Geothermal Energy Comversion

4.
11 Geothermal Energy Conversion

Murat Ozturk, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey
Ibrahim Dincer, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa, ON, Canada
r 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
4.11.1 Introduction 475

4.11.2 Geothermal Energy and Classification 477
4.11.2.1 By Potential 478
4.11.2.2 By Content 478
4.11.2.3 By Temperature or Enthalpy 479
4.11.2.4 By Exergy 479
4.11.3 Geothermal Energy Sources and Applications 479
4.11.4 General Analysis and Performance Assessment 480
4.11.4.1 Mass Balance Equation 481
4.11.4.2 Energy Balance Equation 481
4.11.4.3 Entropy Balance Equation 482
4.11.4.4 Exergy Balance Equation 482
4.11.4.5 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies 482
4.11.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion 483
4.11.5.1 Cooling and Heating Application 483
4.11.5.2 Power Generation 493
4.11.5.3 Hydrogen Energy Production 496
4.11.5.4 Alternative Fuels 502
4.11.5.5 Fresh Water Production 502
4.11.5.6 Other Useful Commodities 505
4.11.6 Case Studies 506
4.11.6.1 Direct Steam Power Generation 506
4.11.6.2 Single Flash Steam Power Generation 509
4.11.6.3 Double Flash Steam Power Generation 512
4.11.6.4 Triple Flash Steam Power Generation 517
4.11.6.5 Binary Cycle Power Generation 522
4.11.6.6 Combined Power Generation 526
4.11.6.7 Geothermal Energy Based Cooling System 530
4.11.6.8 Geothermal Energy Based Hydrogen Production and Liquefaction System 535
4.11.7 Future Directions 541
4.11.8 Concluding Remarks 542
References 543
Further Reading 544
Relevant Websites 544
Nomenclature m Mass (kg)

A Area (m2) m_ Mass flow rate (kg/s)
E Energy (kJ) P Presuure (kPa)
E_ Energy rate (kW) q Specific heat transfer (kJ/kg)
ex Specific exergy (kJ/kg) Q Heat (kJ)
_
Ex Exergy rate (kW) Q_ Heat rate (kW)
_ D Exergy destruction rate (kW)
Ex RPEM Proton exchange membrane resistance (O)
F Faraday constant (C/mol) Ru Universal gas constant (kJ/mol K)
g Gravitational acceleration (m2/s) s Specific entropy [kJ/kgK)
h Specific enthalpy (kJ/kg) S Entropy (kJ/K)
H Enthalpy (kJ) S_ Entropy rate (kW/K)
J Current density (A/m2) t Time [s]
Jo Exchange current density (A/m2) T Temperature [K]
Jiref Preexponential factor (A/m2) v Volume (m3)
L Length (m) V Velocity (m/s)
474 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00415-6

Geothermal Energy Conversion 475
V0 Reversible potential (V) w weight (N)

Vact Activation overpotential (V) W Work (kJ)
Vact,a Anode activation overpotential (V) W_ Work rate (kW)
Vact,c Cathode activation overpotential (V) z Elevation (m)
Greek Letters sPEM Proton conductivity in PEM (s/m)

D Change in variable s(x) Local ionic PEM conductivity (s/m)
la Water content at anode–membrane interface (O1) Z Energy efficiency
lc Water content at cathode–membrane interface (O1) c Exergy efficiency
l(x) Water content at location x in the membrane (O1)
Subscript gen Generation

a Air gene Generator
abs Absorber heating Heating load
ct Cooling tower HP High pressure
cooling Cooling load l Liquid
con Condenser LP Low pressure
cv Control volume i Inlet condition
D Destruction mdm Membrane distillation module
e Exit condition mine Mineralizer
ej Ejector MP Medium pressure
en Energy ohm Ohmic
erd Energy recovery device p Pump
eva Evaporator pr Particulate remover
ev Expansion valve pst Posttreatment
ex Exergy pt Pretreatment
f Fuel pur Purifier
fls Flashing rhs Radiator heating system
g Gas tot Total
Superscripts
Rate Ch Chemical
Acronyms PEM Proton exchange membrane

COP Coefficient of performance PV Photovoltaic
CSP Concentrating solar collector PV/T Photovoltaic/thermal collector
EES Engineering Equation Solver RE Rational efficiency
HEX Heat exchanger SExI Specific exergy index
ORC Organic Rankine cycle TE Task efficiency
4.11.1 Introduction
Geothermal resources are vastly available worldwide and are widely used for power generation or space heating applications. They
are clean (effectively no harmful gas emissions, including CO, CO2, NOx, SOx, etc.), safe, and reliable (renewable and sustainable),
and they can play an important role in meeting world energy requirements [1]. Geothermal fluids, as they come from the
underground, contain gaseous impurities, such as hydrogen sulfite and radon gaseous, that usually are not permitted to be released
to the ambient. Reinjection of used geofluids back into the injection well may, however, solve any harmful emission problems. The
different benefit is that geothermal power processes are easy, safe, and adaptable. The heat energy is created by the natural decay over
millions of years of radiogenic materials including uranium, thorium, and potassium. The geothermal energy production systems
have important advantages [2]. They are environmentally benign, renewable energy sources, and also they can be used for providing
baseload electric and heat energy for industrial applications. The geothermal energy sources that have been utilized, or that are under
investigation for improving, range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several kilometers below the Earth’s surface.
Throughout the world, geothermal energy systems use geothermal heat to provide electricity and to use directly for nearly 90
years. While there were only 11 countries having installed capacity of more than 100 MWT in 1985, this number had increased to
36 countries by the end of 2014. Five countries appear to be dominant in the direct use of geothermal energy (without heat pumps
in MWt) accounting for 68.3% of the world usage, respectively. As seen from Table 1, these countries also have the largest annual
energy use.
Nowadays, 26 countries are engaged in generating electricity energy from geothermal energy resources. The total installed
power generation capacity based on geothermal energy is about 13,300 MW from 582 geothermal power generation plants in
2016. As seen in Fig. 1, the power generation rate based on geothermal energy resources has witnessed a steady, albeit modest,
growth over the past four decades.
After the oil crisis in 1970, Iceland revolutionized its energy policies, decreasing its oil usage and returning to its own energy
sources: geothermal and hydropower. Fig. 2 shows the percentage of energy types employed effectively through various appli-
cations for space heating in Iceland.
The status of electricity generation rates worldwide from 1990 to 2040 based on fossil and renewable energy sources are
illustrated in Table 2. The total energy supply of the world has increased by nearly 100% in 14 years. As seen in this table, world
geothermal energy production rate has grown from 36 TWh in 1990 to 77 TWh in 2014. The fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas)
will continue to generate nearly 55–60% of the world’s primary energy right through to 2040. Also, it is expected that the electricity
generation rate based on installed geothermal power generation plants will reach 361 TWh in 2040. On the other hand, the
electricity generation share of geothermal power systems is 0.323% in 2014, and it is expected to reach about 1% in 2040.
Hot water comes up through interrelated faults and fractures and appears on the surface of the ground in the form of hot
springs or hot steam. In the last decade, the notion of geothermal power systems has significantly developed in its improvement,
abilities, and implementation through the reforming of traditional opinion and approaches [3]. The most important property of a
geothermal power system is that it generates zero harmful gaseous emissions potentially making it one of the cleanest resources for
power generation. Another important feature is that, unlike other renewable energy resources such as solar and wind energy,
geothermal energy can produce a constant 24 h of baseload electricity [4,5]. The high temperature geothermal power sources are
generally classified as having a geofluid temperature of greater than 150ºC [6]. The medium temperature geothermal power
sources are usually classified as having temperatures between 90 and 150ºC [7,8]. The low temperature geothermal power sources
refer to those that have a temperature below 90ºC [9]. Furthermore, the efficient use of lower geothermal resources of about 75 to
1001C is under investigation presently. The geothermal resources with temperature scale exist in many regions of the world [7].
Therefore, effective progress for their use will ensure wide potential for geofluid based organic Rankine cycle (ORC) to generate
Table 1 Distribution of geothermal energy among the top five countries
Countries MWt Countries TJ/year
China 6089 China 74,041

Turkey 2894 Turkey 44,932
Japan 2086 Iceland 26,700
Iceland 2035 Japan 25,630
India 986 Hungary 9,573
Source: John WL, Tonya LB. Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2015 worldwide review
Geothermics 2016;60:66–93.
Geothermal power generation 1975−2015

12,995
14,000
Installed power capacity (MW)
12,000 10,780
10,000 8912
7974
8000 6798
5832
6000 4764
3887
4000
1300
2000
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
Year
Fig. 1 World cumulative installed geothermal power generation capacity during the period 1975–2015.
100%
90%
80%
70%
Geothermal
60%
50% 89%
40%
30%
20%
Oil
10% Electricity 10%
0% 1%
1970 1980 1990 2000
Fig. 2 Relative share of energy resources in the heating of houses in Iceland. Data taken from Bardadottir H. Geothermal Development and
Research in Iceland, National Energy Authority and Ministries of Industry and Commerce; 2006.
Table 2 Status of electricity generation rate from 1990 up to 2040 based on the fossil and renewable energy sources
Energy sources Electricity generation (TWh) Share (%)
1990 2014 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2014 2040
Coal 4,425 9,707 9,741 9,934 10,245 10,547 10,786 40.77 27.63
Oil 1,358 1,035 822 727 633 585 547 4.347 1.401
Natural gas 1,753 5,148 5,804 6,513 7,305 8,155 8,909 21.62 22.82
Nuclear energy 2,013 2,535 3,053 3,405 3,847 4,205 4,532 10.65 11.61
Hydropower 2,143 3,894 4,387 4,887 5,382 5,834 6,230 16.36 15.96
Bioenergy 131 495 642 785 954 1,147 1,353 2.079 3.465
Wind turbine 4 717 1,508 2,118 2,706 3,296 3,881 3.012 9.94
Geothermal 36 77 111 150 207 283 361 0.323 0.925
Solar PV 0 190 599 953 1,329 1,731 2,137 0.798 5.473
CSP 1 9 30 61 109 175 254 0.038 0.651
Marine 1 1 3 6 15 30 54 0.004 0.138
Total generation 11,863 23,809 26,698 29,540 32,732 35,989 39,045 100 100
Note: CSP, Concentrating solar collector.

Source: International Energy Agency. World Energy Outlook. Paris: International Energy Agency; 2016.
electricity [7]. Green and Gerald [10] have given that novel low temperature power production processes may greatly expand the
geothermal sources that should be improved economically today. The high and medium temperature geothermal power sources are
generally the product of thermal streams that are generated by the molten core of the earth. The heat energy flows from deep within
the world and collects in areas of water or rock. The low temperature geothermal sources are generally created through the collection
of solar radiation within the ground [11]. The general processes of geothermal power systems are direct steam; single, double, and
triple flash, and binary and combined/hybrid cycles. The primary disadvantages of generating power by using geothermal resources
are having higher investment cost and lower performance than conventional power production processes. The reason for having low
performance is that geofluid resource temperature is much lower. The performance of geothermal process can be increased by using
some different process based on the geothermal fluid types, for instance steam, wet steam, and hot water.
The overall objective of this chapter is, therefore, to investigate the geothermal energy, geothermal energy sources, geothermal
energy conversion techniques, and geothermal energy based integrated system for some useful outputs. In the case study sub-
section, thermodynamic assessments investigate how various operating conditions and reference conditions within these geo-
thermal power generation arrangements impact the exergy efficiencies and exergy destruction rates. This chapter further aims to
discuss the geothermal energy based integrated system for multigeneration, such as power generation, cooling, space or green-
house heating applications, hydrogen and alternative fuels generation, water heating, fresh water, industrial process heating, and
other commodities (drying air, food drying, cooking, etc.).
4.11.2 Geothermal Energy and Classification
The growing needs for energy in many sectors and the harmful environmental effects caused by fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and
oil) have motived researchers, scientists, engineers, technologists, and policy makers to give more attention to switching toward
Table 3 Status of geothermal power plants in two particular years as 2005 and 2012
Country 2005 2012
No of units MWe No of units MWe
Australia 1 0.15 1 0.15

Austria 2 1.125 3 1.145
China 13 27.6 8 24
Costa Rica 6 163 8 205
El Salvador 7 204.3 7 204.3
Ethiopia 0 0 1 8.5
France 2 14.7 2 14.7
Germany 1 0.2 4 6.75
Guatemala 9 44.6 9 44.6
Iceland 24 422.4 31 715.4
Indonesia 15 807 23 1,134
Italy 33 811.2 35 882.3
Japan 22 537.74 21 535.26
Kenya 9 130.2 13 166.2
Mexico 37 953.3 39 983.3
New Zealand 39 572.1 43 783.3
Nicaragua 7 108.9 5 87.5
Papua New Guinea 6 56 6 56
Philippines 58 1979.91 48 1,840.9
Portugal 5 16 6 26
Russia 12 79 12 79
Turkey 2 27.8 8 94.98
USA 193 2555.5 253 2,774.43
Total 503 9512.725 586 10,667.72
alternative and sustainable energy sources (solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, etc.). Nowadays, 24 different countries are gen-
erating electricity by using geothermal energy resources. The status of geothermal plant units and power generation rates for these
countries between 2005 and 2012 are illustrated in Table 3. Among the alternative energy technologies, geothermal energy is found
in abundance, is a completely free source of energy, and also is mainly used for electricity production, residential or greenhouse
heating and cooling processes, and industrial drying, distillation, and desalination, depending on the geofluid source conditions.
For this reason, the classification of geothermal energy has long been necessary since geothermal energy is abundant and is an
important for source for humans. Therefore, there have been many classification types for geothermal energy such as by acces-
sibility, potential, content, temperature, exergy, etc. In this part of this study, geothermal energy is classified by potential, content,
temperature, and exergy.
4.11.2.1 By Potential
Geothermal energy is abundant; however, its direct use or electricity production is expensive. The reason for this situation is that
geothermal energy is theoretically abundant, but there are some technical, economical, and sustainability-related limitations. Fig. 3
shows economic and realizable parts of renewable energy sources, and this is also technically valid for geothermal sources [12].
The theoretical potential defines the physically utilizable energy supply. Nowadays, only small fractions of the theoretical potential
of geothermal energy can actually be utilized because of the technical, structural, and administrative limitations. Also, the technical
potential describes the fraction of theoretical potential that can be used with current technology. The economic potential defines
the time and location dependent fraction of technical potential that can be economically utilized. Then sustainability takes place,
that is, the use of geothermal energy in a sustainable manner [13]. The top left part of Fig. 3 shows the reserves of geothermal
energy and rest of them is called as resource. The developable potential defines the fraction of economic potential that can be
improved under practical conditions (regulations, environmental and social restrictions). Thus, as seen in Fig. 3, it is generally
smaller than the economic potential.
4.11.2.2 By Content
Geothermal energy reservoirs have been classified also in terms of their content or phase of fluid. Geothermal reservoirs can be
either water dominated fields or vapor dominated fields [14]. Water dominated fields can be also divided into two groups: (1) hot
water fields and (2) wet steam fields. Hot water fields contain water with temperature up to 1001C and these fields are the lowest
temperature fields. Wet steam fields have both hot water and partly vapor. The temperatures of these fields are higher than 1001C.
Realizable
Developable
Sustainable
Economic
Economic
Technical
Theoretical
Fig. 3 Classification of geothermal sources by potential. Modified from DiPippo R, Marcille D. Exergy analysis of geothermal power plants.
Geotherm Resources Council Trans 1984;8:47–52.
Table 4 Thermodynamic limits of geothermal power conversion
Geofluid Temperature (1C) Sensible heat exchange (%) Latent heat exchange (%)
Low temperature 150 17 29

Medium temperature 220 24 39
High temperature 500 44 61
Source: Dincer I, Zamfirescu C. Sustainable energy systems and applications. New York, NY: Springer; 2011.
On the other hand, vapor dominant fields contain superheated or dry saturated vapor having pressure higher than atmospheric
pressure.
4.11.2.3 By Temperature or Enthalpy

Temperatures of geothermal sources range between about 501C and approximately 3501C. Geothermal sources are divided into
three groups according to their temperatures; however there is no exact boundary between these groups. According to Muffer and
Cataldi [15], reservoirs having lower than 901C are low temperature reservoirs, reservoirs with temperature between 90 and 1501C
are medium temperature reservoirs, and finally reservoirs having higher than 1501C are high temperature reservoirs. In order to
indicate maximum conversion performance from low temperature, medium temperature, and high temperature geofluid
resources, thermodynamic limits of geothermal power conversion based on the resource temperature, sensible heat exchange, and
latent heat exchange rate are given in Table 4.
4.11.2.4 By Exergy
Classifying geothermal resources according to only temperature or enthalpy is not convenient for deciding the feasibility of the
geothermal resources. Lee has developed a new idea about classifying geothermal resources in terms of exergy content. According
to Lee [6], specific exergy of fluid can be normalized by the maximum saturated steam exergy in order to obtain specific exergy
index (SExI), and can be written as follows:
SExI ¼ hbrine 273:16sbrine =1192 ð1Þ
which is a straight line on a specific enthalpy (h) and specific entropy (s) plot of the Mollier diagram. Finally, the geothermal
resources with SExIo0.05 are defined as low exergy resources, 0.05rSExIo0.5 as medium exergy sources, and SExIZ0.5 as high
exergy resources.
4.11.3 Geothermal Energy Sources and Applications
One other possible resource of renewable energy is the Earth’s heat, which is called geothermal energy. Geofluid sources vary
widely from one place to another, based on the geofluid temperature and depth from ground level, rock structure, and richness of
geofluid. The core temperature of the earth is calculated as nearly 43001C, and because of the rock conductivity, the ground
temperature at almost 4 km below the earth’s surface can reach nearly 901C. But, the geothermal heat intensity is low compared to
solar radiation intensity, namely B0.1 W/m2 versus B240 W/m2 for geothermal solar, respectively [16]. The geothermal energy
resources can be utilized for power generation or any different suitable industrial, agricultural, or domestic applications.
Turbine
Particulate Moisture Power
remover remover
Condenser Rainwater
Particulate
matter
Production Reinjection
well well
Reinjection
well
Recharge region
Hot spring
or
Geothermal Cold feed
steam vent
well water
Impermeable cap rock

region Hot
geofluids
Reservoir
region
Heat fow from magma to surface

Impermeable rock
region
Magma
reservoir
Fig. 4 The schematic presentation of an optimal geothermal recharge field, impermeable cover, reservoir and heat resource of geothermal energy.
Adapted from Barbier E. Geothermal energy technology and current status: an overview. Renew Sustainable Energy Rev 2002;6:3–65.
Geothermal energy sources are the thermal power that could reasonably be competed with other renewable energy based electricity
generation prices in the near future. It is expected that the electrical energy generation rate from geothermal energy worldwide can
grow by nearly tenfold the current technological limit. The developed and developing countries are intensely researching and
evaluating their geothermal resources to supply their power requirements. Actually, the near future utilization of geothermal tech-
nology generally depends on overcoming design parameters in generation and utilization applications, and also its installation and
maintenance cost indicators compared to other energy technologies. The geothermal action in a space is absolutely the first important
indicator that subsurface rocks in the field are warmer than the ground level. The regional heat resource could be a magma core
between 600 and 10001C, intruded within several kilometers of the ground level. Generally, the geothermal resources are covered
with impermeable rocks that prevent the warm geofluids from easily reaching the surface level and keep them under pressure. As seen
in Fig. 4, the superheated steam, steam mixed with water or only hot water for industrial applications, should be obtained based on
the hydrogeological case and rock temperature. Actually, the thermal working fluid is generally rain water that infiltrates into the
recharge fields. Therewithal, the temperature of thermal fluid is increased while penetrating the hot rocks of the reservoir.
Determination of geofluid resources are made on the basis of geological or geophysical indicators, such as (1) depth, thickness, and
extent of geofluid aquifer; (2) characteristics of geothermal field formation; (3) salinity rate and geochemistry of geofluid presented in
aquifer area; and (4) temperature, porosity, and permeability rate of rock structure. Further details are available elsewhere [17].
The geothermal energy sources should be divided into three groups based on the geofluid temperature range such as low
temperature (until 901C), moderate temperature (901C to 1501C), and high temperature (above 1501C). These temperature ranges
are suitable in many industrial applications. Direct utilization of geothermal power sources supply a wide variety of applications
based on the temperature range. The broad classification of different direct utilizations of geothermal energy on the basis of their
temperature requirements is given in Table 5.
4.11.4 General Analysis and Performance Assessment
In this subsection, thermodynamic assessment relevant to energy and exergy analyses is described. Thermodynamic analysis is
generally based on four balance equations: (1) mass balance equation, (2) energy balance equation, (3) entropy balance equation,
Table 5 Direct use applications of geothermal energy resources based on temperature range
20–501C 50–801C 80–1201C 120–1601C 160–2201C 42201C
Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications

