DSP Midterm:  Convolution of Unit Steps

1. Convolution- mathematical operation used to u (�)∗ u (�)= r (�)

express the relation between input and output of an LTI u (�− T 1 )∗ u (�− T 2 )= r (� − T 1 − T 2
system. It relates input, output and impulse response of )
an LTI system as: y ( t ) = x ( t ) ∗ h ( t u ( n )∗ u ( n )=[ n +1] u ( n )
)
 Scaling Property
2. Two types of convolution:
If x (�)∗ h (�)= y (�)
a. Continuous Convolution 1
then x ( a �)∗h( a �)= y ( a �)
|a|
 Differentiation of Output

b. Discrete Convolution
ⅆy |t| ⅆx |t|
then = ∗ h (�)
ⅆt ⅆt

or

3. Deconvolution- reverse process to convolution widely ⅆy |t| ⅆh|t |

= x (�) ∗
used in signal and image processing. ⅆt ⅆt

4. Properties of Convolution: 5. Causal- Convolution of two causal sequences

 if y (�)= x (�)∗ h (�) Commutative 6. Anti-causal- Convolution of two anti-causal

Property sequences

x 1 (�)∗ x 2 ( t )= x 2 ( t )∗ x 1 ( t ) 7. Trapezium- Convolution of two unequal length

rectangles
 Distributive Property
8. Triangle- Convolution of two equal length rectangles
x 1 ( t )∗[ x 2 (�)+x3(�)]=[ x 1 (�)∗ x 2 (�)]+[
x 1 (�)∗ x 3 (�)] 9. DC component=area of the signal/period of the signal

10. Periodic convolution- valid for discrete Fourier

 Associative Property
transforms. To calculate periodic convolution all the
x 1 (�)∗[ x 2 (�)∗ x 3 (�)]=[x1(�)∗ x 2 (�)]∗ x 3 (� samples must be real. Periodic or circular convolution is
) also called as fast convolution.

 Shifting Property 11. Correlation- measure of similarity between two

signals. The general formula for correlation is
x1 (�)∗ x 2 ( t )= y (�)
∞
x1 (�)∗ x 2 (�− t 0 )= y (�− t 0 )
∫ x1 (t )x 2 (t−T ) dt
x1 (�− t 0 )∗ x 2 (�)= y (�− t 0 ) −∞

x1 (�− t 0 )∗ x 2 (�− t 1 )= y (�− t 0 − t 1 )

12. There are two types of correlation:
 Convolution with Impulse
 Auto correlation- It is defined as correlation of a
x 1 (�)∗δ(�)= x (�) signal with itself. Auto correlation function is a
 measure of similarity between a signal & its
time delayed version. It is represented with
R(ττ).
The auto correlation function of periodic power
signal with period T is given by
R(τ)=limT→∞1T∫T2−T2x(�)x∗(t−τ)dtR(τ)=limT→
a. The roots of the numerator polynomial are referred to
as the zeros of X(z)
b. The roots of the denominator polynomial are referred
to as the poles of X(z)
21. The z-transform is given by:
∞ ∞


∞1T∫−T2T2x(�)x∗(t−τ)dt

Cross correlation- the measure of similarity

X ( z)= ∑ a u(n)z = ∑ (az−1 )n
n −n

n=−∞ n=0
between two different signals. 22. Periodic- A sequence x(n) is periodic with period  if
13. Energy Density Spectrum and only if x(n) = x(n + ) for all n.

Energy density spectrum can be calculated using the 23. Shift invariant or time-invariant- Consider a
formula: sequence y(n) as the result of a transformation T of x(n).
Another interpretation is that T is a system that
∞
2 responds to an input or stimulus x(n):
E = ∫ |x ( f )| ⅆf y(n) = T[x(n)].
−∞

14. Power Density Spectrum 24. Stable System- A system is stable if

∞
Power density spectrum can be calculated by using the ∑ |h(k )|<∞
formula: k=−∞
-Which means that a bounded input will not yield an
∞ unbounded output.
2
P = ∑ |C n|
n=−∞ 25. Causal System- A causal system is one in which
changes in output do not precede changes in input. In
15. Parseval's theorem for energy signals states that the
other words,
total energy in a signal can be obtained by the spectrum
of the signal as
If x 1 (n )=x 2 (n) for n≤n 0
∞
then T [ x 1 (n ) ]=T [ x 2 (n) ] for n<n 0 .
1 2
E= ∫
2 π −∞
| Xω| dω
26. Z-transform properties:
16. Z-transform- most general concept for the
 Linearity Property
transformation of discrete-time series.
 Time Shifting Property
 Multiplication by Exponential Sequence
17. Laplace transform- more general concept for the
Property
transformation of continuous time processes.
 Time Reversal Property
18. Operational calculus- switching of spaces to  Differentiation in Z-Domain OR Multiplication by
transform calculus problems into algebraic operations n Property
on transforms  Convolution Property
 Correlation Property
19. Laurent series- The power series for the z-transform
27. Region of convergence of z-transform- range of
20. When X(z) is a rational function, i.e., a ration of variation of z for which z-transform converges
polynomials in z, then:
28. Properties of ROC of Z-Transforms:
  ROC of z-transform is indicated with circle in z-
plane.
 ROC does not contain any poles.
 If x(n) is a finite duration causal sequence or
right sided sequence, then the ROC is entire z-
plane except at z = 0.
 If x(n) is a finite duration anti-causal sequence
or left sided sequence, then the ROC is entire z-
plane except at z = ∞.
 If x(n) is a infinite duration causal sequence,
ROC is exterior of the circle with radius a. i.e. |
z| > a.
 If x(n) is a infinite duration anti-causal sequence,
ROC is interior of the circle with radius a. i.e. |z|
< a.
 If x(n) is a finite duration two sided sequence,
then the ROC is entire z-plane except at z = 0 & z
= ∞.
29. Applications of Z-Transform:
 Uses to analysis of digital filters.
 Used to simulate the continuous systems.
 Analyze the linear discrete system.
 Used to finding frequency response.
 Analysis of discrete signal.
 Helps in system design and analysis and also
checks the systems stability.
 For automatic controls in telecommunication.
 Enhance the electrical and mechanical energy to
provide dynamic nature of the system.
30. Application areas of z-transform wherever it is
used:
 Digital signal processing
 Population science.
 Control theory
34. Passive filter- is one that contains only R, L, and C
components. It is not necessary that all three be
present. L is often omitted (on purpose) from passive
filter design because of the size and cost of inductors –
and they also carry along an R that must be included in
the design.
35. Digital filtering- the function of a filter is to remove
unwanted parts of the signal, such as random noise, or
to extract useful parts of the signal, such as the
components lying within a certain frequency range
36. Digital Filter:
 Input: Digitized samples of analog input
(requires ADC)
 Components: Digital processor
(PC/DSP/ASIC/FPGA)
 Output: Filtered samples (requires DAC)
 Applications: noise reduction, video signal
enhancement, graphic equalisers
37. Finite Impulse Response (FIR) - filters use past input
samples only
38. Infinite Impulse Response (IIR) - filters use past
outputs together with past inputs
39. FIR
 Simpler to design
 Inherently stable
 Require lower bit precision
40. IIR
 Can simulate analog filters

31. Digital filters- implemented using a digital computer

or special purpose digital hardware.

32. Analog filters- may be classified as either passive or

active and are usually implemented with R, L, and C
components and operational amplifiers.

33. Active filter- is one that, along with R, L, and C

components, also contains an energy source, such as
that derived from an operational amplifier.