HMT Lab Manual Vtu

Heat Transfer Lab-15MEL67
SYLLABUS
Course: Heat Transfer Lab Code: 15MEL67
SEE: 80 Exam duration: 3 hrs
CIA: 20 Credits: 02 (L:T:P::01:00:02)
__
Co-requisite Courses: Heat Transfer
Course Objectives:
• The primary objective of this course is to provide the fundamental knowledge necessary to
understand the behaviour of thermal systems.
• This course provides a detailed experimental analysis, including the application and heat transfer
through solids, fluids, and vacuum. Convection, conduction, and radiation heat transfer in one and
two dimensional steady and unsteady systems are examined.
PART-A
1. Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal Rod.

2. Determination of Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of a Composite wall.
3. Determination of Effectiveness on a Metallic fin.
4. Determination of Heat Transfer Coefficient in a free Convection on a vertical cylinder
5. Determination of Heat Transfer Coefficient in a Forced Convention Flow through a Pipe.
6. Determination of Emissivity of a Surface.
7. Analysis of steady and transient heat conduction, temperature distribution of plane wall and
cylinder using Numerical approach (ANSYS/CFD package).
PART-B
1. Determination of Steffan’s Boltzmann Constant.

2. Determination of LMDT and Effectiveness in a Parallel Flow and Counter Flow Heat
Exchangers.
3. Experiments on Boiling of Liquid and Condensation of Vapour.
4. Performance Test on Vapour Compression Refrigeration.
5. Performance Test on a Vapour Compression Air – Conditioner.
6. Experiment on Transient Conduction Heat Transfer.
7. Determination of temperature distribution along a rectangular and circular fin subjected to
heat loss through convection using Numerical approach (ANSYS/CFD package)
References
1. M. Necati Ozisik, Heat Transfer – A Basic Approach, McGraw Hill, New York, 2005.
2. Incropera, F. P. and De Witt, D. P., Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 5th Edition,
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2006.
3. Holman, J. P., Heat Transfer, 9th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.
Scheme of Examination:
ONE question from part -A: 25 Marks

ONE question from part -B: 40 Marks
Viva –Voice: 15 Marks
Total: 80 Marks
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Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

EXPERIMENT 1
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL ROD.
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.
THEORY: From Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Q = -k A dT Watt
dx
Where, Q = Rate of heat conducted, Watt
A = Area of heat transfer, m²
k = Thermal conductivity of the material, W/m-K
dT = Temperature gradient (°C/m)
dx
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and may be defined as the amount of heat
conducted per unit time through unit area, when a temperature difference of unit degree is
maintained across unit thickness.
The thermal conductivity K is a scalar as long as the material is isotropic, which means that the
ability of the material to conduct heat depends on the position of the material. Thermal conductivity
of a material depends on the chemical composition of the substances of which it is a composed, the
phase (i.e. gas, liquid or solid) in which its crystalline structure if a solid, the temperature &
pressure to which it is subjected and whether or not it is homogeneous material.
Thermal energy in solids may be conducted in two modes. They are:
 Lattice vibration.
 Transport by free electrons.
In good electrical conductors a rather large number of free electrons move about in a lattice
structure of the material. Just as these electrons may transport may transport electric charge, they
may also carry thermal energy from a high temperature region to low temperature region. In fact,
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these electrons are frequently referred as the electron gas. Energy may also be transmitted as
vibration energy in the lattice structure of the material. In general, however, this latter mode of
energy transfer is not as large as the electron transport and it is for this reason that good electrical
conductors are almost always good heat conductors, for eg: ALUMINIUM, COPPER & SILVER.
With the increase in temperature, however the increased lattice vibrations come in the way of
electron transport by free electrons and for most of the pure metals the thermal conductivity
decreases with the increase in the temperature.
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a brass rod, one end of which is heated by an electric heating coil while
the other end projects into the cooling water jacket. The rod is insulated with glass wool to
minimize the radiation and convection loss from the surface of the rod and thus ensure nearly
constant temperature gradient throughout the length of the rod. The temperature of the rod is
measured at five different locations. The heater is provided with a dimmer stat for controlling the
heat input. Water is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise can be
measured.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Brass rod

Size of the Specimen : 20 mm, 450mm long
Cylindrical shell : 300mm long
Heater : Band type Nichrome heater, 250 W
Thermocouple used : 11 nos.
Temperature indicator : Digital type, 0-400, Cr-Al
PRODEDURE:
1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.

2. Give heat input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer and adjust the voltage to say 25
V, 50 V, etc
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust its flow rate so that the heat is
taken away from the specimen constantly.
4. Allow sufficient time for the apparatus to reach steady state.
5. Take readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Note the temperatures along the length of the specimen rod at 5 different locations.
7. Note down the inlet & outlet temperatures of cooling water and measure the flow rate of
water.
8. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
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TABULAR COLUMN:
Volt Ammeter Heat Metal Rod Thermocouple Reading (°C) Water Volume
meter Reading Input temperature (°C) flow rate of
Reading ‘I’ VxI Inlet Outlet water in
‘V’ Amps (W) CC/min
Volts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
CALCULATION:
Plot the variation of temperature along the length of the rod. From the graph, obtain dT/dx, which is
the slope of the straight line passing through/near to the points in the graph. Assuming no heat loss,
Heat conducted through the rod = Heat carried away by the flowing cooling water
K x A x dT/dx = mf Cp (T11 – T10)
where, ‘k’ = Thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)
‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)
‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm
‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
‘mf = Mass flow rate of water in kg/sec
Thus, the thermal conductivity ‘k’ of metal rod can be evaluated.
K = mf Cp (T11 – T10) W/m-K
A. dT/dx
Result: The thermal conductivity of given metal rod is k = …….. W/m-K.
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EXPERIMENT 2
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT OF A COMPOSITE WALL
Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of composite materials and overall heat Transfer
coefficient of a Composite wall set up.
Apparatus: Composite Wall Apparatus Set up
Theory
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PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the mains and console.
2. The heat input to the heater is fixed for any desired value
3. After steady state is reached, average temperature of the slabs at the inter faces are
noted.
4. By varying the heat input to the system through dimmerstart different sets of readings
can be obtained.
5. Repeat the above operations for different Heat inputs.
Specification:
1. Thickness of Mild steel plate: L1: 24mm
2. Thickness of Hylem plate: L2: 20mm
3. Thickness of wood plate: L3: 18 mm
4. Diameter of each plate: D: 240mm
5. Temperature of MS plate: T1 °C
6. Temperature between MS plate and Hylem plate: T2 °C
7. Temperature between Hylem plate and Wood plate: T3 °C
8. Temperature of wood plate: T4 °C
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Tabular Column:
Sl.No Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Temperature of different material
Reading Reading Input T1 °C T2 °C T3 °C T4 °C
in V volts in I amps Q=VI
watt
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CALCULATIONS:
(a) Heat conducted through Composite wall Q= V x I watt
Q= K1A1(T1-T2) = K2A2(T2-T3) = K3A3(T3-T4)
L L L
Where, K1 = Thermal conductivity of Mild steel in W/m-K