• Fish farming • Space heating • Fresh water • Flash cycles • Binary cycle • Hydrogen
• Swimming pool • Dry air • Food drying • Space cooling • Kalina cycle production
• Thermal bath • Greenhouse • Drying of • Direct steam • Drying farm • Alternative fuel
• Fermentation heating stock fish • Fresh water products at production
• Aquaculture • Grains drying • Leather and fur by distillation high rates • Conventional
• Soil warming • Fruits drying treatment • Evaporation in • Canning of food power
• Mushroom • Vegetable drying • Washing and sugar refining • Refrigeration by production
growing dying of textiles • Industrial ammonia • Cogeneration
• Heat pumps • Pulp and paper space air absorption
processing conditioning • Digestion in
• Process heating paper pulp
• Chemical
production
and (4) exergy balance equations [18–20]. The general models of balance equations should be explained to develop a clear
understanding of the systematic approach adopted in the geothermal energy based processes. In the most general sense, any
balance equation for a quantity in a process can be defined as the following equation:
Input þ Generation Output Consumption ¼ Accumulation ð2Þ
This balance equation is defined as the quantity balance and can be stated as quantity accumulated in the process is equal to
the difference between the net quantity transfer through the process boundary plus the quantity generated and the quantity
consumed within the process boundaries. Based on this procedure, the general mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equation
can be defined as follows:
m _ output ¼ m
_ input m _ accumulation ð3Þ
E_ input E_ output ¼ E_ accumulation ð4Þ
S_ input þ S_ generation S_ output ¼ S_ accumulation ð5Þ
Ex _ output Ex
_ input Ex _ consumption ¼ Ex
_ accumulation ð6Þ
To investigate the thermodynamic analysis of geothermal power system components, the detailed mass, energy, entropy, and
exergy balance equations and also energy and exergy efficiency equations are defined in the next subsections.
4.11.4.1 Mass Balance Equation

The conservation of mass in any process is the fundamental indicator in thermodynamic analysis. The mass balance equation can
be defined as follows:
X X dmcv
_i
m m_e¼ ð7Þ
dt
where m and m _ are the mass and mass flow rate, respectively, subscripts i and e are the inlet and outlet flow conditions,
respectively, and subscript cv is the control volume.
In the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass balance equation can be written as follows:
X X
_i¼
m m_e ð8Þ
4.11.4.2 Energy Balance Equation

The net energy of the control volume of any process is always conserved within the system based on the first law of thermo-
dynamics. Also, the energy in an isolated process is always constant. The energy balance equation can be given as follows:
X v2
X
v2

dE
_ W
Q _ net þ _ i hi þ i þ gzi
m m_ e he þ e þ gze ¼ cv ð9Þ
2 2 dt
where Q_ is the heat transfer rate, W
_ is the power, h is the specific enthalpy, v is the velocity, g is the gravitational acceleration, z is
the elevation, E is the energy, and t is the time.
In the steady state conditions, the energy balance equation can be given as follows:
X X X X X X
m_ i hi þ _iþ
Q W_ i¼ m_ e he þ _eþ
Q _e
W ð10Þ
4.11.4.3 Entropy Balance Equation

The entropy generation rate (Sgen) is associated with the losses in a process, and can be defined as entropy balance equation for a
control volume as follows:
X X X Q
_ X Q _ dScv
S_ gen ¼ _ e se
m m_ i si þ þ ð11Þ
T e T i dt
where s is the specific entropy, S_ gen is the entropy generation rate or entropy flow, S is the entropy, and T is the temperature at
which heat fluxes cross the process boundary.
In the steady state conditions, the entropy balance equation can be written as follows:
X X Q
_ X X Q
_
_ i si þ
m þ S_ gen ¼ _ e se þ
m ð12Þ
T i T e
Note that, in actual life, the exiting entropy flow rate is always higher than that of entering the process, where the difference due
to internal irreversibility is named as entropy generation.
4.11.4.4 Exergy Balance Equation

According to the second law of thermodynamics, the exergy balance equation can be defined as follows:
X X Q X X X X
m_ i exi þ _ þ
Ex _ W¼
Ex _ e exe þ
m _ Qþ
Ex _ W þ Ex
Ex _ D ð13Þ
i i e e
_ Q is the exergy rate of heat energy transfer, Ex

where ex is the specific exergy, Ex _ W is the exergy rate associated with shaft work, and
_ D is the exergy destruction rate. The specific exergy can be defined as follows:
Ex
ex ¼ exph þ exch þ ex pt þ exkn ð14Þ
where exph, exch, expt, and exkn are the physical, chemical, potential, and kinetic exergy, respectively. For this paper, expt and exkn
are accepted as negligible, because the exergy exchange rates of these physical quantities are very small. In geothermal power
plants, the physical (or flow exergy) and chemical exergy rates must be written, because the working fluid coming from under-
ground has different dissolved solid salts or minerals. These exergy values can be written as follows:
ex ph ¼ h ho To ðs so Þ ð15Þ
X
ex ch ¼ ni u0i u00
i ð16Þ
where u0i
is chemical potential of ith component in thermomechanical equilibrium and u00
is the chemical potential of ith
i
component in chemical equilibrium [21]. The exergy rates associated with heat transfer and work across the boundary of a control
volume can be defined as follows, respectively:

_ Q ¼ 1 To Q
Ex _ ð17Þ
T
_ W ¼W
Ex _ ð18Þ
Also, the exergy destruction rate can be calculated as
_ D ¼ T0 S_ gen
Ex ð19Þ
4.11.4.5 Energy and Exergy Efficiencies

The definitions of energy and exergy efficiencies are a significant factor in decision-making regarding energy source usage. For any
energy production or utilization process, the nondimensional ratio of quantities is frequently utilized to define the energy and
exergy efficiencies. The energy and exergy efficiencies of geothermal power plants and their components are evaluated in order to
investigate the performances of investigated geothermal power processes. The energy efficiency (Z) and exergy efficiency (c)
equations for steady state conditions can be defined as follows, respectively:
energy in product outputs energy loss

Z¼ ¼1 ð20Þ
total energy inputs energy in inputs
exergy in product outputs exergy loss þ exergy consumption

c¼ ¼1 ð21Þ
total exergy inputs exergy in inputs
The other exergy efficiency definitions for steady state conditions can be given as follows [22]:
total exergy output exergy consumption
RE ¼ ¼1 ð22Þ
total exergy input actual exergy input
theoretical minimum exergy input required
TE ¼ ð23Þ
actual exergy input
where RE and TE are the rational efficiency and task efficiency, respectively. It is noted that the exergy efficiency equation often
presents more illuminating insights into system behavior than the energy efficiency equation because the exergy efficiency
equation supplies a dimension of potential for improvement.
4.11.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion
The power of geothermal energy has been utilized by many cultures for centuries. In the world, the first working prototype of
geothermal process for power generation was constructed in Italy by Prince Gionori Conti in 1905. Also, the first commercial
geothermal energy based power process with 250 kW electric generation was designed in 1913 at Larderello, Italy. After these
geothermal energy installation applications, different geothermal energy based plants were installed, such as in New Zealand at
Wairakei in 1958, an application process at Pathe, Mexico in 1959, and the first commercial process at The Geysers in the United
States in 1960. Also, Japan followed with 23 MW at Matsukawa city in 1966. All of these geothermal energy systems utilized steam
directly from the earth, except for Wairakei, which was the first to utilize flashed steam for power generation. Nowadays,
geothermal energy can be used for power generation, cooling or heating, hydrogen and alternative fuels generation, water heating,
fresh water, industrial process heating, other commodities (drying air, food drying, cooking, etc.), and health purposes. The
geothermal energy based energy conversion options are given in Table 6.
The installed geothermal power plants based on each type of plant in the world in 2015 are given in Table 7. As seen in this
table, the single flash geothermal power plant for power generation application is the most used technology in the world. The
distributions of geothermal power generation capacity and under development capacity of countries are illustrated in Fig. 5.
4.11.5.1 Cooling and Heating Application

As shown in Fig. 6, the geothermal energy resources can be used for heating and cooling application separately or simultaneously.
The heating and cooling applications are treated as significant power processes in most developed and developing countries and
are often responsible for an important part of their energy consumption rate.
The absorption cooling systems use low grade or waste thermal energy, instead of mechanical energy, to provide cooling, and
do not require a compressor subunit. Popular renewable energy based low grade thermal energy sources are concentrating solar
energy technologies and low temperature geothermal resources. Geothermal energy resources can also be used to provide heat
energy to absorption refrigeration systems in places where the geothermal source temperature is above 901C. The geothermal
energy based single effect cooling system is illustrated in Fig. 7. The mechanical vapor compressor is replaced by a waste heat
thermal compressor that consists of the generator, condenser, expansion valve, evaporator, absorber, pump, and heat exchanger
(HEX). The absorption cooling process uses the chemical mixture as the cooling fluid. The two most common refrigerant/
absorbent mixtures used in absorption chillers are (1) lithium bromide and water (LiBr/H2O) pair (H2O behaviors as refrigerant),
and (2) ammonia and water (NH3/H2O) pair (NH3 behaviors as refrigerant). The refrigerant vapor in the evaporator sub-
component of a single effect absorption cooling system is absorbed by a solution mixture in the absorber. This solution is then
pumped to the generator where the refrigerant is revaporized using a low-grade steam source coming from geothermal brine. The
refrigerant-depleted solution is then returned to the absorber via a throttling device.
Applying thermodynamic assessments to processes for heating and cooling can supply a better understanding of their behaviors
and enhanced steps for developing them. The general balance equations, i.e., mass, energy, entropy, and exergy, for geothermal
energy based single effect absorption cooling system components are defined in this subsection as given below.
Generator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for a generator under the steady state and steady
flow conditions as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_5 ¼m
_6þm
_9 ð24Þ
Energy: m _ 5 h5 þ Q
_ 1 h1 þ m _ gena ¼ m
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 6 h6 þ m
_ 9 h9 ð25Þ
Entropy: m _ 5 s5 þ Q
_ 1 s1 þ m _ gena =Tgena þ S_ gen;gen ¼ m
_ 2 s2 þ m
_ 6 s6 þ m
_ 9 s9 ð26Þ
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 5 ex5 þ Ex
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m
_ 6 ex6 þ m _ D;gena
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð27Þ
gena
Condenser: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations can be defined for a condenser under the steady state and
steady flow conditions as follows:
_9 ¼m
Mass: m _ 10 ; m
_ 13 ¼ m
_ 14 ð28Þ
Energy: m _ 13 h13 ¼ m
_ 9 h9 þ m _ 10 h10 þ m _ con
_ 14 h14 þ Q ð29Þ
484
Geothermal Energy Conversion
Table 6 Geothermal energy conversion options
Thermal Power Hydrogen Alternative fuels Fresh water Other commodities Health option
Applications Application Application Application Application Application Application

• Heating • Electricity • Hydrogen • Ethanol • Fresh water • Dry air • Thermal bath
• Cooling Technologies Technologies • Methanol Technologies • Food drying • Swimming pool
Technologies • Direct steam • Electrolyzer • Butanol • membrane • Food cooling • Thermal water
• Absorption cool- • Single flash • High temperature • Propone distillation system • Food cooking therapy
ing systems • Double flash electrolyzer • Nonfossil methane • desalination process Technologies Technologies
(single, double or • Triple flash • Low temperature Technologies
triple) • Binary cycle thermochemical cycles • Suitable integrated • Suitable technologies • Suitable technologies
• District heating • Combined and • Direct production technologies
systems hybrid cycle from steam
• Swimming pool • Kalina cycle
• Heat pumps
Table 7 Geothermal power plants for each technology per country (installed capacity MW)
Country Back pressure Dry steam 1-flash 2-flash 3-flash Binary Hybrid Total
Australia – – – – – 1 – 1
Austria – – – – – 1 – 1
China – – 1 24 – 3 – 28
Costa Rica 5 – 140 – – 63 – 208
El Salvador – – 160 35 – 9 – 204
Ethiopia – – – – – 7 – 7
France – – 10 5 – 2 – 17
Germany – – – – – 27 – 27
Guatemala – – – – – 52 – 52
Iceland – – 564 90 – 10 – 664
Indonesia – 460 873 – – 8 – 1,341
Italy – 795 120 – – 1 – 916
Japan – 24 355 135 – 7 – 521
Kenya 48 – 543 – – 4 – 595
Mexico 75 – 466 475 – 3 – 1,019
New Zealand 44 – 209 356 132 265 – 1,006
Nicaragua 10 – 142 – – 8 – 160
Papua New Guinea – – 50 – – – – 50
Philippines – – 1286 365 – 219 – 1,870
Portugal – – – – – 29 – 29
Russia – – 82 – – – – 82
Turkey – – 20 178 – 198 – 396
USA – 1584 60 881 50 873 2 3,450
Totals 182 2863 5081 2544 182 1790 2 12,644
Percent of total 1.44 22.64 40.19 20.12 1.44 14.16 0.016 100.00
Source: Bertani R. Geothermal power generation in the world 2010–2014 update report. Geothermics 2016;60:31–43.
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
MW
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Sa ica
ilip ea
Et or
es
nd
na
ia
de y
Ic a
do d
ly
co
ew ua
Po es
R l
a
ey
ga
ua an
G oup
al
an
si
pa
ny
si
ad
Ita
Ph uin
op
R
at
a
i
k
hi
g
ne
ex
us
m
rtu
al
U Tur
m
Ke
pi
el
Ja
ra
St
lv
C
ta
hi
G
te
l
Ze
er
a
os
d
ua
ic
G
In
te
C
ew
N
EI
ni
N
G
a
pu
Pa
Operating capacity (MW) Planned capacity additions (MW)

Fig. 5 Geothermal power operating and planned capacity by country. Adapted from Bertani R. Geothermal power generation in the world
2010–2014 update report. Geothermics 2016;60:31–43.
Entropy: m _ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;con ¼ m

_ 9 s9 þ m _ 10 s10 þ m _ con =Tcon
_ 14 s14 þ Q ð30Þ
Exergy: m _ 13 ex13 ¼ m
_ 9 ex9 þ m _ 10 ex10 þ m _ Q þ Ex
_ 14 ex14 þ Ex _ D;con ð31Þ
con
Expansion valve I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve I can be written under the steady
state and steady flow conditions as follows:
Mass: m _ 11
_ 10 ¼ m ð32Þ
Geothermal
energy Heating
Heating unit
source
Cooling
Cooling unit
Fig. 6 A block diagram of heating and cooling applications based on geothermal energy.
9 14
Generator Condenser
1
5 6 10
Geothermal 13
brine HEX Expansion
7 valve I
4
Expansion 11
2 valve II
Pump 8 15
3
17 District
Absorber Evaporator cooling
Production 12
well 18 16
Injection
well
Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of a common geothermal energy based cooling system.
_ 10 h10 ¼ m
Energy: m _ 11 h11 ð33Þ
_ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;ev_I ¼ m
Entropy: m _ 11 s11 ð34Þ
_ 10 ex10 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_I
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex ð35Þ
Evaporator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations can be defined for an evaporator under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 12 ; m
_ 11 ¼ m _ 15 ¼ m
_ 16 ð36Þ
_ 11 h11 þ m
Energy: m _ eva ¼ m
_ 15 h15 þ Q _ 12 h12 þ m
_ 16 h16 ð37Þ
_ 11 s11 þ m
Entropy: m _ eva =Teva þ S_ gen;eva ¼ m
_ 15 s15 þ Q _ 12 s12 þ m
_ 16 s16 ð38Þ
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 15 ex15 þ Ex
_ 11 ex 11 þ m _ 12 ex12 þ m _ D;eva
_ 16 ex16 þ Ex ð39Þ
eva
Absorber: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations can be given for an absorber under the steady state and steady
_3¼m
Mass: m _8þm
_ 12 ; m
_ 17 ¼ m
_ 18 ð40Þ
_ 8 h8 þ m
Energy: m _ 12 h12 þ m
_ 17 h17 ¼ m
_ 3 h3 þ m _ abs
_ 18 h18 þ Q ð41Þ
_ 8 s8 þ m
Entropy: m _ 17 s17 þ S_ gen;abs ¼ m
_ 12 s12 þ m _ 3 s3 þ m _ abs =Tabs
_ 18 s18 þ Q ð42Þ
Exergy: m _ 12 ex 12 þ m
_ 8 ex 8 þ m _ 17 ex17 ¼ m
_ 3 ex 3 þ m _ D;abs þ Ex
_ 18 ex 18 þ Ex _ Q ð43Þ
abs
Pump: For the pump of single effect absorption cooling system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and
Mass: m _4
_3 ¼m ð44Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 3 h3 þ W _ 4 h4 ð45Þ
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 3 ex 3 þ W _ D;p
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð47Þ
Expansion valve II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve II can be written under the steady
_7 ¼m
Mass: m _8 ð48Þ
_ 7 h7 ¼ m
_ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;ev_II ¼ m
_ 7 ex 7 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_II
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð51Þ
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX can be expressed under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 5; m
_4¼m _6¼m
_7 ð52Þ
_ 4 h4 þ m
Energy: m _ HEX ¼ m
_ 6 h6 þ Q _ 5 h5 þ m
_ 7 h7 ð53Þ
_ 4 s4 þ m
Entropy: m _ HEX =THEX þ S_ gen;HEX ¼ m
_ 6 s6 þ Q _ 5 s5 þ m
_ 7 s7 ð54Þ
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 6 ex6 þ Ex
_ 4 ex 4 þ m _ 5 ex 5 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 7 ex 7 þ Ex ð55Þ
HEX
The energetic coefficients of performances (COPen) and exergetic coefficients of performances (COPex) of single effect
absorption process can be written as follows, respectively:
Q_ eva
COPen ¼ ð56Þ
_
Qgena þ W _p
_ Q
Ex
COPex ¼ eva
ð57Þ
_ExQ _
gena þ W p
The thermomechanical cooling processes convert thermal energy to mechanical energy to generate the required amount of
cooling applications. The steam ejector process is generally used in the thermomechanical cooling process. The schematic diagram
of integrated steam ejector process with geothermal energy resource is illustrated in Fig. 8. In this integrated process, the geofluid
enters the HEX, which then supplies high temperature working fluid to the ejector subcomponent where the pressure rate of the
high temperature working fluid drops. The exiting low pressure (LP) working fluid from the ejector passes through the evaporator
where a water–vapor mixture extracts heat from the working fluid flowing through the evaporator.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based thermomechanical cooling system
components are defined in the next subsections.
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the HEX can be expressed under the steady state and
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_3¼m
_9 ð58Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð59Þ
3
1 HEX
Geothermal Ejector
brine 2 9 7 4
10
6 5
Pump Evaporator Condenser
12 13 Expansion
valve 11
Production 8
well
Injection
well
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of a geothermal energy based thermomechanical cooling system.
Entropy: m _ 9 s9 þ S_ gen;HEX ¼ m
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3 ð60Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m
Exergy: m _ 9 ex 9 ¼ m
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex ð61Þ
Ejector: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for an ejector can be given under the steady state and steady flow
conditions as follows:
Mass: m _7¼m
_3þm _4 ð62Þ
_ 3 h3 þ m _ 4 h4 ð63Þ
Entropy: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;ej ¼ m
_ 3 s3 þ m _ 4 s4 ð64Þ
_ 3 ex 3 þ m
Exergy: m _ 7 E7 ¼ m _ D;ej
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð65Þ
Condenser: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for a condenser can be written under the steady state and
Mass: m _5; m
_4¼m _ 10 ¼ m
_ 11 ð66Þ
_ 4 h4 þ m _ 5 h5 þ m
_ 11 h11 ð67Þ

_ 4 s4 þ m _ 5 s5 þ m
_ 11 s11 ð68Þ
_ 4 ex 4 þ m
_ 5 ex5 þ m _ D;con
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex ð69Þ
Expansion valve: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the expansion valve can be defined under the steady
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _6 ð70Þ
Energy: m _ 6 h6
_ 5 h5 ¼ m ð71Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;ev ¼ m
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð73Þ
Evaporator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the evaporator can be given under the steady state and
Mass: m _7; m
_6¼m _ 12 ¼ m
_ 13 ð74Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 þ m
_ 13 h13 ð75Þ
Entropy: m _ 12 s12 þ S_ gen;eva ¼ m

