in frontal projection plane П2 in true size.
2 Z23 2 S2 Z23
S2
i2
i2 12
12
i S
1 O
X12
X12 i1
i1 Y13 11
11
S1 1 1 S1 Y13
Fig. 10.6 Approximation of geometric model of cylinder S by a tetrahedral model of prism

2 Z23 2 S2 Z23
S2
i2
i2 2 2 22 2 12
22 2 12 32
32 i
4 S
3 1 41 O
X12
2 i1
X12 41
i1 Y13 31 11
31 11
1 21 S1 1 1 1 21 S1 Y13
Fig. 10.7 Definition of true distances between prism edges in horizontal section Σ(Σ1, Σ2)
Hence, it is convenient to develop a lateral surface of the prism, coinciding with

the frontal projection plane П2.
To construct the development of a lateral surface of the prism on frontal pro-
jection plane П2, it is necessary to know only the true distance between edges of the
approximating image.
2. To define the true distance between prism edges, the complex drawing of secant
horizontal plane of level Σ(Σ1, Σ2) is under construction.
Horizontal plane of level Σ(Σ1, Σ2) intersects prism edges in points 1, 2, 3, 4
(Fig. 10.7).
As plane Σ(Σ1, Σ2) is parallel to horizontal projection plane П1, horizontal
projection 1121314111 of section 12341 shows true distances between prism edges
in this section—1121 = 12, 2131 = 23, 3141 = 34, 4111 = 41 (Fig. 10.7).
True distances between prism edges in horizontal section Σ(Σ1, Σ2) are equal
accordingly to distances between points 1, 2, 3, of these 4 edges in the development
of a lateral surface—12 = 1121, 23 = 2131, 34 = 3141, 41 = 4111.
3. To construct the development of a lateral surface of the prism by the method of
unreeling, the development of section 12341 is under construction in frontal
projection plane П2.
The development of section 12341 includes the broken line, the length of which
is equal to the perimeter of section Σ(Σ1, Σ2).
At unreeling of a lateral surface of the prism and its coincidence with frontal
projection plane П2, points 1, 2, 3, 4 of section 12341 rotate in the projecting planes
which are perpendicular to the lateral edges. Frontal projections of these projecting
planes of rotation are collective straight lines which are perpendicular to frontal
projections of lateral edges of the prism.
In the development, each point 1, 2, 3, 4 of section 12341 belongs to the
corresponding collective straight line and is located in the distance equal to true
distance between the considered pair of points in this section—12 = 1121, 23 = 2131,
34 = 3141, 41 = 4111 (Fig. 10.8).
2 Z 23 2 Z 23
4 1 4 1
3 3
S2 2 2
i2 i2
22 2 2 22 2
12 2 1
32 i 32 12
4 S
3 1 S2
O
X12 41 S1 O
2 1
X12 41 i1
i1 11 Y13
31 31 21
1 21 S1 1 1
11 Y13
Fig. 10.8 Development of curvilinear surface of a cylinder
To define the position of point 2 in respect to point 1, where side 12 of the prism
coincides with frontal projection plane П2, it is necessary to intersect collective
straight line 224 for points 2 and 4 by the arc of a circle with radius 1121 = 12,
equal to the true distance between points 1 and 2 in section 12341, and the center in
point 1.
Similar constructions are carried out to define positions of points 3, 4, 1 in
corresponding collective straight lines.
Prism edges are under construction through certain points 2, 3, 4, 1 in parallel to
axes i. The bases of edges are located in corresponding collective straight lines.
Prism bases are attached to the development of a lateral surface.
The points, obtained in the prism development, corresponding to lines of the
cylinder surface, are linked by smooth curves.
Thus, construction by the method of unreeling of full development of the
inclined circular cylinder is complete.
The basis of the initial geometric image is chosen as secant plane Σ(Σ1, Σ2), if it
belongs to or is parallel to a projection plane. Then, true distances between the
edges of the approximating polyhedron in this section Σ(Σ1, Σ2) are measured
directly in a corresponding projection of the image. The problem of construction of
development by the method of unreeling becomes simpler.
Despite the necessity of construction of the complex drawing of an image with
true size of edges, disadvantages of unreeling are the broken character of devel-
opment of the section and a binding of image development to a projection of this
image with true sizes of its edges.
These two disadvantages are eliminated when using the method of normal
section.
The method of normal section is involves a method of construction of devel-
opment wherein a secant plane is perpendicular to a forming line of the surface.
The advantages of the method of normal section are the rectilinear character of
section development and the possibility of construction of image development in a
free field of the drawing.
Consider the problem solving of construction of development of the inclined
circular cylinder by means of normal section using the proposed formal algorithm
(Sect. 10.3).
Application of the formal algorithm for development construction (Sect. 10.3) by
means of normal section becomes simpler, because the given inclined circular
cylinder is evenly approximated by a tetrahedral prism (Fig. 10.6).
The curvilinear surface of the inclined circular cylinder is evenly divided by four
forming lines into four approximated sites—Δ; Δj, j = 1, 3.
Each approximated site Δ; Δj, j = 1, 3 of a curvilinear developed surface cor-
responds to only one site in the approximating polyhedron surface—Ki, i = 1; Kij,
i = 1, j = 1,3; N = 1, M = 3.
All approximating sites of the polyhedron surface are equal—
K1 = K11 = K12 = K13.
Therefore, true size of only one site in approximating polyhedron surface needs
to be determined in the problem—Ki, i = 1.
1. Some site Δ is allocated in a curvilinear developed surface between two nearby
forming lines 1, 2.
2. The curvilinear surface between the allocated forming lines 1, 2 is replaced by a
flat figure—a ≡ 12.
3. True size of the resultant flat figure is determined—b = 12.
Frontal projections 12, 22 of edges 1, 2 are equal to true sizes, because edges 1, 2
are parallel to frontal projection plane П2—1║П2, 2║П2, 12 = 1, 22 = 2.
To define the distance between edges 1, 2, the complex drawing of normal
section 12341 of a prism is under construction by means of frontal projection plane
Σ(Σ1, Σ2): 12341(1121314111, 1222324212). Normal section 12341 is perpendicular
to rectilinear forming line l and axes i of cylinder S (Fig. 10.9).
2 Z23 2 S2 Z23
12 2
i2 2
i2 S2 1 12
2
22 2
212 1
2
3 22 2
i 1
1
32 121
2
32 4 S X12 32
2 O
41 3 4 41 O
X12 1
i1 1 3 31 11
31 11 i1
21 1 S1 1 Y13 2 1 S1 1 21 Y13
Fig. 10.9 Definition of true size 12341 of normal sections Σ of a prism and cylinder S
The method of transformation of the complex drawing determines the true size
of normal section 12341 of a prism which contains the true sizes of the distances
between edges 1, 2, 3, 4 (Fig. 10.9).
4. Flat figure b = 12 of true size is under construction in a plane (drawing)—Ki,
i = 1; K1 = b = 12.
A horizontal straight line is under construction in a free field of the drawing.
Segment 12 of true size is marked on a horizontal straight line.
Vertical straight lines of development are under construction through points 1, 2
constructed on a horizontal straight line.
On the vertical straight lines, the segments are marked the length of which is
equal to the true size of edges 1, 2 of a prism.
The tops of images of real edges 1, 2 of the prism are linked by straight line
segments.
5. Confirmation of the completeness of construction of surface development is
checked.
If all identical flat figures of true size Ki = b, i = 1, N, corresponding to the
allocated site Δ of a curvilinear developed surface, now coincide with a plane, and
other sites (Δj, j = 1, M) are not yet allocated, the seventh step is carried out.
As the allocated site Δ of the curvilinear developed surface corresponds to only
one flat figure of true size K1 = b which coincides with a plane, and other sites Δ1,
Δ2, Δ3 are allocated, the seventh step is not carried out.
If flat figures of true size Ki = b, i = 1, N, Kij = bj, i = 1, N, j = 1, M are not yet
defined and constructed for all allocated sites of curvilinear surface Δ; Δj, j = 1, M,
the sixth step is carried out.
Sites Δ, Δ1, Δ2, Δ3 of the curvilinear surface are equal, so the true sizes of
approximating flat sites K11, K12, K13 are determined, but are not yet constructed in
development: K1 = K11 = K12 = K13. Therefore, the sixth step is carried out.
6. Sections 1–5 of the developed algorithm for the next site of a curvilinear surface
are carried out—Δj, j = 1, M.
Counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of the curvilinear surface is assigned
the first value—j = 1.
6:1. The following site of the curvilinear surface is allocated: Δj, j = 1, M. This
following site directly borders on the previous site of the curvilinear
surface.
For j = 1 between two nearby forming lines 2, 3, site Δ1 is allocated.
6:2. The curvilinear surface between the allocated forming lines is replaced by a
For j = 1 the curvilinear surface Δ1 between the allocated forming lines 2, 3

is replaced by a flat figure a1 ≡ 23.
6:3. The true size of the resultant flat figure is determined—bj, j = 1, M.
For j = 1, the true size b1 = 23 is determined from the flat figure a1 ≡ 23.
For j = 2, the true size b2 = 34 is determined from the flat figure a2 ≡ 34.
For j = 3, the true size b3 = 41 is determined fromthe flat figure a3 ≡ 41.
In the given problem, section 6.3 cannot be carried out, as the true sizes of
all flat figures are equal—b = b1 = b2 = b3.
6:4. The flat figure of true size is under construction in a plane (drawing)—Kij,
i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
For j = 1, the quantity of identical flat figures of true size b1 = 23 is only
K11, so in development this figure is attached to figure K1 on adjacent edge
2—K1 = 12, K11 = 23, b1 = 23 = 12 = b, K1 = K11 = b1 = b.
K12, so in development this figure is attached to figure K11 on adjacent
edge 3—K11 = 23, K12 = 34, b1 = 23 = 34 = b2, K11 = K12 = b1 = b2.
K13, so in development this figure is attached to figure K12 on adjacent
edge 4—K12 = 34, K13 = 41, b2 = 34 = 41 = b3, K12 = K13 = b3 = b2.
6:5. Confirmation of the completeness of construction of surface development
is checked—Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M.
The value of counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of a curvilinear surface
increases by one—j = j + 1.
If the value of counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of the curvilinear
surface is less or equal to the quantity of allocated sites M, the sixth step is repeated
—j ≤ M.
So the loop back section 6.1 is carried out, and sections 6.1–6.5 are executed as
the value of counter j increases by one for the constructed sites of a surface.
If the value of counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of the curvilinear
surface is more than the quantity of allocated sites M, all flat figures of true size of
an approximating polyhedron coincide with a plane—j > M. Therefore, the seventh
step is carried out.
The constructed set of adjacent flat figures K1, K11, K12, K13 is the approximate
development of the given curvilinear surface (Fig. 10.10).
2 Z 23 1 3
2 Z 23
1
2 4 2 S2
i2 12 2
1 11 12 2
S2 K K K K13 i2 12
22 2
3
2 3 4 1 22 2
2
i 1 1
32 4 S 1 2 3 32
2 O
41 3 X12 41 O
X12
i1 1 3 1 i1 31 11
31 11
21 1 S1 1 Y13 2 1 S1 1 21 Y13
Fig. 10.10 Development of a curvilinear surface of the cylinder by the method of normal section
The cylinder bases are then attached to the development of a lateral surface.
Conclusions.
1. The proposed structural scheme of the algorithm enables some identical
approximating sites corresponding to one site of a curvilinear surface to be built
into the development.
2. The criterion for continuation of the development construction is that the value
of counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of a curvilinear surface is smaller or
equal to M (the sixth step repeats)—j ≤ M.
3. The criterion of the termination of development construction is that the value of
counter j of the following site Δj, j = 1, M of a curvilinear surface is more than
the quantities of allocated sites M—j > M.
10.7 Review Questions on the Sixth Information Block

(This Chapter)
1. What is the meaning of the term surface development?

2. What are the basic properties of surface development?
3. What are the criteria for surface development?
4. What is the general principle of construction of a curvilinear developed
surface?
5. What are the method for, and the algorithm of, the construction of a curvilinear
developed surface?
6. What are the features of the structural scheme of the algorithm of construction
of a curvilinear surface?
7. What are the methods of development construction?
8. What is the principle of construction of a curvilinear developed surface of cone?
9. What is the essence of the method of triangulation?
10. What is the principle of construction of a curvilinear developed surface of

cylinder?
11. What is the essence of the method of unreeling and what are its advantages and
disadvantages?
12. What is the method of normal section and what are its advantages and
disadvantages?
13. What are the criteria of continuation and termination of development con-
struction in the formal algorithm?
References
1. Brailov A Yu (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, p 456. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

(in Russian)
2. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry. M.: Mashinostroenie, p 223 (in Russian)
3. Ivanov Yu N, Podkoritov AN, Strigo Yu S (1962) Descriptive geometry. Oмsк: Oмsкaya
pravda, p 232 (in Russian)
Handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed), K: Karavella, p 328 (in Russian)
for students of non-mechanical specialties. OSPU, Odessa, p 83 (in Russian)
6. Frolov SA (1978) Descriptive geometry. Mashinostroenie, Moscow, p 240 (in Russian)
Chapter 11
Axonometric Projections
The study of engineering (descriptive) geometry pursues two goal:

1. To represent a three-dimensional object by a two-dimensional drawing (the
direct problem of descriptive geometry).
2. To convert a two-dimensional representation of an object set into a
three-dimensional image or to manufacture this three-dimensional object using
its two-dimensional drawing (the inverse problem of descriptive geometry).
Drawing construction is based on a method of projections [1–58].
11.1 The Projection Drawing. Requirements

for the Projective Drawing and Its Construction
The projection drawing is a representation of a subject obtained by its projecting on

a plane.
As the drawing of an object to be manufactured should be clear to anybody
involved in its manufacturing, inspection and use, there are a number of require-
ments for the projective drawing.
1. Visualization should be inherent in the product drawing. The product image
should cause the same spatial revisualization that renders natural object for the
engineer.
2. Convertibility should be peculiar to the product drawing. One should be able to
correlate each point of the two-dimensional image of a product to one point of
the three-dimensional natural object.
3. Measurability should be peculiar to the product drawing. Under the
two-dimensional image of a product, the necessary size of the three-dimensional
natural object should be determined. One should be able to understand the real

246 11 Axonometric Projections
dimensions/sizes of an object using the dimensions set by its two-dimensional

drawing.
4. Construction of the drawing of a product should be extremely simple. Simplicity
of construction of the drawing means creation of the two-dimensional image of a
product by a minimum number of operations.
5. The choice of a principle of construction of the drawing should correspond to
the specific design features of a product. The requirements to the drawing are
assured by various methods on the basis of principles of construction of the
drawing.
11.2 Principles of Construction of a Drawing
Two principles of construction of the drawing are known: the principle of one
image and the principle of two images [26–31].
According to the principle of one image, the part is represented by a single
projection supplemented with a note, which enables determination of the distance of
each point of a product from a plane of projection in the direction of a projecting
ray.
In design practice of construction of drawings, conventional signs such as diameter
— , radius—R, a square—, length—l, and a thickness—S etc. (Fig. 11.1) are
used.
The principle of two images consists of two different arrays of projecting rays for
the same three-dimensional natural object and two different images on the same
complex plane of projection (plane П1 are under construction, П2 are combined).
According to the principle of two images, a three-dimensional (3-D) part is
represented in the same complex plane of projection (plane П1 are under con-
struction, П2 are combined) by two images obtained using two non-coincident
arrays of projection lines.
l100
S5
Shaft Plate Steel angle section

Steel 12Õ2H4A GOST 4543-71 BrA9Ì c2L GOST 493-79 St5 GOST 380-88
Fig. 11.1 The principle of one image

