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Use of Renewable Energy Sources in University Campus

Microgrid – A Review
Kayode T. Akindeji, Remy Tiako, and Innocent E. Davidson

Abstract— The sun as the primary source of energy can be tapped
into to light our universities. With the prevailing economic recession
and global warming, universities can reduce cost of electricity
through a self-sustaining microgrid. The university is like a separate
entity and can operate as an island with sufficient resources to meet
her energy demands. Microgrid has evolved as a major technology
to harness and aggregate available renewable energy sources (RES)
with a view to increasing network reliability, reducing carbon
footprint and reducing cost of energy. This paper reviews existing
university campus microgrids (UCM) around the world,
highlighting their objectives, methods, challenges and results. One
of these objectives is to serve as a test-bed or laboratory in which
students and faculty staff conduct research to advance modern power
system. Solar Photovoltaic (Rooftop PV) remains the major RES in
the implementation of UCM, however, a hybrid system is also
common. The review shows that UCM if well designed among other
benefits results in a significant reduction in the operation cost of the
university.
versions of power grids as they are implemented typically in
local areas having the capacity to disconnect from the main
grid and operate in island mode [10]. The aim of the present
study is to model a UCM at steady state and analyse the
performance and cost benefits.
The rest of this paper is arranged as follows: section 2
discuss the concept of microgrid, section 3 focuses on
Islanded microgrid as a type of microgrid that could be
implemented in university campus. A review of university
campus microgrid around the world is presented in section 4
highlighting their objectives, configurations and results while
the final conclusion is drawn in section 5.

Index Terms— campus, microgrid, renewable energy, university

1 INTRODUCTION
The drive for alternative energy due to global warming
and environmental pollution as a result of burning fossil fuels
to generate electricity continues to grow in many areas day
by day [1]. Government, utilities, institutions, industries and
businesses are all sourcing for alternatives to cover for future
energy demands to reduce energy cost and reduce the cost of
building high voltage (HV) transmission facilities.
Renewable energy sources (RESs) such as wind, solar, hydro
and biomass have become the major alternatives to
conventional energy sources such as fossil fuel, coal, gas and
oil in meeting the growing energy demand all over the world
[2], [3]. RESs offer in abundance free, readily available,
sustainable and clean energy resources for mankind [4], [5].
Figure 1 shows the annual solar irradiation for South Africa
indicating available potential for solar energy. For efficient Fig 1: Annual Solar irradiation for South Africa [11]
integration of RES to the grid, the microgrid concept has
2 THE MICROGRID CONCEPT
attracted significant interest. For instance, ABB has been
selected by the university of Chester, northwest England to The concept of Microgrid emerged about two decades ago
install a microgrid control system to better integrate to ease and increase the penetration of renewable energy
conventional and renewable energy [6]- [8]. According to [9], sources into the distribution network with higher degree of
microgrid is “a load cluster with a clear geographical reliability and minimal complex algorithm to coordinate all
boundary within a distribution system, which can coordinate the renewables [12]. The main drivers of Microgrid concept
the operation of DERs, and energy storage to supply the local include high level integration of distributed energy resources,
load demand in an economic and reliable manner”. In other increased energy demand, high cost of expanding
words, as the name implies, microgrids are very small transmission facilities to remote areas and instability of the