_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 þ m
_ 13 s13 ð76Þ
_ 6 ex6 þ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ m _ D;eva
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð77Þ
Pump: For the pump of thermomechanical cooling system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and steady
_8 ¼m
Mass: m _9 ð78Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 8 h8 þ W _ 9 h9 ð79Þ
_ 8 s8 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 8 ex 8 þ W _ D;p
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð81Þ
The residential heating application by using geothermal resource is one of the most common and widespread direct uses of
geothermal energy. In addition to that, the space or greenhouse heating is one of the oldest direct uses of geothermal resources.
Recently, the district heating application is designed to supply space heating to multiple consumers from a single geofluid
production well or from multiple wells or fields. In the world, the first space heating by using geothermal energy was in Chaude
Aigues in France in the 14th century. The first municipal district heating process by geothermal energy was installed in Reykjavik in
Iceland in 1930. Nowadays, the geothermal energy based district heating process has been successfully installed in both developed
and developing countries, for example, USA, France, Romania, Canada, Italy, Iceland, and more recently Japan, New Zealand,
China, and Turkey. The geothermal energy based district heating application process is illustrated in Fig. 9. The geothermal district
3 6 b
1
HEX I HEX II HEX III
Geothermal Thermal
brine energy
production Thermal Thermal
5 energy 4 8 energy 7 a
distribution consumption
2
Pump I Pump II
Production
well Injection
well
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based heating system.
heating system consists generally of three cycles, i.e., the (1) thermal energy production cycle, (2) thermal energy distribution cycle,
and (3) thermal energy consumption cycle.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based heating system components are written
in the next subsections.
Heat exchanger I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX I can be expressed under the steady state and
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _2; m
_3¼m
_5 ð82Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð83Þ
Entropy: m _ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;HEX_I ¼ m
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3 ð84Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX_I
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex ð85Þ
Heat exchanger II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX II under the steady state and steady flow
conditions can be written as follows:
_3 ¼m
Mass: m _4; m
_6¼m
_8 ð86Þ
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 3 h3 þ m
_ 6 h6 ð87Þ
Entropy: m _ 8 s8 þ S_ gen;HEX_II ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 3 s3 þ m
_ 6 s6 ð88Þ
_ 5 ex5 þ m
_ 3 ex3 þ m _ D;HEX_II
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð89Þ
Heat exchanger III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX III can be defined under the steady state and
_6¼m
Mass: m _7; m
_a ¼m
_b ð90Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m
Energy: m _ b hb ¼ m
_ a ha þ m
_ 7 h7 ð91Þ
Entropy: m _ a sa þ S_ gen;HEX_III ¼ m
_ 6 s6 þ m _ a sa þ m
_ 7 s7 ð92Þ
Exergy: m _ a ex a ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ m _ 7 ex 7 þ m _ D;HEX_III
_ b exb þ Ex ð93Þ
Pump I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump I can be written under the steady state and steady flow
_4 ¼m
Mass: m _5 ð94Þ
Energy: m _ p_I ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ W _ 5 h5 ð95Þ
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;p_I ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p_I ¼ m
_ 4 ex 4 þ W _ D;p_I
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð97Þ
Pump II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump II can be defined under the steady state and steady flow
_7 ¼m
Mass: m _8 ð98Þ
Energy: m _ p_II ¼ m
_ 7 h7 þ W _ 8 h8 ð99Þ
_ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;p_II ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p_II ¼ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ W _ D;p_II
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð101Þ
The geothermal resources for heat pump processes have recently been used in different countries, such as United States,
Canada, and France. Unfortunately, the geothermal energy resources are usually localized and do not generally coincide with fields
of high population density. Also, the geofluid often has a high salt content that leads to some difficulties with the HEXes. Due to
the high and constant temperatures of these geofluids, the efficiency rates are usually high. The energy demand of buildings has
one of the highest energy supplies in the world, accounting for one-quarter to one-third of total energy consumption rate and the
parallel amount of harmful gaseous emissions. The ground source heat pump process, also called the geothermal heat pump
process, utilizes the heat thermal energy stored underground, providing different useful outputs, such as heating, cooling, and hot
water for residential applications. The schematic diagrams of ground source heat pump systems, such as (1) ground to water, and
(2) ground to air are illustrated in Fig. 10(A) and (B), respectively.
The geothermal heat pump process has become increasingly common in different residential and commercial buildings
because of its higher coefficient of performance (COP) and easy installation. Based on the American Society of Heating, Refrig-
erating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) [23], the geothermal heat pump process is the most energy-efficient system
among heating and cooling options. The schematic diagram of the geothermal heat pump process for heating application is
illustrated in Fig. 11. As seen from Fig. 11, to produce electricity for pumps and to collect thermal energy for improving the
working potential of evaporator subcomponent, the Photovoltaic/thermal collector (PV/T) evaporator should be utilized in
geothermal energy based heat pump design. This geothermal heat pump system can be divided into four subcycles: (1) radiator
Geothermal Water
brine
HEX I Heat pump HEX II
Ground
(A)
Geothermal Air
brine
HEX I Heat pump HEX II
Ground
(B)
Fig. 10 Some types of ground source heat pumps, namely (A) ground to water and (B) ground to air.
Expansion
valve
9 12
Radiator 4
3
heating system
5 HEX Cooling
Condenser
tower
6 7
PV-T
Pump I evaporator
2 14 13
1 10
8 Pump III Pump II
Compressor 11
Ground level
Ground heat exchanger
Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based heat pump process.

heating, (2) PV/T evaporator, (3) ground HEX, and (4) cooling tower. The cooling tower subcomponent is utilized from the piping
loops of the geothermal heat pump process with the plate HEXs for increasing thermal energy transfer rate from the cooling tower
to the ground (see Ref. [24] for details).
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based heat pump system components are
written in the following subsections:
Radiator heating system: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for radiator heating system can be expressed under
the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _6 ð102Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m
Energy: m _ rhs
_ 6 h6 þ Q ð103Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;rhs ¼ m
Entropy: m _ rhs =Trhs
_ 6 s6 þ Q ð104Þ
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ Q þ Ex
_ 6 ex6 þ Ex _ D;rhs ð105Þ
rhs
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _7 ð106Þ
_ 6 h6 þ W _ 7 h7 ð107Þ
_ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;p_I ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;p_I
_ 7 ex 7 þ Ex ð109Þ
Condenser: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for condenser can be defined under the steady state and steady
_5¼m
Mass: m _ 7; m
_2 ¼m
_3 ð110Þ
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 þ m
_ 5 h5 ð111Þ
_ 2 s2 þ m _ 3 s3 þ m
_ 5 s5 ð112Þ
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ 3 ex3 þ m _ D;con
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð113Þ
Expansion valve: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve can be written under the steady state
and steady flow conditions as follows:
_3 ¼m
Mass: m _4 ð114Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;ev ¼ m
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð117Þ
Compressor: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for compressor can be given under the steady state and steady
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _2 ð118Þ
Energy: m _ cmp ¼ m
_ 1 h1 þ W _ 2 h2 ð119Þ
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;cmp ¼ m
Exergy: m _ cmp ¼ m
_ 1 ex 1 þ W _ D;cmp
_ 2 ex 2 þ Ex ð121Þ
PV/T evaporator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the PV/T evaporator can be defined under the steady
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _4; m
_8¼m
_9 ð122Þ
_ 4 h4 þ m
Energy: m _ PVT ¼ m
_ 8 h8 þ Q _ 1 h1 þ m _ PVT
_ 9 h9 þ W ð123Þ
_ 4 s4 þ m
Entropy: m _ PVT =TPVT þ S_ gen;PVT_eva ¼ m
_ 8 s8 þ Q _ 1 s1 þ m
_ 9 s9 ð124Þ
_ 4 ex4 þ m
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex _ 1 ex1 þ m _ PVT þ Ex
_ 9 ex9 þ W _ D;PVT_eva ð125Þ
PVT
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX can be written under the steady state and steady
_9¼m
Mass: m _ 10 ; m
_ 12 ¼ m
_ 14 ð126Þ
_ 9 h9 þ m _ 10 h10 þ m
_ 12 h12 ð127Þ

_ 9 s9 þ m _ 10 s10 þ m
_ 12 s12 ð128Þ
_ 9 ex9 þ m _ 10 ex10 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 12 ex 12 þ Ex ð129Þ
Cooling tower: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the cooling tower can be given under the steady state
and steady flow conditions as follows:
_ 12 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 13 ð130Þ
_ 12 h12 ¼ m
Energy: m _ ct
_ 13 h13 þ Q ð131Þ
_ 12 s12 þ S_ gen;ct ¼ m
Entropy: m _ ct =Tct
_ 13 s13 þ Q ð132Þ
_ 12 ex 12 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ Q þ Ex
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex _ D;ct ð133Þ
ct
Pump II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump II can be written under the steady state and steady flow
_ 13 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 14 ð134Þ
_ 13 h13 þ W _ 14 h14 ð135Þ
_ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;p_II ¼ m
_ 13 ex13 þ W _ D;p_II
_ 14 ex 14 þ Ex ð137Þ
Pump III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump III can be defined under the steady state and steady
Mass: m _ 11
_ 10 ¼ m ð138Þ
Energy: m _ p_III ¼ m
_ 10 h10 þ W _ 11 h11 ð139Þ
_ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;p_III ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p_III ¼ m
_ 10 ex10 þ W _ D;p_III
_ 11 ex 11 þ Ex ð141Þ
Ground heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the ground HEX can be given under the steady
_8¼m
Mass: m _ 11 ð142Þ
Energy: m _ g_HEX ¼ m
_ 11 h11 þ Q _ 8 h8 ð143Þ
Entropy: m _ g_HEX =Tg_HEX þ S_ gen;g_HEX ¼ m

_ 11 s11 þ Q _ 8 s8 ð144Þ
_ Q
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex _ 8 ex 8 þ E
Exergy: m g_HEX ¼ m ð145Þ
The COP is the most general measure of heat pump performance and is defined as the ratio of the product heat output of the
heat pump system to its power energy input. The equation form of the heat pump COP can be written as follows:
COPHP ¼ Product heat output=Electrical energy input ð146Þ
The ground source heat pumps generally have COPs ranging from 3 to 5, representing that they deliver 3–5 times more thermal
energy than they consume in terms of power energy.
4.11.5.2 Power Generation

The low and high temperature geofluid resources have a very high potential as alternative energy resources for power generation. A
schematic diagram of the power generation cycles based on geothermal energy and some potential options of energy storage
solution, such as (1) thermal energy (storage heaters and molten salts), (2) electrostatic (capacitors and supercapacitors), (3)
potential (pumped hydro and compressed air), (4) kinetic (flywheels), (5) chemicals (batteries, methanol, regenerative fuel cell,
and hydrogen), and (6) electromagnetics (superconducting coils), is illustrated in Fig. 12. The amount of geothermal energy is
huge, but due to the lower temperature levels, the power conversion performance is lower than other common power generation
processes. Therefore, different types of geothermal power generation process are proposed in the literature, such as direct steam
power generation, single flash steam power generation, double flash power generation, triple flash power generation, binary
cycle power generation, combined/hybrid power generation, ORC and Kalina cycle. These can also be classified as open cycles
(Fig. 13(A) and (B)), closed cycles (Fig. 13(C)), and combined cycles (Fig. 13(D)). The open cycles avoid the evaporator. But, the
produced low-pressured steam needs very large diameter steam turbines. This negative effect can be accomplished by using the
closed or combined cycles.
Except for the ORC and Kalina cycle, the other geothermal power processes are given in the case studies section. The ORC
processes are similar to the Rankine process, but utilize the organic working fluids instead of steam. Also, the Kalina cycles are
similar to the ORC processes, but utilize the chemical composition of H2O and NH3 with the correct mixture as working fluid. The
schematic diagrams of the geothermal energy based ORC process and Kalina cycle are shown in Figs. 14 and 15, respectively.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based ORC system components are written in
the next subsections.
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX can be written under the steady state and steady
Mass: m _ 2; m
_1¼m _3 ¼m
_6 ð147Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð148Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3 ð149Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex ð150Þ
Turbine: Under the steady state and steady flows conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for turbine
Mass: m _4
_3 ¼m ð151Þ
Geothermal energy
Heat/steam
Power generation cycle
Electrical energy
Storage options
Thermal; Potential; Kinetic; Electromagnetic;

• Storage heaters • Pumped hydro • Flywheels • Super conducting coils
• Molten salts • Compressed air
Chemicals;
Electrostatic ; • Batteries
• Capacitors • Methanol
• Supercapacitors • Regenerative fuel cell
• Hydrogen
Fig. 12 Electricity generation from geothermal energy and storage options.

Particulate
matter Electricity
Injection
Particulate Condenser
Turbine well
remover
Geofluid
Production Cold Hot
(A) well water water
Particulate
matter Electricity
Injection
Particulate Flash Condenser
Turbine well
remover separator
Geofluid
Production Hot Cold Hot

(B) well water water water
Electricity
Production Cold water
well Turbine
Geofluid
Evaporator Evaporator
Injection
well Pump
Hot water
(C) Electricity
Particulate
matter Electricity
Injection
Particulate Flash Turbine Condenser well
remover separator
Geofluid
Hot Cold Hot
Production
water water water
well
Electricity
Cold water
Turbine
Evaporator Evaporator
Pump
Injection Hot water
well
(D) Electricity
Fig. 13 Geothermal power generation systems, including: (A) direct steam cycle, (B) flash steam cycle, (C) binary cycle, and (D) combined cycle.
1 3
HEX Power
Turbine
Geothermal
brine 6
2 Pump 4
5
Condenser
Production a b
well
Injection
well
Fig. 14 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based ORC process.
1 3
Turbine
Power
HEX
4
8
Internal-HEX
Production
well 2
7 5
10
Injection
6
well Condenser
9
Pump
Fig. 15 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based Kalina cycle.
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 4 h4 þ W ð152Þ
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;tur ¼ m
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ tur þ Ex
_ 4 ex 4 þ W _ D;tur ð154Þ
Condenser: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are given for the condenser under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 5; m
_4 ¼m _a ¼m
_b ð155Þ
Energy: m _ a ha ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ m _ 5 h5 þ m
_ b hb ð156Þ
Entropy: m _ ¼m
_ a sa þ SE
_ 4 s4 þ m _ 5 s5 þ m
_ b sb ð157Þ
_ 4 ex 4 þ m
_ 5 ex 5 þ m _ D;con
Pump: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump can be defined under the steady state and steady flow
Mass: m _6
_5 ¼m ð159Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 5 h5 þ W _ 6 h6 ð160Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 5 ex 5 þ W _ D;p
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð162Þ
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy and exergy balance equations for HEX can be written under the steady state and steady
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_3 ¼m
_8 ð163Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 ð164Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 3 s3 ð165Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex ð166Þ
Turbine: Under the steady state and steady flows conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
turbine can be defined as follows:
_3 ¼m
Mass: m _4 ð167Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 4 h4 þ W ð168Þ
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
_ 4 ex 4 þ W _ D;tur ð170Þ
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based Kalina cycle components are defined in
the next subsections.
Internal-HEX: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for internal-HEX can be written under the steady state and
_7¼m
Mass: m _ 8; m
_4 ¼m
_5 ð171Þ
_ 4 h4 þ m _ 5 h5 þ m
_ 8 h8 ð172Þ
Entropy: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;I_HEX ¼ m
_ 4 s4 þ m _ 5 s5 þ m
_ 8 s8 ð173Þ
_ 4 ex4 þ m _ 5 ex5 þ m _ D;I_HEX
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð174Þ
flow conditions.
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _ 6; m
_a ¼m
_b ð175Þ
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 6 h6 þ m
_ b hb ð176Þ
Entropy: m _ a sa þ S_ gen;con ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 6 s6 þ m
_ b sb ð177Þ
_ 5 ex 5 þ m _ 6 ex 6 þ m _ D;con
Pump: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the pump can be defined under the steady state and steady flow
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _7 ð179Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 6 h6 þ W _ 7 h7 ð180Þ
_ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;p
_ 7 ex 7 þ Ex ð182Þ
4.11.5.3 Hydrogen Energy Production

The production pathway of hydrogen with carbon based sources may be the main process in the near future. But, the fossil fuel
limitations and ecological harm of steam conversion of methane are stimulating the improvement of renewable energy based
hydrogen. Nowadays, between 200 and 2501C of thermal energy source input in the hydrogen generation system integrated with
the geothermal power resource is feasible, but geothermal energy based hydrogen production processes will change within the next
few decades. A brief overview of geothermal energy based hydrogen production potential options is illustrated in Fig. 16. In many
developed and developing countries, the geothermal processes are being considered as a primary energy source for producing
hydrogen energy, because geothermal technology provides a reliable energy supply and is relatively benign environmentally. On
the other hand, the hydrogen production and utilization technologies can be integrated with geothermal energy resources and
stand-alone power processes.
The thermochemical hydrogen production process was first studied at the end of the 1960s as an alternative and potentially
more efficient way to generate hydrogen from water. Thermochemical hydrogen production cycles consist of a sequence of
chemical reactions in which water is thermally decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen (see Eq. (183)) and also all other chemicals
entering the chemical reactions are recycled. Only the heat/electricity energy and water are consumed in the thermochemical
reaction.
2H2 O þ Energy-2H2 þ O2 ð183Þ
As seen in Figs. 17 and 18, the thermochemical hydrogen production cycles use only thermal energy or the combination of heat
and electricity energy. While the thermochemical reaction temperature range remains as a constraint for the geothermal resource
utilization for hydrogen production, there are some different options to upgrade the heat energy and allow such processes in a
more suitable way to operate chemical cycles for hydrogen generation applications. The thermochemical cycle temperatures are the
most important indicators for thermochemical based hydrogen generation purposes. Therefore, the optimization application of
heat flows is a significant key factor for thermal to hydrogen conversion performance. The thermochemical reaction temperatures
in the hydrogen production range actually from 1001C to 30001C based on the number of reaction cycles.
The schematic diagram of hydrogen production and liquefaction system driven by geothermal energy is presented in Fig. 19.
The geothermal energy based integrated system investigated in this chapter consists of mainly four subsystems: (1) geothermal
Geothermal energy
Thermal energy
Thermochemical Electrical Direct

processes energy sources
Hybrid Electrolysis
process
Hydrogen energy
Fig. 16 Potential options of geothermal energy based hydrogen production.
Water
Geofluid thermal Hydrogen

energy
Thermochemical hydrogen
production cycle
Oxygen
Fig. 17 Thermochemical water decomposition system for hydrogen production from geothermal energy resources.
Geofluid thermal Water

Geofluid energy
thermal Hydrogen
energy Electricity Hybrid thermochemical
generation hydrogen production cycle
Electricity
Oxygen
Fig. 18 Hybrid thermochemical water decomposition system for hydrogen production from geothermal energy resources.
4
HEX I
1 Power
Turbine
Geothermal
brine
7
2 Pump 5
6
Condenser
Production b
a
well
Mixer Compressor N2(gas)
13 14
PEM 11 12
8 9 PEM
electrolyzer HEX II HEX III 25
electrolyzer 24
preheating
Electrolysis N2(liq)
water 3 10 15
23 22
Oxygen
HEX IV
Injection
well 16
21 N2(gas)
20
28 HEX V 27
Liquid Separator HEX VI 26
hydrogen tank
19 18 17 N2(liq)
Expansion
valve
Fig. 19 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based hydrogen production and liquefaction system.
cycle, (2) ORC, (3) proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and (4) hydrogen liquefaction process. The geothermal heat
energy is used in the integrated system to produce heat and power for the PEM electrolyzer. The geofluid transfers its heat energy to
the ORC subsystem before entering the PEM electrolyzer preheater.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based hydrogen production and liquefaction
system components are written in the next subsections.
Heat exchanger I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX I can be written under the steady state and
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_4 ¼m
_7 ð184Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 4 h4 ð185Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 4 s4 ð186Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX_I
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð187Þ
Turbine: Under the steady state and steady flows conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for turbine
_4 ¼m
Mass: m _5 ð188Þ
_ 4 h4 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 5 h5 þ W ð189Þ
_ 4 ex 4 ¼ m
_ 5 ex 5 þ W _ D;tur ð191Þ
flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 6; m
_5 ¼m _a ¼m
_b ð192Þ
_ 5 h5 þ m _ 6 h6 þ m
_ b hb ð193Þ
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 6 s6 þ m
_ b sb ð194Þ
_ 5 ex 5 þ m
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _7 ð196Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 6 h6 þ W _ 7 h7 ð197Þ
_ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;p
_ 7 ex 7 þ Ex ð199Þ
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer preheating: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for PEM electrolyzer
preheating can be written under the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
Mass: m _ 3; m
_2¼m _8 ¼m
_9 ð200Þ
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 þ m
_ 9 h9 ð201Þ
Entropy: m _ 8 s8 þ S_ gen;peph ¼ m
_ 2 s2 þ m _ 3 s3 þ m
_ 9 s9 ð202Þ
_ 2 ex2 þ m
_ 3 ex3 þ m _ D;peph
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð203Þ
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the PEM electrolyzer can be
written under the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
_9¼m
Mass: m _ 10 þ m
_ 11 ð204Þ
Energy: m _ T ¼m
_ 9 h9 þ W _ 10 h10 þ m
_ 11 h11 ð205Þ
_ 9 s9 þ S_ gen;PEM_el ¼ m
Entropy: m _ 10 s10 þ m
_ 11 s11 ð206Þ
Exergy: m _ T ¼m
_ 9 ex 9 þ W _ 10 ex10 þ m _ D;PEM_el
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex ð207Þ
Mixer: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the mixer can be defined under the steady state and steady flow
Mass: m _ 23 ¼ m
_ 11 þ m _ 12 ð208Þ
_ 11 h11 þ m _ 12 h12 ð209Þ
Entropy: m _ 23 s23 þ S_ gen;mixer ¼ m

_ 11 s11 þ m _ 12 s12 ð210Þ
_ 11 ex 11 þ m
Exergy: m _ 23 ex 23 ¼ m _ D;mixer
_ 12 ex 12 þ Ex ð211Þ
Compressor: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the compressor can be given under the steady state and
_ 12 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 13 ð212Þ
_ 12 h12 þ W _ 13 h13 ð213Þ
_ 12 ex 12 þ W _ D;cmp
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð215Þ
Heat exchanger II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX II can be written under the steady state and
_ 13 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 14 ; m
_ 22 ¼ m
_ 23 ð216Þ
_ 13 h13 þ m
_ 14 h14 þ m
_ 23 h23 ð217Þ

_ 13 s13 þ m _ 14 s14 þ m
_ 23 s23 ð218Þ
_ 13 ex13 þ m _ 14 ex 14 þ m _ D;HEX_II
_ 23 ex 23 þ Ex ð219Þ
Heat exchanger III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX III can be defined under the steady state and
_ 14 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 15 ; m
_ 24 ¼ m
_ 25 ð220Þ
_ 14 h14 þ m
_ 15 h15 þ m
_ 25 h25 ð221Þ
Entropy: m _ 24 s24 þ S_ gen;HEX_III ¼ m

_ 14 s14 þ m _ 15 s15 þ m
_ 25 s25 ð222Þ
_ 14 ex14 þ m _ 15 ex15 þ m _ D;HEX_III
_ 25 ex 25 þ Ex ð223Þ
Heat exchanger IV: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX IV can be written under the steady state and
_ 15 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 16 ; m
_ 21 ¼ m
_ 22 ð224Þ
_ 15 h15 þ m _ 16 h16 þ m
_ 22 h22 ð225Þ
Entropy: m _ 21 s21 þ S_ gen;HEX_IV ¼ m