11.2 Principles of Construction of a Drawing 247
2 Z 23 2 Z 23
12
i2 2 s
22=4 2 52
12
i s2 1
1
32 4 X 12 s
2 O O
41 3 s1
X12 Y13
11 51
i1 31 11
?
21 1 1 Y13 s 5
Fig. 11.2 An example of application of the principle of two images
The system of such two various images of a product possesses the property of
convertibility with the use of two return arrays s1, s2 projecting rays (Fig. 11.2).
Two images of a product enable unequivocal determination of position, the form
and the sizes of this product in space (Fig. 11.2).
Using one array of projecting rays into two planes of projections, one can obtain
two images of a 3-D object. The system of these two images of a product does not
possess the property of convertibility and does not allow one to determine
unequivocally the position of the 3-D object, its real shape and true dimensions.
The principle of two images is the basic principle of three methods of con-
struction of the drawing: orthogonal projections, axonometric projections (axono-
metric), and perspective projections.
The perspective projection is a method of construction of the image of the object
by the components of the central projection.
Orthogonal projection is a method of construction of the image of the object by
the components of parallel rectangular projection.
Let’s consider the method of axonometric projections.
11.3 Axonometry Definition
An axonometry (axonometric projection) object is defined as the one-picture image

achieved by parallel projection of the object together with an imposed system of
coordinates and possessing visualization, convertibility, and measurability [31].
In comparison to a two-picture orthogonal projection, the one-picture axono-
metric projection possesses the properties of visualization, convertibility, and
measurability at the expense of the introduction of the apparatus for projecting a
new element. Such an element is the primary system of coordinates of reference of
the object.
1. Parallel projection in which an object appears to be rotated to show all three

dimensions. Axonometric projections are classified according to how the prin-
ciple axes are oriented relative to the projected surface. Isometric projection is a
type of axonometric projection.
2. Three-dimensional architectural drawing of a building in which visible eleva-
tions are based on the floor plan. Such drawings, although true to scale, are
incorrect in terms of perspective because all lines remain parallel instead of
receding to a common vanishing point.
11.4 The Essence, the Components and Operations

of the Method of Axonometric Projection
The essence of the method of axonometric projection is that, for a given object of
projection A, the following aspects are determined as a result of the intersection of
projecting ray AAʹ with the picture plane Пʹ (Fig. 11.3): the primary coordinate
system Oxyz of reference of object A, axonometric (picture) plane of projection Пʹ, a
projecting direction sʹ, and projecting rays AAʹ axonometric projection Aʹ object A.
Thus, the components of axonometric projecting contains the following
elements:
1. Object of projecting A.
2. Primary coordinate system Oxyz of reference of the object.
3. Axonometric (picture) plane of projection Пʹ.
4. A projecting direction sʹ.
5. Projecting rays AAʹ.
Axonometric projection Aʹ of object A into a picture plane of projection Пʹ
comes as a result of two operations of projecting.
A, Oxyz, A2 z
s ,AA s
A
2
A2 z
h
O
A x
h
w y
l
A1
x O
w l =0 w =0 h =0
1 A1 l y S A = SA SA =A
Fig. 11.3 A method essence, the components and operations of axonometric projecting
11.4 The Essence, the Components and Operations of the Method … 249
Following operations concern the method of axonometric projection:

1. Operation of connection of the center of projecting S which is at infinite distance
from a picture plane of projection Пʹ, with object A—S ∞ U A = S ∞ A. It is
method of formation of projecting ray S ∞ A.
In practical design work, projecting ray S ∞ A is drawn through a point A
parallel to the chosen direction of projecting sʹ—S ∞ A ║ sʹ = AAʹ.
2. Operation of intersecting of projecting ray S ∞ A with a picture plane of
projection Пʹ inscribes on it the axonometric projection Aʹ object A—
S ∞ A \ Пʹ = Aʹ.
Let’s consider the properties of an axonometric projection.
11.5 Properties of Axonometric Projections
The axonometric (axonometric projection) object possesses visualization, con-

vertibility, and measurability.
Let’s consider the essence of these properties of axonometry and the means by
which visualization, convertibility, and measurability of the one-picture axono-
metric image of object are obtained.
Let’s define the apparatus of visualization, convertibility, and measurability for
practical construction of the axonometric drawing of a product.
11.5.1 Visualization of Axonometric Projections
Visualization of axonometric projections is a property of the one-picture

three-dimensional image to cause the same spatial revisualization as the natural
three-dimensional object.
Visualization of the axonometric image is attained because, on a one-picture
projection of the object, all three measurements are presented: length—l, width—w,
height—h.
To possess this property, i.e., to obtain lʹ ≠ 0, wʹ ≠ 0, hʹ ≠ 0, the axonometric
projection of an object should be carried out using a projection direction sʹ that is
not coincident with any one of the directions of the coordinate axes of the primary
coordinate system Oxyz.
However, all three axonometric dimensions are distorted in comparison with the
actual dimensions, i.e. lʹ ≠ l, wʹ ≠ w, hʹ ≠ h.
This is to say that the dimensions of the axonometric three-dimensional image
along projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ primary co-ordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz differ from
the true sizes of the object.
Projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ primary co-ordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz on picture plane
Пʹ are called the axonometric coordinate axes.
11.5.2 Convertibility of Axonometric Projections
Convertibility of axonometric projections is a property of the one-picture

three-dimensional image of the object to provide biunique conformity (bijective
mapping) between points on the picture plane and points of the three-dimensional
real object.
Unique axonometric projection Aʹ points A—S ∞ A \ Пʹ = Aʹ is achieved by
the operation of intersection of projecting ray S ∞ A with the picture plane of
projection Пʹ on this plane. The direct problem of descriptive geometry dares
unequivocally.
Unequivocal determination of the position of point A on projecting ray S ∞ A
based only on its axonometric projection Aʹ is impossible, since axonometric
projection Aʹ corresponds to a set of points of projecting ray S ∞ A. The inverse
problem of descriptive geometry dares ambiguously (Fig. 11.4).
To maintain the convertibility of axonometric projection Aʹ, it is necessary
together with point A at the solution of a direct problem projecting on picture plane
Пʹ any projection A1, A2, A3 this point A on one of planes of projections П1, П2, П3
of the primary coordinate system Oxyz of the object.
As a rule, the horizontal projection A1 of point A is taken as the required
projection. Then, the horizontal projection A1 is called the primary projection A1 of
point A, and its axonometric projection Aʹ1 is called the secondary projection Aʹ1 or
basis Aʹ1 points A.
z A(A1+A 2) A2 z
s A s A
2 z 2 z
O O
x A x Ax
A
?
y y
A1
x O Ax O
x
A(xA, yA, zA) A(A +A1)
1 y 1 A1 y
Fig. 11.4 Graphical representation of the problem of convertibility and means of maintenance of
the convertibility of axonometric projection
11.5 Properties of Axonometric Projections 251
The algorithm for unequivocal determination of the position of a point in space

on its axonometric projection consists of five steps:
1. On the basis of the secondary projection Aʹ1 and conditions of parallelism of a
secondary line of projective communication Aʹ1Aʹx, an axonometric axis of
coordinates Oʹyʹ position of secondary reference point Aʹx on an axonometric
axis of coordinates Oʹxʹ—Aʹ12Aʹ1Aʹx, Aʹ1Aʹx ║ Oʹyʹ, Aʹ1Aʹx \ Oʹxʹ = Aʹx is
defined.
2. As all projecting rays are parallel to the set direction of projection sʹ, the primary
reference point Ax—AʹxAx ║ sʹ is allocated at the point of on intersection of
projecting ray AʹxAx and a primary axis of coordinates Ox. It is designated as
AʹxAx \ Oʹxʹ = Ax.
3. The primary line of projective communication AxA1—Ax2AxA1, AxA1 ║ Oy is
constructed parallel to primary axis of coordinates Oy through primary reference
point Ax.
4. Because all projecting rays are parallel to the set direction of projection sʹ at the
point of intersection of projecting ray Aʹ1A1 and a primary line of projective
communication AxA1, primary projection A1 of point A is allocated and des-
ignated—Aʹ1A1 ║ sʹ, Aʹ1A1 \ AxA1 = A1.
5. Projecting ray AʹA of axonometric projection Aʹ is parallel to the set direction of
projection sʹ—AʹA ║ sʹ.
In the orthogonal coordinate system Oxyz, projecting ray A1A of horizontal
projection A1 is parallel to the primary axis of coordinates Oz—A1A ║ Oz.
At the point of intersection of projecting rays AʹA, A1A point A—
AʹA \ A1A = A is allocated and designated.
In the solution of the inverse problem of axonometry, the position of point A in
space is defined by:
1. Axonometric projection Aʹ of point A and one of its secondary projections Aʹ1,
Aʹ2, Aʹ3—A(Aʹ + Aʹ1), A(Aʹ + Aʹ2), A(Aʹ + Aʹ3);
2. Any two secondary projections Aʹ1, Aʹ2, Aʹ3—A(Aʹ1 + Aʹ2), A(Aʹ1 + Aʹ3), A
(Aʹ2 + Aʹ3);
3. Three axonometric coordinates xʹA, yʹA, zʹA—A(xʹA, yʹA, zʹA).
All these three methods of the solution of the inverse problem provide the
convertibility of axonometry. However, only the first method of determining the
position of a point A in space by the axonometric projection Aʹ and one of its
secondary projections Aʹ1, Aʹ2, Aʹ3, simultaneously provides both visualization and
convertibility of the one-picture three-dimensional image of the object.
Thus, the visualization and convertibility of axonometry are provided with an
axonometric projection and one secondary projection of the object.
Let’s consider conditions of maintenance of measurability of axonometry.
Let’s define the apparatus of measurability for practical construction of an
axonometric drawing of an object in the axonometric scale.
11.5.3 Measurability of Axonometric Projections
Measurability of an axonometry is a property of the one-picture three-dimensional

image of an object to enable determination of the actual dimensions of a
three-dimensional product.
Measurability of an axonometric projection of an object is provided via factors
of distortion of the dimensions over all three coordinate axes (Fig. 11.5).
Distortion factor (distortion indicator) k in axonometry is defined as the number
equal to the relationship between the length laкc of a segment in the axonometric
projection and its true length ltrue—k = lax/ltrue.
To maintain unambiguity in the definition of dimensions, the object and its
axonometric projection are measured in the same measurement units: millimeters,
centimeters, meters, etc.
Segments ex, ey, ez of unit length on axes Ox, Oy, Oz of the primary coordinate
system Oxyz determine on picture plane Пʹ the corresponding segments e0x ; e0y ; e0z
the lengths of which are proportional to distortion factors kx, ky, kz for each
axonometric axis of coordinates Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ according to (Fig. 11.5).
Therefore actual distortion factors kx, ky, kz for each axonometric axis of
coordinates Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ are defined as:
kx ¼ e0x =ex ; ky ¼ e0y =ey ; kz ¼ e0z =ez :
Factors of distortion kx, ky, kz enable the determination, in the direct problem,
the axonometric coordinates x0A ; y0A ; z0A axonometric projection Aʹ on orthogonal
coordinates xA, yA, zA points A as:
x0A ¼ kx xA ; y0A ¼ ky yA ; z0A ¼ kz zA :
k=l /l z
s
ex=ey=ez=1
ez
2
ex z
1 ex
x ey
O
ez
x 1 O y
ey 1
1
y kx=ex/ex ky=ey/ey kz=ez/ez
Fig. 11.5 The components of measurability for practical constructions of an axonometric drawing
of the object
11.5 Properties of Axonometric Projections 253
Factors of distortion kx, ky, kz enable the determination, in the inverse problem
orthogonal coordinates xA, yA, zA points A on axonometric coordinates x0A ; y0A ; z0A
axonometric projection Aʹ as:
xA ¼ x0A =kx ; yA ¼ y0A =ky ; zA ¼ z0A =kz :
Thus, the axonometric projection enable determination of the dimensions of the

object along three mutually perpendicular axes.
Generally, the axonometric projections e0x ; e0y ; e0z of unit-length segments ex, ey,
ez and factors of distortion proportional to these projections kx, ky, kz are not the
same because of different angles of inclination of the primary coordinate axes Ox,
Oy, Oz to the picture plane Пʹ for any given array of parallel projecting rays.
Besides, in general, the values of natural factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are
fractional numbers.
Therefore, it is difficult to use the natural indicators of distortion kx, ky, kz in
design practice for construction of the axonometric drawing because, for definition
of each axonometric coordinate x0A ; y0A ; z0A of the object, it is necessary to multiply
orthogonal coordinates xA, yA, zA points A by different fractional factors.
To reduce the amount of computing work and probability of occurrence of
errors, it is possible to select a multiplier m for reduction kPp x values of one of the
distortion factors kx to a unit value and then to recalculate the resultant values
y ; kz of two other factors ky, kz:
kpr pr
m ¼ 1=kx ; x ¼ kx m ¼ 1; ky ¼ ky m;
kpr pr
z ¼ kz m:
kpr
x ; ky ; kz are called the resultant factors of distortion.

Factors kpr pr pr
The dimensions of the axonometric image of the object increase by the chosen
value of multiplier m = 1/kx. Therefore, the scale of the resultant (practical)
axonometric projection of the object also increases as Mpr = m:1.
Factors of distortion kx, ky, kz and the angle φ between the projection direction sʹ
and picture plane Пʹ are related by an axonometry basic formula [13, 15, and 37]:
k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u:
Because there are an infinite number of relative positions of primary coordinate

system Oxyz of reference of object A, of the picture plane of projection Пʹ, and the
projecting directions sʹ, it is possible to construct an infinite set of axonometric
projections. This was proved by German scientists Charles Polke (1851) and
Charles Herman Amandus Schwarz (1843–1921).
11.6 The Polke-Schwarz Theorem
Three segments of any length belonging to a plane and intersecting (united) in one
point under any angles to each other are a parallel projection of three equal and
mutually perpendicular segments which begin at a common point in space
(Fig. 11.5).
Thus, for three orthogonal equal segments starting at a common point in space,
there are an infinite number of combinations of elements of the apparatus of
axonometric projection of the infinite set of combinations of corresponding three
segments of any length (Fig. 11.5). Hence, for any object it is possible to construct
an infinite number of axonometries.
For the identification of the kind of axonometry most appropriate foran object, it
is necessary to classify axonometric projections.
11.7 Classification of Axonometric Projections
A classification of axonometric projections can be carried out on three bases:

1. Correspondence between elements of the apparatus of axonometric projection.
2. The principle of choice of the axonometric plane of projection.
3. Correspondence between the parameters of measurability of an axonometry.
1. As correspondence between elements of the apparatus of axonometric projec-
tion, the projecting angle φ between the projection direction sʹ (projection ray
AAʹ) and picture plane Пʹ is established.
If the angle φ between the projection direction sʹ (projection ray AAʹ) and
picture plane Пʹ along a straight line is φ = 90°, then the axonometric projection
is called as rectangular axonometry.
When the angle φ between the projection direction sʹ (projection ray AAʹ) and
the picture plane Пʹ is not equal to 90o (φ ≠ 90°), then the axonometric pro-
jection is called oblique-angled axonometry.
2. The axonometric plane of projection Пʹ can be chosen to be the horizontal П1,
frontal П2, profile П3 or any П plane of projection.
When the axonometric plane of projection Пʹ is the horizontal П1 plane of
projection, then the axonometric projection is called horizontal axonometry.
When the axonometric plane of projection Пʹ is frontal П2 plane of projection,
the axonometric projection is called frontal axonometry.
When the axonometric plane of projection Пʹ is profile П3 plane of projection,
the axonometric projection is called profile axonometry.
When the axonometric plane of projection Пʹ is any free П plane of projection,
the axonometric projection is called any certain free axonometry or any
axonometry.
11.7 Classification of Axonometric Projections 255
3. Because of the correspondence between the parameters of measurability of

axonometry, an equality of factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are used.
If all three factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are equal, the axonometric projection is
called as isometric axonometry or isometry—kx = ky = kz.
If all any two factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are equal and differ from the third
factor of distortion, the axonometric projection is called dimetrics axonometry or
dimetric—kx = ky ≠ kz, kx ≠ ky = kz, kx = kz ≠ ky.
If all three factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are not equal among themselves, the
axonometric projection is called trimetric axonometry or trimetric—
kx ≠ ky ≠ k z .
Names of the type of an axonometry on each basis of classification are elements
of the complex name of a kind of an axonometric projection.
For example, if the angle φ between the projection direction sʹ (projection ray
AAʹ) and the picture plane Пʹ is φ = 90°, then the axonometric plane of pro-
jection Пʹ is horizontal П1 plane of projection and, if all three factors of dis-
tortion kx, ky, kz are equal (kx = ky = kz), the axonometric projection is called
rectangular horizontal isometric axonometry or rectangular horizontal
isometry.
If the angle φ between the projection direction sʹ (projection ray AAʹ) and the
picture plane Пʹ is not equal to 90o (φ ≠ 90°) and if an axonometric plane of
projection Пʹ is any certain free П plane of projection and if all three factors of
distortion kx, ky, kz are not equal (kx ≠ ky ≠ kz), the axonometric projection is
called oblique-angled any trimetric axonometry or oblique-angled any trimetric
(Fig. 11.6).
As a rule, rectangular axonometry is represented on any of the П planes of
projection. Therefore in the complex name of a kind of a rectangular axono-
metric projection, the word “any” is omitted, e.g., rectangular (any) isometry
and rectangular dimetric.
For practical engineering work, the most relevant axonometric projection
reflecting the key design features of the object is selected from infinite set of
axonometries.
Kinds of axonometric projections

Bases for classification of axonometric projections
The projecting angle The picture plane Factors of distortion
/ '= 1 '= 2 '= 3 '= kx=ky=kz kx=kz=k

/ y kx=k/ y=k
/ z
Oblique-angled any plane trimetric
profile
frontal dimetric
Rectangular horizontal isometry