K. T. Akindeji, Durban University of Technology, P O Box 1334, I. E. Davidson, Department of Electrical Power Engineering, Durban
Durban 400, South Africa (e-mail: kayodea@dut.ac.za). He is a PhD University of Technology, P O Box 1334, Durban 400, South Africa (e-
student at University of Kwa-Zulu Natal and a lecturer at Durban mail: innocentd@dut.ac.za).
University of Technology.
R. Tiako, Department of Electronic, Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Kwa-Zulu Natal. (e-mail: tiako@ukzn.ac.za)
grid due to ageing [13]. Microgrid usually comprised 2.1.1 Solar PV
different types of DER such as wind turbine, solar PV, fuel The major source of solar power is by direct or indirect
cells and various distributed energy storage systems in conversion of sunlight to electricity. The direct method is
addition to inverters, smart switches, communication system using photovoltaic (PV) solar cells whereas the indirect
and controllers [14]. Hence, microgrid has become the method uses concentrated solar panel (CSP) [4]. Solar PV
bedrock of smartgrid incorporating information technology is established around the world to generate
communication technology (ICT) into the power distribution electrical power for many stand-alone applications such a
grid. In summary, distribution networks are changing from microgrid. Radiation on a horizontal surface is the only
being passive to active networks with bidirectional power radiation available from most meteorological stations
flows [1]. The main advantage of microgrid from grid point especially in developing world. Other data are estimated
of view is the ability for it to be controlled as a single entity using different models developed for this purpose [20]. The
with respect to the grid [15], [16]. In other words, the solar irradiance for a typical day, 16th January 2019 as
microgrid is treated as a net load or a generator with definite extracted from South African Universities Radiometric
properties [2]. Microgrids operate in two modes, these are Network (SAURAN) [26] showing six provinces; Eastern
grid-connected and islanding modes [3]. Types of microgrids Cape (EC), Kwa-Zulu Natal (KZN), Gauteng (GP), Limpopo
include; campus, community, islanded, nanogrid and hybrid (LP), Northern Cape (NC) and Western Cape (WC) in South
(AC and DC) [17]. However, microgrids cannot be fully Africa is shown in Figure 2.
autonomous without optimal location and sizing of energy
storage devices [18]. Factors or criteria considered in
selecting battery technologies for microgrid are cycle life, Diffuse horizontal irradiance in
cost, safety, round trip efficiency, maintenance requirements,
maximum temperature rating, and environmental impact as [W/m2 ]
well as type of project [19], [20]. The microgrid acts like a 4000
plug-and-play power unit as such it disconnects itself from 3500
the main grid in case of any grid disturbances (e.g. frequency 3000
or voltage violations, short circuit faults), operates in island 2500
mode and reconnects when the main grid is healed [21]. The
2000
transition from grid connected mode to island mode can be
1500
triggered by poor power quality at the main grid such as
voltage or frequency deviations and unscheduled event i.e. 1000
major faults at the main grid [22]. Two IEEE standards, IEEE 500
2030.7(IEEE standard for the specification of microgrid 0
controllers) and IEEE 2030.8 (IEEE standard for the testing
of microgrid) address the control functions of microgrid in
connecting to and disconnecting from the main grid. The
EC KZN GP LP NC WC
following technical requirements must be met for
resynchronization to the main grid. As stated in [13] and [23],
the requirements are; Fig 2: Daily Solar irradiance for Six Provinces South Africa
i. Frequency deviation at the PCC < 0,1 Hz
ii. Voltage angle difference at the PCC < 1º Equations (1) and (2) give the amount of electrical energy that
iii. Voltage magnitude difference at the PCC < 5% can be generated from solar PV using different parameters
Having highlighted the above requirements as well as the [27].
reliability requirement of the concerned consumer, the
institute of electrical and electronic engineer (IEEE) standard 𝐸 = 365 𝑝𝑘 𝑟𝑝 𝐻𝑖 (1)
1547 must be met for islanding and reconnection of all
microgrids [16],[21]. Microgrids are not without challenges E is the annual electricity generation (kWh); Pk is peak power
especially with RESs that are intermittent and climate of solar PV panel (kW); rp is the system performance ratio
dependent in nature. Principal challenge is protection as a and Hi is the annual daily global radiation (Wh).
result of bidirectional flow in the distribution network, the
traditional protection system needs to be redesigned to 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 𝐸𝑒 𝐺 (2)
accommodate bidirectional flow considering the dynamics of
the microgrid before, during and after islanding operation Eout is annual electricity production (kWh); Ae is the total
[24]. surface area of solar cells (m2), Ee is the annual mean power
2.1 Distributed energy sources conversion efficiency and G is the annual total global
Non-conventional or RESs used in generating electricity in irradiation (Wh/m2).
microgrid are called distributed energy resources or micro
sources [25]. Prominent among these are solar photovoltaic 2.1.2 Wind energy
(PV) systems, small scale hydro, wind energy conversion The application of wind energy or power started
system (WECS), combined heat and power (CHP) system, thousands of years ago, whereby the energy derived from
micro turbines, fuel cells. A brief description of two major
wind was used to pump water and to grind corn. Also, ancient
DER technologies used in microgrid follows.
mariners used wind to sail to distant lands. Wind like solar is stakeholders (distribution system operator, transmission
free and available in an inexhaustible quantity. [20] defines system operator, independent system operator) in deregulated
wind as “the movement of air from high-pressure areas to power system. However, the benefits for the end-users are
low-pressure areas caused by uneven heating of the earth’s improved power quality and reliability, reduction of demand
surface by the sun”. South Africa has fair wind potential, charges and time of use [24]. Apart from providing system
specifically along the coastal area of western and Eastern reliability, ESS can be used to optimize distributed generator
cape. This makes South Africa the highest producers of wind (DG) or on-site generation to reduce the total cost of energy
power in Africa. The average wind speed of selected purchased from the main grid. The ESS stores energy during