_ 15 s15 þ m _ 16 s16 þ m
_ 22 s22 ð226Þ
_ 15 ex15 þ m _ 16 ex16 þ m _ D;HEX_IV
_ 22 ex 22 þ Ex ð227Þ
Heat exchanger V: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX V can be given under the steady state and
_ 16 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 17 ; m
_ 26 ¼ m
_ 27 ð228Þ
_ 16 h16 þ m _ 17 h17 þ m
_ 27 h27 ð229Þ
Entropy: m _ 26 s26 þ S_ gen;HEX_V ¼ m

_ 16 s16 þ m _ 17 s17 þ m
_ 27 s27 ð230Þ
_ 16 ex16 þ m _ 17 ex17 þ m _ D;HEX_V
_ 27 ex 27 þ Ex ð231Þ
Heat exchanger VI: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX VI can be defined under the steady state and
_ 20 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 21 ; m
_ 17 ¼ m
_ 18 ð232Þ
_ 17 h17 þ m _ 18 h18 þ m
_ 21 h21 ð233Þ
Entropy: m _ 20 s20 þ S_ gen;HEX_VI ¼ m

_ 17 s17 þ m _ 18 s18 þ m
_ 21 s21 ð234Þ
_ 17 ex17 þ m _ 18 ex18 þ m _ D;HEX_VI
_ 21 ex21 þ Ex ð235Þ
Expansion valve: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the expansion valve can be written under the steady
_ 18 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 19 ð236Þ
Energy: m _ 19 h19
_ 18 h18 ¼ m ð237Þ
_ 18 s18 þ S_ gen;ev ¼ m
_ 18 ex18 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev
_ 19 ex19 þ Ex ð239Þ
Separator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the separator can be defined under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 20 þ m
_ 19 ¼ m _ 28 ð240Þ
_ 19 h19 ¼ m _ 28 h28 ð241Þ
_ 19 s19 þ S_ gen;sep ¼ m
_ 28 s28 ð242Þ
_ 19 ex 19 ¼ m _ D;sep
_ 28 ex 28 þ Ex ð243Þ
Also, the power generated by using the ORC system is used in the PEM electrolyzer to generate hydrogen. The produced
hydrogen is in gaseous form at reference conditions. The hydrogen liquefaction subsystem is used for more efficient hydrogen
storage. The hydrogen liquefaction process is relatively more energy intensive than compression of hydrogen, whereas, the density
of liquid hydrogen is nearly 1120 kg/m3 and, also liquid hydrogen is 29 times better than compressed hydrogen at 700 bar, in
terms of volume work. Therefore, the Linde–Hampson hydrogen liquefaction process with a secondary nitrogen cooling is
investigated for hydrogen storage [25,26]. The thermodynamic analysis of a PEM electrolyzer subsystem, which is used in
hydrogen production and liquefaction process, is given in the next subsection.
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer: The overall chemical reaction equation of water decomposition in the PEM electrolyzer in
Fig. 19 can be written as follows:
1
H2 OðlÞ -H2ðgÞ þ O2ðgÞ ð244Þ
2
where subscript l and g are the liquid and gas phases, respectively. The following reactions take place in the anode and cathode
parts of PEM electrolyzer, respectively.
1
H2 OðlÞ - O2ðgÞ þ Hþ
ðaqÞ þ 2e

ð245Þ
2
and
Hþ
ðaqÞ þ 2e -2H2 ð246Þ
The produced hydrogen and oxygen output flow rates are given as follows, respectively:
_ H2;out ¼ J=2F ¼ N_ H2 O
N ð247Þ
and
N_ O2;out ¼ J=4F ð248Þ
where J and F are the current density and Faraday constant, respectively, and N _ H2 O is the water consumed rate in the PEM
electrolyzer. To produce hydrogen from the electrolyzer, the electrical power must be input to the PEM electrolyzer, and this can be
written as follows:
_ elec ¼ JV
E_ elec ¼ Ex ð249Þ
where E_ elec and Ex
_ elec are the rate of electrical power and electrical exergy input, respectively. V is the cell potential, and can be
given as follows:
V ¼ Vo þ Zact;a þ Zact;c þ Zohm ð250Þ
where Vo is the reversible potential, which is related to the difference in free energy between reactants and products, and can be
determined using by the Nernst equation. Zact;a is the activation overpotential of the anode, Zact;c is the activation overpotential of
the cathode, and Zohm is the ohmic overpotential of the electrolyte. The ohmic overpotential of the PEM is attached to the
resistance of the membrane to hydrogen ions crossing over PEM, and the ohmic overpotential can be defined as follows:
Zohm ¼ JR ð251Þ
where R is the overall ohmic resistance, and can be expressed as follows:
Z D
dx
R¼ ð252Þ
0 sPEM ½lðxÞ
where D is the PEM thickness, sPEM ½lðxÞ is the local ionic PEM conductivity of the membrane and can be calculated as follows:

1 1
sPEM ½lðxÞ ¼ ½0:5139lðxÞ 0:326exp 1268 ð253Þ
303 T
where x is the distance in the PEM evaluated from the cathode–membrane interface, l(x) is the water content at a location x in the
PEM, and can be calculated as follows [27]:
la lc
lðxÞ ¼ x þ lc ð254Þ
D
where la and lc are the water contents at the anode and cathode–membrane interface, respectively. The activation overpotential
(Zact), given in the right-hand side of Eq. (240), caused by a deviation from current from its equilibrium, and also e- transfer
reaction, should be diversified from the concentration of the oxidized and reduced species. The activation overpotential of the PEM
can be given as follows [28,29]:

RT J
Zact;i ¼ sinh1 ; i ¼ a; c ð255Þ
F 2Jo;i

azFZact;i ð1 aÞzFZact;i
J ¼ Jo;i exp exp ; i ¼ a; c ð256Þ
RT RT

Eact;i
Jo;i ¼ Jiref exp ; i ¼ a; c ð257Þ
RT
where subscripts a and c are the anode and cathode parts of the PEM electrolyzer, respectively; Jo is the exchange current density; a
is the charge transfer coefficient for anode and cathode part reactions, and generally equal to ½. z is the number of electrons
involved per reaction. For the PEM electrolyzer, z must be equal to 2. Jiref is the preexponential factor and Eact,i is the activation
energy for the anode and cathode parts of the PEM electrolyzer.
4.11.5.4 Alternative Fuels

Thermal energy gained from geothermal sources can be used in different ways and one of them is to use thermal energy to produce
electrical energy and later in thermochemical cycle in order to produce alternative fuels such as ethanol, methanol, butanol,
propane, ammonia, and nonfossil methane, as seen from Fig. 20. These alternative fuels can be stored in liquid phase; then they
can be transported to the final usage. These fuels can be used for transportation, space heating, electricity generation, in fuel cells,
and as chemicals.
4.11.5.5 Fresh Water Production

In the world, 97.5% of the total water resources are saline water and not suitable for human demands, and only 2.5% are fresh
water. Almost 70% of these global freshwater sources are in the polar icecaps, and the major part of the remaining 30% lies in
remote underground aquifers. Actually, only a minor fraction of fresh water (less than 1% of total freshwater sources) that is
present in rivers, lakes, and reservoirs is easily reachable for direct human utilization. Desalination processes are very energy-
intensive technology. Therefore, the renewable energy based technologies urgently need to be improved. The low temperature
geothermal resources in the world can effectively run the seawater or brackish-water desalination process in order to generate fresh
water for residential and irrigation applications.
Nowadays, two processes by using the geothermal sources are generally used in freshwater production from saline water. The
schematic diagram of the membrane distillation system driven by geothermal energy to generate desalinated water is shown in
Geothermal energy
Thermal energy
Electrical
energy
Thermochemical cycle
Alternative fuels
• Ethanol
• Methanol
• Butanol
• Propone
• Ammonia
• Non-fossil methane
Liquid storage
Liquid transport
End usage
Transportation Space Electricity Fuel Chemical

fuels heating generation cells production
Fig. 20 Alternative fuels productions based on geothermal energy and usage options.
Fig. 21. With the use of a membrane in distillation subsystem, the conversion of saline water to drinking water should be ensured with
better quality. The schematic diagram of the geothermal energy based distillation process to generate fresh water is illustrated in
Fig. 22. The desalination process consists of the pump that pressurizes the saline water, the filter to remove the coarse-grained particles,
the energy recovery subcomponent, the osmotic membrane to filter thin-grained particles, and salt and the freshwater tank to store the
domestic water. With the utilization of the osmotic membrane, the conversion to domestic water can be provided with better quality.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based membrane distillation unit components
are defined in the next subsection.
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX can be given under the steady state and steady
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_5 ¼m
_6 ð258Þ
1 HEX
Geothermal 6 5
brine
Membrane
2 distillation Pump
module Saline water
4 3
Production
well 7 8
Drain 9 Fresh
Mineralize water tank
Injection
well
Fig. 21 Schematic diagram of geothermal source based membrane distillation unit.
Geothermal
brine HEX
2
7 8
Production Injection
well well
Minerals and chlorine
5 6 9
Pre-treatment 11
RO train I 21
Pump I 20
4 17 Post-treatment
Pump II RO train II
3 12
10 22
Saline 14 13
16
water Fresh water tank
Energy 15
recovery
18 19
device
Brine discharge
Fig. 22 Schematic diagram of geothermal source based distillation process.
_ 1 h1 þ m
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 6 h6 ð259Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 6 s6 ð260Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð261Þ
Membrane distillation module: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the membrane distillation module can
be defined under the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
_4þm
Mass: m _6¼m
_5þm
_7þm
_8 ð262Þ
_ 4 h4 þ m
_ 5 h5 þ m
_ 7 h7 þ m
_ 8 h8 ð263Þ
Entropy: m _ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;mdm ¼ m
_ 4 s4 þ m _ 5 s5 þ m
_ 7 s7 þ m
_ 8 h8 ð264Þ
_ 4 ex 4 þ m _ 5 ex 5 þ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ m _ D;HEX_V
_ 8 ex8 þ Ex ð265Þ
_3 ¼m
Mass: m _4 ð266Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 3 h3 þ W _ 4 h4 ð267Þ
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 3 ex 3 þ W _ D;p
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð269Þ
Mineralizer: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the mineralizer can be given under the steady state and
_8 ¼m
Mass: m _9 ð270Þ
_ 8 h8 ¼ m
_ 8 s8 þ S_ gen;mine ¼ m
_ 8 ex 8 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;mine
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð273Þ
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for geothermal energy based distillation process components are given
in the next subsections.
Heat exchanger: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX can be given under the steady state and steady
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_7 ¼m
_8 ð274Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 8 h8 ð275Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 8 s8 ð276Þ
_ 1 ex1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;HEX
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð277Þ
Pretreatment: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pretreatment can be written under the steady state and
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _7 ð278Þ
_ 6 h6 ¼ m
_ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;pt ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;pt
_ 7 ex7 þ Ex ð281Þ
Pump I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump I can be defined under the steady state and steady flow
_4 ¼m
Mass: m _5 ð282Þ
_ 4 h4 þ W _ 5 h5 ð283Þ
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;p_I ¼ m
Exergy:m _ p_I ¼ m
_ 4 ex4 þ W _ 5 ex 5 þ E ð285Þ
Pump II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump II can be written under the steady state and steady flow
Mass: m _ 17
_ 16 ¼ m ð286Þ
_ 16 h16 þ W _ 17 h17 ð287Þ
_ 16 s16 þ S_ gen;p_II ¼ m
_ 16 ex16 þ W _ D;p_II
_ 17 ex 17 þ Ex ð289Þ
Energy recovery device: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the energy recovery device can be given under
the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
_ 15 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 16 ; m
_ 18 ¼ m
_ 19 ð290Þ
_ 15 h15 þ m _ 16 h16 þ m
_ 19 h19 ð291Þ
Entropy: m _ 18 s18 þ S_ gen;erd ¼ m

_ 15 s15 þ m _ 16 s16 þ m
_ 19 s19 ð292Þ
_ 15 ex 15 þ m
_ 16 ex 16 þ m _ D;erd
_ 19 ex19 þ Ex ð293Þ
RO train I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for RO train I can be defined under the steady state and steady
Mass: m _ 11 þ m
_9¼m _ 13 ð294Þ
_ 9 h9 ¼ m _ 13 h13 ð295Þ
_ 9 s9 þ S_ gen;RO_I ¼ m
_ 13 s13 ð296Þ
_ 9 ex 9 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 11 ex11 þ m _ D;RO_I
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð297Þ
RO train II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for RO train II can be written under the steady state and steady
Mass: m _ 12 þ m
_ 10 ¼ m _ 14 ð298Þ
_ 10 h10 ¼ m _ 14 h14 ð299Þ
_ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;RO_II ¼ m
_ 14 s14 ð300Þ
_ 10 ex 10 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 12 ex 12 þ m _ D;RO_II
_ 14 ex 14 þ Ex ð301Þ
Posttreatment: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for posttreatment can be defined under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 21 ¼ m
_ 20 þ m _ 22 ð302Þ
_ 20 h20 þ m _ 22 h22 ð303Þ
Entropy: m _ 21 s21 þ S_ gen;pst ¼ m

_ 20 s20 þ m _ 22 s22 ð304Þ
_ 20 ex20 þ m
Exergy: m _ 21 ex21 ¼ m _ D;pst
_ 22 ex22 þ Ex ð305Þ
4.11.5.6 Other Useful Commodities

The primary idea of drying applications of agricultural products is to provide some properties, such as long-term storage without
degradation, early harvesting to decrease field losses, higher prices of agricultural products, and better quality. The industrial drying
systems are performed with consumption of heat and power for drying the auxiliary equipment. Generally, the drying applications
need relatively temperature (401C to 901C) heat energy. Therefore, the low temperature geothermal energy resources can be used
to heat the air for drying of agricultural products.
Raw material Drying process Pulverizing Palletizing Weighing checking
Geothermal
Product
heat energy
storage
(60−80°C)
Fig. 23 Process line for drying grains by using geothermal energy.
Raw material Washing Drying Weighing

Selection Cutting
process checking
Geothermal
Product
heat energy
storage
(60−80°C)
Fig. 24 Process line for drying fruits and vegetables by using geothermal energy.
Power
Turbine
5
1 Particulate 2 a 6
Moisture
remover remover
3 Condenser
4
Particulate 7
b
matter
Production Reinjection Reinjection

well well well
Fig. 25 Schematic diagram of direct steam geothermal power generation.
The technology of predrying and post production drying processes is different based on the species of dried product, such as
grains, vegetables and fruits, and also desired results, such as moisture, shape, and further processing. The common drying lines of
grains and fruits/vegetables are illustrated in Figs. 23 and 24, respectively.
4.11.6 Case Studies
Nowadays, the geothermal resource based power generation systems provide an environmentally benign alternative to conven-
tional source based power generation systems. In this chapter, the comprehensive case studies are presented to cover energy and
exergy analyses for geothermal energy based power generation systems, such as (1) direct steam power generation, (2) single flash
steam power generation, (3) double flash power generation, (4) triple flash power generation, (5) binary cycle power generation,
and (6) combined/hybrid power generation, and also (7) geothermal energy based double effect cooling system and (8) geo-
thermal energy based hydrogen production and liquefaction system. In addition, optimization studies are applied. Furthermore,
the parametric studies are conducted accordingly to analyze how changing operating parameters, environmental conditions, and
state properties impacts the efficiency of geothermal energy based power generation systems.
4.11.6.1 Direct Steam Power Generation

In this case study, the direct steam power generation based on geothermal energy resources is assessed by using thermodynamic
assessment. The simplified flow diagram of direct steam power generation in the first case study is illustrated in Fig. 25. As seen in
this figure, steam is separated from the water at the borehole and enters directly through the turbine and the exhaust geofluid going
into the reinjection well. This geothermal power process is the first type of geothermal power system, and also comprises nearly a
quarter of power production from geothermal energy in the world today [30]. Direct steam geothermal power process has the
maximum efficiency rate, between 50% and 70%, and also has low construction cost among all geothermal energy processes.
This geothermal power process is very simple, and is commercially preferred, simple to work with, and needs comparatively
lower capital cost than other geothermal power processes. But, to obtain maximum power generation from geothermal energy, the
flashing pressure should be adjusted for optimum value. As seen in Fig. 25, the pressure level of geothermal fluid from the
production well at point 1 must be reduced at fixed enthalpy using the flashing process. The geothermal water from the production
well of the geothermal power system enters the particulate remover at point 1, where most of the particulate matter is removed.
After that, the working fluid enters the moisture remover (or separator) at point 2, where any moisture that is presented is removed
from geothermal fluid. To produce power, the working fluid is sent directly to the turbine at point 5. The outlet stream from the
turbine at point 6 is condensed in the condenser unit. Then, the pump increases the pressure level of geothermal fluid at point 7.
After leaving the geothermal pump, high pressured geothermal fluid is sent to the reinjection well connecting with water droplets
coming from the moisture remover. The thermodynamic balance equations of direct steam geothermal power components are
given in the next subsections.
Particulate remover: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
the particulate remover can be given as follows:
_1¼m
Mass: m _2þm
_3 ð306Þ
_ 1 h1 ¼ m _ 3 h3 ð307Þ
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;pr ¼ m
_ 3 s3 ð308Þ
_ 1 ex 1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;pr
_ 3 ex 3 þ Ex ð309Þ
Moisture remover: The balance equations of the moisture remover under steady state and steady flow conditions are written as
follows:
_2¼m
Mass: m _4þm
_5 ð310Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m _ 5 h5 ð311Þ
_ 2 s2 þ S_ gen;mr ¼ m
_ 5 s5 ð312Þ
_ 2 ex2 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 4 ex4 þ m _ D;mr
_ 5 ex5 þ Ex ð313Þ
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _6 ð314Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 6 h6 þ W ð315Þ
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;tur ð317Þ
flow conditions.
Mass: m _7; m
_6¼m _a ¼m
_b ð318Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 þ m
_ b hb ð319Þ
_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 þ m
_ b sb ð320Þ
_ 6 ex 6 þ m
As reference conditions, ambient temperature and pressure are taken as 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The assumptions
used in the operating conditions of direct steam geothermal power generation system are given in Table 8. The heat and work
input/output rate, entropy generation rate, and exergy destruction rates, and energy efficiency and exergy efficiency are calculated
from these balance equations and given assumptions.
Table 8 Assumptions for the direct steam geothermal

power system
Variables Values
Geofluid source temperature (T1) 150–2301C

Geofluid source pressure (P1) 1500 kPa
Geofluid mass flow rate ðm_ 1 Þ 75 to 225 kg/s
Moisture inlet pressure (P2) 1485 kPa
Turbine output pressure (P6) 95 kPa
Geofluid reinjection temperature (T7) 47.551C
Exergy destruction rate (kW)
1%
1%
36%
62%
Separator Purifier Turbine Condenser

Fig. 26 Exergy destruction rates for the direct steam geothermal power generation system.
9000 0.5
Wturbine 0.49
8250
ψD 0.48
0.47
System exergy efficiency
7500
0.46
6750
Wturbine (kW)
0.45
0.44
6000
0.43
5250 0.42
0.41
4500 0.4
0.39
3750
0.38
3000 0.37
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 27 Effect of mass flow rate of geofluid on power generation and exergy efficiency.
The exergy destruction rates of direct steam geothermal power generation system components are analyzed by using the above-
given procedure, and analysis results are given in Fig. 26. As seen in this figure, the exergy destruction rate is higher in the turbine
than in other system parts.
In order to better understand the process efficiency, the parametric studies are given to investigate the impacts of different
indicators, such as temperature and mass flow rate of geothermal fluid, and ambient temperature, on the process exergy
destruction rate and power generation rate. Power generation and exergy efficiency are directly proportional to the geothermal
mass flow rate as seen from Fig. 27. While mass flow rate increases from 75 to 225 kg/s, net electricity generation increases from
3000 to 9000 kW. Similarly, the exergy efficiency increases from 37 to 50%, too.
5000 0.43
Wturbine
0.42
4500 ψD
0.41

0.4
Wturbine (kW)
4000
0.39
3500 0.38
0.37
3000
0.36
0.35
2500
0.34
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 28 Effect of geofluid temperature on power generation and exergy efficiency.
4800 0.48
Wturbine 0.46
4400 ψD
0.44

0.42
Wturbine (kW)
4000
0.4
3600 0.38
0.36
3200 0.34
0.32
2800
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 29 Effect of ambient temperature on power generation and exergy efficiency.
Fig. 28 demonstrates the relation between geothermal fluid temperature and electricity generation at the left side and exergy
efficiency at the right. As seen from that figure, increase of geothermal fluid temperature has a positive effect on the system
efficiency and the production rate. Electricity production nearly doubles and exergy efficiency increases about 40% with the
increment of geothermal fluid temperature.
Fig. 29 shows how ambient temperature affects the turbine work or electricity generation and exergy efficiency of the system. As
ambient temperature increases from 0 to 401C, electricity generation increases from 2800 kW to almost 4700 kW and exergy efficiency
increases from 32% to 47%, respectively. It is apparent that increasing ambient temperature helps decrease the irreversibilities.
4.11.6.2 Single Flash Steam Power Generation