Oblique-angled any trimetric
Fig. 11.6 Classification of axonometric projections

The standard, for the most often applied in practice, construction of drawings of
axonometric projections has been developed:
ISO5456-3:1996:Technicaldrawings—Projectionmethods—Part3:Axonometric
representations.
11.8 Standard Kinds of Axonometric Projections
Standard GOST 2.317-69 provides recommendations for the selection of preferable

axonometric projections. They are:
1. A rectangular isometry.
2. Rectangular dimetric.
3. An oblique-angled frontal isometry.
4. Oblique-angled frontal dimetric.
5. An oblique-angled horizontal isometry.
Let’s consider features and scopes of standard rectangular and oblique-angled
axonometric projections.
11.8.1 A Rectangular Isometry
In rectangular axonometric projections, the projecting ray is perpendicular to the

picture plane. Therefore the projecting angle is equal to 90 degrees—φ = 90°.
Cotangent of the right angle is equal to zero—cot φ = cot 90° = 0.
As a result, the axonometry basic formula
k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u;
which correlates the distortion factors kx, ky, kz for axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ,
Oʹzʹ and the projecting angle φ, can be simplified for rectangular axonometric
projections, because cot φ = cot 90° = 0, and becomes
k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2:
As for isometry, all three factors of distortion kx, ky, kz are equal (kx = ky = kz),
so that according to the basic formula (k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2) for rectangular axono-
metric projections (3k2x = 2), numerical values of factors of distortion are defined
kx ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 0:82:
Hence, in construction of the natural rectangular isometric image of

three-dimensional object, the coordinates x, y, z of any point of an object in
orthogonal system Oxyz are multiplied by factor 0.82 and thus the resultant
11.8 Standard Kinds of Axonometric Projections 257
axonometric coordinates xʹ, yʹ, zʹ are marked in directions of the axonometric axes
Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ.
Only when the discussed fractional factors of distortion are used, is the image of
the three-dimensional object perceived the same as the real object. So, employing
the fractional natural factors of distortion provides the perception of a real visu-
alization of the image.
Thus, the natural scale of measurement in a rectangular isometry in 0.82 times
less than the natural scale of system of coordinates—M = 0.82:1.
The use of fractional factors of distortion complicates practical work because, for
deterimination of the axonometric sizes of the image of object, all true sizes of a
product must be increased by fractional number—xʹ = kx · x, yʹ = ky · y, zʹ = kz · z,
kx = ky = kz = 0.82.
To avoid the calculations and associated errors for the measurement of the
axonometric sizes of a rectangular isometry of a product, the resultant factors of
x ; ky ; kz of unit values—kx ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1 are used.
distortion kpr pr pr pr pr pr
Using of the resultant factors of distortion (kx ¼ kpr

pr
y ¼ kz ¼ 1), the linear
pr
dimensions of the isometric image increase by as much (1.22 = 1/0.82) as the true
dimensions of the object decrease for exact natural factors of distortion (1/0.82).
The resultant image of the object increases in comparison with an isometry for
exact natural factors by 1.22—m = kpr/k = 1/0.82 = 1.22.
Therefore the scale of the resultant (practical) rectangular isometry of object also
increases Mpr = m:1 = 1.22:1.
In rectangular isometry, the equality of the factors of distortion (kx = ky = kz = 0.82;
x ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1) is achieved if an identical inclination angle of 35° to the axes Ox,
kpr pr pr
Oy, Oz of the primary coordinate system Oxyz to the picture plane Пʹ is used, which
results in the equality of segments Oxʹ, Oyʹ, Ozʹ, cut by picture plane Пʹ (Fig. 11.7).
The origin of the primary coordinate system Oxyz (point O) is orthogonally
projected by projection ray sʹ into the picture plane Пʹ. The projection of the origin O
2 z z
s 1 z
35
h O f 3
120
x1 35 35 O 90
x O 30
120
3:5
y
1 y1 x y
Fig. 11.7 A rectangular isometry

of the primary coordinate systems Oxyz into the picture plane Пʹ is the origin Oʹ of
the axonometric coordinate system Oxʹyʹzʹ.
The three-dimensional model of the construction of rectangular (any) isometry is
performed in an oblique-angled face-to-face isometric projection (Fig. 11.7).
Because, in rectangular isometry, all the axes Ox, Oy, Oz of the primary
coordinate system Oxyz, and the object are inclined to the picture plane Пʹ at
identical angles 35°, the angles between the projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ of these
axes Ox, Oy, Oz on the picture plane Пʹ also are identical and equal 360°:3 = 120°
—∠xʹOʹyʹ = ∠yʹOʹzʹ = ∠zʹOʹxʹ = 120°.
For graphic construction of the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹyʹ on the
two-dimensional picture plane Пʹ, value 3:5 of the inclination of these axes is used
for a straight line that is perpendicular to the vertical axonometric axis Oʹzʹ
(Fig. 11.7).
Lines of hatching of sections of the object planes parallel to the orthogonal
planes xOy, yOz, zOx of the primary coordinate system Oxyz, on the picture plane
Пʹ, are parallel to the segments connecting the free ends xʹ, yʹ, zʹ of the axonometric
projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ having the common point O of the system Oxyz.
Lines of hatching of sections of the object are also parallel to the axonometric
projections of the diagonals of the squares belonging to the corresponding
orthogonal planes xOy, yOz, zOx of the primary coordinate system Oxyz.
Axonometric projections of the diagonals of squares are represented on an
isometric projection of a cube with the circles inscribed on its square sides
(Fig. 11.8).
The cube edges coincide with the directions of the axes Ox, Oy, Oz of the
primary coordinate system Oxyz of reference of the object. Therefore projections of
the edges of a cube coincide with the directions of the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ,
Oʹzʹ.
Since the square sides of a cube with the inscribed circles are neither parallel and
nor perpendicular to the picture plane Пʹ, the sides (squares) of a cube appear as
rhombuses and the inscribed circles as ellipses in isometry.
pr
z pr pr pr
k x=k y=k z=1 z M =1.22:1
d d pr
2a =1.22d k /k=1.22
2a r 2b =0.71d m=1/0.82
2b
x y x y
d=2r kx =k y =k z =0.82 2a=d 2b =0.58d
Fig. 11.8 Rectangular isometry of a cube with circles and spheres, with the cut-out forward left
top quarter
The centers of symmetry of squares (circles) in isometry are the centers of

symmetry of the rhombuses (ellipses).
Because the straight center lines of circles are parallel to the axes Ox, Oy, Oz of
the primary coordinate system Oxyz, in isometry they are represented as joined with
the middle of the sides of rhombuses and the straight center lines of the ellipses.
These straight center lines of ellipses are parallel to the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ.
Each segment of the straight center lines of the circles, parallel to the axes Ox,
Oy, Oz of the primary coordinate system Oxyz and perpendicular to the square side
of a cube, has the length equal to the length of the square side and equal to the
diameter d of the circle.
Therefore, for a natural isometry at exact factors of distortion
(kx = ky = kz = 0.82) lengths of the segments joined with the middle of the sides of
rhombuses, straight center lines of ellipses are smaller than the diameter d of the
original circle by a factor of 0.82—0.82 · d.
Length of the sides of rhombuses with the entered ellipses for a natural isometry
at exact factors of distortion (kx = ky = kz = 0.82) are also smaller than diameter d of
the original circle by a factor of 0.82—0.82 · d.
Lengths of the segments joined with the middle of the sides of rhombuses and
straight center lines of ellipses in the resultant (practical) isometry
x ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1) are equal to the diameter d of the original circle—1.0 · d.
(kpr pr pr
Lengths of the sides of rhombuses with inscribed ellipses in resultant (practical)

isometry (kprx ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1) also are equal to the diameter d of the original circle—
pr pr
1,0 · d.
For construction of a rectangular isometric projection of a circle in the form of an
ellipse, this rule is used. The major axis 2a of an ellipse is perpendicular to that
axonometric axis which is absent in the circle plane. The minor axis 2b of an ellipse
coincides with the direction of the axonometric axis absent in the plane of a circle.
In rectangular isometry, the axes of an ellipse coincide with the diagonals of the
rhombus described around the ellipse. The rhombus diagonal is equal to the full size
of a diagonal of an initial square if, at orthogonal projection, the square diagonal is
parallel to the axonometric plane of projection.
Perpendicular diagonals of a rhombus divide it into four rectangular triangles
with a minor sharp angle of 30°.
Because tangent 30° is equal to 0.58 radian, the ratio of the minor diagonal to the
major diagonal of a rhombus and thus the ratio of the minor axis to the major axis of
the inscribed ellipse also is equal to 0.58—2b/2a = 0.58.
Thus, by reason of the properties of orthogonal projecting for a natural isometry
at exact factors of distortion (kx = ky = kz = 0.82), the major axis of an ellipse is
equal to the length of a segment of a center line parallel to the axonometric plane of
projection (to the diameter d of the original circle)—2a = d.
The minor axis of an ellipse for natural isometry at exact factors of distortion
(kx = ky = kz = 0.82) is smaller than the major axis by a factor of 0.58—
2b = 0.58 · d.
The major axis of an ellipse (when kpr x ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1) in resultant (practical)

pr pr
isometry is equal to the resultant diameter of the original circle—2a = 1.22 · d.

The minor axis of an ellipse (when kpr x ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1) in resultant (practical)
pr pr
isometry is equal to the resultant diameter of the original circle reduced by a factor
of 0.58—2b = 0.58 · 1.22 · d = 0.71 · d.
For graphic construction of rectangular isometry of a circle, the axonometric
projection of the square described around a circle in the form of rhombus is under
construction. The ellipse is indicated on the constructed rhombus at eight points.
When a compass is used, the ellipse is replaced with an oval (Fig. 11.9). The
oval is the interface of four arc AB, BC, CD, DA, circles with the centers in points
F, L, E, K, accordingly.
Centers E, F are determined as the points of intersection of a vertical axis zʹ with
a circle whose diameter is equal to the length of the major axis of an ellipse—
2a = 1.22 · d = 1.22 · 50 = 61.
Centers K, L are determined as the points of intersection of the major axis 2a of
an ellipse with a circle whose diameter is equal to the length of the minor axis 2b an
ellipse—2b = 0.71 · d = 0.71 · 50 = 35.5.
Points of interface A, B, C, D of arcs AB, BC, CD, DA of circles are determined
at the points of intersection of an ellipse with straight lines FK, FL, EL, EK,
connecting the interface centers. The positions of points of interface A, B, C, D are
defined at the intersections of straight lines FK, FL, EL, EK and corresponding arcs
AB, BC, CD, DA of circles.
The radius of arch AB is equal to the distance from the center of interface F to a
distant point of intersecting of a small circle with a vertical axis zʹ, thus—R47.86.
Arch CD is symmetric to arch AB with respect to the major axis 2a of an ellipse.
The radius of arch CD is equal to the distance from the center of interface E to a
distant point of intersecting of a small circle with a vertical axis zʹ, thus—R47.86.
The radius of arch BC is equal to distance from the center of interface L to a near
point of intersecting of the big circle with the major axis 2a an ellipse, thus—
R12.57.
pr
z pr pr
k x=k y=k z =1
pr
z M =1.22:1
d d=50
2b =0.71d=35.5
r E
2a 2a =1.22d=61
A B
2b
d K L
D C
x y x F y
d=2r kx=ky=kz=0.82 2a=d 2b=0.58d
Fig. 11.9 Construction of the oval replacing an ellipse

Arch DA is symmetric to arch BC with respect to a vertical axis zʹ. The radius of
arch DA is equal to distance from the center of interface K to a near point of
intersecting of the big circle with the major axis 2a an ellipse, thus—R12.57.
On the basis of the centers of interface, points of interface and radiuses of
interfaced arc if ovals are under construction.
Rectangular isometry is applied to the construction of the drawing of a product
of the complicated shape with the circles belonging to two or three orthogonal
planes of projections. Rectangular isometry is not recommended for the construc-
tion of the drawing of a prismatic product and the pyramidal forms which have is
quare bases.
11.8.2 Rectangular Dimetry
Rectangular dimetry is a kind of axonometric projections where the projecting ray

is perpendicular to the picture plane. Therefore, the projection angle is equal to 90
degrees—φ = 90°. Because the cotangent of a right angle 90° is equal to zero, i.e.,
cot φ = cot 90° = 0, hence, an axonometry basic equation
k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u;
connecting distortion factors kx, ky, kz for axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ and the
projecting angle φ, in this rectangular axonometric projection becomes
k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2:
Because, for dimetrics, the distortion factors kx, ky, kz, are related as kx = kz = 2ky,
and the basic equation (k2x ¼ k2y ¼ k2z ¼ 2) for rectangular axonometric projections
(9k2y ¼ 2), numerical values of distortion factors are defined
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
ky ¼ 2=3 ¼ 0:47; kx ¼ kz ¼ 2 2=3 ¼ 0:94:
Hence, for construction of natural rectangular dimetric images of

three-dimensional object, the coordinates x and z of any point of the object in the
orthogonal system Oxyz are multiplied by factor 0.94, and the coordinate y of this
point is multiplied by factor 0.47.
Corresponding to the obtained axonometric coordinates xʹ, yʹ, zʹ, segments are
laid out in the directions of the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ.
Only when such fractional factors of distortion of the image are used, is the a
three-dimensional object perceived the same as the actual object. The fractional
natural factors of distortion provide the effect of real visualization of the image.
The fractional factors of distortion complicate practical work because, for
determination of the axonometric sizes of the image of an object, all true sizes of
this object are necessarily multiplied by a fractional number—xʹ = kx · x, yʹ = ky · y,

zʹ = kz · z, kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47.
To avoid possible errors such as errors of rounding and to reduce the number of
x ; kz
arithmetic operations, for the axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ, the resultant factors of distortion kpr pr
whose values are equal to one (kx ¼ kz ¼ 1), and for axis Oʹyʹ, the resultant factor of
pr pr
distortion kPp
y whose value equal five tenths (ky ¼ 0:5) are used in the determination
pr
of the axonometric sizes rectangular dimetrics products—kpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5:

pr pr
When the resultant factors of distortion (kx ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5) are used, the
pr pr pr
linear dimensions of dimetric images increase by as much (1.06 = 1/0.94) as the

true dimensions of the object for the exact natural factors of distortion (1/0.94).
The practical (resultant) image of the object increases by comparison with
dimetrics for the exact natural factors by 1.06—m = kpr/k = 1/0.94 = 1.06.
Therefore the scale of resultant (practical) rectangular dimetrics products also
increases by Mpr = m:1 = 1.06:1.
In rectangular dimetric, equal factors of distortion kx, kz for the axes Oxʹ, Ozʹ
(kx ¼ kz ¼ 0:94; kprx ¼ kz ¼ 1) is achieved by an identical inclination angle of 20°
pr
of the axes Ox, Oz, the primary coordinate system Oxyz, to the picture plane Пʹ and
equality of segments Oxʹ, Ozʹ, cut by picture plane Пʹ through these axes
(Fig. 11.10).
The values of the factor of distortion ky for the axis Oyʹ (ky ¼ 0:47; kpr y ¼ 0:5) is
provided by an inclination angle of 62° of the axes Oy of primary coordinate system
Oxyz to the picture plane Пʹ and equality of length of segment Oyʹ to half the length
of segments Oxʹ, Ozʹ, cut by the picture plane Пʹ on the orthogonal axes Ox, Oy, Oz
(Fig. 11.10).
The origin of the primary coordinate system Oxyz (point O) is orthogonally
projected by a projection ray sʹ into the picture plane Пʹ.
The projection of the origin O of the primary coordinate systems Oxyz into the
picture plane Пʹ appears as the origin Oʹ of the axonometric coordinate system
Oxʹyʹzʹ.
2 90 z =20 =62 z D O
2 1 B 28
2 97 10 O
s z C
D 1:8 90
2 2 3
f0 3
x 1 x O
O O
A p0 41 25
20 x
E h0 C
y 1
131 25 7:8 y
1 y
Fig. 11.10 Rectangular dimetry