L1 = Thickness of Mild steel in m.
K2 = Thermal Conductivity of Hylem in W/m-K.
L2 = Thickness of Hylem in m.
K3 = Thermal Conductivity of Wood in W/m-K.
L3 = Thickness of Wood in m.
From Equation (1)
K1 = QL1
A (T1-T2)
K2 = QL2
A (T2-T3)
K3 = QL3
A (T3-T4)
Cross sectional area of the slab in perpendicular to which, conduction heat transfer occurs.
So, A= A1 = A2 = A3 as diameter of all the plates are same.
A = πd2 = m²
4
Where, d= Diameter of the slab in mts.
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(c) Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.
1
U=
L1 + L2 + L3
+ +
K1 2
+ K2 + K3 (W/m -K)
Hence theoretical overall heat transfer
+ is+given by Q = UA (T1-T4) in watt.
Result:
The thermal conductivity of mild steel, hylem and wood is given by:
K1 =
K2 =
K3 =
And the overall heat transfer is given by U = --------------
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EXPERIMENT 3
HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION
AIM: To determine theoretical and experimental convective heat transfer coefficient and heat
transfer rate from vertical cylinder in natural convection.
THEORY:
Natural convection heat transfer takes place by movement of fluid particles within to solid surface
caused by density difference between the fluid particles on account of difference in temperature.
Hence there is no external agency facing fluid over the surface. It has been observed that the fluid
adjacent to the surface gets heated, resulting in thermal expansion of the fluid and reduction in its
density. Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid causing it to flow up the surface. Here the
flow velocity is developed due to difference in temperature between fluid particles.
The following empirical correlations may be used to find out the heat transfer coefficient for
vertical cylinder in natural convection.
Nu = 0.53 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for Gr.Pr<105
Nu = 0.56 (Gr x Pr) 1/4 for 105< Gr. Pr <108
Nu = 0.13 (Gr x Pr) 1/3 for 108 < Gr.Pr<1012
Where, Nu = Nusselt number = hL/K
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Gr = Grashof number = L3 β g (Ts –Ta) / ν²

Pr = Prandtl number = (µcp) / K
β = Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion (per Kelvin)
For ideal gases β = 1/ Tm
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen : Stainless Steel tube,
Size of the Specimen : I.D 38mm / O.D 44mm, 500mm length
Heater : Nichrome wire type heater along its length
Thermocouples used : 8nos.
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-2amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC
Dimmerstat for heating coil : 0-230 V, 2 amps, AC power
Enclosure with acrylic door : For visual display of test section (fixed)
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube fitted in a rectangular duct in a vertical position. The
duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of undisturbed
surroundings. One side of the duct is made of acrylic sheet for visualization. A heating element is
kept in the vertical tube, which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the
surrounding air by natural convection. Digital temperature indicator measures the temperature at
different points with the help of seven temperature sensors, including one for measuring
surrounding temperature. The heat input to the heater is measured by Digital Ammeter and Digital
Voltmeter and can be varied by a dimmer stat.
PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
2. Ensure that variac knob is at zero position, provided on the panel.
3. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).
4. Switch on the panel with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
5. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and ammeter provided.
6. Take thermocouple, voltmeter & ammeter readings when steady state is reached.
7. When experiment is over, switch off heater first.
8. Adjust variac to zero position.
9. Switch off the panel with the help of Mains On/Off switch given on the panel.
10. Switch off power supply to panel.
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TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl. Volt Ammeter Heat Thermocouple readings °C

No. meter Reading Input T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
V I Amps Q=VI Chamber
Volts Watt Temp
CALCULATIONS:
1) AVERAGE SURFACE TEMP

TS = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 +T7) / 7 °C
2) SURROUNDING AMBIENT TEMP

Ta = (T8) °C
3) MEAN TEMP
Tm = (TS + Ta) / 2 °C
FROM DATA HAND BOOK TAKE THE PROPERTIES OF AIR AT (Tm) in °C.
Pr =Prandle Number, Cp =Specific heat of air at constant pressure in J/sec, K =Thermal

conductivity of air in W/mk, ‘ν =Kinematic viscosity of air is m2/sec
4) VOLUMETRIC COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

ß = 1/ (Tm +273) per kelvin
5) GRASHOF NUMBER,
Gr = L3 ß g (Ts-Ta) / ν2
6) RAYLEIGH NUMBER
Ra = Gr x Pr
7) NUSSELT NUMBER
Nu = (hL/K)
Where h = Theoretical convective heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 k
L = Characteristic length of tube in vertical position in m (Diameter of the tube has
to be considered in horizontal position of cylinder instead of length).
K= Thermal Conductivity of air at mean temperature (Tm)
The following correlations are used to find Nusselt Number

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Higher values of Gr.Pr – Constant heat flux/Constant wall temperature (From data hand book)
Average Nusselt Number Nu = 0.59 (Gr.Pr)0.25 …………(104 < Gr.Pr < 109)
8) THEROTICAL FREE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
hthe = NuK/L W/m2 K
Convective heat transfer coefficient experimentally is calculated using following equation

Qc = VI = h A (Ts – Ta) W
Where A= π d L = Surface area of convection heat transfer in m2
hexp = VI / π d L (Ts – Ta) W/m2 K
Result: The theoretical and experimental convective heat transfer coefficient is given by
hthe =
hexp =
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EXPERIMENT 4
HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION
AIM: To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer by forced
convection for flow of air inside a horizontal pipe.
THEORY:
Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the movement of fluid
particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid particles is caused by means of external
agency such as pump or blower that forces fluid over the surface, then the process of heat transfer is
called forced convection. In convectional heat transfer, there are two flow regions namely laminar
& turbulent. The non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as the criterion to
determine change from laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of Reynolds number viscous
forces are dominant and the flow is laminar and for larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia
forces become dominant and the flow is turbulent. Dittus–Boelter correlation for fully developed
turbulent flow in circular pipes is,
Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n
Where, n = 0.4 for heating of fluid

n = 0.3 for cooling of fluid
Nu = Nusselt number = (hd / K)
Re = Reynolds Number = (Vd / υ)
Pr = Prandtl Number = (μ Cp / K)
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DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of a blower to supply air. The air from the blower passes through a flow
passage, heater and then to the test section. Air flow is measured by an orifice meter placed near the
test section. A heater placed around the tube heats the air, heat input is controlled by a dimmerstat.
Temperature of the air at inlet and at outlet is measured using thermocouples. The surface
temperature of the tube wall is measured at different sections using thermocouples embedded in the
walls. Test section is enclosed in a asbestos rope where the circulation of rope is avoid the heat loss
to outside.
PROCEDURE
1. Start the blower after keeping the valve open, at desired rate.
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to a desired value and maintain it as constant
3. Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7, voltmeter and ammeter readings, and manometer
readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates.
Specification/ Observation
Specimen : Copper pipe
Size of the Specimen : I.D. 25mm x 400mm long
Heater : Externally heated, Nichrome wire Band Heater
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC
Dimmerstat for heating Coil : 0-230v, 2amps
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230v, 50 Hz, 13000rpm
Manometer : U-tube with mercury as working fluid
Orifice diameter, ‘d’ : 20 mm
G. I pipe diameter, ‘D’ : 40 mm
TABULAR TABLE:
Sl. Tube surface
No Heater input Temperature °C
Diff. in Air temp °C
Voltmeter Ammeter Heat Manometer Inlet Outlet T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
reading V reading I Input reading hm T1 T7
volts amps mm
VI
watts
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SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS: To calculate theoretical forced convective heat transfer

coefficient.
Mean temperature of air is given by
Tm = Difference of average of surface temperature and fluid temperature (air)
Average surface temperature = (T2+T3+T4+T5+T6)/5 and Average air temperature = (T1+T7)/2
From Data hand book, note down the properties of air at mean temperature of air (Tm) such as
ρa =Density of air in kg/m3, Pr =Prandle Number, K =Thermal conductivity of air in W/mk,