A schematic diagram of a single flash steam geothermal power generation system in the second case study is presented in Fig. 30.
This geothermal power system is suitable for two phase resources of low noncondensable gas content. The geothermal working
fluid is produced from a production well, and enters a flashing at point 1. After that geothermal fluid is separated into steam and
brine in a separator subcomponent. The brine is sent to the reinjection well at point 3. The separated steam at point 4 enters a
purifier to improve the quality of working fluid and to avoid different fouling materials. The steam from state 6 runs through the
turbine to generate power. The water in the condenser can be utilized to provide heating to the water in state a, as shown in Fig. 30.
After leaving the condenser, the geofluid at point 7 is sent to the reinjection well. The geofluid is reinjected without utilizing its
thermal energy. The simple design of a single flash geothermal power system allows a wide range of applicable configuration
conditions. The balance equations of a single flash steam geothermal power components are written in the next subsections.
6
Purifier
5 Power
Turbine
4 Fouling
material
1 2 7
b
Flashing
Separator Condenser
a
3
8
Production Reinjection Reinjection

well well well
Fig. 30 Schematic diagram of single flash steam geothermal power generation.
Flashing: The balance equations of flashing subcomponent under steady state and steady flow conditions are written as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _2 ð322Þ
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;fls ¼ m
_ 1 ex1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls
_ 2 ex 2 þ Ex ð325Þ
Separator: The balance equations of the separator under steady state and steady flow conditions can be given as follows:
_2¼m
Mass: m _3þm
_4 ð326Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m
_ 4 h4 ð327Þ
_ 4 s4 ð328Þ
_ 2 ex2 ¼ m _ D;sep
_ 4 ex4 þ Ex ð329Þ
Purifier: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the purifier
subcomponent can be defined as follows:
_4¼m
Mass: m _5þm
_6 ð330Þ
_ 4 h4 ¼ m
_ 6 h6 ð331Þ
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;pur ¼ m
_ 6 s6 ð332Þ
_ 4 ex 4 ¼ m _ D;pur
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð333Þ
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _7 ð334Þ
_ 6 h6 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 7 h7 þ W ð335Þ
_ 6 ex 6 ¼ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ W _ D;tur ð337Þ
flow conditions.
Mass: m _8; m
_7¼m _a ¼m
_b ð338Þ
_ 7 h7 þ m _ 8 h8 þ m
_ b hb ð339Þ
_ 7 s7 þ m _ 8 s8 þ m
_ b sb ð340Þ
_ 7 ex 7 þ m
The ambient conditions To and Po are assumed to be 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The assumptions used in the operating
conditions of a single flash geothermal power generation system are given in Table 9. The heat and work input/output rate, entropy
generation rate, and exergy destruction rates, and both energetic and exergetic effectiveness are evaluated from these balance
equations and assumptions of variables.
The exergy destruction rates of single flash steam geothermal power generation system parts are calculated by using the above-
given balance equations. The analysis results are illustrated in Fig. 31. As seen in this figure, the exergy destruction rate is higher in
the turbine than in other system components.
In order to better investigate the system performance, the parametric studies are given below to analyze the effects of different
indicators on the exergy destruction rates of system components and power generation rate. Geothermal fluid mass flow rate is an
important factor affecting net electricity generation and exergy efficiency of the system. When geothermal fluid mass flow rate
increases, the turbine of the system produces higher work. According to Fig. 32, as geothermal mass flow rate increases from 75 to
225 kg/s, net electricity generation increases sharply from 2500 to 8000 kW. Due to increments in power generation, exergy
efficiency of the system increases too, from 34% to about 46%.
As seen from Fig. 33, as temperature of geothermal fluid increases from 150 to 2301C, both net electricity generation and
exergy efficiency of the system increases. Electricity generation increases nearly 2.5 times and similarly exergy efficiency
increases about 20%. The reason for these increments is that higher temperature fluid transfers more energy to the turbine of the
system.
Fig. 34 shows how ambient temperature affects the electricity production rate and exergy efficiency of the system. As seen from
that figure, there is a direct proportion between ambient temperature and both electricity generation and exergy efficiency. As
ambient temperature increases, difference between ambient temperature and geothermal fluid temperature decreases. While
ambient temperature varies from 0 to 401C, electricity generation increases from about 2600 kW to nearly 4000 kW and exergy
efficiency increases from 30% to almost 41%.
Table 9 Assumptions for the single flash geothermal power system
Variables Values

Geofluid mass flow rate ðm_ 1 Þ 75 to 225 kg/s
Separator inlet pressure (P2) 530 kPa
Turbine output pressure (P7) 95 kPa
1%
17%
30% 1%
51%
Flashing Separator Purifier Turbine Condenser

Fig. 31 Exergy destruction rates for the single flash geothermal power generation system.
8000 0.46
7500 Wturbine (kW)
7000 ψSF 0.44
6500

0.42
6000
Wturbine (kW)
5500
0.4
5000
4500
0.38
4000
3500 0.36
3000
2500 0.34
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 32 Effect of mass flow rate of geofluid on net electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
4500 0.4
Wturbine
0.39
ψSF
4000 0.38

0.37
Wturbine (kW)
3500
0.36
0.35
3000
0.34
2500 0.33
0.32
2000 0.31
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 33 Effect of geofluid temperature on electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
4.11.6.3 Double Flash Steam Power Generation

Fig. 35 illustrates the simplified schematic diagram of double flash steam geothermal power generation system in the third case
study. To reduce the pressure level of steam, the geothermal fluid enters the flashing I at point 1. After that, the geofluid enters the
separator I at point 2. In the separator I, the steam is removed from separator at point 3, and enters the purifier to eject fouling
materials from working fluid. The steam enters the high pressure (HP) turbine at point 5, and expands to point 6 to generate
electricity. On the other hand, the stream from point 10 goes into flashing II to reach the separator II at a decreased pressure level at
point 11. In the separator II, the working fluid is removed at point 13, which after that mixes with working fluid coming from
the HP turbine in the mixing room. Then the mixing working fluid enters the LP turbine at point 7 to produce electricity. Also, the
geofluid exiting from separator II is sent to the reinjection well at point 12. The water in the condenser should be utilized to
provide heating to the water in state a, as illustrated in Fig. 35. After leaving the condenser, the geothermal fluid at point 9 is
reinjected to the reinjection well. The performance of this system is higher than a single flash system. But, the construction cost is
nearly 6–8% higher than the single flash system.
The balance equations of double flash steam geothermal power components are written in the next subsections.
Flashing I: The balance equations of flashing I under steady state and steady flow conditions can be defined as
Mass: m _2
_1 ¼m ð342Þ
Energy: m _ 2 h2
_ 1 h1 ¼ m ð343Þ
4200 0.41
Wturbine 0.4
4000 ψSF
0.39
3800 0.38

3600 0.37
Wturbine (kW)
0.36
3400
0.35
3200 0.34
0.33
3000
0.32
2800
0.31
2600 0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 34 Effect of ambient temperature on electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
5
Purifier
Power
4 HP LP
3 turbine turbine
Fouling
material 7
6
1 2 Separator I Mixing 8
room b
Flashing I
10 Condenser
13 a
Flashing II
11 9
Separator II
well 12 well
Reinjection
well
Fig. 35 Schematic diagram of double flash steam geothermal power generation.
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;fls_I ¼ m
_ 1 ex1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls_I
_ 2 ex 2 þ Ex ð345Þ
Separator I: The balance equations of separator I under steady state and steady flow conditions are given as follows:
_2¼m
Mass: m _3þm
_ 10 ð346Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m
_ 10 h10 ð347Þ
_ 2 s2 þ S_ gen;sep_I ¼ m
_ 10 s10 ð348Þ
Exergy: m _ 3 ex3 þ m
_ 2 ex 2 ¼ m _ D;sep_I
_ 10 ex10 þ Ex ð349Þ
Flashing II: The balance equations of flashing II under steady state and steady flow conditions can be defined as
_ 10 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 11 ð350Þ
_ 10 h10 ¼ m
_ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;fls_II ¼ m
_ 10 ex 10 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls_II
_ 11 ex 11 þ Ex ð353Þ
Separator II: The balance equations of separator II under steady state and steady flow conditions are given as follows;
_ 11 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 12 þ m
_ 13 ð354Þ
_ 11 h11 ¼ m
_ 13 h13 ð355Þ
_ 11 s11 þ S_ gen;sep_II ¼ m
_ 13 s13 ð356Þ
_ 11 ex 11 ¼ m _ D;sep_II
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð357Þ
Purifier: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the purifier
can be given as
Mass: m _4þm
_3¼m _5 ð358Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m _ 5 h5 ð359Þ
_ 5 s5 ð360Þ
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m _ D;pur
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð361Þ
High pressure turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the high pressure (HP) turbine under
the steady state and steady flow conditions.
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _6 ð362Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m
Energy: m _ HP_tur
_ 6 h6 þ W ð363Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;HP_tur ¼ m
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ HP_tur þ Ex
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;HP_tur ð365Þ
Low pressure turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the LP turbine under the steady state
and steady flow conditions.
Mass: m _8
_7 ¼m ð366Þ
_ 7 h7 ¼ m
Energy: m _ LP_tur
_ 8 h8 þ W ð367Þ
_ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;LP_tur ¼ m
_ 7 ex7 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ LP_tur þ Ex
_ 8 ex 8 þ W _ D;LP_tur ð369Þ
Mixing room: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
mixing room can be given as
_6þm
Mass: m _ 13 ¼ m
_7 ð370Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m
_ 7 h7 ð371Þ
Entropy: m _ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;mr ¼ m

_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 ð372Þ
_ 6 ex 6 þ m _ D;mr
_ 7 ex7 þ Ex ð373Þ
flow conditions.
_8 ¼m
Mass: m _ 9; m
_a ¼m
_b ð374Þ
_ 8 h8 þ m
_ 9 h9 þ m
_ b hb ð375Þ
_ 8 s8 þ m _ 9 s9 þ m
_ b sb ð376Þ
_ 8 ex 8 þ m _ 9 ex 9 þ m _ D;con
The reference conditions’ ambient temperature and pressure are taken as 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The assumptions
used in the operating conditions of double flash geothermal power generation system are given in Table 10. The heat and work
input/output rate, entropy generation rate, and exergy destruction rates, and energy and exergy effectiveness are evaluated from
these balance equations and assumptions of variables.
The exergy destruction rates of double flash geothermal power generation components are illustrated in Fig. 36. The turbine
and flashing subcomponents exhibit higher exergy destruction rate than in other system components. Also, the condenser has the
next largest exergy destruction rate, mainly due to the temperature difference between geothermal fluid and heating application
working fluid passing through the condenser, but also due to the pressure drop across the subcomponent. The dimensionless
exergy destruction rates of process components are shown in Fig. 37. This exergetic indicator is a beneficial step for prioritizing
Table 10 Assumptions for the double flash geothermal

power system
Variables Values

Geofluid mass flow rate (m_ 1 ) 75 to 225 kg/s
Separator I inlet pressure (P2) 530 kPa
Separator II inlet pressure (P11) 95 kPa
HP turbine output pressure (P6) 95 kPa
LP turbine output pressure (P8) 10 kPa

1904
2000 1681.4
1800
1600
1400 1194
1095
1200
1000 755.7
800
600
400 81.6 70.3 74.74
45.38
200
0
r
om
er
I
rI
II
I
rI
ie
in
in
ng
ng
ns
to
rif
to
rb
rb
ro
hi
ra
Pu
de
hi
ra
tu
tu
as
g
pa
as
pa
on
in
P
LP
Fl
Se
Fl
ix
H
Se
C
M
Fig. 36 Exergy destruction rates for the double flash geothermal power generation system.
Dimensionless exergy destruction ratio (%)

27.59
30 24.36
25
17.30
20 15.86
15 10.95
10
5 0.66 1.18 1.02 1.08
0
r
e
e
r
om
I
II
rI
ie
e
I
in
in
g
ns
or
to
rif
n
rb
rb
ro
n
hi
ra
at
Pu
de
hi
tu
tu
as
g
r
pa
as
pa
on
in
LP
P
Fl
Se
Fl
ix
H
Se
C
M
Fig. 37 Dimensionless exergy destruction ratios for the double flash geothermal power generation system.
exergy destruction in an intuitive behavior. Both exergy destruction rate and dimensionless exergy destruction rate in the double
flash geothermal power system are higher in the turbine than in other system parts. Also, the separator, purifier, and mixing room
do not exhibit an important exergy destruction ratio. The exergy efficiency of double flash geothermal steam power generation
process components and whole system are calculated, as illustrated in Fig. 38. It is seen that the exergy efficiency of purifier, and
mixing room separators I and II are higher than other process components.
In order to better understand analysis of process efficiency, the parametric study results are shown below to investigate the
impacts of different indicators on the exergy destruction rates and power generation rate. The impact of mass flow rate of
geothermal working fluid on the power production from double flash geothermal steam power process and exergy efficiency is
illustrated in Fig. 39. According to this figure, while mas flow rate of geothermal fluid varies from 75 kg/s to 225 kg/s, power
generation increases nearly three times and exergy efficiency increases from 44% to 57%. The higher mass flow rate causes to
produce higher work in the turbine of the system.
The impact of geothermal working fluid temperature on the power production from the double flash geothermal steam power
process and exergy efficiency is illustrated in Fig. 40. As expected, the higher temperature of geothermal working fluid has positive
effect on the net power generation and exergy efficiency. As seen from Fig. 40, while temperature of geothermal fluid changes from
150 to 2301C, produced power varies from 1500 to 10,500 kW, and exergy efficiency increases from about 41% to 49.5%. Because
of an increment in the temperature of geothermal fluid, working fluid produces more work in the turbines.
The impact of ambient temperature on the power production from double flash geothermal steam power process and exergy
efficiency is illustrated in Fig. 41. Ambient temperature is an important parameter for determining the exergy efficiency due to
irreversibilities of system components dependent on the ambient temperature. As ambient temperature increases from 0 to 401C,
total power production increases from 5200 to 8400 kW, too. Similarly, exergy efficiency increases from about 38% to 53% with
increasing ambient temperature. The reason for this increment is that as ambient temperature rises, the difference between the
98.24
100 88.54 88.51 89.53
90 78.85 77.87
Exergy efficiency (%)
80
70
60 45.98
50 42.27
40 32.88 32.84
30
20
10
0
I
rI
II
om
er
em
rI
ie
ng
in
in
ng
to
ns
rif
to
rb
rb
ro
st
hi
ra
Pu
hi
de
ra
Sy
tu
tu
as
g
pa
as
pa
on
in
P
LP
Fl
Se
Fl
ix
Se
C
M
System components
Fig. 38 Exergy efficiencies for the double flash steam power generation components.
17,000 0.58
16,000 Wtotal
ψDF 0.56
15,000
14,000
0.54
13,000
Wtotal (kW)
12,000 0.52
11,000
10,000 0.5
9000
0.48
8000
7000 0.46
6000
5000 0.44
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 39 Effect of mass flow rate of geothermal fluid on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
10,500 0.5
Wtotal
9500 0.49
ψDF
8500 0.48

7500 0.47
Wtotal (kW)
6500 0.46
5500 0.45
4500 0.44
3500 0.43
2500 0.42
1500 0.41
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 40 Effect of geothermal fluid temperature on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
8400 0.54
Wtotal
8000 0.52
ψDF

7600 0.5
7200 0.48
Wtotal (kW)
6800 0.46
6400 0.44
6000 0.42
5600 0.4
5200 0.38
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 41 Effect of ambient temperature on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
temperature of working fluid and the environment temperature decreases. From the definition of exergy, the decrease of tem-
perature difference causes exergy efficiency to go up.
4.11.6.4 Triple Flash Steam Power Generation

A schematic flow diagram of a triple flash steam geothermal power generation system in the fourth case study is illustrated in
Fig. 42. The geothermal power generation process runs when the geofluid enters the flashing I at point 1 [31]. The destruction in
pressure level of working fluid occurs in flashing I, and geofluid enters separator I at point 2 in the form of saturated liquid. In
separator I, the steam is removed from the separator at point 3, and enters the purifier to eject fouling materials from geothermal
fluid. The steam enters the HP turbine at point 5, and expands to point 6 to produce power. On the other hand, the stream from
point 12 goes into flashing II to reach the separator II at a decreased pressure level at point 13. Similarly, in separator II, the
working fluid is removed at point 14, which after that mixes with working fluid coming from the HP turbine in the mixing room I.
Then the mixing working fluid enters the medium pressure (MP) turbine at point 7 to generate power. Also, the geofluid stream
from point 15 goes into flashing III to enter separator III at a decreased working fluid pressure level at point 16. Similarly, in
separator III, the geofluid is removed at point 17, and after that mixes with working fluid coming from the MP turbine in the mixing
room II. Then the mixing working fluid enters the LP turbine at point 9 to generate power. Also, the geofluid exiting from separator
III is sent to the reinjection well at point 18. The water in the condenser can be utilized to generate heating application to the water
in state a, as shown in Fig. 42. After leaving the condenser, the geothermal fluid at point 11 is reinjected to the reinjection well.
The balance equations are defined for the double flash steam geothermal power system, which is shown in Fig. 42.
5
Purifier
Power
4 LP
HP MP
3 turbine turbine turbine
Fouling
material 6 7 8 9
1 2 10
Separator I Mixing Mixing
room I room II b
Flashing I 14 Condenser
12
17 a
Flashing II
11
13 Separator II
15 16 Separator III
well Flashing III well
18
Reinjection
well
Fig. 42 Schematic diagram of triple flash steam geothermal power generation.
Flashing I: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for flashing I
can be given as follows:
Mass: m _2
_1 ¼m ð378Þ
Energy: m _ 2 h2
_ 1 h1 ¼ m ð379Þ
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;fls_I ¼ m
_ 1 ex1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls_I
_ 2 ex 2 þ Ex ð381Þ
Separator I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for separator I under steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_2¼m
Mass: m _3þm
_ 12 ð382Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m
_ 12 h12 ð383Þ
_ 2 s2 þ S_ gen;sep_I ¼ m
_ 12 s12 ð384Þ
_ 2 ex 2 ¼ m _ D;sep_I
_ 12 ex12 þ Ex ð385Þ
Flashing II: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for flashing
II are written as follows:
_ 12 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 13 ð386Þ
_ 12 h12 ¼ m
_ 12 s12 þ S_ gen;fls_II ¼ m
_ 12 ex 12 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls_II
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð389Þ
Separator II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for separator II under steady state and steady flow
conditions.
Mass: m _ 14 þ m
_ 13 ¼ m _ 15 ð390Þ
_ 13 h13 ¼ m
_ 15 h15 ð391Þ
_ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;sep_II ¼ m
_ 15 s15 ð392Þ
_ 13 ex 13 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 14 ex 14 þ m _ D;sep_II
_ 15 ex 15 þ Ex ð393Þ
Flashing III: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for flashing
III are written as follows:
Mass: m _ 16
_ 15 ¼ m ð394Þ
Energy: m _ 16 h16
_ 15 h15 ¼ m ð395Þ
_ 15 s15 þ S_ gen;fls_III ¼ m
_ 15 ex 15 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls_III
_ 16 ex 16 þ Ex ð397Þ
Separator III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for separator III under steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_ 16 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 17 þ m
_ 18 ð398Þ
_ 16 h16 ¼ m
_ 18 h18 ð399Þ
_ 16 s16 þ S_ gen;sep_III ¼ m
_ 18 s18 ð400Þ
_ 16 ex 16 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 17 ex17 þ m _ D;sep_III
_ 18 ex 18 þ Ex ð401Þ
Purifier: For the purifier of the triple flash steam geothermal power system, the balance equations are provided under the steady
state and steady flow conditions.
_3¼m
Mass: m _4þm
_5 ð402Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
_ 5 h5 ð403Þ
_ 5 s5 ð404Þ
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 4 ex 4 þ m _ D;pur
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð405Þ
High pressure turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the high pressure (HP) turbine under
the steady state and steady flow conditions.
Mass: m _6
_5 ¼m ð406Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m
Energy: m _ HP_tur
_ 6 h6 þ W ð407Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;HP_tur ¼ m
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ HP_tur þ Ex
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;HP_tur ð409Þ
Mixing room I: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
mixing room I are defined as follows:
Mass: m _ 14 ¼ m
_6þm _7 ð410Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 ð411Þ
Entropy: m _ 14 s14 þ S_ gen;mr_I ¼ m

_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 ð412Þ
_ 6 ex 6 þ m
Exergy: m _ 14 ex 14 ¼ m _ D;mr_I
_ 7 ex7 þ Ex ð413Þ
Middle pressure turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the middle pressure (MP) turbine
under the steady state and steady flow conditions.
Mass: m _8
_7 ¼m ð414Þ
_ 7 h7 ¼ m
Energy: m _ MP_tur
_ 8 h8 þ W ð415Þ
_ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;MP_tur ¼ m
_ 7 ex7 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ MP_tur þ Ex
_ 8 ex 8 þ W _ D;MP_tur ð417Þ
Mixing room II: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
mixing room II are defined as follows:
Mass: m _ 17 ¼ m
_8þm _9 ð418Þ
_ 8 h8 þ m
_ 9 h9 ð419Þ
Entropy: m _ 17 s17 þ S_ gen;mr_II ¼ m