The three-dimensional model of the construction of rectangular any dimetric is

executed by oblique-angled face-to-face dimetrics projections (Fig. 11.10).
Because the rectangular dimetric axes Ox, Oz of the primary coordinate system
Oxyz of reference of an object are inclined to the picture plane Пʹ at identical angles
of 20°, angles between the projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ and Oʹzʹ, Oʹyʹ of the axes Ox, Oz
and Oy in the picture plane Пʹ are also identical—∠xʹOʹyʹ = ∠zʹOʹyʹ.
Because for the rectangular dimetric axis Oy of the primary coordinate system
Oxyz of the referring of an object is inclined to the picture plane Пʹ at an angle of
62°, which is not equal to angle 20° of inclination of the axes Ox, Oz to the picture
plane Пʹ, the angle between the projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ of the axes Ox, Oz in the
picture plane Пʹ differs between the projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ and Oʹzʹ, Oʹyʹ of the axes
Ox, Oz and axis Oy—∠xʹOʹzʹ ≠ ∠xʹOʹyʹ = ∠zʹOʹyʹ.
For determination of the value of angles between the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ, the triangle of zero main lines—h0, f0, p0 is used.
Equilateral (AC = BC) triangle ΔABC zero main lines (h0, f0, p0) is formed in
the intersection of the picture plane Пʹ by the planes of projections of a coordinate
trihedral of the primary coordinate system Oxyz (Fig. 11.9).
Because segments AO and BO are assumed of unit length (AO = BO = 1) on the
basis of the Pythagorean Theorem (AB2 = AO2 + BO2), the length of the base AB
equilateral (AC = BC) of the triangle ΔABC zero main lines is determined as:
pffiffiffi
AB2 = 12 + 12 or AB2 = 2 or AB ¼ 2.
Base AB of the equilateral (AC = BC) triangle ΔABC is divided by height CD
into two equal segments AD and DB—AD = DB. Therefore each segment AD and
pffiffiffi
DB is equal to half of size of the base AB ¼ 2AD ¼ DB ¼ AB=2; AD ¼
pffiffiffi
DB ¼ 2=2:
As distortion factors kx, kz are intrinsic to axonometric projections AOʹ, BOʹ,
individual segments AO, BO to individual segments AO, BO accordingly
(kx = AOʹ/AO, kz = BOʹ/BO, AO = BO = 1, kx = AOʹ, kz = BOʹ) are equal in size to
pffiffiffi
two times the square root of two, divided by three (kx ¼ kz ¼ 2 2/3 = 0.94), so
axonometric segments AOʹ, BOʹ also are equal in size to two times the square root
of two, divided by three—AO0 ¼ 2 2==3; BO0 ¼ 2 2=3.
The required angle ∠xʹOʹzʹ between axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ is equal in size
to the sum of two angles ∠AOʹD, ∠BOʹD, formed by each of the axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ
and segment OʹD of height of CD equipotential (AC = BC) of a triangle
ΔABC—∠xʹOʹzʹ = ∠AOʹD + ∠BOʹD.
As each angle ∠AOʹD, ∠BOʹD is equal to some size σ, so required angle
∠xʹOʹzʹ between axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ is equal to double this size
2σ—∠xʹOʹzʹ = 2σ.
It follows, from a rectangular triangle ΔBOʹD, that sin r ¼ BD=BO0 ¼
ð 2=2Þ=ð2 2=3Þ ¼ 3=4 ¼ 0; 75. Hence, σ = 48°35ʹ, 2σ = 97°10ʹ.
Thus, angle ∠xʹOʹzʹ between axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ is equal to 97°10ʹ
—∠xʹOʹzʹ = 97°10ʹ.
Because axonometric axis Oʹyʹ makes with axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ equal
angles (∠xʹOʹyʹ = ∠zʹOʹyʹ), so the values of these angles are equal (360°–97°10ʹ)/2.
Thus, angles ∠xʹOʹyʹ, ∠zʹOʹyʹ between axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ and Oʹzʹ,
Oʹyʹ are equal accordingly to (360°–97°10ʹ)/2 = 131°25ʹ—∠xʹOʹyʹ = ∠zʹOʹyʹ =
131°25ʹ.
Axonometric axis Oʹzʹ should be designated vertically in rectangular dimetry by
the state standard (GOST 2.317-69). Therefore, axonometric axis Oʹxʹ and a hori-
zontal straight line, perpendicular axes Oʹzʹ, form an angle 7°10ʹ (7°10ʹ = 97°10ʹ–
90°), and axis Oʹyʹ and this horizontal straight line form an angle 41°25ʹ
(41°25ʹ = 131°25ʹ–90°).
For graphic construction of axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹyʹ on two-dimensional
picture plane Пʹ, values of 1:8 and 7:8 of inclination for these axes relative to a
horizontal straight line are used; this line is the perpendicular vertical axonometric
axis Oʹzʹ, because tg7°10ʹ = 1:8, tg41°25ʹ = 7:8 (Fig. 11.10).
Lines of hatching of intersections of object by the planes, which are parallel to
orthogonal planes xOy, yOz, zOx primary coordinate system Oxyz, in picture plane
Пʹ, are parallel to the segments connecting the free ends xʹ, yʹ, zʹ axonometric
projections Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ of the individual orthogonal segments, having general
point O in the origin of coordinate system Oxyz, taking into account the values of
distortion factors (kx ¼ kz ¼ 0:94; ky ¼ 0:47; kpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5).
pr pr
Lines of hatching of intersections of the object are also parallel to axonometric

projections of the square diagonals belonging to corresponding orthogonal planes
xOy, yOz, zOx the primary coordinate system Oxyz.
Axonometric projections of square diagonals are represented in dimetric pro-
jections of a cube with the circles inscribed in the square sides (Fig. 11.11).
The cube edges coincide with directions of axes Ox, Oy, Oz the primary
coordinate system Oxyz of the object reference. Therefore, projections of the cube
edges coincide with the directions of axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ.
Since the square sides of a cube with the inscribed circles are neither parallel nor
perpendicular to picture plane Пʹ, the sides (squares) of the cube in dimetry are
represented by rhombuses and parallelogram’s, and the circles are represented by
ellipses.
pr pr pr
z k x =k z =1 z M =1.06:1
0,5d pr
2a =1.06d k /k=1.06
2b =0.94d m=1/0.94
2b pr
k y =0.5
r d
O O
x 2a x
d y y
d=2r kx=k z=0.94 k y =0.47 2a=d 2b =0.88d
Fig. 11.11 Rectangular dimetry a cube with circles and spheres with the cut-out forward left top
quarter
Rhombuses are represented by the sides (squares) of a cube parallel to a plane

xOz (xʹOʹzʹ). Parallelograms are represented by the sides (squares) of the cube
parallel to planes xOy, yOz (xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ). Ellipses are inscribed on rhombuses and
parallelograms.
The center of symmetry of squares and circles in dimetry are the centers of
symmetry of rhombuses, parallelograms and ellipses.
Points of contact of circles and the middle of square sides in dimetry are points
of contact of the ellipses and the middles of the sides of rhombuses and
parallelogram’s.
The central straight lines of circles, parallel to axes Ox, Oy, Oz of the primary
coordinate system Oxyz, in dimetry are represented by the central straight lines of
ellipses joined with the middle of the sides of rhombuses and parallelograms.
These straight center lines of ellipses are parallel to axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ,
Oʹzʹ.
Each segment of the central straight lines of the circles, parallel to axes Ox, Oy,
Oz of the primary coordinate system Oxyz and perpendicular to the square sides of
a cube side conjugated to the circles, is equal in length to the square side and is
equal to diameter d of the circle.
Therefore, for the real dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94,
ky = 0.47), the length of segments of the straight center lines parallel, to axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹzʹ of plane xʹOʹzʹ, are less than diameter d of the initial circle by the factor 0.94—
0.94 · d.
For real dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47), the
length of the segments of the central straight line, perpendicular to a plane xʹOʹzʹ
and parallel to axis Oʹyʹ, are less than diameter d of the initial circle by the factor
0.47—0.47 · d.
For rhombuses and parallelograms, the length of the sides, parallel to axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹzʹ a plane xʹOʹzʹ, in the real dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94,
ky = 0.47), are also less than diameter d of the initial circle by the factor 0.94—
0.94 · d.
For parallelograms, the lengths of the sides, perpendicular a plane xʹOʹzʹ and
parallel to axis Oʹyʹ, in the real dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94,
ky = 0.47), are less than diameter d of the initial circle by the factor 0.47—0.47 · d.
The lengths of the segments of the central straight lines, parallel to axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹzʹ planes xʹOʹzʹ, in the reduced (practical) dimetry ðkpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5), are
pr pr
equal to diameter d of the initial circle—1, 0 · d.

The lengths of the segments of the central straight lines, perpendicular planes
xʹOʹzʹ and parallel to axis Oʹyʹ, in reduced (practical) dimetry (kpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1;
pr
ky ¼ 0:5), are equal to half of diameter d of the initial circle—0.5 · d.

pr
For rhombuses and parallelograms, the length of the sides parallel to axes Oʹxʹ,
Oʹzʹ planes xʹOʹzʹ, in the reduced (practical) isometry (kpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5),
pr pr
are equal to diameter d of the initial circle—1,0 · d.

For parallelograms, the length of the sides, perpendicular planes xʹOʹzʹ and
parallel to axis Oʹyʹ, in reduced (practical) dimetry (kprx ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5), are
pr pr
equal to half of diameter d of the initial circle—0.5 · d.

To construct a rectangular dimetric projection of a circle in the form of ellipse, as
well as in the rectangular isometry, the following rule is used: the major axis 2a of
an ellipse is perpendicular to the axonometric axis which is absent in a plane of a
projection of the circle; the minor axis 2b of an ellipse coincides with a direction of
the axonometric axis which are absent in a plane of a projection of the circle.
In the rectangular dimetriy, the ellipse axes coincide with diagonals of the
rhombus described around an ellipse parallel to a plane xʹOʹzʹ.
The major axis of an ellipse coincides with the major diagonal of a rhombus. The
minor axis of an ellipse coincides with the minor diagonal of the rhombus described
around an ellipse.
The rhombus diagonal is equal to the true length of a diagonal of the initial
square, if the square diagonal is parallel to an axonometric projections plane in
orthogonal projecting.
The axes of ellipses of the parallelograms, parallel to planes xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ, do not
coincide with the diagonals of the parallelogram described around the ellipse.
The major axes of all ellipses for rhombuses and parallelograms are parallel to
corresponding planes xʹOʹzʹ, xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ. Therefore, the major axes of all ellipses
correspond in circles to the segments of the center lines which are parallel to an
axonometric plane of projection Пʹ. The length of such segments of the center lines
is equal to diameter d of the initial circle.
Thus, by reason of properties of orthogonal projection for the real dimetry at
exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47), the major axes of ellipses are
equal in size to length d of the segment of the center line parallel to an axonometric
plane of projection—2a = d.
The major axes of ellipses in the reduced (practical) dimetry (kpr x ¼ kz ¼ 1;
pr
ky ¼ 0:5) are equal to the resultant diameter 1.06 · d of the initial circle in the
pr
resultant scale (Mpr = 1.06:1)—2a = 1.06 · d.

The size of a the minor axis of an ellipse of the rhombus parallel to a plane xʹOʹzʹ
is determined with the help of a rectangular triangle ΔOCD (Fig. 11.10).
The rectangular triangle ΔOOʹD is inscribed into a rectangular triangle ΔOCD.
Both rectangular triangles ΔOCD, ΔOOʹD have general side OD and the general
sharp angle at top D—∠CDO = ∠OʹDO = 28°. Therefore, other sharp angles
∠OCD, ∠DOOʹ at tops C, O rectangular triangles ΔOCD, ΔDOOʹ are equal to each
other accordingly—∠OCD = ∠DOOʹ = 62°.
To visualize the definition of size 2b of the minor axis of the rhombus ellipse, the
size of equal sharp angles ∠OCD, ∠DOOʹ at tops C, O rectangular triangles
ΔOCD, ΔOOʹD is designated by β (Fig. 11.10)—∠OCD = ∠DOOʹ = β.
It follows from a rectangular triangle ΔOOʹD that the relation triangle cathetus
OʹD, opposite to a angle β, to hypotenuse OD is equal to the sine angle β—
OʹD/OD = sin β.
Considering, that sin2 β + cos2 β = 1, the relation of triangle cathetus OʹD to

pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
hypotenuse OD can be written as follows—O0 D=OD ¼ 1 cos2 b.
It follows from a rectangular triangle ΔOCOʹ that the cosine of angle β is equal
to the relation of a triangle cathetus OʹC, adjacent to angle β, to hypotenuse CO—
cos β = OʹC/CO.
For dimetry, relation OʹC/CO of segments OʹC, CO is the known size of dis-
tortion factor ky ¼ 2=3 ¼ 0:47O0 C=CO ¼ ky ¼ 2=3. Therefore, cosb ¼
pffiffiffi
2=3.
Now the value of the relation of triangle cathetus OʹD to hypotenuse OD of a
rectangular triangle ΔOOʹD is designated as follows—O0 D=OD ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 cos2 b ¼ 1 ð2=9Þ ¼ 7=9 ¼ 0:7777 ¼ 0:881917:
The minor axis 2b of the rhombus ellipse is parallel to triangle cathetus OʹD and
axonometric axis Oʹyʹ.
For the initial circle, minor axis 2b of a rhombus ellipse is a segment projection
of the center line which is parallel to hypotenuse OD. The length of this segment of
the center line is equal to diameter d of the initial circle.
Therefore, relation OʹD/OD = 0.881917 of triangle cathetus OʹD to hypotenuse OD
is equal to the relation b/a to the minor semi axis b to the major semi axis a rhombus
ellipse—OʹD/OD = b/a [13, 15].
Thus, the size of the minor semi axis b of a rhombus ellipse is equal to
b = 0.881917 · a.
Considering that the value of the major axis 2a of the ellipse is equal to diameter d
of the initial circle (2a = d), the parity for calculation of the value of the minor axis
2b of the rhombus ellipse is defined as follows—2b = 0.881917 · d.
The minor axis of the rhombus ellipse for true dimetry with exact distortion
factors (kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47) coincides with the direction of axis Oʹyʹ less than
diameter d of the initial circle by the factor 0.88—2b = 0.88 · d.
The minor axis of the rhombus ellipse in reduced (practical) dimetry (kpr x ¼
kz ¼ 1; kpr
pr
y ¼ 0:5) is equal to the resultant diameter of the initial circle reduced by
factor 0.88—2b = 0.881917 · 1.06 · d = 0.934832 · d = 0.94 · d.
The value of the minor axis 2b of the parallelograms ellipse parallel to planes
xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ, is determined by means of rectangular triangle ΔOEB (Fig. 11.10).
The rectangular triangle ΔOOʹE is inscribed into rectangular triangle ΔOEB.
Both rectangular triangles ΔOEB, ΔOOʹE have general side OE and the general
sharp angle at top E—∠OEB = ∠OʹEO = 70°. Therefore, other sharp angles
∠OEB, ∠EOOʹ at tops E, O rectangular triangles ΔOEB, ΔEOOʹ are accordingly
equal to each other—∠OBE = ∠EOOʹ = 20°.
To visualize the determination of value 2b of the minor axis of the parallelogram
ellipse, the value of equal sharp angles ∠OBE, ∠EOOʹ at tops B, O rectangular
triangles ΔOBE, ΔEOOʹ is designated by γ (Fig. 11.10)—∠OBE = ∠EOOʹ = γ.
It follows from a rectangular triangle ΔEOOʹ that the relation of triangle cathetus
OʹE opposite to angle γ to hypotenuse OE is equal to the sine of angle γ—
OʹE/OE = sin γ.
Considering that sin2γ + cos2γ = 1, relation of triangle cathetus OʹE to hypote-

nuse OE, can be written as follows—O0 E=OE ¼ 1 cos2 c.
It follows from rectangular triangle ΔEOOʹ that the cosine of angle γ is equal to
the relation of triangle cathetus OʹE, adjacent to angle γ, to hypotenuse OE—
cos γ = OʹE/OE.
For dimetry, the relation OʹE/OE of segments OʹE, OE is the known size of
distortion factor kz ¼ 2 2=3 ¼ 0:94O0 C=CO ¼ kz ¼ 2 2=3. Therefore,
pffiffiffi
cosc ¼ 2 2=3.
Now the value relation of triangle cathetus OʹE to hypotenuse OE of rectangular
triangle ΔOOʹE is calculated as follows—O0 E=OE ¼ 1 cos2 c ¼
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 ð8=9Þ ¼ 1=9 ¼ 0:1111 ¼ 0:3333.
The minor axis 2b of the parallelogram ellipse, parallel to the plane xʹOʹyʹ, is parallel
to triangle cathetus OʹE and axonometric axis Oʹzʹ. Similarly, the minor axis 2b of the
parallelogram ellipse, parallel to a plane yʹOʹzʹ, is parallel to axonometric axis Oʹxʹ.
For an initial circle, the minor axis 2b of the parallelogram ellipse, parallel to a
plane xʹOʹyʹ, is a segment projection of the central line which is parallel to hypo-
tenuse OE. The length of this segment of the center line is equal to diameter d of the
initial circle.
Therefore, the relation OʹE/OE = 0.33 of triangle cathetus OʹE to hypotenuse OE
is equal to the relation b/a of the minor semi axis b to the major semi axis a of the
parallelogram ellipse—OʹE/OE = b/a [13, 15].
Thus, the value of the minor semi axis b of the parallelogram ellipse is equal to
b = 0.33 · a.
Considering that the value of the major axis 2a of the ellipse is equal to diameter d
of the initial circle (2a = d), the factor for calculating the value of the minor axis 2b of
the parallelogram ellipse is determined as follows—2b = 0.33 · d.
The minor axis of the parallelogram ellipse, parallel to a plane xʹOʹyʹ, for real
dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47) coincides with the
direction of axis Oʹzʹ and less diameter d of the initial circle by factor 0.33—
2b = 0.33 · d.
The minor axis of the parallelogram ellipse, parallel to plane yʹOʹzʹ, for real
dimetry with exact distortion factors (kx = kz = 0.94, ky = 0.47), coincides with the
direction of axis Oʹxʹ and is less than diameter d of the initial circle by factor 0.33—
2b = 0.33 · d.
The minor axis of the parallelogram ellipse in reduced (practical) dimetry
x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ 0:5) is equal to the resultant diameter of the initial circle
(kpr pr pr
reduced by factor 0.33—2b = 0.33·1.06 · d = 0.35 · d.