‘ν =Kinematic viscosity of air is m2/sec
1. Discharge of air through orifice meter is given by
Qact = (Cd A0A1√(2gHa)) / √( A12 – A02) m3/sec
Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice meter = 0.62

A0 = Area of orifice in m2 = (Πd2/4) (d = diameter of orifice)
A1 = Area of pipe inlet in m2 = (ΠD2/4) (D = diameter of pipe inlet)
Ha = Differential head of air in meter of air = h(( ρm / ρa ) – 1))
h = difference in mercury level in manometer in m
ρm = Density of mercury = 13600 kg/m3
ρa = Density of air at mean temperature in kg/m3
2. Velocity of air through the orifice meter

V0 = (Qact / A0) m/s
3. Reynolds number is calculated by using equation
Re = (ρaV0 Di) / µ
Where, ρa = Density of air at mean temperature in kg/m3

V0 = Velocity of air through the orifice meter in m/s
Di = Internal diameter of tube in m = 25 x 10-3 m
µ = Absolute viscosity of air at mean temperature in kg/m-s
4. Forced convective heat transfer coefficient

Based on the Reynolds number calculation, the expression should be selected from data hand book.
In forced convection, for the range of Reynolds number, the following equation has to be used
CASE: Flow over cylinder
NuD = C ReD m Pr0.333
(Note: The value of C and m should be selected based on calculated Reynolds number)
After calculating Nusselt number, theoretical convective heat transfer is calculated by using
NuD = (htheDi)/K, hence
hthe = (NuDK)/ Di W/m2 K
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Convective heat transfer coefficient experimentally is calculated using following equation

Qc = VI = h A (Ts – Ta) W
Where A= π Di L = Surface area of convection heat transfer in m2
hexp = VI / π Di L (Ts – Ta) W/m2 K
Result: The theoretical and experimental convective heat transfer coefficient is given by
hthe =
hexp =
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EXPERIMENT 5
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT OF RADIATING SURFACES
AIM: To determine the emissivity of gray surface.
THEORY:
Any hot body maintained by a constant heat source, loses heat to surroundings by conduction,
convection and radiation. If two bodies made of same geometry are heated under identical
conditions, the heat loss by conduction and convection can be assumed same for both the bodies,
when the difference in temperatures between these two bodies is not high. In such a case, when one
body is black & the other body is gray from the values of different surface temperatures of the two
bodies maintained by a constant power source emissivity can be calculated. The heat loss by
radiation depends on:
a) Characteristic of the material

b) Geometry of the surface and
c) Temperature of the surface
The heat loss by radiation when one body is completely enclosed by the other body is given by
Q= σ A1 (T41 –T42)
1 + A1 1 –1
ε1 A2 ε2
If a body is losing heat to the surrounding atmosphere, then the area of atmosphere A 2 >> area of
body A1. Thus if some body surface is losing heat by radiation to the surrounding atmosphere above
equation takes the form.
Q = σ A1 ε (T41 – T42)
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m² K4
A1 = Surface area in m²
ε = Emissivity
T1 = surface temperature of the body in K and
T2 = surrounding atmospheric temperature in K
Let us consider a black body & a gray body with identical geometry being heated under identical
conditions, assuming conduction & convection heat loss to remain the same. Let Qb and Qg be the
heat supplied to black & gray bodies respectively.
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DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of two circular brass plates of identical dimensions. One of the
plates is made black by applying a thick layer of lamp black while the other plate whose emissivity
is to be measured is a gray body. Heating coils are provided at the bottom of the plates. The plates
are mounted on asbestos cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to provide undisturbed natural
convection condition. Three thermocouples are mounted on each plate to measure the average
temperature. One thermocouple is in the chamber to measure the ambient temperature or chamber
air temperature. The heat input can be varied with the help of variac for both the plates that can be
measured using digital volt and ammeter.
Specification/Observations:
Specimen material : Brass
Specimen Size :  150 mm, 6 mm thickness ( gray & black body )
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300v
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-3 amps
Dimmerstat : 0-240 V, 2 amps
Temperature Indicator : Digital type, 0-300°C, K type
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Heater : Sand witched type Nichrome heater, 400 W
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the heater to the black body and adjust the power input to the heater to suitable
value using regulator.
2. Switch on the heater to the test body and keep the power input to the value less than that of
input to the test body
3. Observe the temperature of blackbody & test surface in closed time interval & adjust power
input to the test body heater such that both black body and test surface temperature are
almost same.
4. Wait till the steady state is reached, record the input power to heaters & temperature of grey
body, black body and enclosure now calculated the emissivity.
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Black Body Reading Grey Body Readings Chamber

Temp.
Sl.No.
Volts Current Surface Temp Volts Current Surface temp. T7
Vb Ib T1 T2 T3 Vg Ig T4 T5 T6
CALCULATIONS:
1. Heat supplied to grey body
Qg = Vg x Ig W
Also Qg= εg x σ x Ag x (Tg4- T74) W
Where, Ag = Area of the grey body in m2
εg = Emissivity of grey body
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4
Tg = Average grey body temperature in Kelvin = (T4+ T5+ T6)/3 K
2. Heat supplied to black body

Qb = Vb × Ib W
Also Qb = εb x σ x Ab x (Tb4- T74) W
Where, Ab = Area of the black body in m2
εb = Emissivity of black body
σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2-K4
Tb = Average black body temperature in Kelvin = (T1+ T2+ T3)/3 K
T7 = Chamber temperature in Kelvin = T7 + 273 K
From following equation, we can calculate the emissivity of grey body surface
εg = (Qg/Qb)*(( Tb4- T74) / (Tg4- T74))
Result:- The emissivity of given grey body surface is………………………
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EXPERIMENT 6
HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH METALLIC FIN
Aim: To determine the temperature distribution along the length of the fin for uniform base
temperature and natural convection And also to determine the efficiency and effectiveness of fin.
Convection heat transfer between a hot solid surface and the surrounding colder fluid is governed
by the Newton’s cooling law and it is given by Q= h A (Ts - T).
Convection heat transfer can be increased by either of the following ways

1. Increasing the temperature difference (Ts) between the surface and the fluid.
2. Increasing the convection heat transfer coefficient by enhancing the fluid flow or flow velocity
over the body.
3. Increasing the area of contact or exposure between the surface and the fluid.
Most of the times, to control the temperature difference is not feasible and increase of heat transfer
coefficient may require installation of a pump or a fan or replacing the existing one with a new one
having higher capacity, the alternative is to increase the effective surface area by extended surfaces
or fins.
Fins are the extended surface protruding from a surface or body and they are meant for increasing
the heat transfer rate between the surface and the surrounding fluid by increasing heat transfer area.
Types of fin Fins can be broadly classified as: 1. Longitudinal fin 2. Radial fin 3. Pin fin
(a) Longitudinal fin – Rectangular profile (b) Longitudinal fin – Rectangular profile (c)
Longitudinal fin - Trapezoidal profile (d) Longitudinal fin - Concave parabolic (e) Radial fin –
Rectangular profile f) Radial fin – Triangular profile (g) Pin fin – Cylindrical (h) Pin fin – Tapered
profile (i) Pin fin – Concave parabolic.
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Temperature distribution along the length of the fin for insulated tip is given by the equation.
((T - T) / (Tb - T) = Cosh [m (l-x)] / Cosh ml.....(Hyperbolic variation)
Fin Efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of Actual heat transfer rate from the fin to Ideal heat
transfer rate from the fin if the entire fin were at base temperature (Tb).
Fin Effectiveness: The performance of the fins is judged on the basis of the enhancement in heat
transfer relative to the no-fin case. It is defined as the ratio between heat transfer rate with fin and
the heat transfer rate without fin.
When i) € = 1, Fin does not affect the heat transfer at all,

ii) € < 1, Fins acts as insulation as the thermal conductivity of fin material is low,
iii) € > 1, Heat transfer will be increased or enhanced.
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Procedure:
1. Switch on the heater and regulate the power input using the heater regulator.
2. Wait for reasonable time to allow temperatures to reach steady state.
5. Measure the voltage, current and temperatures from T1 to T9, atmospheric temperature at known
time interval.
6. Calculate the theoretical temperature distribution, effectiveness & efficiency of the fin using the
equations given below.
7. Repeat the experiment for different values of power input to the heater.
Observation
1. Diameter of cylindrical fin d : 10 mm