_ 8 s8 þ m _ 9 s9 ð420Þ
_ 8 ex 8 þ m
Exergy: m _ 17 ex 17 ¼ m _ D;mr_II
_ 9 ex9 þ Ex ð421Þ
Low pressure turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the LP turbine under the steady state
and steady flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 10
_9¼m ð422Þ
_ 9 h9 ¼ m
Energy: m _ LP_tur
_ 10 h10 þ W ð423Þ
_ 9 s9 þ S_ gen;LP_tur ¼ m
_ 9 ex 9 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ LP_tur þ Ex
_ 10 ex 10 þ W _ D;LP_tur ð425Þ
Condenser: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the condenser under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 11 ; m
_ 10 ¼ m _a ¼m
_b ð426Þ
_ 10 h10 þ m _ 11 h11 þ m
_ b hb ð427Þ
_ 10 s10 þ m _ 11 s11 þ m
_ b sb ð428Þ
_ 10 ex10 þ m _ 11 ex11 þ m _ D;con
_ b ex b þ Ex ð429Þ
The reference conditions To and Po are assumed to be 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The assumptions used in the operating
conditions of triple flash geothermal power generation system are written in Table 11. The heat and work input/output rate,
entropy generation rate, and exergy destruction rates, and energy and exergy efficiencies are calculated from the mass, energy,
entropy, and exergy balance equations and assumptions of variables.
The exergy destruction rate, dimensionless exergy destruction ratio, and exergy efficiency of triple flash steam geothermal power
generation components are given in Table 12. The exergy analysis results showed that the HP, MP, and LP turbines, and also
flashing subcomponents, are the main sources of irreversibility. The purifier subcomponent has the maximum exergy efficiency
rate. Therewithal, the exergy efficiencies of separators and mixing rooms in the geothermal process vary between 81.95% and
84.76%, and 87.25% and 88.24%, respectively. These exergy efficiencies can be observed to be higher than other system
components.
To investigate the performance of triple flash steam geothermal power system more comprehensively, the parametric studies are
given below to examine the impacts of different indicator variables on the exergy destruction rate and exergy efficiency. According
to the findings, the predominant parameter affecting net electricity production is mass flow rate. As seen from Fig. 43, as mass flow
rate triples from 75 to 225 kg/s, electricity production and exergy efficiency increase from 7000 kW to about 20,500 kW and 52 to
64%, respectively. The increment in geothermal mass flow rate makes turbine producing more work.
Because higher temperature fluid transfers more energy to the turbine of the system, increment in geothermal fluid temperature
has positive effect on both electricity generation and exergy efficiency. As seen from Fig. 44, the electricity production increases
from 7300 to 10,500 kW and exergy efficiency increases from 49% to 57%, respectively.
According to the findings of this study, ambient temperature is the most important factor affecting exergy efficiency. Definition
of exergy clarifies this increment. As seen from Fig. 45, as ambient temperature changes from 0 to 401C, exergy efficiency increases
from about 43% to 63%. Proportionally, produced electricity increases about 2000 kW with the same temperature change.
Table 11 Assumptions for the triple flash geothermal power system
Variables Values

Separator I inlet pressure (P2) 530 kPa
Separator II inlet pressure (P13) 95 kPa
Separator III inlet pressure (P16) 50 kPa
HP turbine output pressure (P6) 95 kPa
MP turbine output pressure (P8) 50 kPa
LP turbine output pressure (P10) 10 kPa
Table 12 Thermodynamic assessment results for the triple flash steam geothermal power generation process components
System components Exergy destruction rate (kW) Exergy destruction ratio (%) Exergy efficiency (%)
Flashing I 1095 12.7 74.52

Separator I 45.38 0.53 84.76
Flashing II 1194 13.8 73.28
Separator II 81.6 0.95 83.26
Flashing III 438.3 5.08 72.52
Separator III 94.28 1.09 81.95
Purifier 70.3 0.82 97.25
HP Turbine 1681.4 19.5 44.62
Mixing Room I 76.54 0.89 88.24
MP Turbine 1520 17.6 41.86
Mixing Room II 74.74 0.87 87.25
LP Turbine 1373.2 15.9 40.28
Condenser 879.9 10.2 31.28
22,000 0.64
Wtotal 0.63
20,500
ψTF 0.62
19,000
0.61

17,500 0.6
16,000 0.59
Wtotal (kW)
0.58
14,500
0.57
13,000 0.56
11,500 0.55
0.54
10,000
0.53
8500 0.52
7000 0.51
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 43 Effect of mass flow rate of geothermal working fluid on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
11,000 0.57
Wtotal
10,500 0.56
ψTF
0.55
10,000
0.54
9500
Wtotal (kW)
0.53
9000
0.52
8500
0.51
8000
0.5
7500 0.49
7000 0.48
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 44 Effect of geothermal working fluid temperature on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
10,250 0.63
Wtotal 0.61
10,000 ψTF
0.59

9750
0.57
9500
Wtotal (kW)
0.55
9250 0.53
0.51
9000
0.49
8750
0.47
8500 0.45
8250 0.43
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 45 Effect of ambient temperature on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
Evaporator I Turbine I
1 Power
2 13
Preheater I
10
Pump I 11 a
5 12
Condenser I
Production b
well 4 14
Evaporator II Turbine II
Power
3
18
3-way 15
valve I 6 Preheater II
Pump II c
17 16
Condenser II
d
3-way
7 valve II
Reinjection
well 8
Fig. 46 Schematic diagram of binary cycle geothermal power generation.
4.11.6.5 Binary Cycle Power Generation

The binary cycle geothermal power generation process in the fifth case study is shown in Fig. 46. The binary cycle process runs
when the geofluid enters evaporator I at point 1. The thermal energy of geothermal working fluid is transferred by using the
evaporator to another working fluid, such as isobutane, isopentane, R-113, R-123, ethanol, etc., for use in a fairly conventional
ORC process [32]. The ORC working fluid enters ORC turbine I at point 9 to produce electricity, and leaves at point 10. The
expansion step causes temperature and pressure level to decrease. The ORC working fluid exiting from the ORC turbine passes
through condenser II to supply heat energy for heating application. After exiting from condenser I, the ORC working fluid passes
through ORC pump I at point 11 to increase the pressure level and exits at point 12, which goes into preheater I to transfer useful
heat by using the geofluid coming from 3-way valve I at point 4. The similar binary cycle occurs in process 2. The geothermal
working fluid coming from preheater I at point 5 and preheater II at point 7 mixes in 3-way valve II. Finally, geofluid is reinjected
to the reinjection well at point 8.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for a double flash steam geothermal power system, which
is shown in Fig. 46.
Evaporator I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for evaporator I under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_1¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_9 ¼m
_ 13 ð430Þ
_ 1 h1 þ m _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 9 h9 ð431Þ
Entropy: m _ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;eva_I ¼ m

_ 1 s1 þ m _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 9 s9 ð432Þ
_ 1 ex 1 þ m _ 2 ex2 þ m _ D;eva_I
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð433Þ
Preheater I: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
preheater I are defined as follows:
_2¼m
Mass: m _ 5; m
_ 12 ¼ m
_ 13 ð434Þ
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 5 h5 þ m
_ 13 h13 ð435Þ
Entropy: m _ 12 s12 þ S_ gen;pht_I ¼ m

_ 2 s2 þ m _ 5 s5 þ m
_ 13 s13 ð436Þ
_ 2 ex2 þ m _ 5 ex 5 þ m _ D;pht_I
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex ð437Þ
Turbine I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for turbine I under the steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_9¼m
Mass: m _ 10 ð438Þ
_ 9 h9 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur_I
_ 10 h10 þ W ð439Þ
_ 9 s9 þ S_ gen;tur_I ¼ m
_ 9 ex9 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ tur_I þ Ex
_ 10 ex 10 þ W _ D;tur_I ð441Þ
Condenser I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for condenser I under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_ 10 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 11 ; m
_a¼m
_b ð442Þ
_ 10 h10 þ m _ 11 h11 þ m
_ b hb ð443Þ
Entropy: m _ a sa þ S_ gen;con_I ¼ m
_ 10 s10 þ m _ 11 h11 þ m
_ b hb ð444Þ
_ 10 ex10 þ m _ 11 ex11 þ m _ D;con_II
_ b ex b þ Ex ð445Þ
Pump I: For pump I of the binary cycle geothermal power system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and
steady flow conditions.
_ 11 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 12 ð446Þ
_ 11 h11 þ W _ 12 h12 ð447Þ
_ 11 s11 þ S_ gen;p_I ¼ m
_ 11 ex 11 þ W _ D;p_I
_ 12 ex 12 þ Ex ð449Þ
Evaporator II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations can be defined for evaporator II under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 3; m
_2¼m _ 14 ¼ m
_ 18 ð450Þ
_ 2 h2 þ m
_ 3 h3 þ m
_ 14 h14 ð451Þ
Entropy: m _ 18 s18 þ S_ gen;eva_II ¼ m

_ 2 s2 þ m _ 3 s3 þ m
_ 14 s14 ð452Þ
_ 2 ex2 þ m
_ 3 ex 3 þ m _ D;eva_II
_ 14 ex 14 þ Ex ð453Þ
3-Way valve I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for 3-way valve I under steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _4þm
_3¼m _6 ð454Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m _ 6 h6 ð455Þ
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;3wv_I ¼ m
_ 6 s6 ð456Þ
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 4 ex4 þ m _ D;3wv_I
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex ð457Þ
Preheater II: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
preheater II is defined as follows:
_6¼m
Mass: m _7; m
_ 17 ¼ m
_ 18 ð458Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 þ m
_ 18 h18 ð459Þ
Entropy: m _ 17 s17 þ S_ gen;pht_II ¼ m

_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 þ m
_ 18 s18 ð460Þ
_ 6 ex6 þ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ m _ D;pht_II
_ 18 ex 18 þ Ex ð461Þ
Turbine II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for turbine II under the steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_ 14 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 15 ð462Þ
_ 14 h14 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur_II
_ 15 h15 þ W ð463Þ
_ 14 s14 þ S_ gen;tur_II ¼ m
_ 14 ex14 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ tur_II þ Ex
_ 15 ex15 þ W _ D;tur_II ð465Þ
Condenser II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for condenser II under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 16 ; m
_ 15 ¼ m _c ¼m
_d ð466Þ
_ 15 h15 þ m
Energy: m _ c hc ¼ m
_ 16 h16 þ m
_ d hd ð467Þ
Entropy: m _ c sc þ S_ gen;con_II ¼ m
_ 15 s15 þ m _ 16 h16 þ m
_ d hd ð468Þ
_ 15 ex 15 þ m
Exergy: m _ c ex c ¼ m
_ 16 ex16 þ m _ D;con_II
_ d exd þ Ex ð469Þ
Pump II: For pump II of the binary cycle geothermal power system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 17
_ 16 ¼ m ð470Þ
_ 16 h16 þ W _ 17 h17 ð471Þ
_ 16 s16 þ S_ gen;p_II ¼ m
_ 16 ex16 þ W _ D;p_II
_ 17 ex 17 þ Ex ð473Þ
3-Way valve II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for 3-way valve II under steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _7¼m
_5þm _8 ð474Þ
_ 5 h5 þ m
_ 8 h8 ð475Þ
Entropy: m _ 7 s7 þ S_ gen;3wv_II ¼ m
_ 5 s5 þ m _ 8 s8 ð476Þ
_ 5 ex 5 þ m
Exergy: m _ 7 ex7 ¼ m _ D;3wv_II
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð477Þ
The reference conditions’ ambient temperature and pressure are taken as 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The similar balance
equations can be expressed for pump II using by the above procedure. The assumptions used in the operating conditions of the
binary cycle geothermal power generation system are shown in Table 13.
The exergy destruction rate, dimensionless exergy destruction ratio, and exergy efficiency of the binary cycle geothermal power
generation components are illustrated in Table 14. The exergy analysis results show that condensers I and II, and also turbines I and
II are the main sources of irreversibility. The 3-way valves I and II have the maximum exergy efficiency rate. Therewithal, the exergy
efficiencies of evaporators and preheaters in the geothermal process vary between 86.24 and 88.5%, and 72.5 and 74.8%,
respectively.
In order to analyze the performance of binary cycle geothermal power generation process more effectively, the parametric
studies are investigated below to examine the effects of some different indicator variables on the exergy destruction rate and exergy
efficiency. Fig. 47 shows the relation between geothermal fluid mass flow rate and the net energy production and exergy efficiency
of the system. According to the calculations and Fig. 47, increase in mass flow rate increases net energy generation. As mass flow
rate triples from 75 to 225 kg/s, the amount of generated power increases from 3750 to 9000 kW. This result is logical because any
increase in mass flow rate increases turbine work in the system. However, this increase in mass flow rate causes a decrease in exergy
efficiency from 51 to 39%. The reason for this decrease is that the binary cycle is increasing generated power because of the second
cycle, however, a limited part of the energy can be transferred from the first cycle to the second one. Losses occurring during this
transfer decrease the exergy efficiency of whole system.
As seen from Fig. 48, the temperature of the geothermal fluid has a positive effect on generated power but a negative effect
on the exergy efficiency. As geothermal water temperature varies from 150 to 2301C, produced electricity increases from 3200 to
5400 kW. This is because fluid having higher temperature produces more work in the turbine. Although increase in geothermal
fluid temperature increases generated power, it makes exergy efficiency decrease from 60 to 52%.
Fig. 49 shows a direct proportion between ambient temperature and both generated power and exergy efficiency. As
ambient temperature increases, losses occurred by irreversibilities decrease. While generated power is about 3700 kW at
01C, it goes up to 5200 kW at 401C. With this change of ambient temperature, exergy efficiency of the system increases
from 44 to 52%.
Table 13 Assumptions for the binary cycle geothermal

power system
Variables Values

Evaporator II inlet temperature (T2) 130.71C
Turbine I output pressure (P10) 130 kPa
Turbine II output pressure (P15) 114 kPa
Table 14 Thermodynamic analysis outputs for the binary cycle geothermal power generation system components
Evaporator I 260.5 7.22 88.5

Preheater I 180.9 5.01 74.8
Evaporator II 248.6 6.89 86.24
Preheater II 220.5 6.11 72.5
3-Way valve I 84.2 2.33 90.24
Turbine I 458.2 12.7 44.8
Condenser I 795 22 30.5
Pump I 101.3 2.81 76.4
Turbine II 447.9 12.4 42.6
Condenser II 641 17.8 26.8
Pump II 94.4 2.62 80.7
3-Way valve II 76.2 2.11 89.1
9000 0.52
8500 Wnet 0.51
ψBC 0.5
8000
0.49

7500
0.48
7000 0.47
Wnet (kW)
6500 0.46
6000 0.45
5500 0.44
0.43
5000
0.42
4500
0.41
4000 0.4
3500 0.39
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 47 Effect of mass flow rate of geothermal working fluid on net power generation and exergy efficiency.
5600 0.61
5400 Wnet
0.6
5200 ψBC

0.59
5000
4800 0.58
Wnet (kW)
4600
0.57
4400
0.56
4200
4000 0.55
3800
0.54
3600
0.53
3400
3200 0.52
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 48 Effect of geothermal working fluid temperature on power generation and exergy efficiency.
4.11.6.6 Combined Power Generation

The combined geothermal power generation system proposed in this case study includes the following design parameters given in
Fig. 50. To decrease the pressure level [33], the geothermal working fluid enters the flashing subcomponent at point 1. The exiting
geofluid from flashing enters the separator at point 2. In the separator unit, the liquid and steam fluid are separated into steam and
liquid phases based on their varied specific volumes. The geothermal fluid enters the purifier to eject fouling materials at point 4.
The saturated working fluid at point 5 goes into turbine I where it is expanded to generate electricity. The expanded working fluid
leaves from the turbine at point 6, and passes through condenser I to supply heating application.
The binary cycle process runs when the geothermal working fluid goes into the evaporator at point 9. In this process,
the thermal energy of geothermal working fluid is transferred by using the evaporator to the different working fluid for use in the
conventional ORC process. The ORC working fluid goes into turbine II at point 11 to generate power, and leaves at point 12. The
expansion step creates a decrease in the temperature and pressure. The working fluid that is exiting from turbine II enters condenser
II to supply energy for heating application. After exiting from condenser II, the working fluid enters the pump at point 13 to
increase the pressure level and exit at point 14, which goes into the evaporator. The geothermal working fluid coming from
condenser I at point 7 and evaporator at point 10 mixes in the 3-way valve. Finally, the geothermal fluid is reinjected to the
reinjection well at point 8.
The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for combined geothermal power generation, which is
illustrated in Fig. 50.
5200 0.53
Wnet
5000 0.52
ψBC
0.51

4800
0.5
Wnet (kW)
4600
0.49
4400
0.48
4200
0.47
4000
0.46
3800 0.45
3600 0.44
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 49 Effect of ambient temperature on power generation and exergy efficiency.
Purifier
5
4 Power
Turbine I
3 Fouling
material c
2 Condenser II
1 6 a
12 d
Flashing Power
Condenser I
Separator Turbine II
13
9
7
b
11
14
Evaporator
Pump 3-way
Production
well valve
10
Reinjection
well 8
Fig. 50 Schematic diagram of combined geothermal power generation.
Flashing: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for flashing
can be defined as
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _2 ð478Þ
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;fls ¼ m
_ 1 ex1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fls
_ 2 ex 2 þ Ex ð481Þ
Separator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for the separator under steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_2¼m
Mass: m _3þm
_9 ð482Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m _ 9 h9 ð483Þ
_ 9 s9 ð484Þ
_ 2 ex2 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 3 ex 3 þ m _ D;sep
_ 9 ex9 þ Ex ð485Þ
Purifier: For the purifier of the combined geothermal power generation system, the balance equations are provided under the
steady state and steady flow conditions.
_3¼m
Mass: m _4þm
_5 ð486Þ
_ 3 h3 ¼ m
_ 5 h5 ð487Þ
_ 5 s5 ð488Þ
_ 3 ex 3 ¼ m _ D;pur
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð489Þ
Turbine I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for turbine I under the steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_5 ¼m
Mass: m _6 ð490Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur_I
_ 6 h6 þ W ð491Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;tur_I ¼ m
_ 5 ex 5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ tur_I þ Ex
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;tur_I ð493Þ
Condenser I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for condenser I under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_6 ¼m
Mass: m _ 7; m
_a ¼m
_b ð494Þ
_ 6 h6 þ m _ 7 h7 þ m
_ b hb ð495Þ
Entropy: m _ a sa þ S_ gen;con_I ¼ m
_ 6 s6 þ m _ 7 s7 þ m
_ b sb ð496Þ
_ 6 ex 6 þ m
_ 7 ex 7 þ m _ D;con_I
3-Way valve: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for the 3-way valve under steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_7þm
Mass: m _ 10 ¼ m
_8 ð498Þ
_ 7 h7 þ m _ 8 h8 ð499Þ
Entropy: m _ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;v ¼ m

_ 7 s7 þ m _ 8 s8 ð500Þ
_ 7 ex7 þ m
Exergy: m _ 10 ex10 ¼ m _ D;v
_ 8 E8 þ Ex ð501Þ
Evaporator: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
evaporator can be defined as
_9¼m
Mass: m _ 10 ; m
_ 14 ¼ m
_ 11 ð502Þ
_ 9 h9 þ m _ 10 h10 þ m
_ 11 h11 ð503Þ
Entropy: m _ 14 s14 þ S_ gen;eva ¼ m

_ 9 s9 þ m _ 10 s10 þ m
_ 11 s11 ð504Þ
_ 9 ex9 þ m _ 10 ex 10 þ m _ D;eva
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex ð505Þ
Turbine II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for turbine II under the steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_ 11 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 12 ð506Þ
_ 11 h11 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur_II
_ 12 h12 þ W ð507Þ
_ 11 s11 þ S_ gen;tur_II ¼ m
_ 11 ex11 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ tur_II þ Ex
_ 12 ex12 þ W _ D;tur_II ð509Þ
Condenser II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for condenser II under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
_ 12 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 13 ; m
_c ¼m
_d ð510Þ
_ 12 h12 þ m
Energy: m _ c hc ¼ m
_ 13 h13 þ m
_ d hd ð511Þ
Entropy: m _ c sc þ S_ gen;con_II ¼ m
_ 12 s12 þ m _ 13 s13 þ m
_ d sd ð512Þ
Exergy: m _ c ex c ¼ m
_ 12 ex 12 þ m _ 13 ex13 þ m _ D;con_II
_ d exd þ Ex ð513Þ
Pump: For the pump of the combined geothermal power system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and
_ 13 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 14 ð514Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 13 h13 þ W _ 14 h14 ð515Þ
_ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 13 ex 13 þ W _ D;p
_ 14 ex 14 þ Ex ð517Þ
The reference conditions To and Po are assumed to be 251C and 101.3 kPa, respectively. The assumptions used in the operating
conditions of the combined geothermal power generation system are given in Table 15.
The values for exergy destruction rates (kW), exergy destruction ratio (%), and exergy efficiency (%) of combined geothermal
power generation system, corresponding to the detailed thermodynamic analysis, are illustrated in Table 16. The exergy destruction
rate represents the decrease in useful energy availability; however, this thermodynamic term cannot be used to analyze the energy
and exergy utilization efficiency of the process components. The exergy efficiency rates of the process components are more useful
for investigating exergy losses. It is seen in Table 16 that the exergy destruction rate and exergy destruction ratio of the evaporator
are higher than the other system components.
According to the findings, mass flow rate of geothermal fluid has positive effect on generated power from geothermal energy
systems. As seen from Fig. 51, as geothermal mass flow rate alters from 75 to 225 kg/s, the amount of produced power increases
from 11,500 to 21,000 kW; in other words it almost doubles. However, losses occurring in the system decrease the amount of
transferred energy. This means that produced power increases with increasing mass flow rate whereas exergy efficiency of the
system decreases. These results show the importance of exergy efficiency of second law efficiency because energy efficiency analyses
do not point out these losses.
The effect of geothermal fluid temperature on produced electricity and exergy efficiency is shown in Fig. 52. While geothermal
fluid temperature increases from 150 to 2301C, electricity generation increases from 12,350 to 13,500 kW whereas with the same
temperature change exergy efficiency of the system decreases from about 78% to about 40%.
Table 15 Assumptions for the combined geothermal

power system
Variables Values

Separator inlet pressure (P2) 600 kPa
Turbine I output pressure (P6) 10 kPa
Turbine II output pressure (P12) 400 kPa
Table 16 Thermodynamic assessment results for the combined geothermal power generation system components
Flashing 636 11.2 95.42