Directions of the minor axes of the ellipses do not depend on the types of
distortion factors.
For graphic construction of rectangular dimetry of the circles, an axonometric
projection of the square described around the circle is constructed in the form of a
rhombus or a parallelogram. The ellipse is inscribed into the constructed rhombus or the
parallelogram at eight points.
d=50 z d2 =d/2=25 z
d1=d/5 |12|=|34|=22.7857 D
d1=10 D OA=OB=22.7857
OC=OD=2 OA=AB 2
2a AB=45.5714 3
H E C E F
O A B
A F O
G H G
x x 4 1
B y y
à C á
Fig. 11.12 Construction of the ovals replacing ellipses
Working with a pair of compasses, the ellipses are replaced by the ovals
(Fig. 11.12).
Oval ABCD for the rhombus ellipse, parallel to plane xʹOʹzʹ, is a conjugation of
four arch AB, BC, CD, DA of the circles with the centers in points E, H, F, G
accordingly (Fig. 11.12a).
Points of conjugation A, B, C, D of arcs AB, BC, CD, DA of the oval circles are
set at the intersection of axonometric axes Oʹxʹ, Oʹzʹ and the circles of diameter d,
which is equal to diameter (d = 50) of the initial circle of the cube.
Centers E, F are defined as the points of intersection of the major axis 2a of the
ellipse with the circle, of diameter d1 which is five times less than diameter d of the
initial circle of the cube—2a ⊥ yʹ, 2a ≡ EF, EF ⊥ yʹ, d1 = d/5 = 50/5 = 10.
Centers H, G are defined as the points of intersection of axonometric axis Oʹyʹ
and straight lines CE, AF accordingly—H = Oʹyʹ \ CE, G = Oʹyʹ \ AF.
On the basis of the points of conjugation A, B, C, D and centers E, H, F, G
accordingly for adjacent arches AB, BC, CD, DA of the circles, oval ABCD is
constructed which is parallel to plane xʹOʹzʹ (Fig. 11.12a).
Oval EFGH for the parallelogram ellipse, parallel to planes xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ, is a
conjugation of four arcs EF, FG, GH, HE of the circles with the centers in points C,
B, D, A accordingly (Fig. 11.12a).
Points 1 and 3, belonging to arcs HG and EF accordingly, are defined as the
points of intersection of axonometric axis Oʹyʹ with the circle of diameter d2, which
is half the diameter d of the initial circle of the cube—1 2 yʹ, 1 2 GH, 3 2 yʹ,
3 2 EF, d2 = d/2 = 50/2 = 25.
To determine the distances of centers C, B, D, A of conjugation of arcs EF, FG,
GH, HE of the circles from point Oʹ, the points 2, 4 of intersection of axonometric
axis Oʹzʹ with the circle, diameter d2 is half the diameter d of the initial circle of the
cube—2 2 zʹ, 4 2 zʹ, d2 = d/2 = 50/2 = 25.
The lengths of segments 12, 34 are equal to each other and equal to the distance
of centers A and B from point Oʹ—│12│ = │34│ = OʹA = OʹB = 22.7857.
The distance of centers C and D from point Oʹ is equal to the double the length
of segment OʹA—OʹC = OʹD = 2 · OʹA = 2 · 22.7857 = 45.5714.
Distances from point 3 to center C and from point 1 to center D are equal to each
other and equal to the radius of big arcs EF, HG—3 2 EF, 1 2 HG,
│3C│ = │1D│ = R54.71.
Points E, F, G, H of conjugation of four arcs EF, FG, GH, HE are defined as the
point of intersection of arcs EF, GH with straight lines AC, BC, BD, AD accord-
ingly—E = EF \ AC, F = EF \ BC, G = GH \ BD, H = GH \ AD.
On the basis of points of conjugation E, F, G, H and centers C, B, D, A accordingly
for adjacent arcs EF, FG, GH, HE of the circles, oval EFGH is constructed for the
ellipse of parallelograms parallel to planes xʹOʹyʹ, yʹOʹzʹ, (Fig. 11.12a).
Rectangular dimetry is applied to construct a drawing of the product of the
complicated form where one dimension is much more than other two dimensions.
The product is located so that its largest dimension size coincides with axis Oy.
It is preferable to locate the product with the circles, belonging to two or three
orthogonal projection planes, so that larger quantity of circles are parallel to frontal
projection plane xOz. This improves visualization of the image.
Rectangular dimetry is applied to represent the image of the products of pris-
matic and pyramidal shape.
Rectangular dimetrics is not recommended to be applied to construct the
drawing of the product with equal dimensions for all three measurements.
Now we consider oblique-angled standard axonometric projections, i.e., oblique-
angled frontal isometry, oblique-angled frontal dimetrics, and oblique-angled hori-
zontal isometry.
11.8.3 Oblique-Angled Frontal Isometry
For oblique-angled frontal isometry, the axonometric (picture) projection plane Пʹ

is parallel to the plane xOz of the primary coordinate system Oxyz of reference of
object A (product).
The axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ are parallel to the primary coordinate axes
Ox and Oz, respectively. An angle between the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ is a
right angle (Fig. 11.13).
2 z =135 (150 , 120 ) z

1
s z 1 =45 (30 , 60 )
90 90
x 90 90
O 3
x 1 1 O
O
135 45
x
45 y 1
1 y y
1
Fig. 11.13 Oblique-angled frontal isometry

As the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ are parallel to the primary coordinate axes
Ox and Oz, respectively, the distortion factors kx, kz are equal to one—kx = kz = 1.
To avoid the use of the reduced (practical) coefficient of distortion, the projection
angle φ between projection direction sʹ (projecting ray AAʹ) and picture plane Пʹ is
chosen so that the distortion factor ky for the axis Oʹyʹ is equal to one—ky = 1.
Thus, in oblique-angled frontal isometry, exact coefficients of distortion are
equal to the reduced (practical) coefficient of distortion—kx ¼ ky ¼
kz ¼ kpr
x ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1.
pr pr
The projection angle φ with the known distortion factors kx, ky, kz is defined by
axonometry basic formula as k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u.
When kx ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1; obtain 12 + 12 + 12 = 2 + cot2φ or cotφ = 1 and
φ = 45°.
Angles between the axonometric axis Oʹyʹ and the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and
Oʹzʹ are, as a rule, the same and equal to 135°.
The state standard (GOST 2.317-69) assigns 30° or 60° inclination angle of the
axonometric axis Oʹyʹ to the horizontal straight line (Fig. 11.13).
Similarly to rectangular axonometric projections, the geometric analysis of
oblique-angled frontal isometry of a cube with circles and spheres with the cut-out
forward left top quarter (Fig. 11.14) is carried out.
In oblique-angled frontal isometry, the major axis 2a of an ellipse is equal to 1.3
of the diameter d of the circle, whereas the minor axis 2b of an ellipse is equal to
0.54 of the diameter d of the circle—2a = 1.3d, 2b = 0.54d.
In oblique-angled frontal isometry, the major axes 2a of ellipses in the planes
xʹOʹyʹ and yʹOʹzʹ are inclined, respectively, to axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ at angle 22°30ʹ.
The major axes 2a of ellipses coincide with the major diagonals of parallelograms.
In oblique-angled frontal isometry, the minor axes 2b of ellipses in planes xʹOʹyʹ
and yʹOʹzʹ are perpendicular to the major axes and coincide with the minor diag-
onals of parallelograms (Fig. 11.14).
d z k x=k y =k z =1
2
1 z
2b =0,54d
2b
r 2a =1,3d
d 2a 2
x 1 O
x O
d
1 d=2r
2 y =22 30 y
Fig. 11.14 Oblique-angled frontal isometry of a cube with inscribed circles and sphere with the
cut-out forward left top quarter
Circles and other geometric images of an object, parallel to a frontal projection

plane xOz, are projected in the axonometric plane xʹOʹzʹ in true size.
Oblique-angled frontal isometry is applied when a part has a considerable
quantity of circles or other complicated geometric images in the front view.
Oblique-angled frontal isometry is called cavalyer projection or cavalyer
prospect.
11.8.4 Oblique-Angled Frontal Dimetry
For oblique-angled frontal dimetric, the axonometric (picture) projection plane Пʹ is

located parallel to the plane xOz of the primary coordinate system Oxyz of object
(product) reference.
The axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ are parallel to the primary coordinate axes
Ox and Oz accordingly. The angle between the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ is
right (Fig. 11.15).
As the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ are accordingly parallel to the primary
coordinate axes Ox and Oz, the distortion factors kx, kz are equal to one—
kx = kz = 1.
To avoid the use of the reduced (practical) distortion factors, the projection angle
φ between the projection direction sʹ (projecting ray AAʹ) and the picture plane Пʹ is
chosen so that the distortion factor ky for the axis Oʹyʹ is 0.5—ky = 0.5.
Thus, in oblique-angled frontal dimetry, the exact distortion factors are equal to the
resultant (practical) distortion factors—kx ¼ kz ¼ kpr
x ¼ kz ¼ 1; ky ¼ ky ¼ 0:5.
pr pr
The angle of projection φ with the known distortion factors kx, ky, kz is deter-
mined by the axonometry basic formula k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u.
When kx = kz = 1, ky = 0.5 then 12 + 0.52 + 12 = 2 + cot2φ or cotφ = 0.5 so that
φ = 63°.
2 z =135 (150 , 120 ) z

1
z 1 =45 (30 , 60 )
s
90 90
x 90 90
O 3
x 1 1 O
O
x 45
63 y 1 135 1 y
1 y
Fig. 11.15 Oblique-angled frontal dimetry

Angles between the axonometric axis Oʹyʹ and the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and
Oʹzʹ are, as a rule, equal to 135°.
The state standard (GOST 2.317-69) assigns the inclination angle of the
axonometric axis Oʹyʹ to a horizontal straight line to be 30° or 60° (Fig. 11.15).
See ISO 5456-3:1996.
oblique-angled frontal dimetry of a cube with inscribed circles (ellipses) and sphere
with the cut-out forward left top quarter is carried out (Fig. 11.16).
In oblique-angled frontal isometry, the major axis 2a of ellipse is equal to 1.07 of
circle diameter d, and the minor axis 2b of this ellipse is equal to 0.33 of the initial
circle diameter d—2a = 1.07d, 2b = 0.33d.
In oblique-angled frontal dimetry, the major axes 2a of ellipses in the planes
xʹOʹyʹ and yʹOʹzʹ are inclined respectively to the axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹzʹ at angle of
7°14ʹ. The major axes 2a of ellipses do not coincide with the major diagonals of
parallelograms.
In oblique-angled frontal dimetry, the minor axes 2b of ellipses in the planes
xʹOʹyʹ and yʹOʹzʹ are perpendicular to the major axes and do not coincide with the
minor diagonals of parallelograms (Fig. 11.16).
Circles and other geometric images of the object, parallel to the frontal pro-
jection plane xOz, are projected in the axonometric plane xʹOʹzʹ in the true size.
Oblique-angled frontal dimetry is applied when the object has a considerable
quantity of circles or other complicated geometric images in its the front view,
parallel to the frontal projection plane.
Oblique-angled frontal dimetry is applied to image the parts having prismatic
and pyramidal shape, one dimension of which is much greater than two other
dimensions.
The product is located so that its largest sides are parallel to the axis Oy.
Oblique-angled frontal dimetric is named a cabinet projection or cabinet
prospect.
2 =7 14 z 2a =1,07d k x =k z =1
1 z
2a 2b =0,33d k y =0,5
2b
x r
1 O O
x
0,5d 1 3
d
2 d=2r y y
Fig. 11.16 Oblique-angled frontal dimetry of cube with inscribed circles and sphere with the
11.8.5 Oblique-Angled Horizontal Isometry
For oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the axonometric (picture) projection plane

Пʹ is located parallel to the horizontal plane xOy of the primary coordinate system
Oxyz of reference of object A (product).
The axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹyʹ are parallel to the primary coordinate axes
Ox and Oy, respectively. An angle between the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹyʹ is a
right angle (Fig. 11.17).
Because the axonometric axes Oʹxʹ and Oʹyʹ are respectively parallel to the
primary coordinate axes Ox and Oy, the distortion factors kx, ky are equal to one—
kx = ky = 1.
To avoid the use of reduced (practical) coefficient of distortion, the angle of
proportion φ between the proportion direction sʹ (projecting ray AAʹ) and the
picture plane Пʹ is chosen so that the distortion factor kz over the axis Oʹyʹ is equal
to one—kz = 1.
Thus, in oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the exact coefficients of distortion
are equal to the reduced (practical) coefficients of distortion—kx ¼
ky ¼ kz ¼ kprx ¼ ky ¼ kz ¼ 1.
pr pr
The proportion angle φ with the known distortion factors kx, ky, kz is defined
according to the axonometric basic formula—k2x þ k2y þ k2z ¼ 2 þ cot2 u.
When kx = ky = kz = 1 then 12 + 12 + 12 = 2 + cot2 φ or cot φ = 1 and φ = 45°.
The angle between the axonometric axes Oʹzʹ and Oʹyʹ, as a rule, is equal to
120°. The angle of inclination of the axonometric axis Oʹyʹ to a horizontal straight
line, perpendicular to axis Oʹzʹ, is equal to 30°.
The state standard (GOST 2.317-69) assigns the angle between the axonometric
axes Oʹzʹ and Oʹyʹ to be equal to 135° or 150°, respectively, and the angle of
inclination of the axonometric axis Oʹyʹ to a horizontal straight line is equal to 45°
or 60° (Fig. 11.17). See ISO 5456-3:1996.
z =150 (135 , 120 ) z

2 1
1 =30 (45 , 60 )
s z
150 90
x 90 3
O 90 O
x 1 30
O
90
y 1
45 1 y
1 y 1
x
Fig. 11.17 Oblique-angled horizontal isometry

2 z d 3 k x=k y=k z=1 z

1 1
d 2a =1,37d
2b =0,37d
r
=15
d
O O
1
2b 1
d=2r
1 y =30 1 y
x x
2a
2a =1,22d
1 2b =0,71d
Fig. 11.18 Oblique-angled horizontal isometry of cube with inscribed circles and sphere with the

oblique-angled horizontal isometry of cube with inscribed circles and sphere with
the cut-out forward left top quarter is carried out (Fig. 11.18).
In oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the major axis 2a of ellipse, belonging to
any plane, parallel to the axonometric plane xʹOʹzʹ, is equal to 1.37 of the diameter d
of the initial circle. The minor axis 2b of this ellipse is equal to 0.37 of the diameter d
of the initial circle.
In oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the major axis 2a of ellipse, belonging to
any plane parallel to the axonometric plane yʹOʹzʹ, is equal to 1.22 of the diameter d
of the initial circle. The minor axis 2b of this ellipse is equal to 0.71 of the diameter
d of the initial circle.
In oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the major axes 2a of ellipse in the planes
xʹOʹzʹ and yʹOʹzʹ are inclined to the axis Oʹzʹ at the angle 15° and 30°, respectively.
The major axes 2a of ellipses coincide with the major diagonals of
parallelograms.
In oblique-angled horizontal isometry, the minor axes 2b of ellipses in the planes
xʹOʹzʹ and yʹOʹzʹ are perpendicular to the major axes and coincide with the minor
diagonals of the parallelograms (Fig. 11.18).
Circles and other complicated curvilinear geometric images of an object, parallel
to the horizontal projection plane xOy, are projected in the axonometric plane
xʹOʹyʹ in true size.
Oblique-angled horizontal isometry is applied when the product has a consid-
erable quantity of circles or other complicated curvilinear geometric images on its
top view.
This oblique-angled horizontal isometry is called vectorial projection or military
(antiaircraft) prospect.
Oblique-angled horizontal isometry for the view below is called the “frog”
prospect.
11.9 Algorithm of Construction of Axonometric

Projections
The developed algorithm of construction of axonometry of an object consists of a

preparatory step and seven basic steps (Fig. 11.19).
At the description of steps of the algorithm for construction of an axonometry
before a step number, the letter “A” is placed.
Fig. 11.19 The flow-chart of

0.
the algorithm for construction
of axonometry of a product
1.
2. a
3. b
4. K i , i=1,N
+ –
5. K i?
6.
J=1,M
j
6.1.
6.2. a j
6.3. b j
6.4. K ij
–
6.5 K ij?
7. K i, K ij
11.9 Algorithm of Construction of Axonometric Projections 277
A0. Preparatory step of construction of axonometry:

The geometrical analysis of a two-dimensional model (the projective drawing)
of a product or three-dimensional images (photos) of a prototype is carried out.
The geometrical analysis of a product consists of the definition of its char-
acteristic bodies, surfaces, planes, edges, and points. Bodies include a
spherical shell, the cylinder, a cone, a prism, a pyramid, etc. Surfaces include
spheres, helicoids, cylindroids, conoids, etc.
The most acceptable kind of axonometry is selected based upon the key design
features of a product or, alternatively, one of the standard kinds of axono-
metric projections is chosen with corresponding justifications.
The product primary orthogonal coordinate system Oxyz is selected and set for
the dimensions [15].
If the product is symmetric, the origin O of the primary orthogonal coordinate
system Oxyz should be placed at the point of crossing of the axes of sym-
metry. As a rule, this point is selected to be one of the partʹs dimensions.
If the product base is a plane, then the origin O of the primary orthogonal
coordinate system Oxy should be placed in this plane.
The secondary coordinate system Oʹxʹyʹzʹ is placed on the axonometric (pic-
ture) plane of projection Пʹ. The relative positioning of the axonometric axes
of coordinates Oʹxʹ, Oʹyʹ, Oʹzʹ corresponds to the chosen kind of axonometry.
A1. The orthogonal projection Δ (the front view, the top view, the left-side view,
etc.) containing the maximum information on design features of a product (an
aperture, a lug, planes, facets, flutes, etc.) is highlighted in the complex pro-
jective drawing (or in a prototype photographs).
The orthogonal projection, with a maximum quantity of images of construc-
tive elements not necessary, is the front view. However, by definition, the
front view gives “the fullest representation about the form and the dimensions
of a subject” [26–32].
Axonometry construction is facilitated if it is started with the image of the
orthogonal projection reflecting the greatest quantity of constructive elements
of a product.
Three orthogonal projection planes (j = 0, 1, 2) are normally used in the
axonometry construction.
As such, the counter j of the considered orthogonal planes of projections Δj,
j = 0, M is first assigned a value of zero—j = 0. Number M belongs to a set of
natural numbers.
A2. A geometrical analysis of the orthogonal projection Δ is carried out, keeping
the maximum quantity of images of the constructive elements. The aim of this
analysis is the definition of the characteristic geometrical images (circles, arcs,
segments of straight lines, and points).
In order to construct axonometry of the characteristic geometrical images, their

characteristic points are allocated—Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 ; Ki3 , i = 1, N. Number N
belongs to the set of natural numbers. For example, the axonometric projection
of a segment
of a straight
line can be constructed using two characteristic
points Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 ; Ki3 , i = 1, 2.
The primary coordinates xi, yi, zi, i = 1, N are defined for each characteristic
point Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N belonging to the analyzed orthogonal projection Δ.
The result “a” of the second stage for the problem of construction of
axonometry is the set of the primary coordinates xi, yi, zi, i = 1, N for each
characteristic point Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N.
A3. At the third stage of construction of axonometry of a product by means of the
natural coefficients of distortion kx, ky, kz for coordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz, the
secondary axonometric coordinates xʹK, yʹK, zʹK of the axonometric projection
Kʹ into the primary orthogonal coordinates xK, yK, zK points Ki (xi, yi, zi),
i = 1, N are defined as:
x0K ¼ kx xK ; y0K ¼ ky yK ; z0K ¼ kz zK :
The result “b” of the third stage for the problem of construction of axonometry
is the set of the secondary axonometric coordinates xʹK, yʹK, zʹK defined for
each characteristic point—(Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N.
A4. Axonometric projections of the characteristic points are constructed—
(Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N.
Connecting the axonometric projections (Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N of the
characteristic points Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N by a thin line, the constructed
projections of the geometrical images belonging to an orthogonal projection Δ
of a product are designated.
The result of the fourth stage includes the axonometric projections (Kʹ (xʹK,
yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N of the characteristic points Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N and the
axonometric projections of the geometrical images belonging to the orthog-
onal projection Δ of a product.
A5. Sufficiency of the obtained number of axonometric projections (Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK,
zʹK))i, i = 1, N of characteristic points Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N for the allocation
and designation of the end result of the solution of an axonometric problem is
verified.
If the number of axonometric projections (Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N of
characteristic points Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N is sufficient, then the last seventh
step of the developed algorithm is carried out.
For example, for a flat plate, its axonometric projection can be allocated by a
thick line after performing only four steps of the algorithm.
If the number of axonometric projections (Kʹ (xʹK, yʹK, zʹK))i, i = 1, N of
characteristic points Ki (xi, yi, zi), i = 1, N is found to be insufficient, the sixth
step of the developed algorithm is carried out.
A6. Additional points Kij, i = 1, L, j = 1, M for unequivocal allocation and
designation of the end result of the solution of the axonometric problem are
defined. Number L belongs to a set of natural numbers.
A second value is assigned to the counter j for the next orthogonal projection
Δj, j = 1, M of the product so that—j = 1.
A6:1. An orthogonal projection is allocated in the complex projective drawing

(or prototype photos). This orthogonal projection Δj, j = 1, M (the front
view, the top view, the left-side view, etc.) contains the maximum infor-
mation on the design features of the product (an aperture, a lug, planes,
facets, flutes, etc.) in comparison with other orthogonal projections Δj,
j = 2, M.
For the newly allocated orthogonal projection Δj, j = 1, M, steps A6.2,
A6.3, A6.4 of the developed algorithm are carried out in full analogy with
steps A2, A3, A4.
A6:2. A geometrical analysis of a new orthogonal projection Δj, j = 1, M is
carried out for the definition of characteristic geometrical images (circles,
arcs, segments of straight lines, and points).
For the construction of axonometry of the characteristic geometrical
ima-

ges, their characteristic points are allocated—Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 ; Kij3 ;
i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M.

Note that the characteristic points Ki Ki1 ; Ki2 ; Ki3 ; i ¼ 1; N already used
i
for the construction of axonometric projections K0 x0K ; y0K ; z0K ; i ¼ 1; N

are not included in the L new characteristic points Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 ; Kij3 ;
boxi ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M.
The original coordinates xij, yij, zij, i = 1, L; j = 1, M are defined for each
characteristic point Kij (xij, yij, zij), i = 1, L; j = 1, M of the analyzed
orthogonal projection Δ.
Thus, on the considered iteration of the solution of a typical geometrical
problem for an auxiliary image Δj, j = 1, M, the first group of auxiliary
actions aj, j = 1, M is carried out. As a result of these actions aj, j = 1, M,
ij ij ij
the original coordinates x ,y ,z , i = 1, L; j = 1, M of the additional
characteristic points Kij Kij1 ; Kij2 ; Kij3 ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M of the product are
defined.
A6:3. At this stage of construction of axonometry of the product the secondary
ij
axonometric coordinates x0K ; y0K ; z0K ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M of the axono-
metric projection ðK0 Þij ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M using the natural coefficients of
distortion kx, ky, kz for coordinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz are defined. These
coordinates are defined using the primary orthogonal coordinates (xK, yK,
zK)ij, i = 1, L; j = 1, M points Kij (xij, yij, zij), i = 1, L; j = 1, M as:
x0K ¼ kx xK ; y0K ¼ ky yK ; z0K ¼ kz zK :
The results bj, j = 1, M of this stage for the problem of construction of

ij
axonometry are the secondary axonometric coordinates x0K ; y0K ; z0K ;

i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M for each characteristic point Kij xij ; yij ; zij ; i ¼ 1; L;
ij
j ¼ 1; M K0 x0K ; y0K ; z0K ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M.
Thus, at this step, for the auxiliary image Δj, j = 1, M, the second group of
auxiliary actions bj, j = 1, M is carried out. The result of these actions bj,
j = 1, M is the determination of the secondary axonometric coordinates
0 0 0 ij
xK ; yK ; zK ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M of characteristic points Kij (xij, yij, zij),
i = 1, L; j = 1, M of the product.
A6:4. Axonometric projections of the characteristic points are constructed—Kij
(xij, yij, zij), i = 1, L; j = 1, M.

Connecting the axonometric projections K0 x0K ; y0K ; z0K ij ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼
1; M of the characteristic points Kij (xij, yij, zij), i = 1, L, j = 1, M by a thin
line, one can allocate the constructed projections of the geometrical images
belonging to the orthogonal projection Δj, j = 1, M of the product.
The result of the fourth step includes the axonometric projections
0 0 0 0 ij
K xK ; yK ; zK ; i ¼ 1; L; j ¼ 1; M of the additional characteristic
points Kij (xij, yij, zij), i = 1, L, j = 1, M and the additional axonometric
projections of the geometrical images belonging to an orthogonal projec-
tion Δj, j = 1, M of the product allocated by a thin line.
Thus, the fourth step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem for
the auxiliary image Δj, j = 1, M includes the construction of the additional
necessary projections of geometrical images.
A6:5. The verification of the unambiguity of the construction of the end result for
the problem is carried out.
If the quantities of points Kij, i = 1, N + L, j = 1, M, belonging to
geometrical images of orthogonal projections Δj, j = 0, M is sufficient for
unequivocal allocation and a designation of result of the solution of an
axonometric problem, the seventh step of the algorithm is carried out.
Otherwise, the value of the counter j of the additional orthogonal projec-
tions Δj, j = 2, M is increased by one (j = j + 1). A new orthogonal
projection Δj, j = 2, M is allocated. The auxiliary procedures aj, bj, j = 1, M
are carried out. After this, the verification of the unambiguity of con-
struction of the end result is carried out. That is, the sixth step of the
developed algorithm is repeated.
A7. The result of the solution of the axonometric problem is allocated and des-
ignated by connection of obtained points Kij, i = 1, N + L+P, j = 1, M by a
smooth line taking into account their visibility on the projection.
The conjunctive and overall dimensions are added to the constructed
axonometry of the product.
Thus, the developed flow-chart of the algorithm of the construction of
axonometry of the product reflects repetition of first five steps at the sixth step
for new orthogonal projections Δj, j = 1, M (Fig. 11.19).
The algorithm flow-chart contains only standard logic blocks of operators so
that it is fully suitable for programming using any graphical high-level lan-
guage and commercial CAD package.
The efficiency of the algorithm for construction of an axonometry of a product
is confirmed over many years by students for the solution of practical prob-
lems and by engineers in the course study on of product design.
For example, using the proposed algorithm, students solved the problem of
construction of axonometry of the shock-absorber (Fig. 11.20). The result is
shown in a Fig. 11.21.
Students obtained credit for reduction in solution time, and the number of
errors decreased by approximately half.
To become familiar with shock-absorber manufacturing techniques (Figs. 11.22
and 11.23), it is possible to visit the Odessa factory of technical rubber products.
B16 2 3 4 1
M10 3
A A
3
40
60w
6
3
70
B7 B 12 B7 A -A
14
44
40
40 R2
Fig. 11.20 Two-dimensional model of a product (the shock-absorber): 1 the case; 2 the plug: 3
clamp; 4 a plate
Y
X
Fig. 11.21 The constructed axonometry of a product
Fig. 11.22 The product drawing

Fig. 11.23 Shock-absorber

AKSS-25M manufactured by
the Odessa Factory of
Technical Rubber Products
The proposed algorithm for construction of axonometry of a product enables

engineers in industrial practice to raise the quality of the design documentation
without increasing discrepancies in images.
Thus, the potential for the application of the developed algorithm for con-
struction of axonometry in infinite sets of types of axonometric projections of
products is confirmed.
11.10 Review Questions on the Seventh Block

(This Chapter)
1. Projective drawing. Requirements to projective drawing and its construction.

2. Principles of drawing construction.
3. Definition of axonometry.
4. The essence of the method, mechanism and operations of axonometric
projection.
5. Properties of axonometric projections.
6. The essence and means of achievement of axonometry presentation.
7. The essence and means of achievement of axonometry convertibility.
8. Algorithm of unequivocal definition of point position in space by its axono-
metric projection.
9. The essence and means of achievement of axonometry measurability.
10. Axonometric basic formula.
11. Charles Polke’s theorem.
12. Classification of axonometric projections.
13. Rectangular isometry.

14. Rectangular dimetric.
15. Oblique-angled frontal isometry.
16. Oblique-angled frontal dimetric.
17. Oblique-angled horizontal isometry.
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p (in Russian)
References 285
232 p (in Russian)
20. Mihajlenko VE, Kovalyev SN, Sedleckaya NI and other (1989) Engineering geometry with
element of the theories of parameterization. К.: UMК VO, 83 p (in Russian)
Mashinostroenie, 231 p (in Russian)
22. Kolotov SM, Dolski EE, Mihajlenko VE et al. Course of descriptive geometry. К.:
Gosstrojizdat USSR, 314 p (in Russian)
23. Tevlin AM, Ivanov GS, Nartova LG and other (1983) Course of descriptive geometry on the
ground of computer. Tevlin AM. M.: Vishaya shkola, 175 p (in Russian)
24. Levicki VS (1988) Machine-building drawing. M.: Vishaya shkola, 351 p (in Russian)
25. Marchenko VS (2008) Engineering graphics (in Ukrainian). Astruprint, Odessa, 168 p
handbook. In: Mihajlenko VE (ed). K: Karavella, 328 p (in Russian)
Podkorytov AN, Skidan IA (eds). Vishcha shkola, Kiyv, 350 p (in Russian)
Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VM, Podkorytov AN, Skidan IA (eds). Vishcha Shkola, Kiyv, 159
p (in Russian)
computer graphics (in Ukrainian). К.: Urozhaj, 200 p
30. Mihajlenko VE, Ponomaryev AM (1990) Engineering graphics. К.: Vishcha shkola, 303 p (in
Russian)
M.: DMК Press, 592 p (in Russian)
33. Russian complex of the programs T-FLEX CAD/CAM/CAE/PDM (2005). M.: Top Systems,
52 p (in Russian)
34. Rizhov NN (1983) Main positional problems. M.: MADI, 38 p (in Russian)
35. Rizhov NN (1988) Parametric geometry. M.: MADI, 63 p (in Russian)
38. Brailov AY (1998) The exclusion method of interference in Conjugated Helicoids. In:
descriptive geometry, Austin, Texas, USA. ISGG, vol 2, pp 443–445
Eng, MED—10: 389–396, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
international conference on engineering design graphics and descriptive geometry,
Johannesburg, South Africa. ISGG, vol 2, pp 412–416
41. Brailov AY (2002) Interference in design. In: Proceedings of the tenth international conference
on geometry and graphics, Kiev, Ukraine. ISGG, vol 1, pp 84–88
42. Brailov AY (2004) Designing using T-FLEX CAD. In: Proceedings of the eleventh
international conference on geometry and graphics, Guangzhow, China. ISGG, pp 397–402
Proceedings of the twelfth international conference on geometry and graphics, Salvador,
Brazil, ISGG, pp A19
conference on geometry and graphics, Dresden, Germany. ISGG, pp 58–59

and graphics, Kyoto, Japan. ISGG, pp 324–325
46. Brailov AY (2011) Principles of product development. Engineering graphics BALTGRAF11.
In: Proceedings of the eleventh international conference, Tallinn, Estonia. IAB: Tallinn
University of Technology, pp 95–104
international conference on geometry and graphics, Montreal, Canada. ISGG, pp 121–122
Mach Form Opera. Int Sci Press. ISP, 3(1):11–17 (Detroit, Michigan, USA)
problems. In: Proceedings of the sixteenth international conference on geometry and graphics,
Innsbruck, Austria. ISGG, Innsbruck University Press, pp 444–458. ISBN 978-3-902936-46-2
51. Cucakovic Aleksandar A, Teofilovic Natasa K, Jovic Biljana S (2014) Descriptive geometry
education by using multimedia tools. In: Proceedings of the 16th international conference on
geometry and graphics, Innsbruck, Austria, pp 262–265
52. Honma I (2012) A trial with teaching materials on descriptive geometry by using CAD for
geometry and graphics, Montreal, Canada. ISGG, pp 296–301
54. Ryan DL (1992) CAD/CAE descriptive geometry. In: Ryan DL (ed). CRC Press, Boca Raton,
209 p
images. In: Proceedings of the twelfth international conference on geometry and graphics,
Salvador, Brazil. ISGG, Paper #T30
Graph 18(2):249–258
The innovative paradigm of teaching in descriptive geometry. In: Proceedings of the fifteenth
international conference on geometry and graphics, Montreal, Canada. ISGG, pp 778–787
58. Weiss G (2012) Is advanced elementary geometry on the way to regain scientific terrain? In:
Chapter 12
Conclusion and Summary
This book examines the theoretical foundations of engineering graphics, from the
creation of the geometric models to the product design of real objects. The creation
of the geometric models of the product is a practical engineering problem, dealing
with the interpretation of materials under conditions of increased workload and time
restrictions [1–59].
12.1 The Collection of Recent Developments
The collection of recent developments enables the study and applications of the
theoretical foundations of engineering geometry for engineering design.
1. The laws of the projective connections as a necessary and sufficient set of
conditions are formulated. This provides for the efficient use of these laws for
the solution of direct and inverse problems. Laws of projection connections
enable an engineer to understand the essence of mutually unambiguous trans-
formations of three-dimensional and two-dimensional models of a geometric
image [3, 48].
2. The algorithm for the constructing two-dimensional models of the projection
enables the engineer to construct a complex drawing of a geometric image for
any of eight octants. The construction is executed in any system of the mea-
surement without error, speeding up the solution to the problem.
3. The system of rules defines the visibility perspectives of the geometric image
and designs the constructive element of the product for direct and inverse
problems of descriptive geometry.

288 12 Conclusion and Summary
3:1. A rule to define the visibility of coincident projections of competing points.