2. Length of fin l : 195 mm
3. Material of the fin : Brass
4. Thermal conductivity of fin K : 110.7 W/m-K
5. Thermocouples on bottom plate : T1, T2, T3
6. Thermocouple on base plate of fin : T4, T5, T6
7. Thermocouples of the fin : T7, T8, T9
8. Atmospheric temperature : T
9. Location of thermocouple on fin : T7 at 3cm, T8 at 9cm & T9 at 15.5cm from base plate.
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Tabular Column:
S.N Voltmeter Ammeter Base plate Fin Atm Temperature Fin Fin
Reading Reading temperature temperature Temp distribution efficiency effective
V Volts I Amps reading°C Reading °C °C along fin length ness
T °C
T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 Ta Tb Tc
Calculation:
1. Temperature distribution along Fin
((Tx - T) / (Tb - T)) = Cosh [m (l-x)] / Cosh ml
Where, Tx = Theoretical temperature along length of fin at a distance x from base.

T = Atmospheric temperature in °C
Tb = Average base plate temperature = (T4+T5+T6)/3 °C
x = Different location on fin length in m
m = √ (hP/KA)
P = Perimeter of fin = Π.d
K = Thermal conductivity of fin material in W/m-K
A = Cross sectional area of fin in m2 = (Π.d2)/4
h = Natural or free convective heat transfer coefficient in W/m2-K = Can be calculated by
following same calculation procedure. i.e
Tm = (Tb + T) / 2 °C
From Data Hand Book Take The Properties Of Air At (Tm) In °C.
Pr =Prandle Number, Cp =Specific heat of air at constant pressure in J/sec, K =Thermal

conductivity of air in W/mk, ‘ν =Kinematic viscosity of air is m2/sec
Gr = [l3 ß g (Ts-Ta)] / ν2
ß = 1/ (Tm +273) per kelvin
Nu = (hl / Ka) = 0.59 (Gr.Pr)0.25
Where, h = Theoretical convective heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K
l = Length of fin in m.
Ka= Thermal Conductivity of air at mean temperature (Tm)
2. Fin Efficiency (ή)
‘ή = (tanh ml) / ml
P a g e 24 | 51

3. Fin Effectiveness (𝜀)
𝜀 = [√ (KP/hA)].tanh ml
4. Rate of heat transfer through fin (Q)
Q = [√ (h.P.K.A)].(Tb- T).tanh ml W
Result:
1. The theoretical temperature distribution along the length of fin is .............

2. Efficiency and Effectiveness of fin is .............
3. Rate of heat transfer through the fin is ..........W
Plot the graph of experimental and theoretical temperature vs length of the fin for
(exponential curve).
P a g e 25 | 51

EXPERIMENT 7
STEFFAN’S BOLTZMANN CONSTANT
AIM: To determine the value of Stefan Boltzman constant for radiation heat transfer.
THEORY:
Stefan Boltzman law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black body is proportional to
fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body surface
Eb = σT4
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzman constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/ (m² K4)
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-conducting plate. A test
disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc is completely enclosed by the
hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is enclosed in a vertical water jacket used to heat
the hemisphere to a suitable constant temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at three
strategic places on the surface of the hemisphere to obtain the temperatures. The disc is mounted on
an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled at the center of the base plate. Another Cr-Al
thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record its temperature. Fill the water in the SS water container
with immersion heater kept on top of the panel.
Specification/ Observation
Specimen material : Copper

Size of the disc :  20mm x 0.5mm thickness
Base Plate :  250mm x 12mm thickness (hylam)
Heater : 1.5 kW capacity, immersion type
P a g e 26 | 51

Copper Bowl :  200mm

Overhead Tank : SS, approx. 3 liter capacity
Mass of specimen, ‘m’ : 5 gm
PROCEDURE:
1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
2. Heat the water in the SS container to its boiling point.
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing copper hemisphere
until it is full. Allow sufficient time to attain thermal equilibrium which is indicated by the
four thermocouples provided on the hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completely inside and lock it. Start the
stop clock simultaneously.
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an interval of about 15 sec for about 15 to 20
minutes.
Tabular Column:
Let Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting into the plate in K
Temperature of the
Thermocouple Copper hemisphere ° C
T1
T2
T3
Temperature – time response of test disc after inserting into hemisphere bowl (Note down the
temperature value for about 20 min or temperature value become almost constant)
Time t sec Temperature T4 ° C (Disc

temp)
P a g e 27 | 51

CALCULATIONS:
1. Plot the graph of temperature of the disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of the line, which
passes through/nearer to all points.
2. Average temperature of the hemisphere
Tavg = ((T1+T2+T3) / 3) + 273 K
3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber in Kelvin (ambient)
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp (dT/dt)
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Where, Ad = Area of the disc = πd²/4 m2
d = Diameter of copper disc = 20 mm
Cp = Specific heat of copper = 0.38 x 103 J/kg–K
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp (dT/dt) = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
‘σ’ = (m Cp (dT/dt)) / (Ad (T4avg – T4d)) W/m2 – K4
Result: The Stefan Boltzman constant is given by ‘σ’ = ___________ W/m2-K4

Nature of graph: Time Vs Temperature response (to find dT/dt slope)
P a g e 28 | 51

EXPERIMENT 8
PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM: To determine LMTD, effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient for parallel and
counter flow heat exchanger.
THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to another. Common
examples of heat exchangers are:
i. Condensers and boilers in steam plant
ii. Inter coolers and pre-heaters
iii. Automobile radiators
iv. Regenerators
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

1. Based on the nature of heat exchange process:
i. Direct contact type – Here the heat transfer takes place by direct mixing of hot and cold
fluids
ii. Indirect contact heat exchangers – Here the two fluids are separated through a metallic
wall. ex. Regenerators, Recuperators etc.
2. Based on the relative direction of fluid flow:
i. Parallel flow heat exchanger – Here both hot and cold fluids flow in the same direction
ii. Counter flow heat exchanger – Here hot and cold fluids flow in opposite direction
iii. Cross-flow heat exchangers – Here the two fluids cross one another
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD):
This is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give the same rate of heat
transfer as usually occurs under variable conditions of temperature difference.
P a g e 29 | 51

LMTD for heat exchanger is given by LMTD = ((θ1 – θ2) / ln (θ1/ θ2))
For Parallel flow HE, θ1 = Thi – Tci and θ2 = Tho - Tco
For Counter flow HE θ1 = Thi – Tco and θ2 = Tho – Tci
Overall heat transfer coefficient

The rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluid is given by
Q =Uo Ao LMTD Watt
Where,
Uo is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of tubes, W/m²-
Ao is the total outer surface area of tubes, m²
Effectiveness: Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of actual heat transfer rate to
the theoretical maximum possible heat transfer rate.
Effectiveness: ε = (Q / Qmax)
It can be shown that (experimental value)
‘ε’ = (Thi – Tho) / (Thi – Tci), for Cmax < Cmin
‘ε’ = (Tco – Tci) / (Thi – Tci), for Cmax > Cmin
And C = mh ch = mc cc, Cmin is minimum value of mh ch and mc cc and Cmax is maximum value of
mh ch and mc cc
Where, mh and mc are the mass flow rate of hot and cold fluids respectively in kg/s;
ch and cc are the specific heat of hot and cold fluids respectively in J/kg–K.
Maximum heat transfer Qmax = Cmin (Thi – Tci) W
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPRATUS:

The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid namely hot water is
obtained from the Geyser (heater capacity 3 kW) & it flows through the inner tube. The cold fluid
i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as a
parallel flow or as a counter flow exchanger. Measuring jar used for measure flow rate of cold and
hot water. This can be adjusted by operating the different valves provided. Temperature of the fluid
can be measured using thermocouples with digital display indicator. The outer tube is provided with
insulation to minimize the heat loss to the surroundings.
P a g e 30 | 51

Specification/Observation
Specimen material : Copper tube
Size of the specimen (D & L) :  12.5mm x 1500 mm long
Outer Shell material : G.I
Size of the Outer Shell : 25 mm
Geyser capacity : 1 ltr, 3 kW
Procedure:
1. First switch ON the unit panel

2. Start the flow of cold water through the annulus and run the exchanger as counter flow or
parallel flow.
3. Switch ON the geyser provided on the panel & allow to flow through the inner tube by
regulating the valve.
4. Adjust the flow rate of hot water and cold water by using rotameters & valves.
5. Keep the flow rate same till steady state conditions are reached.
6. Note down the temperatures on hot and cold water sides. Also note the flow rate.
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates and for different temperatures. The same
method is followed for parallel flow also.
P a g e 31 | 51

Tabular Column: For Parallel/Counter flow
Temperature of cold Temp. of hot

Hot water flow rate Cold water flow water in °C water in °C
Sl. No.
mh, kg/s rate mc, kg/s
Inlet Outlet
Inlet Tci Outlet Tco
Thi Tho
1
Calculation:
1. Heat transfer from hot water Heat gain by the cold fluid
Qh = mh Cph (Thi –Tho) W Qc = mc Cpc (Tco- Tci) W
Where, mh = mass flow rate of hot water kg/s, mc = Mass flow rate of cold fluid, kg/s
Cph /Cpc = Specific heat of hot and cold water = 4186.8 J kg-K
2. Average heat transfer between the hot and cold fluid is

Q = (Qh + Qc) / 2 W
3. LMTD is calculated by
LMTD for heat exchanger is given by LMTD = ((θ1 – θ2) / ln (θ1/ θ2))
For Parallel flow HE, θ1 = Thi – Tci and θ2 = Tho - Tco
For Counter flow HE θ1 = Thi – Tco and θ2 = Tho – Tci
4. Overall heat transfer coefficient

The rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluid is given by
Uo = Q / (Ao.LMTD) W/m2-K
Where,
Uo is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of tubes, W/m²-
Ao is the total outer surface area of tubes, m² = ΠDL m²
5. Effectiveness of heat exchanger

Effectiveness: ε = (Q / Qmax)
It can be shown that (experimental value)
‘ε’ = (Thi – Tho) / (Thi – Tci), for Cmax < Cmin
‘ε’ = (Tco – Tci) / (Thi – Tci), for Cmax > Cmin
And C = mh ch = mc cc, Cmin is minimum value of mh ch and mc cc and Cmax is maximum value of
mh ch and mc cc
Where, mh and mc are the mass flow rate of hot and cold fluids respectively in kg/s;
ch and cc are the specific heat of hot and cold fluids respectively in J/kg–K.
Maximum heat transfer Qmax = Cmin (Thi – Tci) W
Result: The LMTD, Overall heat transfer coefficient and Effectiveness for
Parallel flow arrangement is ......... and Counter flow arrangement is ..........
P a g e 32 | 51

EXPERIMENT 9
CONDENSATION IN DROP WISE AND FILM WISE FORMS
AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:
To determine the overall Heat Transfer Coefficient of both Drop and Film
wise Condensation.
INTRODUCTION:
Condensation is the change in phase from the vapour state to the liquid or solid
state. It can be considered as taking place within a bulk material or on a cooled
surface and is accompanied by simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
Condensation plays a significant role in the heat rejection parts of the Rankine
Power Cycle and the vapour compression refrigeration cycle, which generally
involve pure substances. Dehumidification in air conditioning and the
production of liquefied petroleum gases, liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen and
exampled in which condensation in a mixture takes place. Condensation on a
cooled surface occurs in one of two ways: film or drop wise condensation.
In film condensation, the liquid condensate forms a continuous film which

covers the surface and takes place when the liquid wets the surface. This film
flows over the surface under the action of gravity or other body, surface tension
and shear stresses due to vapour flow. Heat transfer to the solid surface takes
place through the film, which forms the greatest part of the thermal resistance.
P a g e 33 | 51

In drop wise condensation the vapour impinges on the cool wall, reducing its
energy and thereby liquidifying and forming drops, which grow by direct
condensation of vapour on the drops and by coalescence with neighboring
drops until the drops are swept off the surface by their action of gravity or the
drops move they coalesce with other droplets in their path, sweeping a portion
of the surface clean so that condensation can begin a new. The details of drop
wise condensation are not completely understood but it is known to take place
under circumstances where the liquid does not wet the surface.
APPARATUS:
The condensing chamber A is the plain copper tube (PCT) and chamber B
consists of the Chromium Plated copper tube (CPCT) of identical dimensions.
Boiler is provided to prepare steam, which will be allowed inside the chamber.
Pump P circulates cooling water through the tubes. Inlet (suction) of the pump
is connected to the sump S. By operating valve V1 & flow control valves, V6 &
V7 experiments to be carried out at different flow rates. Rota meter R1 & R2
measures water flow rate.
P a g e 34 | 51

SPECIFICATIONS :
TEST SECTION SIZE (FOR BOTH COPPER AND CHROMIUM PLATED

TUBES):
* COPPER TUBE DIAMETER : 15.7 mm
* COPPER TUBE LENGTH : 300 mm
* STEAM GENERATOR CAPACITY : 12 Liters.
* MAX.STEAM PRESSURE : 0.8-1.2 Kg / cm2.
* WATER MEASUREMENT : By rotameter
* DIGITAL TEMPERATURE INDICATOR : 0 - 200 OC
PROCEDURE:
1) First fill the water in the steam generator and then, switch- ON the Mains.
2) Switch-ON the heater wait for pressure reaches to 0.5- 1.2 kg/cm2.
3) Change the valve position for conducting drop & film wise condensation
Experiment.
4) Maintain a steady water flow to the tube (inlet water) through the
Rotameter.
5) Wait for some time till steady steam is generated. Then open the steam value.
6) Note down the different temperature reading, Rotameter reading.
7) Repeat the above procedure for different flow rates or different pressure.
P a g e 35 | 51

OBSERVATION:
Sl. Water flow Temperatures 0C
No.
rate Q cc/sec
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
THERMOCOUPLE POSITION:
T1 = WATER INLET TEMPERATURE
T2 = SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN COPPER TUBE (A)
T3 = VAPOUR TEMPERATURE IN PCT GLASS COLUMN (A)
T4 = SURFACE TEMPERATURE IN CHROMIUM PLATED TUBE (B)
T5 = VAPOUR TEMPERATURE IN CPCT GLASS COLUMN (B)
T6 = WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF PCT (A)
T7 = WATER OUTLET TEMPERATURE OF CPCT (B)
T8 = STEAM INLET TEMPERATURE
ELECTRICAL SUPPLY : 1Ph, 230 Volts, 16 Amps
With grounding
FORMULA:
From Heat Balance Equation,
P a g e 36 | 51

HEAT INPUT = HEAT OUTPUT

1) Hence heat transfer rate can be calculated by,
Q = m Cp T in KW.
Where, m = Mass flow rate of water in Kg/sec.