Separator 54 0.95 98.82
Purifier 62 1.1 96.27
Turbine I 775 13.7 42.85
Condenser I 875.2 15.5 34.82
3-Way valve 85 1.5 88.75
Evaporator 1586 28 74.28
Turbine II 611.83 10.8 46.27
Condenser II 896.24 15.8 32.85
Pump 73.68 1.3 84.28
21,000 0.58
20,000 Wnet 0.56
ψC 0.54
19,000

0.52
18,000
0.5
17,000
Wnet (kW)
0.48
16,000 0.46
15,000 0.44
0.42
14,000
0.4
13,000
0.38
12,000 0.36
11,000 0.34
75 100 125 150 175 200 225
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 51 Effect of mass flow rate of geothermal fluid on net electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
13,600 0.8
13,500 Wnet 0.76
13,400 ψC
0.72

13,300
13,200 0.68
13,100 0.64
Wnet (kW)
13,000 0.6
12,900
0.56
12,800
0.52
12,700
12,600 0.48
12,500 0.44
12,400
0.4
12,300
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 52 Effect of geothermal fluid temperature on net electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
Increase in ambient temperature increases both generated electricity and exergy efficiently significantly. As seen in Fig. 53, as
ambient temperature rises from 0 to 401C, the amount of generated electricity increases from 11,500 kW to about 14,000 kW and
the exergy efficiency increases from 37 to 58%.
4.11.6.7 Geothermal Energy Based Cooling System

In order to use geothermal heat, the double effect lithium bromide–water absorption system is chosen instead of a conventional
refrigeration system. The schematic diagram of a geothermal energy based double effect absorption cooling system is illustrated in
Fig. 54. As seen from this figure, the cooling system consists of two generators, a condenser, an evaporator, an absorber, a pump,
four expansion valves, and two HEXes. In this paper, required energy for the double effect absorption system is supplied from
geothermal resources. For this reason, at point 1, the geothermal working fluid goes through generator I for cooling generation.
It should be noted that the geothermal energy based cooling system is modeled according to the optimum operating parameters
for the double effect absorption subsystem.
To analyze the inlet and outlet conditions of the double effect absorption cooling system components, the mass, energy,
entropy, and exergy balance equations are written in the next subsections.
Generator I: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
generator I are defined as follows:
_1 ¼m
Mass: m _ 2; m
_9¼m
_ 10 þ m
_ 13 ð518Þ
14,500 0.58
Wnet 0.56
14,000 ψC 0.54

0.52
13,500
0.5
Wnet (kW)
0.48
13,000
0.46
0.44
12,500
0.42
12,000 0.4
0.38
11,500 0.36
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Tambient (°C)
Fig. 53 Effect of ambient temperature on net electricity generation and exergy efficiency.
1 16
Geothermal 15
Generator I Condenser
brine
13
9 10 EV II
HEX I 14 3 Q
EV I
2 12
11
8 Generator II
Production Injection 17
well well EV III
HEX II
4
7 18
Q (cooling)
Pump EV IV
6 19
5
Absorber Evaporator
Q
Fig. 54 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based cooling system.
_ 1 h1 þ m
Energy: m _ gen_I ¼ m
_ 9 h9 þ Q _ 2 h2 þ m
_ 10 h10 þ m
_ 13 h13 ð519Þ
_ 1 s1 þ m
Entropy: m _ gen_I =Tgen_I þ S_ gen;gen_I ¼ m
_ 9 s9 þ Q _ 2 s2 þ m
_ 10 s10 þ m
_ 13 s13 ð520Þ
_ 1 ex 1 þ m
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex _ 2 ex 2 þ m
_ 10 ex 10 þ m _ D;gen_I
_ 13 ex13 þ Ex ð521Þ
gen_I
Heat exchanger I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for HEX I under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _9; m
_8¼m _ 10 ¼ m
_ 11 ð522Þ
_ 8 h8 þ m _ 9 h9 þ m
_ 11 h11 ð523Þ

_ 8 s8 þ m _ 9 s9 þ m
_ 11 s11 ð524Þ
_ 8 ex 8 þ m _ 9 ex9 þ m _ D;HEX_I
_ 11 ex11 þ Ex ð525Þ
Expansion valve I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve I can be written under the steady
Mass: m _ 12
_ 11 ¼ m ð526Þ
_ 11 h11 ¼ m
_ 11 s11 þ S_ gen;ev_I ¼ m
_ 11 ex11 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_I
_ 12 ex12 þ Ex ð529Þ
Generator II: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
generator II can be defined as follows:
_ 13 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 14 ; m
_ 12 ¼ m
_ 16 þ m
_ 17 ð530Þ
_ 12 h12 þ m
Energy: m _ gen_II ¼ m
_ 13 h13 þ Q _ 14 h14 þ m
_ 16 h16 þ m
_ 17 h17 ð531Þ
Entropy: m _ 13 s13 þ Q
_ 12 s12 þ m _ gen_II =Tgen_II þ S_ gen;gen_II ¼ m
_ 14 s14 þ m
_ 16 s16 þ m
_ 17 s17 ð532Þ
_ 12 ex12 þ m _ Q
_ 13 ex 13 þ Ex _ 14 ex 14 þ m
_ 16 ex 16 þ m _ D;gen_I
_ 17 ex17 þ Ex
Exergy: m gen_II ¼ m ð533Þ
Expansion valve II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve II can be given under the steady
_ 14 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 15 ð534Þ
_ 14 h14 ¼ m
_ 14 s14 þ S_ gen;ev_II ¼ m
_ 14 ex14 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_II
_ 15 ex15 þ Ex ð537Þ
Condenser: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
condenser are defined as follows:
_ 15 þ m
Mass: m _ 16 ¼ m
_3 ð538Þ
_ 15 h15 þ m
Energy: m _ 16 h16 ¼ m _ con
_ 3 h3 þ Q ð539Þ

_ 15 s15 þ m _ con =Tcon
_ 3 s3 þ Q ð540Þ
_ 15 ex15 þ m
Exergy: m _ 16 ex 16 ¼ m _ Q þ Ex
_ 3 ex3 þ Ex _ D;con ð541Þ
con
Expansion valve III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve III can be defined under the steady
Mass: m _4
_3 ¼m ð542Þ
Energy: m _ 4 h4
_ 3 h3 ¼ m ð543Þ
_ 3 s3 þ S_ gen;ev_III ¼ m
_ 3 ex3 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_III
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex ð545Þ
Evaporator: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
evaporator are defined as follows:
_4 ¼m
Mass: m _5 ð546Þ
Energy: m _ eva ¼ m
_ 4 h4 þ Q _ 5 h5 ð547Þ
Entropy: m _ eva =Teva þ S_ gen;eva ¼ m

_ 4 s4 þ Q _ 5 s5 ð548Þ
Exergy: m _ Q ¼m
_ 4 ex 4 þ Ex _ D;eva
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð549Þ
eva
Absorber: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
absorber can be written as follows:
Mass: m _ 19 ¼ m
_5þm _6 ð550Þ
_ 5 h5 þ m
Energy: m _ 19 h19 ¼ m _ abs
_ 6 h6 þ Q ð551Þ
Entropy: m _ 19 s19 þ S_ gen;abs ¼ m

_ 5 s5 þ m _ abs =Tabs
_ 6 s6 þ Q ð552Þ
_ 5 ex5 þ m
Exergy: m _ 19 ex19 ¼ m _ Q þ Ex
_ 6 ex 6 þ Ex _ D;abs ð553Þ
abs
Pump: For the pump of the combined geothermal cooling system, the balance equations are provided under the steady state and
Mass: m _7
_6 ¼m ð554Þ
Energy: m _ p¼m
_ 6 h6 þ W _ 7 h7 ð555Þ
_ 6 s6 þ S_ gen;p ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p ¼m
_ 6 ex 6 þ W _ D;p
_ 7 ex 7 þ Ex ð557Þ
Expansion valve III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for expansion valve III can be written under the steady
Mass: m _ 19
_ 18 ¼ m ð558Þ
_ 18 h18 ¼ m
_ 18 s18 þ S_ gen;ev_III ¼ m
_ 18 ex18 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev_III
_ 19 ex 19 þ Ex ð561Þ
Heat exchanger II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for HEX II under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _8; m
_7¼m _ 17 ¼ m
_ 18 ð562Þ
_ 7 h7 þ m
_ 8 h8 þ m
_ 18 h18 ð563Þ

_ 7 s7 þ m _ 8 s8 þ m
_ 18 s18 ð564Þ
_ 7 ex 7 þ m _ 8 ex8 þ m _ D;HEX_II
_ 18 ex18 þ Ex ð565Þ
The evaporator provides the cooling applications, and the energetic coefficient of performance (COPen) of the double effect
absorption system can be defined as follows:
Q_ cooling
COPen ¼ ð566Þ
_ genI þ W
Q _p
The exergetic coefficient of performance (COPex) of the double effect absorption cooling system can be given as follows:
_ Q
Ex cooling
COPex ¼ ð567Þ
_ Q _
Ex genI þ W p
The exergy destruction rate, exergy destruction ratio, exergy efficiency, and heat transfer rate for the geothermal energy based
double effect absorption cooling system devices are calculated by using balance and exergy efficiency equations, and given in
Table 17. As shown in this table, the highest exergy destruction rate occurs in generator I and the evaporator with 248.12 and
201.13 kW, respectively, and the exergy efficiencies of these components are 56.27 and 45.46%, respectively. The component
having the highest exergy efficiencies are expansion valve VI and expansion valve I with 99.77% and 99.34%, respectively.
According to the thermodynamic assessment results, it is necessary to improve the development aims on this double effect
absorption cooling process for the more efficient geothermal energy based cooling system design.
As seen from Fig. 55, the ambient temperature increases from 5 to 401C, while energetic coefficient performance remains the
same, but the COPex increases from about 0.43 to nearly 0.6. The reason for energetic COP remaining the same is that energy
analysis is independent from the ambient temperature. However, the exergetic COP increases because the definition of exergy says
that the exergy is related to the environment conditions.
The impacts of varying ambient temperature on the geothermal energy based double effect absorption cooling system exergy
destruction rate and exergy efficiency are shown in Fig. 56. It can be observed that the exergy destruction rate of the double effect
absorption cooling system increases by increasing ambient temperature and decreasing exergetic efficiency.
According to the findings, mass flow rate of geothermal fluid has positive effect on generated cooling effect from geothermal
energy resources. As seen from Fig. 57, as geothermal mass flow rate increases from 7.5 to 22.5 kg/s, the amount of produced
cooling effect increases from 1450 to 2050 kW. However, losses occurring in the system decrease the amount of transferred energy.
This means that produced power increases with increasing mass flow rate whereas exergy efficiency of the system decreases.
Table 17 Thermodynamic analysis results for geothermal energy based double effect absorption cooling system devices
Devices Exergy destruction rate (kW) Exergy destruction ratio (%) Exergy efficiency (%) Heat transfer rate (kW)
Generator I 248.12 0.85 56.27 253.5

Generator II 156.57 0.53 21.09 158.4
HEX I 56.26 0.19 78.05 161.1
HEX II 34.14 0.11 59.68 95.75
Pump 88.55 0.30 60.12 55.36
Condenser 62.47 0.21 72.68 161.1
Expansion valve I 4.053 0.013 99.34 3.366
Expansion valve II 4.6 0.015 84.77 1.932
Expansion valve III 1.57 0.005 82.68 1.509
Expansion valve IV 1.72 0.005 99.77 3.039
Evaporator 201.13 0.68 45.46 301.9
Absorber 60.57 0.20 22.64 49.57
2.5 0.65
2.4 COPen
COPex
2.3 0.6
2.2
2.1 0.55
COPex
COPen
2
1.9 0.5
1.8
1.7 0.45
1.6
1.5 0.4
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
T0 (°C)
Fig. 55 Effect of ambient temperature on COPen and COPex of geothermal energy based double effect absorption cooling system.
950 0.173
ExD,DEACS
900 0.172
ψDEACS
0.171
850
0.17
ExD,DEACS (kW)
800
0.169
750
0.168
700
0.167
650 0.166
600 0.165
550 0.164
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
T0 (°C)
Fig. 56 Exergy destruction rate and exergy efficiency of the geothermal energy based double effect absorption cooling system depending on the
reference temperature changes.
2100 0.18
Qcooling 0.178
2000
ψDEACS
0.176

1900 0.174
Qcooling (kW)
0.172
1800
0.17
1700
0.168
1600 0.166
0.164
1500
0.162
1400 0.16
7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20 22.5
mgeothermal (kg/s)
Fig. 57 Effect of mass flow rate of geothermal fluid on net cooling generation and exergy efficiency.
1739 0.17
Qcooling 0.169
1699
ψDEACS
0.168

1659
0.167
1619
Qcooling (kW)
0.166
1579 0.165
0.164
1539
0.163
1499
0.162
1459 0.161
1419 0.16
150 160 170 180 190 200 210 220 230
Tgeothermal (°C)
Fig. 58 Effect of geothermal fluid temperature on net cooling generation and exergy efficiency.
These results show the importance of exergy efficiency of second law efficiency because energy efficiency analyses do not point out
these losses.
The effect of geothermal fluid temperature on produced cooling effect and exergy efficiency is shown in Fig. 58. While
geothermal fluid temperature increases from 150 to 2301C, cooling effect generation increases from 1418 to 1739 kW, and also
with the same temperature change exergy efficiency of the system increases from about 16.12% to about 16.91%.
4.11.6.8 Geothermal Energy Based Hydrogen Production and Liquefaction System

The schematic diagram of integrated hydrogen production system driven by geothermal energy is presented in Fig. 59. The
integrated system investigated in this case study consists of mainly four subsystems: (1) double flash geothermal process, (2) ORC,
(3) PEM electrolyzer, and (4) hydrogen liquefaction process. The double flash geothermal process and ORC are used in the
integrated system to produce heat and power for the PEM electrolyzer. The ORC process runs when the geothermal working fluid
goes into the vaporizer at points 7 and 12. In this process, the thermal energy of geothermal working fluid is transferred by using
the vaporizer to the different working fluid for use in the ORC process. The ORC working fluid goes into the turbine at point 16 to
generate power, and leaves at point 17. Exiting from HEX I, the geofluid transfers its heat energy to the water before entering
the PEM electrolyzer. Also, the power generated using by the ORC process is used in the PEM electrolyzer to generate hydrogen.
The produced hydrogen is in gaseous form at reference conditions. The hydrogen liquefaction subsystem is used for more efficient
hydrogen storage. The hydrogen liquefaction process is relatively more energy intensive than compression of hydrogen, whereas,
the density of liquid hydrogen is nearly 1120 kg/m3 and liquid hydrogen is 29 times better than compressed hydrogen at 700 bar,
Flash
7 16
chamber I
3 Vaporizer
1 2 Flash
separator I 12
13
22
8 9 Turbine
HEX I
Production well Pump I
Flash 21
chamber II 17
6
4 5 Flash
separator II HEX II
14
10 11 20
18
Pump-III
Pump II
19
Condenser
Production well
a b
Mixer Compressor
N2(gas)
28 29
PEM 26 27
23 24 PEM
electrolyzer HEX III HEX IV 40
electrolyzer 39
Electrolysis preheating
N2(liq)
water
15 25 30
38 37
Oxygen
HEX V
Injection 31
Well 36 N2(gas)
35
43 42
Liquid HEX VII HEX VI
Separator 41
hydrogen tank
34 33 32 N2(liq)
Expansion
valve
Fig. 59 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based hydrogen production and liquefaction system.
in terms of volume work. Therefore, the Linde–Hampson hydrogen liquefaction process with a secondary nitrogen cooling is
defined for hydrogen storage.
The balance equations for double flash geothermal process based hydrogen production and liquefaction system components
are defined in the next subsections.
Flash chamber I: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
flash chamber I can be given as follows:
Mass: m _2
_1 ¼m ð568Þ
_ 1 h1 ¼ m
_ 1 s1 þ S_ gen;fc_I ¼ m
_ 1 ex 1 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fc_I
_ 2 ex2 þ Ex ð571Þ
Flash separator I: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for flash separator I under steady state and
_2¼m
Mass: m _3þm
_8 ð572Þ
_ 2 h2 ¼ m
_ 8 h8 ð573Þ
_ 2 s2 þ S_ gen;fs_I ¼ m
_ 8 s8 ð574Þ
_ 2 ex 2 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 3 ex 3 þ m _ D;fs_I
_ 8 ex 8 þ Ex ð575Þ
Mass: m _9
_8 ¼m ð576Þ
_ 8 h8 þ W _ 9 h9 ð577Þ
_ 8 h8 þ W _ 9 h9 ð578Þ
_ 8 ex 8 þ W _ D;p_I
_ 9 ex 9 þ Ex ð579Þ
Flash chamber II: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for
flash chamber II can be written given as follows:
Mass: m _5
_4 ¼m ð580Þ
Energy: m _ 5 h5
_ 4 h4 ¼ m ð581Þ
_ 4 s4 þ S_ gen;fc_II ¼ m
_ 4 ex 4 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;fc_II
_ 5 ex 5 þ Ex ð583Þ
Flash separator II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are defined for flash separator II under steady state and
_5¼m
Mass: m _6þm
_ 10 ð584Þ
_ 5 h5 ¼ m _ 10 h10 ð585Þ
_ 5 s5 þ S_ gen;fs_II ¼ m
_ 10 s10 ð586Þ
_ 5 ex5 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 6 ex 6 þ m _ D;fs_II
_ 10 ex 10 þ Ex ð587Þ
Pump II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump II can be given under the steady state and steady flow
Mass: m _ 11
_ 10 ¼ m ð588Þ
_ 10 h10 þ W _ 11 h11 ð589Þ
_ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;p_II ¼ m
_ 10 ex10 þ W _ D;p_II
_ 11 ex 11 þ Ex ð591Þ
Vaporizer: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
vaporizer can be defined as follows:
Mass: m _ 12 ¼ m
_7þm _ 13 ; m
_ 16 ¼ m
_ 22 ð592Þ
_ 7 h7 þ m _ 22 h22 ¼ m
_ 13 h13 þ m
_ 16 h16 ð593Þ
_ 7 s7 þ m
Entropy: m _ 22 s22 þ S_ gen;vap ¼ m
_ 12 s12 þ m _ 13 s13 þ m
_ 16 s16 ð594Þ
_ 7 ex7 þ m _ 22 ex 22 ¼ m
_ 13 ex 13 þ m _ D;vap
_ 16 ex 16 þ Ex ð595Þ
Turbine: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for the turbine under the steady state and steady flow
conditions.
_ 16 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 17 ð596Þ
_ 16 h16 ¼ m
Energy: m _ tur
_ 17 h17 þ W ð597Þ
_ 16 ex16 ¼ m
_ 17 ex17 þ W _ D;tur ð599Þ
Heat exchanger II: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations are written for HEX II under the steady state and steady
flow conditions.
Mass: m _ 18 ; m
_ 17 ¼ m _ 20 ¼ m
_ 21 ð600Þ
_ 17 h17 þ m _ 18 h18 þ m
_ 21 h21 ð601Þ

_ 17 s17 þ m _ 18 s18 þ m
_ 21 s21 ð602Þ
_ 17 ex17 þ m _ 18 ex 18 þ m _ D;HEX_II
_ 21 ex 21 þ Ex ð603Þ
Condenser: Under the steady state and steady flow conditions, the mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the
condenser can be defined as follows:
Mass: m _ 19 ; m
_ 18 ¼ m _a¼m
_b ð604Þ
_ a ha þ m
_ b hb þ m
_ 19 h19 ð605Þ
Entropy: m _ 18 s18 þ S_ gen;Con ¼ m

_ a sa þ m _ b sb þ m
_ 19 s19 ð606Þ
_ a exa þ m
_ b exb þ m _ D;Con
_ 19 ex19 þ Ex ð607Þ
Pump III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for pump III can be written under the steady state and steady
Mass: m _ 20
_ 19 ¼ m ð608Þ
Energy: m _ p_III ¼ m
_ 19 h19 þ W _ 20 h20 ð609Þ
_ 19 s19 þ S_ gen;p_III ¼ m
Exergy: m _ p_III ¼ m
_ 19 ex19 þ W _ D;p_III
_ 20 ex 20 þ Ex ð611Þ
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer preheating: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for PEM electrolyzer
preheating can be given under the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
Mass: m _ 15 ; m
_ 14 ¼ m _ 23 ¼ m
_ 24 ð612Þ
_ 14 h14 þ m _ 15 h15 þ m
_ 24 h24 ð613Þ
Entropy: m _ 23 s23 þ S_ gen;peph ¼ m

_ 14 s14 þ m _ 15 s15 þ m
_ 24 s24 ð614Þ
_ 14 ex14 þ m _ 15 ex 15 þ m _ D;peph
_ 24 ex 24 þ Ex ð615Þ
Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for PEM electrolyzer can be defined
under the steady state and steady flow conditions as follows:
Mass: m _ 25 þ m
_ 24 ¼ m _ 26 ð616Þ
Energy: m _ T ¼m
_ 24 h24 þ W _ 25 h25 þ m
_ 26 h26 ð617Þ
_ 24 s24 þ S_ gen;PEM_el ¼ m
_ 26 s26 ð618Þ
Exergy: m _ T ¼m
_ 24 ex 24 þ W _ 25 ex 25 þ m _ D;PEM_el
_ 26 ex 26 þ Ex ð619Þ
Mixer: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the mixer can be written under the steady state and steady flow
_ 26 þ m
Mass: m _ 38 ¼ m
_ 27 ð620Þ
_ 26 h26 þ m
_ 27 h27 ð621Þ
Entropy: m _ 38 s38 þ S_ gen;mixer ¼ m