3:2. A rule to define the visibility of competing points.
3:3. A rule to define the visibility of geometric images.
3:4. A rule to define the visibility of constructive elements of a product.
A system of rules defining the visibility elements is required for forming an
adequate (identical) reading of the drawings.
4. The algorithms for solving positional problems on mutual intersection of
geometrical images [5], for solving metric problems by defining the necessary
metric characteristic [7], for constructing the axonometric views of a product
[10, 11], and for constructing development of a curvilinear surface [6] also
consider the iterative nature of methods used.
5. The algorithm for constructing development of a curvilinear surface generalizes
three methods of design: triangle, unreeling, and normal section [6].
6. The algorithm flow-chart for solving positional problems [5] corresponds to the
algorithm flow-chart for solving metric problems [7], the algorithm flow-chart
for constructing development of a surface [6], the algorithm flow-chart for
constructing the axonometric views of a product [10, 11], and the general
algorithm flow-chart for solving typical geometrical problems [8, 9, 49].
7. A general approach for the solution of positional, metric and axonometric
problems, as well as problems of the constructing development of a curvilinear
surface is presented [8, 9, 49].
The general approach for solving typical geometrical problems in the form of
an algorithm of the united structure with standard logical block is offered. Such
a general algorithm assists the engineer in understanding the essence of the
methods for solving typical geometrical problems [4–11, 49].
The developed general algorithm for the solution of typical geometrical prob-
lems consists of seven steps, as shown in Fig. 12.1.
The letter G, placed before the step number, indicates that the description is
considered a step of the general algorithm.
G1. The auxiliary image Δ is defined at the first step of the solution of a typical
geometrical problem.
G2. At the second step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem for the
auxiliary image Δ, the first group of auxiliary actions a is carried out.
G3. At the third step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem for an
auxiliary image Δ, the second group of auxiliary actions b is carried out.
G4. At the fourth step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem for an
auxiliary image Δ, the necessary projection of the geometrical image Ki, i = 1,
N is constructed.
G5. At the fifth step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem for an
auxiliary image Δ, sufficiency of the obtained result is verified.
G6. At the sixth step of solving a typical geometrical problem, additional points
Kij, i = 1, N, j = 1, M of the newly constructed geometrical image for
unequivocal allocation and a designation of the end result for solving the
problem are defined.
12.1 The Collection of Recent Developments 289
Fig. 12.1 A flow-chart of the

0.
general algorithm for solving
typical geometrical problems
1.
2. a
3. b
4. Ki , i=1,N
+ –
5. Ki?
6.
J=1,M
j
6.1.
6.2. a j
6.3. b j
6.4. Kij
–
6.5 Kij?
+
7. Ki, Kij
G7. At the seventh step of the solution of a typical geometrical problem, the end
result is allocated and designated.
Thus, the developed flow-chart of the general algorithm for the solution of
typical geometrical problems reflects a repetition of first five stages at the sixth
stage for new images Δj, j = 1, M (Fig. 12.1).
The developed general approach to the solution of typical geometrical problems
considers the iterative nature the methods used.
Fig. 12.2 Geometrical 2 Z23

models of segment ΔABC of A2 2 A2
a plane
A
C2 B2
C2 B2 C12
C12 X12 A12 B12
X12 A12 B12 O
A1
A1 1
B B1
C C1
AB BC C1 B1
1 Y13
Using the proposed general algorithm in the form of standard logic blocks
facilitates students’ and specialists’ understanding of the geometrical essence of
the studied phenomenon, as well as the essence of the method for solving the
problem.
The efficiency of the general algorithm has been verified by many students and
engineers dealing with the solution of practical problems.
Students received the results of reduced time independently.
In tutorial study and/or in an exam, with the help of the developed algorithm of
structure, students can solve a metric problem of determining the true size of
segment ΔABC (Fig. 12.2) of a plane in a timely manner.
The results of a solution of the problem are shown in Fig. 12.3 for
three-dimensional and two-dimensional geometrical models.
8. Each step of the algorithm, reflects the main properties and relations of
geometric images in the sign (semiotic) of models of the solution to the
AB BC BC 4 4 1 AB 4 A4B4=AB A5B5C5 = ABC

2 Z23 2 A2
2 1 4 1
A2 A1B1 X14
4
A4 A1 4 X14
A X 45
A5 4
C2 B2 A4A14=A2A12
C2 B2
5
C12 A4 5
C12 X12 A12 B12 A14 A45
X12 A12 B12 O A5
A1 B4=C4
A14
A1
B B4 C4 1
B14 B45
B1 B5
5 4 C5 C B5
C1 B14=C14 X14 C1
B1
5 = ABC 1 Y13 1 X14 4
C5
A5 = A B5 = B C5 = C 1 4 4 5 B5 C5 X45 B5C5=B1C1=BC
Fig. 12.3 The complex drawings of segment ΔABC of a plane in the created system of planes of
projections П4/П1 and П4/П5
12.1 The Collection of Recent Developments 291
Fig. 12.4 Mutually biunique transformations of product models
engineering problem. This facilitates a deeper understanding of the essence of

the phenomenon under study [9].
9. The amendments introduced to the laws of the projective connections and the
algorithms developed for solving geometric problems enable an engineer to
independently master the theoretical foundations of engineering geometry for
design.
10. Practical engineers can use the developed general approach for solving new
difficult real-world problems.
11. The main contribution to geometry here is a synthesized general algorithm that
helps one to teach and study the theoretical foundations of engineering
geometry on a deductive basis—“from the general to the quotient”.
In this book, designed methods and formal structured algorithms of the creation
of a parametric three-dimensional model of the product on the basis of its
two-dimensional geometric model (the sketch, the freehand drawing) are demon-
strated. The contents constitute the perfected theoretical foundation of the solution
of the inverse problem of descriptive geometry (Fig. 12.4).
Another point of emphasis is the transformation of a three-dimensional model
into a two-dimensional model of the product. The algorithms designed for the
construction of a two-dimensional model of the product on the basis of its
three-dimensional model are clearly stated. The engineer thus acquires the facility
for solving the direct problem of descriptive geometry through computer aided
design [3].
The methodological foundation for efficient desifor gn and technological
preparation production is provided (Fig. 12.4).
Consequently, for systems using computer-aided design, algorithms for the
transformation of the geometric models of the product within a design-technological
chain are: a sketch—a three-dimensional parametric model—a two-dimensional
parametric model—a drawing of the product (Fig. 12.4).
References
1. Automation of the designing and preparation production (2002) T-FLEX Parametric CAD (in
Russian), Tоp systems, М., p 41
2. Brailov AY (2002) Interference and problem of the designing in machine building.
Proceedings of Odessa Polytechnic University (in Russian), Odessa, ОGPU, 2(18): 21–24
3. Brailov AY (2007) Computer engineering graphics in the environment of Т-FLEX:
Transformations of two-dimensional and three-dimensional models of products (in Russian),
Caravella, Kiev, p 176
4. Brailov AY (2011a) Features of training on engineering graphics in modern conditions.
Technical esthetics and design, issue 8 (in Russian), Vipol, К, pp 44–49
5. Brailov AY (2011b) The structure of algorithm of the solution of positional problems Applied
geometry and the engineering graphics, Issue 88 (in Russian), KNUBА, K., pp 100–105
6. Brailov AY (2012) The structure of algorithm of the construction of development of a surface
applied geometry and the engineering graphics, Issue 89 (in Russian), KNUBА, K., pp 94–100
7. Brailov AY (2013a) The structure of algorithm of the solution of metric problems works of
Tavrijsky state agrotechnological university (in Russian), TSATU, Melitopol, SPGM-15,
pp 16–24
8. Brailov AY (2013b) The general algorithm of the solution of typical geometrical problems
applied geometry and the engineering graphics, Issue 91 (in Russian), KNUBА, K., pp 32–45
9. Brailov AY (2013c) Engineering geometry (in Russian), Caravella, Kiev, p 456. (ISBN
978-966-2229-58-5)
10. Brailov AY (2014a) Algorithm of the constructing of axonometry of products. In: Brailov AY
(ed) Modern problems of modeling, Issue 2 (in Russian), МDPU name of Khmelnicki B,
Melitopol, pp 9–21
11. Brailov AY (2014b) A hypothesis about the correspondence of the algorithm of the
constructing of axonometry of products to the general approach to the solution of typical
engineering geometrical problems. In: Brailov AY (ed) Building and technogenic safety, Issue
50 (in Russian), NAPKS, Simferopol, pp 34–44
References 293
12. Brednyeva VP, Dzhuguryan ТG, Marchenko VS (2008) Engineering graphics (in Russian),
Astruprint, Odessa, p 204
13. Bubennikov AV, Gromov МY (1973) Descriptive geometry (in Russian), Vishaya shkola, М.,
p 416
14. Vanin VV, Bliok АV, Gnitecka GО (2003) Appearance of design documentation (in
Ukrainian), Caravella, Kiev, p 160
15. Glazunov ЕА, Chetverukhinн NF (1953) Axonometry (in Russian), М, p 291 с
16. Ivanov GS (1987) Design of engineering surfaces (in Russian), Mashinostroenie, М., p 192
17. Ivanov GS (1995) Descriptive geometry (in Russian), Mashinostroenie, М., p 223
18. Ivanov GS (1998) Theoretical foundations of descriptive geometry (in Russian), Machine
building, М., p 158
19. Ivanov YN, Podkoritov АN, Strigo YS (1962) Descriptive geometry (in Russian), Омsкаya
pravda, Омsк, p 232
20. Mihajlenko VЕ, Kovalyev SN, Sedleckaya NI et al (1989) Engineering geometry with element
of the theories of parameterization (in Russian), UМК VО, К., p 83
21. Kotov II, Polozov VS, Shirokova LV (1977) Algorithms of computer graphics (in Russian),
Mashinostroenie, М., p 231
22. Kolotov SМ, Dolski ЕЕ, Mihajlenko VЕ et al (1961) Course of descriptive geometry (in
Russian), Gosstrojizdat USSR, К., p 314
ground of computer. In: Tevlin АМ (ed) (in Russian), Vishaya shkola, М., p 175
24. Levicki VS (1988) Machine-building drawing (in Russian), Vishaya shkola, М., p 351
25. Marchenko VS (2008) Engineering graphics (in Ukrainian), Astruprint, Odessa, p 168
26. Mihajlenko VE, Vanin VV, Kovalyev SN (2013) Engineering and computer graphics. In:
Mihajlenko VE (ed) (in Russian), Karavella, K., p 328
Podkorytov AN, Skidan ІА (in Russian), Vishcha shkola, Kiyv, p 350
Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VМ, Podkorytov AN, Skidan ІА (in Russian), Vishcha Shkola,
Kiyv, p 159
29. Mihajlenko VE, Najdish VМ (1998) Explanation terms for applied geometry, engineering and
computer graphics (in Ukrainian), Urozhaj, К., p 200
30. Mihajlenko VE, Ponomaryev АМ (1990) Engineering graphics (in Russian), Vishcha shkola,
К., p 303
problems) for students of non-mechanical specialties (in Russian), ОSPU, Odessa, p 83
32. Romanicheva EТ, Sokolova ТY, Shandurina GF (2001) Engineering and computer graphics
(in Russian), DМК Press, М., p 592
33. Russian complex of the programs T-FLEX CAD/CAM/CAE/PDM (2005) (in Russian), Tоp
systems, М., p 52
34. Rizhov NN (1983) Main positional problems (in Russian), MADI, М., p 38
35. Rizhov NN (1988) Parametric geometry (in Russian), МАDI, М., p 63
36. Fedorenko VА, Shoshin АI (1992) Guide to machine-building drawing (in Russian),
Mashinostroenie, Leningrad, p 416
37. Frolov SА (1978) Descriptive geometry (in Russian), Mashinostroenie, Moscow, p 240
38. Brailov AY (1998) The exclusion method of interference in conjugated helicoids. Proceedings
of the eighth international conference on engineering design graphics and descriptive
geometry, ISGG, Texas, vol. 2, pp 443–445
Eng, MED, Nashville, vol. 10, pp 389–396
40.
Brailov AY, Tigaryev VM (2000) Graphic method of determination of ranges of a modification
of parameters of complicated movements. Proceedings of the ninth international conference on
engineering design graphics and descriptive geometry, ISGG, Johannesburg, vol. 2. pp 412–
416
41. Brailov AY (2002) Interference in design. Proceedings of the tenth international conference on
geometry and graphics, ISGG, Kiev, vol. 1, pp 84–88
42. Brailov AY (2004) Designing using T-FLEX CAD. Proceedings of the eleventh international
conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG, Guangzhow, pp 397–402
43. Brailov AY (2006) Development of a parametrical three–dimensional model of a product.
Proceedings of the twelfth international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG,
Salvador, p A19
three-dimensional models of the product. Proceedings of the thirteenth international
conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG, Dresden, pp 58–59
engineering product. Proceedings of the fourteenth international conference on geometry and
graphics, ISGG, Kyoto, pp 324–325
46. Brailov AY (2011a) Principles of product development. Proceedings of the eleventh
international conference engineering graphics BALTGRAF11, Tallinn University of
Technology, IAB, Tallinn, pp 95–104
47. Brailov AY (2011b) Principles of design and technological development of product. Int J Adv
Mach Form Oper. International Science Press (ISP), Detroit, 3(1):11–17
48. Brailov AY (2012) Laws of projective connections. Proceedings of the fifteenth international
conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG, Montreal, pp 121–122
problems. Proceedings of the sixteenth international conference on geometry and graphics,
Innsbruck university press, Innsbruck, ISGG, pp 444–458, ISBN 978-3-902936-46-2
Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG,
51. Cucakovic AA, Teofilovic NK, Jovic BS (2014) Descriptive geometry education by using
multimedia tools. Proceedings of the 16th international conference on geometry and graphics,
Innsbruck, pp 262–265
52. Honma IA (2012) Trial with teaching materials on descriptive geometry by using CAD for
students with hearing impairments. Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on
geometry and graphics, ISGG, Montreal, pp 296–301
53. Ohtsuki M, Ohtsuki A (2012) Descriptive geometry and graphical user interface. Proceedings
of the fifteenth international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG, Montreal, pp 563–
568
54. Ryan DL (1992) CAD/CAE descriptive geometry, CRC Press, Boca Raton, p 209
55. Schmitt F (2004) Descriptive geometry and 3D-CAD. Proceedings of the eleventh
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images. Proceedings of the twelfth international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG,
Salvador, p T30
Graph, 18(2): 249–258
The innovative paradigm of teaching in descriptive geometry. Proceedings of the fifteenth
international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG, Montreal, pp 778–787
59. Weiss G (2012) Is advanced elementary geometry on the way to regain scientific terrain?
Proceedings of the fifteenth international conference on geometry and graphics, ISGG,
Appendix
See Figs. A.1, A.2, A.3, A.4, A.5, A.6, A.7, A.8, A.9, A.10, A.11, A.12, A.13,
A.14, A.15, A.16, A.17, A.18, A.19, A.20, A.21, A.22, A.23, A.24, A.25, A.26,
A.27, A.28, A.29, A.30, A.31, A.32, A.33, A.34, A.35, A.36, A.37, A.38, A.39,
A.40, A.41, A.42, A.43, A.44, A.45, A.46, A.47, A.48, A.49, A.50, A.51, A.52,
A.53, A.54, A.55, A.56, A.57, A.58, A.59, A.60, A.61, A.62, A.63, A.64, A.65,
A.66, A.67, A.68, A.69, A.70, A.71, A.72, A.73, A.74, A.75, A.76, A.77, A.78,
A.79, and A.80.

A.Y. Brailov, Engineering Graphics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29719-4
296 Appendix
Fig. A.1 Sketch of the product

Appendix 297
Fig. A.2 Three-dimensional parametric model of the product
Fig. A.3 Two-dimensional parametric model of the product

298 Appendix
Fig. A.4 Parametric drawing of the product

Appendix 299
Fig. A.5 Competing points.