Cp = Specific heat of water = 4.187 KJ/Kg0K.
T = (T6 – T1) FOR COPPER TUBE (FILM WISE)
= (T7 – T1) FOR CHROMIUM PLATED TUBE (DROP WISE)
= Difference in water Temperatures in oK
[(Surface temp- water inlet temp)-

(Surface temp-water outlet temp)]
2) LMTD = ------------------------------------------------------
ln [(Surface temp-water inlet temp)/
(Surface temp- water outlet temp)
[(T4-T1) - (T4-T7)]
= ------------------------- FOR CHROMIUM TUBE (DROP WISE)
ln [(T4-T1)/(T4-T7)]
[(T2-T1) - (T2-T6)]
= ------------------------- FOR COPPER TUBE (FILM WISE)
ln [(T2-T1)/(T2-T6)]
3) Over all heat transfer coefficient (h) = --------------- in W/m2 - 0k

A x (LMTD)
P a g e 37 | 51

Where, Q = Heat transfer rate in Watts.

A = Surface area of the test piece
= π x d x L in m2.
d = diameter of condenser rod = 15.7 mm.
L = length of Condenser rod = 300mm
P a g e 38 | 51

EXPERIMENT 10
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS
AIM:
To study the phenomenon of the boiling heat transfer and to plot the graph of heat
flux versus temperature difference.
APPARATUS:
It consists of a cylindrical glass container, the test heater and a heater coil for initial
heating of water in the container. This heater coil is directly connected to the mains
and the test heater is also connected to the mains via a Dimmerstat and an ammeter is
connected in series to the current while a voltmeter across it to read the voltage. The
glass container is kept on the table. The test heater wire can be viewed through a
magnifying lens. Figure enclosed shows the set up.
SPECIFICATION:
1. Length of Nichrome wire, L = 52 mm

2. Diameter of Nichrome wire, D = 0.25 mm (33 gauge)
3. Distilled water quantity = 5 liters
4. Thermometer range : 0 – 100 0C
THEORY:
When heat is added to a liquid surface from a submerged solid surface which is at a
temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is usual that a part
of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is called ‘boiling’. If the liquid is
not flowing and present in container, the type of boiling is called as ‘pool boiling’.
Pool boiling is also being of various types depending upon the temperature difference
between the surfaces of liquid. The different types of zones are as shown in the figure
A. The heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted against (Tw ~ Ts) where Ts is the
temperature of the submerged solid and Tw is the saturation temperature of the liquid
at exposed pressure. The boiling curve can be divided into three regions:
P a g e 39 | 51

I. Natural convection region

II. Nucleate boiling region
III. Film boiling region
Figure: Typical boiling Curve
As temperature difference (Tw ~ Ts) is very small (10C or so), the liquid near to the
surface gets slightly superheated and rises up to the surface. The heat transfer from
the heating surface to the liquid is similar to that by natural convection and hence this
region is called ‘natural convection region’.
When (Tw ~ Ts) becomes a few degrees, vapor bubble start forming at some
discrete locations of the heating surface and we enter into ‘Nucleate boiling region’.
Region II consists of two parts. In the first part, the bubbles formed are very few in
number and before reaching the top liquid surface, they get condensed. In second
part, the rate of bubble formation as well as the locations where they are formed
increases with increase in temperature difference. A stage is finally reached when the
P a g e 40 | 51

rate of formation of bubbles is so high that they start coalesce and blanket the surface
with a vapor film. This is the beginning of region III since the vapor has got very low
thermal conductivity, the formation of vapor film on the heating surface suddenly
increases the temperature beyond the melting point of the submerged surface and as
such the end of ‘Nucleate boiling’ is important and its limiting condition is known as
critical heat flux point or burn out point.
The pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point can be visualized and
studied with the help of apparatus described above.
PROCEDURE:
1. Distilled water of about 4 liters is taken into the glass container.

2. The test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected across the studs and electrical
connections are made.
3. The heaters are kept in submerged position.
4. The bulk water is switched on and kept on, until the required bulk temperature
of water is obtained. (Say 400 C )
5. The bulk water heater coil is switched off and test heater coil is switched on.
P a g e 41 | 51

6. The boiling phenomenon on wire is observed as power input to the test heater
coil is varied gradually.
7. The voltage is increased further and a point is reached when wire breaks (melts)
and at this point voltage and current are noted.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of bulk temperature of water.
(Say 300 C, 400 C, 500 C, 600 C, and 700 C).
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. Bulk water Specimen Voltage, Critical heat

Current, ‘I’ Heat
temperatur ‘V’
No Temperatur Flux q =
0
e in C in Input, ‘Q’
. e in Q/A
‘T3’ Amps in watt
in 0C Volt In W/m2
‘T2’
CALCUALATIONS:
a. Area of Nichrome wire A = π x D x L

b. Heater input Q = V x I
c. Critical heat flux q = Q/A W/m2
RESULT: The critical heat flux of boiling process at saturation temperature of water
is q = ....................... W/m2.
P a g e 42 | 51

EXPERIMENT 11
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION TEST RIG
Aim: To conduct performance test on Vapour Compression type Refrigeration tutor and to find out
co-efficient of performance (COP) and efficiency of the cycle.
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus is a laboratory scale working model of a Refrigeration cycle unit, portable–trolley
mounted, housed on a MS square tube frame with powder–coated metallic platform to give elegant
finish. The compressor is fitted on the platform with fan-cooled condenser. The evaporator (chiller)
made of copper coil, placed in a insulated Stainless Steel vessel with fiber glass coated interior,
housed in a wooden chamber. The Rotameter, thermostat expansion valve, solenoid valve,
pressure/compound gauge, LP/HP cutout, and voltmeter, ammeter & temperature indicator with
selector switch (to measure temperature at different points of the refrigeration system) are mounted
on the panel. Hand shut off valves are provided at different points to control the flow of refrigerant.
Theory
The major difference in theory and treatment of vapour refrigeration system as compared to the
air refrigeration system is that, the vapour alternatively undergoes a change of phase from vapour to
liquid and liquid to vapour during the completion of a cycle. The latent heat of vaporization is
utilized for carrying heat from the refrigerator, which is quite high compared with the air-cycle,
which depends only upon the sensible heat of the air.
The substances used do not leave the plant but are circulated through the system alternately after
condensing and re-evaporating. During evaporating, it absorbs its latent heat from the brine, which
is used for circulating around the cold chamber. In condensing, it gives out its latent heat to the
circulating water or air of the cooler, the machine is, therefore, known as Latent Heat Pump. It
absorbs its latent heat from the brine and gives out in the condenser.
All the principal parts are shown on the diagram, and path of the refrigerant flow is also shown on
the diagram. The pressure is maintained at different levels in two parts of the system by the
expansion valve (high side float valve). The function of the expansion valve is to allow the liquid-
refrigerant under high pressure to pass at a controlled rate into the low-pressure part of the system.
Some of the liquid evaporates passing through the expansion valve, but greater portion is vaporized
in the evaporator at low pressure (low temperature). The liquid refrigerant absorbs its latent heat of
vaporization from the air, water or other material, which is being cooled. The function of the
compressor is to increase the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant above atmospheric, which
will be ready to dissipate its latent heat in the condenser. In passing through the condenser, the
refrigerant gives up the heat, which is absorbed in the evaporator plus the heat equivalent of the
work done upon it by the compressor. This heat is transferred to the air or water, which is used as
cooling medium in the condenser.
The standard vapour compression cycle consists of following process:
1. Process-2 represents reversible adiabatic compression from saturated vapour to the