_ 26 s26 þ m _ 27 s27 ð622Þ
_ 26 ex 26 þ m
Exergy: m _ 38 ex 38 ¼ m _ D;mixer
_ 27 ex 27 þ Ex ð623Þ
Compressor: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the compressor can be given under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 28
_ 27 ¼ m ð624Þ
_ 27 h27 þ W _ 28 h28 ð625Þ
_ 27 ex 27 þ W _ D;cmp
_ 28 ex 28 þ Ex ð627Þ
Heat exchanger III: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX III can be written under the steady state and
_ 28 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 29 ; m
_ 37 ¼ m
_ 38 ð628Þ
_ 28 h28 þ m
_ 29 h29 þ m
_ 38 h38 ð629Þ
Entropy: m _ 37 s37 þ S_ gen;HEX_III ¼ m

_ 28 s28 þ m _ 29 s29 þ m
_ 38 s38 ð630Þ
_ 28 ex28 þ m _ 29 ex29 þ m _ D;HEX_III
_ 38 ex 38 þ Ex ð631Þ
Heat exchanger IV: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX IV can be defined under the steady state and
Mass: m _ 30 ; m
_ 29 ¼ m _ 39 ¼ m
_ 40 ð632Þ
_ 29 h29 þ m _ 30 h30 þ m
_ 40 h40 ð633Þ
Entropy: m _ 39 s39 þ S_ gen;HEX_IV ¼ m

_ 29 s29 þ m _ 30 s30 þ m
_ 40 s40 ð634Þ
_ 29 ex29 þ m _ 30 ex30 þ m _ D;HEX_IV
_ 40 ex 40 þ Ex ð635Þ
Heat exchanger V: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX V can be written under the steady state and
_ 30 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 31 ; m
_ 36 ¼ m
_ 37 ð636Þ
_ 30 h30 þ m
_ 31 h31 þ m
_ 37 h37 ð637Þ
Entropy: m _ 36 s36 þ S_ gen;HEX_V ¼ m

_ 30 s30 þ m _ 31 s31 þ m
_ 37 s37 ð638Þ
_ 30 ex30 þ m _ 31 ex31 þ m _ D;HEX_V
_ 37 ex 37 þ Ex ð639Þ
Heat exchanger VI: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX VI can be given under the steady state and
_ 31 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 32 ; m
_ 41 ¼ m
_ 42 ð640Þ
_ 31 h31 þ m
_ 32 h32 þ m
_ 42 h42 ð641Þ
Entropy: m _ 41 s41 þ S_ gen;HEX_VI ¼ m

_ 31 s31 þ m _ 32 s32 þ m
_ 42 s42 ð642Þ
_ 31 ex31 þ m _ 32 ex32 þ m _ D;HEX_VI
_ 42 ex42 þ Ex ð643Þ
Heat exchanger VII: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for HEX VII can be defined under the steady state and
_ 32 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 33 ; m
_ 35 ¼ m
_ 36 ð644Þ
_ 32 h32 þ m
_ 33 h33 þ m
_ 36 h36 ð645Þ
Entropy: m _ 35 s35 þ S_ gen;HEX_VII ¼ m

_ 32 s32 þ m _ 33 s33 þ m
_ 36 s36 ð646Þ
Exergy: m _ 35 E35 ¼ m
_ 32 ex32 þ m _ 33 ex 33 þ m _ D;HEX_VII
_ 36 ex 36 þ Ex ð647Þ
Expansion valve: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the expansion valve can be written under the steady
_ 33 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 34 ð648Þ
_ 33 h33 ¼ m
_ 33 s33 þ S_ gen;ev ¼ m
_ 33 ex33 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ D;ev
_ 34 ex34 þ Ex ð651Þ
Separator: The mass, energy, entropy, and exergy balance equations for the separator can be defined under the steady state and
_ 34 ¼ m
Mass: m _ 35 þ m
_ 43 ð652Þ
_ 34 h34 ¼ m _ 43 h43 ð653Þ
_ 43 s43 ð654Þ
_ 34 ex 34 ¼ m
Exergy: m _ 35 ex 35 þ m _ D;sep
_ 43 ex 43 þ Ex ð655Þ
The effects of varying reference temperature on the geothermal energy based power production rate and hydrogen production
rate are illustrated in Fig. 60. It can be observed that the power and hydrogen production rate of the double flash geothermal
power system based integrated system increases by increasing the reference temperature from 0 to 401C.
The effects of geothermal fluid temperature on power production rate and hydrogen production rate are illustrated in Fig. 61.
While the geothermal fluid temperature increases from 150 to 2001C, the power production rate increases from 1041 to 7937 kW,
4300 0.03
Wturbine
4200
Hydrogen production rate (kg/s)

mH2
0.029
Power production rate (kW)
4100
4000
0.028
3900
3800
0.027
3700
3600 0.026
3500
3400 0.025
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Reference temperature (°C)
Fig. 60 Effect of reference temperature on net power and hydrogen production.
8000 0.056
Wturbine
7000
m H2
0.046
6000
5000 0.036
4000
0.026
3000
2000 0.016
1000
0.006
130 140 150 160 170 180 190 200
Geothermal source temperature (°C)
Fig. 61 Effect of geothermal source temperature on net power and hydrogen production.
5100
4800 0.036
Wturbine

4500 mH2 0.033
4200 0.03
3900
0.027
3600
0.024
3300
3000 0.021
2700 0.018
2400
0.015
1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Turbine inlet pressure (kPa)
Fig. 62 Effect of turbine inlet pressure on net power and hydrogen production.
and also with the same temperature change hydrogen production rate of the integrated system increases from 0.0062 kg/s to about
0.0558 kg/s, respectively.
Fig. 62 shows the impact of ORC turbine inlet pressure on power production rate and hydrogen production rate of the
integrated system. As shown in this figure, an increase in this pressure reduces the power and hydrogen production rate. The energy
balance equation for control volume around the vaporizer illustrates that when the energy input from the geothermal resource is
constant, the reduction in turbine inlet enthalpy increases the ORC mass flow rate.
4.11.7 Future Directions
In this section, it is important to discuss the primary research areas and priorities of geothermal energy and the future directions on
conversion of geothermal heat into numerous useful outputs in order to provide some abstract guidance. The possible main
research areas and application fields of geothermal energy resources in the future based on the five subsections, namely (1)
advances in exploration and drilling technologies, (2) power generation, (3) heating and cooling applications, (4) desalination,
and (5) environmental impact mitigation public acceptance, are given in Table 18.
Based on the report of researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the geothermal power systems can provide a
strong, long-lasting alternative with attributes to complement other significant energy production processes from clean coal
gasification, nuclear, solar, wind, hydropower, and biomass [34]. Geothermal power sources show numerous benefits over the
alternative energy resources. As an example, unlike biomass, fossil fuel, or nuclear energy sources, geothermal energy is location-
specific and requires no transportation of raw material from the source of extraction to the power plant.
The primary utilizations of geothermal energy cover a wide range of applications, such as residential heating and domestic
hot water supply, aquaculture, greenhouse heating, swimming pools and balneology, industrial heating processes, heat pumps
and power production. But for the higher geothermal system efficiency, decreased thermal losses and wastes, decreased operating
costs, decreased harmful gaseous emissions, better use of geofluid sources, multiple generation options, and increased reliability,
the geothermal energy based integrated systems depending on the local availability of resources should be designed and
operated. The outputs from this study can assist designers in developing more energy-efficient geothermal power systems
in an integrated form. The geothermal energy should be incorporated with different alternative energy sources, such as
solar, biomass, wind, etc., in the actual processes, depending on the local availability of resources for some useful output
generations.
The suggestions and thermodynamic analyses of geothermal energy based integrated systems offer several main areas of future
research as summarized below:
• In the proposed integrated geothermal power process model for multigeneration aims, such as power, hydrogen, heating,
cooling, and freshwater production, the required capital investment and operating cost for the desired production capacities per
day can be further estimated.
• The geothermal energy based ORC process, triple flash power generation, binary cycle power generation, combined/hybrid
power generation, and also Kalina cycle are the efficient options to generate electricity from low grade temperature heat sources.
But, the required capital investment and operating cost and also life cycle assessment for the desired production capacities per
day should be further estimated based on the design parameters of the installation area. The conclusions should be evaluated
and compared, so that a suitable integrated system can be found for the specific operating conditions.
Table 18 Possible main research areas and application fields of geothermal energy resources
• Advances in exploration and drilling technologies:

To decrease drilling cost
To reduce boreholes amounts
To decrease drilling times
To investigate new drilling technologies
To develop novel 3D models of geothermal resources
To better estimate geothermal power potential.
• Power generation:
To build large-scale demonstration of geothermal power plant for cost reduction
To investigate new materials and operational methods for decreasing the corrosion effect and increasing efficiency of geothermal power plant
To develop novel technologies for decreasing the O&M costs of geothermal power plants
To analyze the new low temperature based power and other synthetic fuel production processes with high performance
To improve the novel designs of both water-cooled and air-cooled condenser equipment
To investigate the ORC working fluids with high enthalpy content for low temperature geothermal power generation systems
To build off-shore geothermal power systems based on production of deep marine environments
To investigate the innovative mechanism for power generation.
• Heating and cooling applications:

To investigate more profitable options for residential and commercial heating and cooling applications with geothermal resources
To build large-scale research projects for heating and cooling sectors with geothermal resources
To develop novel district heating and cooling network
To solve problems of local procedures for the district heating and cooling networks
To promote the development of residential geothermal heating with the closed-loop system (or without water exchange)
To decrease components costs, such as heat exchanger (HEX), compressor, expansion valve, pump and fan
To investigate the innovative mechanism for geothermal heating and cooling systems.
• Desalination:
To build the seawater demonstration project with low enthalpy geothermal resources
To analyze the multistage distillation process for more efficiently system design aims
To investigate more efficient membrane for desalination applications
To investigate and decrease the commercial scale problems, technical design problems, and high investment cost for desalination applications.
• Environmental impact mitigation public acceptance:

To investigate suitable technologies for removing of some potentially toxic elements, condensable gaseous and solid residues
To develop new technologies for analysis of the seismic activity induced by geothermal energy resources
To support the reduction in greenhouse gaseous emissions by using the geothermal energy for building of public acceptance
To investigate smart controlled heating and cooling systems and other innovation solutions for higher living standards.
Source: International Energy Agency (IEA). Technology Roadmap, Geothermal Heat and Power. http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Geothermal_roadmap.pdf;
2011 [accessed March 2017].
• Using geothermal energy sources to produce hydrogen can reduce the costs even further. The more detailed cost accounting and
exergoeconomic assessment for different designs of geothermal energy based hydrogen production process should be analyzed
for comparison purposes.
• The low temperature thermochemical cycles for hydrogen or alternative fuel production can be integrated with geothermal
energy resources and investigated in terms of thermodynamic feasibilities.
• The effects of different alternative fuels instead of hydrogen energy in the geothermal energy based integrated system on the
total operating cost are suggested to be evaluated.
• Hydrogen can be stored in gas, liquid, or solid form. Because of its low-density rate, the gas hydrogen needs large volumes
for storage aims, thereby necessitating compression, extremely low temperatures to convert hydrogen to a cryogenic liquid form
or combinations with other materials for solid storage. For liquid storage, the geothermal energy based hydrogen liquefaction
processes should be designed and analyzed based on exergy analysis viewpoint.
• The detailed exergy and exergoeconomic analysis should be utilized to investigate the impact of the avoidable and unavoidable
portions of exergy destruction in each subcomponent and optimize for determining the avoidable exergy destruction in each
subcomponent.
• Finally, improving the geothermal energy based multigeneration performance would reduce the greenhouse gas emissions and
harmful environmental impact, and enhance sustainability.
4.11.8 Concluding Remarks
In the present study, a review of geothermal energy sources and geothermal energy conversion models is provided for power,
hydrogen, heating, cooling, and freshwater generation, and the main balance equations for thermodynamic analysis of different
geothermal power systems are described and compared, and recent model developments are discussed. The energetic and exergetic
analyses are described and contrasted for direct, single flash, double flash, triple flash, binary cycle, and combined geothermal
power generation processes. The exergy based thermodynamic assessment is demonstrated to ensure an important tool for design
and improving of geothermal power systems. The parametric analyses define the impacts on exergy destruction rate and exergy
efficiency of varying different operating indicators, such as geofluid temperature and mass flow rate. Also, the effects of increasing
reference temperature on exergy destruction rate and exergy efficiency are investigated.
Different concluding outputs should be drawn from this study:
• The new potential fields for the construction of geothermal energy based power generation plants need to be investigated.
• Identifying design procedures, construction techniques, systematic operation, and maintenance practices of geothermal
resource integrated systems for multigeneration aims is of immense value to the designers. Therefore, it is recommended to start
the design application on the geothermal energy based integrated systems based on resource temperature.
• One of the biggest drawbacks that limit the utilization of geothermal power systems is the lack of a reliable long-term energy
storage system. Therefore, it is recommended that a research work should be carried out for the application of geothermal
power systems with other means of storage, such as the liquid hydrogen storage system.
• The exergy efficiency of direct, single flash, double flash, triple flash, binary cycle, and combined geothermal power generation
systems are found to be 39.98, 36.21, 39.5, 43.99, 48.35, and 49.15%, respectively, at a reference state temperature of 251C and
pressure of 101.3 kPa.
• The advanced combined geothermal power generation system is more efficient than the other investigated systems.
• The largest irreversibility in the geothermal power generation processes is associated with flashing, condenser, and turbine.
• It is demonstrated that increasing the geofluid temperature, mass flow rate, and reference temperature increase the power
generation rate.
• It is shown that the reference temperature increases the exergy efficiency. The geofluid temperature and mass flow rate increase
the exergy efficiency of direct, single flash, double flash, and triple flash geothermal power generation systems whereas they
decrease the exergy efficiency of binary cycle and combined geothermal power generation systems.
References
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Convers Manag 2016;108:190–201.
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[6] Lee K. Classification of geothermal resources by exergy. Geothermics 2001;30(4):431–42.
[7] DiPippo R. Geothermal power plants: principles, applications, case studies and environmental impact. 2nd ed. Burlington: Elsevier; 2008.
[8] Erdlac R, Gross P, McDonald E. A proposed new geothermal power classification system. Trans Geotherm Resources Council 2008;32:379–84.
[9] Williams C, DeAngelo J. Mapping geothermal potential in the western United States. Trans Geother Resources Council 2008;32:181–8.
[10] Green B, Gerald R. Geothermal the energy under our feet NREL/TP-840-40665, 2006.
[11] DiPippo R, Marcille D. Exergy analysis of geothermal power plants. Geotherm Resources Council Trans 1984;8:47–52.
[12] Rybach L. The future of geothermal energy and its challenges. In: Proc. World geothermal congress, Bali, Indonesia, April 25–29; 2010.
[13] Falcone G, Gnoni A, Harrison B, Alimonti C. Classification and reporting requirements for geothermal resources. In: European Geothermal Congress, Pisa, Italy, June 3–7
June; 2013.
[14] Barbier E. Geothermal energy technology and current status: an overview. Renew Sustainable Energy Rev 2002;6:3–65.
[15] Muffler P, Cataldi R. Methods for regional assessment of geothermal resources. Geothermics 1978;7:53–89.
[16] Blackwell DB, Steele JL, Carter LS. Heat-flow patterns of the North American continent; a discussion of the geothermal map of North America. In: Selmons DB, Engdahl
ER, Zoback MD, Blackwell DB, editors. Neotectonics of North America. vol. 1. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America; 1991.
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[19] Moran M. Availability analysis: a guide to efficient energy usage. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1982.
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[21] Kotas T. The exergy method of thermal plant analysis. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company; 1985.
[22] Dincer I, Rosen MA. Exergy analysis of heating, refrigerating, and air: conditioning methods and applications. New York, NY: Elsevier; 2015.
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Atlanta, GA, USA; 1995.
[24] Ozturk M. Energy and exergy analysis of a combined ground source heat pump system. Appl Therm Eng 2014;73(1):360–8.
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Further Reading
Arnold W. 2013. Geothermal Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications. New York, NY: Springer; 2013.
Boden DR. 2016. Geologic Fundamentals of Geothermal Energy. New York, NY: Taylor and Francis, CRC Press; 2016.
Dincer I. 2017. Refrigeration Systems and Applications. third ed. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; 2017. p. 727.
Dincer I, Ratlamwala T. 2016. Integrated Absorption Refrigeration Systems: Comparative Energy and Exergy Analyses. New York, NY: Springer Verlag; 2016. p. 270.
Dincer I, Rosen MA. 2015. Exergy Analysis of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Ltd; 2015. p. 388.
Dincer I, Rosen MA, Ahmadi P. 2017. Optimization of Energy Systems. London: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.; 2017. p. 453.
Dincer I, Zamfirescu C. 2014. Advanced Power Generation Systems. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Ltd; 2014. p. 644.
Dincer I, Zamfirescu C. 2016. Sustainable Hydrogen Production. Oxford: Elsevier Science, Ltd.; 2016. p. 479.
DiPippo R. 2012. Geothermal Power Plants: Principles, Applications, Case Studies and Environmental Impact. third ed. Boston, MA: Elsevier; 2012.
European Communities. 1999. Blue Book on Geothermal Resources. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities; 1999.
Grant M, Bixley P. 2011. Geothermal Reservoir Engineering. second ed. New York, NY: Academic Press; 2011.
Gupta H, Roy S. 2006. Geothermal Energy: An Alternative Resource for the 21st Century. Oxford: Elsevier; 2006.
Hance C. 2005. Factors Affecting Costs of Geothermal Power Development. Geothermal Energy Association, Department of Energy; 2005.
Hance CN. 2005. Factors Affecting Costs of Geothermal Power Development. Washington, DC: Geothermal Energy Association; 2005.
Stober I, Bucher K. 2013. Geothermal Energy: From Theoretical Models to Exploration and Development. New York, NY: Springer; 2013.
Suleman F, Dincer I, Agelin-Chaab M. 2014. Development of an integrated renewable energy system for multigeneration. Energy 2014;78:196–204.
Tester JW, Anderson BJ, Batchelor AS, et al. 2006. The Future of Geothermal Energy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2006.
Relevant Websites
http://www.ferc.gov/
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
http://www.geo-energy.org/
Geothermal Energy Association.
http://www.geothermal.org
Geothermal Resources Council.
http://www.geothermal-energy.org
International Geothermal Association.
http://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/geothermal-energy/
National Geographic Partners, LLC.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/geothermal
Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy.
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-energy/tech.html
Renewable Energy World.
http://www.smu.edu/geothermal
SMU Geothermal Laboratory.
http://www.unr.edu/geothermal/links.html
University of Nevada.
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/index.cfm?page=geothermal_power_plants
US Department of Energy.

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4.

11 Geothermal Energy Conversion

4.11.1 Introduction 475

Nomenclature m Mass (kg)

474 Comprehensive Energy Systems, Volume 4 doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-809597-3.00415-6

V0 Reversible potential (V) w weight (N)

Greek Letters sPEM Proton conductivity in PEM (s/m)

Subscript gen Generation

Acronyms PEM Proton exchange membrane

Table 1 Distribution of geothermal energy among the top ﬁve countries

Countries MWt Countries TJ/year

China 6089 China 74,041

Geothermal power generation 1975−2015

Energy sources Electricity generation (TWh) Share (%)

1990 2014 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2014 2040

Note: CSP, Concentrating solar collector.

4.11.2 Geothermal Energy and Classiﬁcation

Country 2005 2012

No of units MWe No of units MWe

Australia 1 0.15 1 0.15

Table 4 Thermodynamic limits of geothermal power conversion

Low temperature 150 17 29

4.11.2.3 By Temperature or Enthalpy

4.11.3 Geothermal Energy Sources and Applications

Impermeable cap rock

Heat fow from magma to surface

4.11.4 General Analysis and Performance Assessment

20–501C 50–801C 80–1201C 120–1601C 160–2201C 42201C

Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications Applications

E_ input E_ output ¼ E_ accumulation ð4Þ

S_ input þ S_ generation S_ output ¼ S_ accumulation ð5Þ

4.11.4.1 Mass Balance Equation

4.11.4.2 Energy Balance Equation

4.11.4.3 Entropy Balance Equation

4.11.4.4 Exergy Balance Equation

_ Q is the exergy rate of heat energy transfer, Ex

4.11.4.5 Energy and Exergy Efﬁciencies

energy in product outputs energy loss

exergy in product outputs exergy loss þ exergy consumption

4.11.5 Geothermal Energy Conversion

4.11.5.1 Cooling and Heating Application

Applications Application Application Application Application Application Application

Operating capacity (MW) Planned capacity additions (MW)

Entropy: m _ 13 s13 þ S_ gen;con ¼ m

Fig. 7 Schematic diagram of a common geothermal energy based cooling system.

Entropy: m _ 10 s10 þ S_ gen;con ¼ m

Entropy: m _ 12 s12 þ S_ gen;eva ¼ m

Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based heating system.

Ground heat exchanger

Fig. 11 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based heat pump process.

Entropy: m _ 14 s14 þ S_ gen;HEX ¼ m

Entropy: m _ g_HEX =Tg_HEX þ S_ gen;g_HEX ¼ m

4.11.5.2 Power Generation

Power generation cycle

Thermal; Potential; Kinetic; Electromagnetic;

Fig. 12 Electricity generation from geothermal energy and storage options.

Production Hot Cold Hot

Fig. 14 Schematic diagram of geothermal energy based ORC process.

4.11.5.3 Hydrogen Energy Production

2H2 O þ Energy-2H2 þ O2 ð183Þ

Thermochemical Electrical Direct

Fig. 16 Potential options of geothermal energy based hydrogen production.

Geofluid thermal Hydrogen

Geofluid thermal Water