Axonometry

Front view

Top view
300 Appendix

Left view
Fig. A.9 The horizontal level

line. Axonometry
Fig. A.10 The horizontal

level line. Front view
Appendix 301

level line. Top view

level line. Left view
Fig. A.13 The plane of gen-

eral position. Axonometry
302 Appendix

eral position. Front view

eral position. Top view
Appendix 303

eral position. Left view

eral position. Right view
304 Appendix
Fig. A.18 Cone right circu-

lar. Axonometry
Fig. A.19 Sections of cone

right circular
Appendix 305
Fig. A.20 Sections of the

trihedral prism
Fig. A.21 The trihedral

prism. Axonometry
306 Appendix
Fig. A.22 The truncated

pyramid. Axonometry
Appendix 307

pyramid. Front view

pyramid. Top view
308 Appendix
Fig. A.25 The main lines of

a plane. Axonometry

a plane. Front view
Appendix 309

a plane. Top view

a plane. Left view
310 Appendix
Fig. A.29 The theorem of a

right-angle projection.
Axonometry

right-angle projection. Front
view
Appendix 311

right-angle projection. Top
view

right-angle projection. Left
view
312 Appendix
Fig. A.33 The perpendicular

to the plane. Axonometry

to the plane. Front view

to the plane. Top view
Appendix 313

to the plane. Left view
Fig. A.37 The point of

intersection of the straight line
and the plane. Axonometry
314 Appendix

and the plane. Front view

and the plane. Top view
Appendix 315

and the plane. Left view
Fig. A.41 The method of

sectional spheres.
Axonometry
316 Appendix

sectional spheres. Front view

sectional spheres. Top view
Appendix 317

sectional spheres. Left view

change of projection planes.
Axonometry
318 Appendix

Front view

Top view
Appendix 319

Right view
Fig. A.49 The rectangular

triangle method. Axonometry

triangle method. Front view
320 Appendix

triangle method. Top view

triangle method. Left view
Appendix 321
Fig. A.53 The revolution

method. The projecting axis.
Axonometry

Front view

Top view
322 Appendix

Left view

method. True length of seg-
ment. Axonometry

ment. Front view
Appendix 323

ment. Top view

method. True length of a
segment. Left view
324 Appendix
Fig. A.61 The true length of

a segment. Axonometry

a segment. Front view
Appendix 325

a segment. Top view

a segment. Left view
326 Appendix

method. The axis of level.
Axonometry

Front view
Appendix 327

Top view

Left view
328 Appendix
Fig. A.69 The true value of

the triangle. Axonometry

the triangle. Front view

the triangle. Top view
Appendix 329

the triangle. Left view

coincidence. The true length
of a segment. Axonometry

of a segment. Front view
330 Appendix

of a segment. Top view

of segment. Right view
Appendix 331

coincidence. The true value of
a triangle. Axonometry

a triangle. Front view
332 Appendix

a triangle. Top view

a triangle. The result
Index
A rectangular axonometric projections,

Algorithm for solving positional problems, 256–261
110–113 rectangular dimetry, 261–270
Ambiguity, 9 standard kinds of, 256–275
Analytical model visualization of, 249–250
of plane, 52 Axonometry basic equation, 253, 256, 261
of a point, 20–21 Axonometry, 247–248
of straight line, 36
Angle projection, 186, 272 B
Angle, 8, 179 Base plane of projection, See Reference plane
Approximation, 233, 237 of projection
Archimedean spiral, 68 Basic geometric figures, 80
Auxiliary line, 110–111, 115, 128–129, 136, Biunique conformity, 227
143, 145–147, 151–152, 154–155,
161, 163, 169–170 C
Axiom of reflexivity, 80 Carcass surfaces, 58
Axiom of symmetry, 80 Cartesian coordinate reference points, 19
Axiom of transitivity, 80 Center of projection, 3, 7
Axis of abscissas, 15 Central projection, 7
Axis of applicate, 16 properties of, 8–10
Axis of ordinates, 16 Change of projection planes, 193
Axis of revolution, 59 Changeable (mobile) position, 192
Axonometric coordinate axes, 250 Characteristic point of intersection, 130, 132,
Axonometric projections, 245–284 137, 139, 144, 147, 152, 156, 161,
algorithm of construction of, 276–283 165, 170, 173
classification of, 254–256 Characteristic points, 277, 279
components of, 248 Characteristics of the images, 179
convertibility of, 250–251 Circle arc, 215
essence of method of axonometric Closed torus, 73
projection, 248–249 Coincidence (incident) of points, 81
measurability of an axonometry, 252–253 Coincidence method, 210
oblique-angled frontal dimetry, 272–273 Coincidence of geometric image, 193
oblique-angled frontal isometry, 270–272 Coincident point, 216
oblique-angled horizontal isometry, Coincident zero frontal, 216
274–275 Coincident zero horizontal, 216
Polke-Schwarz Theorem, 254 Collective property
projection drawing, 245–246 of plane of level, 42
properties of, 249–253 of projecting plane, 47

A.Y. Brailov, Engineering Graphics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-29719-4
334 Index
of projecting straight line, 32 Direct problem, 81–95, 105

Competing points, 79–80 Direction of projection, 3
Complex drawing, 191 Directional lines, 59
of geometrical image, 21 Distance, 179
of level line, 31 Distortion factor, 252
of a plane of general position, 41–42 Double incidence, 115, 129, 161, 170
of plane of level, 47
of projecting plane, 52 E
of projecting straight line, 35–36 Edge of regression, 63
of straight line of general position, 27–28 Edges of surface, definition of, 25
transformation, solving metric problems by, Elementary image, 80
192–221 Ends of line, definition of, 25
Components of method of axonometric Equivalence, 80
projection, 248–249 Essence of method of axonometric projection,
Cones, surface development, 231–235 248–249
Conic surface, 61–62
Conical projection, See Central projection F
Conoid, 65 Fractional numbers, 253
Constructing development ‘Frog’ prospect, 275
of curvilinear developed surface, 228–231 Frontal axonometry, 254
methods of, 231 Frontal plane of projections, 15
Constructive elements of a product, 79–80 Frontal projection, 19
Convertibility of axonometric projections, 245,
250–251 G
Coordinates of the point, 20 Gaspard Monge, method of, 15–16
Criterion of development, 228 General position, of geometric image, 206
Curvilinear developed surface, 228–231 Generating lines, 59
Curvilinear projection, 7 Geometric figures, 2, 80. See also Geometric
Curvilinear surface, See Nonruled surface objects
Cylinders, surface development, 236–243 Geometric image, 80–174. See also Geometric
Cylindrical projection, See Parallel projection objects, Geometric figures, Linear
Cylindrical surface, 60–61 geometric images
Cylindroid, 64–65 Geometric images, mutual intersection of,
108–174
D algorithm for solving positional problems,
Descriptive geometry, 1–4 110–113
aims and problems of, 2 choice of intermediary, 109–110
geometric figures and objects, types of, 2 plane and a surface, line of intersection of,
geometric image, determinant of, 3 141–149
projecting method, 3–4 point of intersection of straight line and a
subject matter of, 1–2 plane, 113–126
Determinant, of geometric image, 3 positional problems, classification of, 109
algorithmic part, 3 straight line and a surface, points of
geometric part, 3 intersection of, 134–141
identifier, 3 two planes, line of intersection of, 126–134
Developable surfaces, 59 two surfaces, line of intersection of,
Development of surfaces, See Surface 149–175
development Geometric models, of plane
Dihedral angle, 190 of frontal plane of level, 44–45
Dimetrics axonometry, 255 of frontally projecting plane, 49–50
Index 335
of horizontal plane of level, 43–44 K

of horizontally projecting plane, 48–49 Kinematic surfaces, 59
of plane of general position, 41
of plane of level, 42–47 L
of profile plane of level, 45–46 Laws of projective connections, 22
of profiled projecting plane, 50–51 Length, 10–12
of projecting plane, 47–52 Line segment, 10–12
Geometric models, of straight line ways of representation for, 26
of frontal level line, 29–30 Line, definition of, 25
of frontally projecting straight line, 33–34 Linear geometric images, 80–89
of horizontal level line, 28–29 mutual location, intersection and belonging
of horizontally projecting straight line, of, 80–89
32–33 planes to each other, 87–89
of level line, 28–31 point and a plane, 91–93
of profile level line, 30–31 point and a straight line, 89–91
of profiled projecting straight line, 34–35 point and a surface, 96–98
of projecting straight line, 32–36 points to each other, 80–82
of straight line of general position, 27 straight line and a plane, 93–95
Geometric objects, 2 straight lines to each other, 80–82
compound, 2 Lines of projective connections, 21
linear, 2
nonlinear, 2 M
Geometrical models, 19–21 Major axis of an ellipse, 259–260
three dimensional, 19–20 Measurability of an axonometry, 245, 252–253
two-dimensional, 21 Measurement system, 16
Meridian plane, 70
H Method of concentric spheres, 158
Helicoid, 68–69 Method of cutting spheres, 157
closed, 68 Method of eccentric spheres, 158
convolute, 69 Method of normal, 239
eccentricity of, 69 Method of plane-parallel moving, 217–221
minimal, 69 Method of rectangular triangle, 180
oblique, 68 Method of section by planes of general
open, 68–69 position, 157
right, 68 Method of triangulation, 233
Helix, 69 Method of unreeling, 236
Horizontal axonometry, 254 Metric characteristics, 179
Horizontal plane of projections, 15 Metric problems, 179–222
Horizontal projection, 19 angle between a straight line and a plane,
Hyperbolic paraboloid, 65–66 186–190
angle between planes, 190–192
I angles between straight lines, 186
Incidence of geometric images to solve perpendicularity of a straight line and a
engineering problems, 98 plane, 184–185
Intermediary, 109 perpendicularity of straight lines, 181–184
Intersection, 19 perpendicularity of two planes, 185–186
Invariable (motionless) position, 192 solving, by complex drawing
Inverse problem, 81–97, 100, 103–105 transformation, 192–221
Isometric axonometry, 255 changeable (mobile) position in space,
Isometry, 255 202–221
336 Index
geometric image, 192–193 Perpendicularity

method of plane-parallel moving, of a straight line and a plane, 184–185
217–221 of straight lines, 181–184
motionless geometric image, 193–202 of two planes, 185–186
solving, without complex drawing Plane
trasformation, 181–192 analytical models of, 52
theorem of a right-angle projection, determinants of, 40–41
180–181 of general position, 39
Military (antiaircraft) prospect, 275 geometric models of, 39–52
Minimum radius, 158 main lines of, 53–54
Minor axis of an ellipse, 259–260 of special position, 39–40
Mutual belonging, 79–80, 90–91, 96, 108, 180 ways of representation in complex drawing,
Mutual intersection, 79–80, 90–91, 96, 40–41
108–174 Plane of Parallelism, 64–66
Mutual location, 108–174. See also Geometric Plane of projection, 3
images, mutual intersection of Plane of rotation, 214
Mutually perpendicular planes, 15 Plane surface, definition of, 25
Plane-parallel movement, 193
N Point of regression, 63
Name of the method, 157 Point of the general position, 22
Natural factors of distortion, 257 Point of triple incidence, 117, 131–132, 171
Non-coincidence (non-incident) of points, Points, 22
81–82 definition of, 25
Nonruled surface, 59 of double incidence, 156
of general position, 22
O of special position, 22
Oblique plane, See Hyperbolic paraboloid Polke-Schwarz Theorem, 254
Oblique-angled any trimetric axonometry, 255 Positional problems, 79–175. See also
Oblique-angled axonometry, 254 Geometric images, mutual
Oblique-angled frontal dimetry, 272–273 intersection of
Oblique-angled frontal isometry, 270–272 classification of, 79
Oblique-angled horizontal isometry, 274–275 competing points, 79–80
Oblique-angled projection, properties of, concept of, 79
10–12 linear geometric images, 80–89. See also
Octant Individual entry
definition of, 15 Positional properties, 180
formation of complex drawing, 15–16 Primary axonometric coordinates, 278
Gaspard Monge, method of, 15–16 Primary projection, 250
Open torus, 72 Primary reference point, 251
Operation of connection, 3, 4 Principle of constructing development, 228
Operation of intersection, 3, 4 Principle of one image, 246
Operations of method of axonometric Principle of two images, 246
projection, 248–249 Principles of construction of a drawing,
Origin, 15 246–247
Orthogonal coordinate reference points, See Prismatic surface, 61
Cartesian coordinate reference points Prisms, surface development, 236–243
Orthogonal projection, 12, 277, 279 Problem of visibility, 79, 118–119
Profile axonometry, 254
P Profile plane of projections, 15
Parallel projection properties, 7–8 Profile projection, 19
parallel oblique-angled projection, 10–12 Projecting angle, 254
parallel rectangular projection, 12 Projecting method, descriptive geometry, 3–4
Index 337
components of, 3 developable, 69

operations of, 3–4 pitch of, 69
Projecting plane, 40 step of, 69
Projecting rays, 3 Secondary axonometric coordinates, 278
Projection drawing, 245–246 Secondary projection, 250
construction, 245–246 Secondary reference point, 251
convertibility, 245 Sign (semiotic) model, 117, 125, 131,
measurability, 245 139–140, 147, 155, 164, 173, 206,
requirements for, 245–246 210, 216
visualization, 245 Sphere, 72
Projection of point, 3 Straight line, 25
Projection, types of, 7–12 analytical models of, 36
central projection, 7 determinants of, 26
parallel projection, 7–8 of general position, 26
Property of displacement, 69 geometric models of, 25–36
Proportion angle, 274 of special position, 26
Pyramidal surface, 62–63 Straight line, 7
Pyramids, surface development, 231–235 Surface, 57
analytical models of, 57–73
R carcass, 58
Rectangular axonometric projections, 256–261 classification of, 58–60
Rectangular axonometry, 254 conic, 61–62
Rectangular dimetry, 261–270 contour, 60
Rectangular horizontal isometric axonometry, cylindrical, 60–61
255 definition of, 25
Rectangular projection, properties of, 12 description and mapping, 58
Rectangular triangle method, 197 development, 227–244
Rectangular triangle, 193 basic properties, 227–228
Rectilinear projection, 7 condition of, 228
Reference plane of projection cones, 231–235
of level line, 31 curvilinear developed surface, 228–231
of plane of level, 47 cylinders, 236–243
of projecting plane, 52 prisms, 236–243
of projecting straight line, 35 pyramids, 231–235
Reference points, 19. See also Cartesian geometric models of, 57–73
coordinate reference points indication of point belonging to, 73
Relative positioning, 174–175 kinematic, 59
Resultant factors of distortion, 253 nonruled, 59
Revolution of a geometric image, 193 of parallel transposition, 59
Rotation method, 202–203 of parallel transposition, 59
Rotation of a geometric image, 193 prismatic, 61
Ruled developable surfaces, 60–64 pyramidal, 62–63
Ruled surface, 59 of revolution, 59, 70–73
Ruled undevelopable surfaces ruled, 59
with three directional lines, 67 screw, 68–69
with two directional lines, 64–66 sketch, 60
surface contour, 60
S surface sketch, 60
Screw lines, 69 surfaces of revolution, 70–73
Screw surfaces, 60, 68–69 topographical, 58
338 Index
torso, 63 U
way of representing in complex drawing, 60 Unambiguity, 202, 280
ways of formation, 57 Undevelopable surfaces, 59
Surfaces of Catalan, 64
System of coordinates, 15 V
Variant of combination of positions, 113–114,
T 137, 141, 150, 159, 168
Theorem of a right-angle projection, 180–181 Vectorial projection, 275
Theorem of perpendicularity of two planes, 185 Visualization of axonometric projections, 245,
Three-dimensional geometric model, 19–20 249–250
to two-dimensional geometric model, 21
Three-dimensional object, 19 Z
Topographical surfaces, 58 Zero frontal straight line, 210
Torso surface, 63 Zero horizontal straight line, 210
Trimetric axonometry, 255 Zero profile straight line, 210
Two-dimensional geometric model, 21
to three-dimensional geometric model, 21

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Aleksandr Yurievich Brailov

ISBN 978-3-319-29717-0 ISBN 978-3-319-29719-4 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016930673

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature

One of the fundamental courses in professional engineering education is

Prof. V.E. Mihajlenko

3. It provides essential help in the development of spatial imagination and

The textbook includes the foreword, preface, references, appendix and 11

5 Geometric and Analytical Models of a Straight Line . . . . . . . . .. 25

6.6 Geometric Models of a Projecting Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 47

8.4 Mutual Location, Intersection and Belonging of Different

9.2.1 Perpendicularity of Straight Lines

11.6 The Polke-Schwarz Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Aleksandr Yurievich Brailov is a Professor in the

1.1 The Subject Matter of Descriptive Geometry

The subject matter of descriptive geometry is as follows:

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

The subject matter of descriptive geometry

Fig. 1.1 The subject matter of descriptive geometry

1.2 Aims and Problems of Descriptive Geometry

Descriptive geometry has two main aims.

1.3 Types of Geometric Figures and Objects (Images)

1.4 A Determinant of a Geometric Image (Object)

1.5 A Projecting Method. The Components

Fig. 1.2 Operation of S

Fig. 1.3 Operation of S

2.1 Central (conical) Projection

2.2 Parallel (cylindrical) Projection

Parallel (cylindrical) projection is a projection from the center, located at a inﬁnite

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 7

Fig. 2.1 The central (conic) S

Fig. 2.2 Parallel = 90º

Depending on the size of the angle φ of an inclination of the projecting rays to

2.3 Properties of the Central (conic) Projection

Some important properties of the central (conic) projection are:

Fig. 2.3 Parallel

Fig. 2.4 Ambiguity of the S = 90º

4. A projection of a straight line, which does not coincide with a direction of

Fig. 2.5 Straight line AB

Fig. 2.6 Straight line AB S = 90º

2.4 Properties of Parallel (cylindrical) Oblique-Angled

6. A projection of a straight line segment or of a plane ﬁgure, which is parallel to a

Fig. 2.7 Projection A1B1 of

Fig. 2.8 Projection K1 of

Fig. 2.9 Parallel projections S = 90º

Therefore the properties of parallel rectangular (orthogonal) projection also

2.5 Properties of Parallel Rectangular (orthogonal)

9. In orthogonal projection, the length of a projection of the segment, which is not

Fig. 2.10 Projection A1B1 of

Fig. 2.11 Projection A1B1 of

Fig. 2.12 Types of projection Types of projection

Central (conic) Oblique projection Orthogonal

1. Brailov AY (2013) Engineering geometry. Caravella, Kiev, 456 p. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

In 1799, a French scientist, mathematician and engineer Gaspard Monge (1746–

3.1 The Concept of Octant

An octant is the smaller solid angle, subtended by three mutually perpendicular

Fig. 3.1 Numbers of octants

3.2 The Essence of the Method of Gaspard Monge

Developed by Gaspard Monge, the method of forming a drawing of a product is

1. Brailov AY (2013) Engineering Geometry. Caravella, Kiev, 456 p. ISBN 978-966-2229-58-5

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 19