condenser pressure or superheated vapour.
P a g e 43 | 51

2. Process 2-3 represents reversible heat rejection at constant pressure, de preheating and
condensation.
3. Process 3-4 represents irreversible constant enthalpic expansion from saturated liquid to
the evaporator pressure.
4. Process 4-1 represents reversible heat addition at constant pressure (Evaporation to
saturated vapour).
Performance of standard vapour compression cycle:
Process 1-2 is the compression process where Mechanical work is to be supplied (usually in the
form of electrical energy) to a compressor. This is the quantity to be spent. Process 4 –1 represents
the useful refrigeration effect. The index of performance is defined as coefficient of performance
(not as efficiency, as for heat engines)
COP is defined as the ratio of Useful refrigeration (output) to Network (compressor work, input).
COP = (h1-h4) / (h2-h1)
A Carnot refrigeration cycle consists of all reversible process. It will have the highest
coefficient of performance when operating between any temperature limits. should be
COPcarnot = T1 / (T2-T1) = Tlow / (Thigh - Tlow) (Temperatures in Kelvin)

P a g e 44 | 51

Thermocouple Details
1. T1 = Temp.of refrigerant @ inlet of compressor
2. T2 = Temp.of refrigerant @ outlet of compressor
3. T3 = Temp.of refrigerant @ outlet of condenser
4. T4 = Temp.of refrigerant @ outlet of expansion
5. T5 =Temp. of water @ chiller
C= Condenser, E= Evaporator
Let P1, P2 be pressure,
h1, h2, h3 and h4 be the specific enthalpies of the refrigerant (R-134a) respectively.
These are to be found out from relevant p-h chart
1. (h2-h1) denotes the compressor work input
2. h3 = h4 (throttling process is also a constant Enthalpy process)
3. (h1-h4) is the enthalpy rise on the evaporator i.e. the refrigeration effect
Procedure
1. Switch on the mains through the D.P switch.
2. Fill the chiller with known quantity of water.
3. Select the operating system i.e. capillary or thermostatic expansion through solenoid valve and
open the corresponding valve.
4. Note the initial temp. of water and time.
5. Switch on the condenser fan and compressor by rotating the thermostat in clock wise direction.
6. Allow the operating system to run for a known time ( 30 minutes)
7. Note down the corresponding readings.
8. Change the operating system and repeat the above steps from 4 to 7.
Tabular Column
Time of test
Pressure Pressure Energy
Temperature in ˚C conduction
in in meter
in sec
reading
kg/cm2 kg/cm2
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5
LP HP
Calculation
1. Actual COP of VCR
COP(actual) = Refrigeration effect / compressor work input = Q / W

P a g e 45 | 51

Q = mW Cpw (Ti –Tf) / t Watt
Where, mW = Mass of water taken in chiller in kg

Cpw = Specific heat of water = 4.18kJ/kg-K
Ti = Initial chiller temperature in °C
Tf = Final chiller temperature in °C
t = Duration of test conducted in sec
W = (n*3600) / (t*EMC) Watt

Where, n = Number of revolution in energy meter
t = Time taken for n revolution.
EMC = Energy meter constant = 1600 blinks/kWh
2. Theoretical COP
COP (the) = (h1-h4) / (h2-h1)

From 134a chart,
h1 = Enthalpy inkJ/kg corresponding to pressure P1 & temperature T1 (Vapour phase)
h3 = Enthalpy in kJ/kg corresponding to pressure P2 & temperature T3
But, h3 = h4
h2 = Enthalpy in kJ/kg corresponding to pressure P2 & temperature T2
3. Carnot COP
COP (carnot) = T1 / (T2 – T1)

T1 = Inlet compressor temperature in Kelvin
T2 = Outlet compressor temperature in Kelvin
4. Relative COP
COP (relative) = COP (actual) / COP (Theoretical)
Result: The performance test of VCR by calculating the following

COP (actual) = .........
COP (theoretical) = ............
COP (carnot) = ............
COP (relative) = ...............
The PH graph of refrigerant R-134a is given below.
P a g e 46 | 51

P a g e 47 | 51

EXPERIMENT 12
UNSTEADY STATE OR TRANSIENT HEAT CONDUCTION
AIM: To determine heat transfer coefficient and instantaneous heat transfer rate for transient heat
conduction and draw the graph of temperature variation with time.
INTRODUCTION
The heat transfer depends on time or temperature varies with time is considered as unsteady state or
transient heat transfer. In various practical situations transient heat transfer takes place. In heat
transfer analysis, temperature inside the body is assumed to be uniform and temperature varies with
time only. Such analysis is called lumped system analysis. In most cases the temperature within the
body will change from point to point as well as with time. In such cases lumped system is not
applicable. Temperature charts or Heisler charts are used to determine the temperature at any point
at any time. Transient problems are analyzed by using dimensionless numbers like Biot number and
Fourier number.
Biot number: It is defined as internal conduction resistance to surface convective resistance

Bi = Conduction Resistance / Convective Resistance = (hLc / K)
Where h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the fluid in W/m2-K
Lc = Characteristic length = (Volume of body/Surface area of body) = V/As
K = Thermal conductivity of given specimen in W/m-K
1. Biot number provides the measure of temperature drop in the solid relative to the temperature
difference between the surface and the fluid.
2. The Biot number is required to determine the validity of the lumped heat capacity. The lumped
system analysis can only be applied when Bi ≤ 0.1.
Fourier Number: It is defined as the ratio of the rate of heat conduction to the rate of thermal energy
storage in the solid.
Fo = (α τ / Lc2)
Where, α = Thermal diffusivity of given material in m2/s = K / (ρ Cp)
‘ρ = Density of given material in kg/m3
Cp = Specific heat of given material in J/kg-K
‘τ = Time interval of heat conduction in sec.
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through a solid. When a body is
subjected to heating or cooling, irrespective of the material it requires certain time to attain steady
state. Hence the other way of expressing is that the unsteady process will occur till it attains the
steady process. In unsteady process the temperature will change with respect to time.
Unsteady state heating or cooling can be categorized as:
PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature within the system undergoes periodic changes
which may be regular or irregular.
NON – PERIODIC HEAT FLOW: where the temperature at any point within the system changes
non – linearly with respect to time.
P a g e 48 | 51

Unsteady state heat flow is very common in all heating or cooling problems at the beginning of the
system. Hardening by quenching, cooling of IC engine cylinders, and heating of boiler tubes are
common examples of unsteady state heat flow.
Description:
Unsteady state heat transfer equipment have oil heater located at left bottom of equipment.
Specimen has to be held in chuck which is at the top of oil heater. Thermocouple No.3 is located
inside the specimen. No. 2 thermocouple measures the air temperature. No. 1 thermocouple
measures the oil temperature. Digital temperature indicator indicates respective temperatures of
thermocouples as we select it by selector switch.
Procedure:
1. Put ‘ON’ the mains switch.
2. Fill the oil jar up to ¾th of its height.
Start the oil heater by varying the dimmer in clock wise direction.
3. Keep the selector switch at No. 1 and observe the oil temperature.
4. When the oil temperature reaches up to 40-700C insert the specimen in oil chamber. At the
same time note down the specimen temperature and start the stops watch.
5. Note down the specimen reading for every 20 sec. Check the oil temperature by selecting
No. 1 on selector switch.
6. Take the readings of specimen temperature (T3) till it comes nearly too hot oil temperature.
7. Now put the specimen inside the rectangular chamber. At the same time put OFF the heater.
8. Take the atmosphere temperature by selecting No.2 and specimen temperature. Note the
specimen temperature reading till it comes closer to atmospheric temperature.
9. Put OFF the main switch.
P a g e 49 | 51

OBSERVATION:
1. Specimen material : Copper
2. Thermal conductivity of the copper (K) : 386 W/m K.
3. Thermal diffusivity of copper (α) : 112.34 x 10-6 m2/sec
4. Specimen Diameter (d)-Cylinder : 30mm
5. Specimen length (l)- Cylinder : 30mm
TABULATION:
For Heating: Heating of cylinder specimen is carried out by using OIL.
Sl. No. Oil Temperature Specimen temperature ‘T3’ in 0C Time in
‘T1’ in C
0
at interval of 20 sec. second
2. For Cooling: Cooling of cylinder specimen is carried out by forced convection using fan.
Sl. No. Atmospheric temp. Specimen temperature ‘T3’ in 0C Time in
‘T2’ in C
0
at interval of 20 sec. second
Calculation:
For Heating (With Natural Convection) For Cooling (Forced Convection using Fan)
For lumped analysis, the temperature For lumped analysis, the temperature
distribution with respect to time is given by an distribution with respect to time is given by an
equation. equation.
(Tthe - Ta) / (Ts -Ta) = exp (-Bi.Fo)...Eq. 1 (Tthe - Ta) / (Ts -Ta) = exp (-Bi.Fo)...Eq. 1
Where, Where,
1. Bi.= (hLc / K) 1. Bi.= (hLc / K)
Lc= V/As = (rl) / (2r+2l) Lc= V/As = (rl) / (2r+2l)

r = 15mm, l = 30mm r = 15mm, l = 30mm
K = 386 W/m-K K = 386 W/m-K
And h is obtained by following the same And h is obtained by following the same
calculation of theoretical convective heat calculation of theoretical convective heat
transfer coefficient of free convection. transfer coefficient of forced convection.
(i. Calculate the mean temp by taking average of (i. Calculate the mean temp by taking average of
temperature of oil upto which it is heated and temperature of solid before initiation of cooling
initial temperature of cylinder before inserting to process and atmospheric air temperature.
oil bath. ii. At mean temperature, note down all the
ii. At mean temperature, note down all the required properties of DRY AIR from DHB.
required properties of ENGINE OIL from DHB. iii. Calculate Reynolds number and considering
P a g e 50 | 51

iii. Calculate Grashoffs number and considering proper relationship calculate the Nusselt
proper relationship calculate the Nusselt number.(Note: To find the velocity of air flow,
number. the total air flow rate and area of air flow must
iv. Finally calculate the free convective heat be known).
transfer coefficient h W/m2-K) iv. Finally calculate the forced convective heat
transfer coefficient h W/m2-K )
Now calculate Biot number, and its value should
be < 0.1 for lumped analysis. Now calculate Biot number, and its value should
be < 0.1 for lumped analysis.
2. Fo = (α τ / Lc )
2
2. Fo = (α τ / Lc2)
-6 2
Where, α =112.34 x 10 m /sec
Lc = Characteristic length Where, α =112.34 x 10-6 m2/sec
‘τ = Time interval of heat conduction, consider Lc = Characteristic length in m
any time interval of heating process, and ‘τ = Time interval of heat conduction, consider
theoretical temperature of the given solid has to any time interval of heating process, and
be calculated using Eq. 1. theoretical temperature of the given solid has to
be calculated using Eq. 1.
For heating process,
Ts = Temperature of the oil upto which it is For heating process,
heated up. Ts = Temperature of solid before initiation of
Ta = Initial temperature of solid before inserting cooling process.
into oil bath. Ta = Atmospheric air temperature.
Tthe = Theoretical temperature of solid at the Tthe = Theoretical temperature of solid at the
time interval τ sec. time interval τ sec.
Calculate the theoretical temperature for all the Calculate the theoretical temperature for all the
time interval and plot a graph of time vs time interval and plot a graph of time vs
temperature for both experimental and temperature for both experimental and
theoretical temperatures. theoretical temperatures.
Result: Plot a graph of Time Vs Temperature of experimental and theoretical values for both
heating and cooling process and found out the percentage error.
P a g e 51 | 51

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Heat Transfer Lab-15MEL67

1. Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a Metal Rod.

1. Determination of Steffan’s Boltzmann Constant.

ONE question from part -A: 25 Marks

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.

THEORY: From Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

Specimen material : Brass rod

1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

K x A x dT/dx = mf Cp (T11 – T10)

where, ‘k’ = Thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)

‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm

‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K

‘mf = Mass flow rate of water in kg/sec

Thus, the thermal conductivity ‘k’ of metal rod can be evaluated.

K = mf Cp (T11 – T10) W/m-K

Result: The thermal conductivity of given metal rod is k = …….. W/m-K.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Q= K1A1(T1-T2) = K2A2(T2-T3) = K3A3(T3-T4)

Where, K1 = Thermal conductivity of Mild steel in W/m-K

Where, d= Diameter of the slab in mts.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

(c) Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient.

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Nu = 0.53 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for Gr.Pr<105

Nu = 0.56 (Gr x Pr) 1/4 for 105< Gr. Pr <108

Nu = 0.13 (Gr x Pr) 1/3 for 108 < Gr.Pr<1012

Where, Nu = Nusselt number = hL/K

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Gr = Grashof number = L3 β g (Ts –Ta) / ν²

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Sl. Volt Ammeter Heat Thermocouple readings °C

1) AVERAGE SURFACE TEMP

2) SURROUNDING AMBIENT TEMP

Pr =Prandle Number, Cp =Specific heat of air at constant pressure in J/sec, K =Thermal

4) VOLUMETRIC COEFFICIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION

The following correlations are used to find Nusselt Number

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

8) THEROTICAL FREE CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT

hthe = NuK/L W/m2 K

Convective heat transfer coefficient experimentally is calculated using following equation

Where A= π d L = Surface area of convection heat transfer in m2

hexp = VI / π d L (Ts – Ta) W/m2 K

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

Where, n = 0.4 for heating of fluid

Nu = Nusselt number = (hd / K)

Re = Reynolds Number = (Vd / υ)

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS

Department of Mechanical Engineering, NIEIT, Mysuru

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS: To calculate theoretical forced convective heat transfer

ρa =Density of air in kg/m3, Pr =Prandle Number, K =Thermal conductivity of air in W/mk,

Qact = (Cd A0A1√(2gHa)) / √( A12 – A02) m3/sec

Where, Cd = Coefficient of discharge of orifice meter = 0.62

2. Velocity of air through the orifice meter