provinces in South Africa is shown in table 1. Through the the off-peak period (less expensive tariff) and use it during
peak period (high tariff) [19]. In a microgrid with RES, ESS
Renewable Energy Independent Power Producer’s
provides load capacity and reduces the need for VAR
Procurement programme (REIPPPP), about 19 wind farms
generation from the RESs. In addition, ESSs provide energy
have been established producing 1471 MW. Wind energy is
levelling to source variations, energy buffering to load
converted to electrical energy through a technology called changes and ride-through advantage for microgrid
wind energy conversion systems (WECSs). A WECS mainly application [18]. ESSs are either chemical or mechanical,
consists of a turbine, generator, power electronic converters, common examples include; super-capacitors, batteries of
gear box and a transformer. The amount of energy that can be different types, flywheels and superconducting magnetic
extracted from the wind depends on its speed. From equation energy storage, pumped hydro storage and hydrogen fuel
3, the wind speed is directly proportional to the energy that cells [20].
can be harvested to generate electricity. The power output of
a wind turbine is given by “(3)”; 2.3 Economic benefits of microgrid
With good operation strategy, microgrid can provide varieties
𝑃𝑤 = 0.5𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐴𝑉 3 (3) of benefits ranging from technical, environmental, social to
economical for every stakeholder. One major challenge of
implementing microgrid is its financial feasibility as a result
Where Pw is the power output, Cp is the power coefficient of
of high capital costs. This problem is addressed by utilities by
turbine, A is the surface area of the turbine, ρ is density and V
providing renewable energy incentive programs such as feed-
is the wind velocity hitting the surface area [20], [28] – [31]. in tariff [35]. This section considers specific economic
benefits of microgrid. From a macro-economic point of view;
Table I. Average wind speed of selected provinces in South Africa microgrid can act as an initiator of local retail and service
[32].
market, acts also as a hedging tool against potential risks of
Month Wind Speed (m/s) price volatility, load growth, outage etc. It is assumed that the
Province NC KZN GP WC overall economic benefits of a microgrid is enjoyed by the
Jan 3.74 1.48 2.41 4.95 end consumers I situation where the consumers own and
Feb 4.12 1.87 2.36 4.80 operate multiple micro source units as an aggregated
Mar 3.87 2.09 1.81 4.13 prosumer entity [16]. Other economic benefits come from the
postponement or deferral of investments in the expansion of
Apr 4.08 2.06 1.71 4.07
generation and transmission systems [25]. Cost is saved also
May 2.89 1.75 1.69 3.44
in transmission and distribution (T&D) through integration of
Jun 3.37 1.91 1.46 3.84 several micro sources (e.g. electric vehicles) as they are
Jul 3.46 2.06 1.69 3.85 operated in plug-and-play mode. Economic benefits also
Aug 3.38 1.89 1.93 3.64 come in terms of unit commitment and economical dispatch
Sept 3.67 2.33 2.80 4.26
of microgrid resources resulting in cost saving. A good
illustration of this cost saving benefit of microgrid is reported
Oct 3.70 2.47 2.63 4.43
in [23], whereby the master controller dispatches the
Nov 3.86 2.43 2.69 5.46 microgrid generation once the electricity price is above 6
Dec 4.24 2.66 2.66 4.93 cents/kWh, charges the battery when the electricity price is as
Ave 3.70 2.08 2.15 4.32 low as 2.8 cents/kWh and discharges the battery storage as
the price of electricity increases to 22.4 cents/kWh. The
economic benefits of microgrid is not limited to saving the
2.2 Significance of energy storage system cost of electricity but also in earnings from feed-in tariff.
Feed-in tariff is a premium rate that is more than the
The power generated by RES such as solar PV and wind electricity rate and is usually guaranteed for a fixed term.
turbines is intermittent in nature and due to sensitivity of Utilities buy back power at premium rate from local
microgrid to change in load or generation, microgrid must generation to encourage investment into RE generation [36].
have a storage system both with high power and energy
densities [33]. The utilization of DER in microgrid can be
increased by integrating energy storage system (ESS) [34]. 3 ISLANDED MICROGRID
The purpose or objective of ESS in a microgrid among others Islands and remote areas have complex energy supply
is to achieve balance between energy demand and RE challenges due to geographical and environmental factors
produced or generated especially in islanding mode [3]. In [16]. As a result, they are supplied by diesel generators
essence, any short fall in meeting the load demand would be
having adverse effect on the environment and on the
solved either by discharging the batteries and / or capacitor
reliability of supply. The expansion of the grid to these areas
and /or activating the fuel cell and / or by importing from the
faces many difficulties such as high operational costs and
main grid [14]. ESS has several benefits to different
huge construction investments. The implementation of
microgrid in these areas using RES taking the advantages of
the nature to provide among others electricity to local
residents. In the present study, the principle behind islanded
microgrid will be implemented in the UCM model especially
during high demand season since the university is billed on
time of use (TOU) tariff to reduce the energy intake from the
main grid. In addition, the UCM will comprise nanogrids
inform of building microgrids that can stand alone during the
period of high demand. Some practical applications of
islanded microgrid are discussed below.
3.1 Remote or rural areas electrification
Millions of people still live in darkness especially in remote
areas of sub-Sahara Africa while the region has sunshine all
year round. This number is not expected to change soon.
There is a growing trend in informal settlements and it is the
constitutional right of all citizens to have basic services which
include electricity. Most of these informal settlements are not
connected or far from the main grid, as a result, they rely on
charcoal, firewood for heating and cooking and use paraffin
and kerosene for lighting [37],[38]. Government at all levels
is therefore looking for solutions to this challenge. Islanded
microgrid comes as a solution to the challenge of providing
electricity to rural areas, small island and remote areas that
are far from the main grid. An example is a microgrid
consisting of a 800 kW wind turbine, 160 kW solar PV and
two battery containers each rated at 1.44 MWh/400 kW being
developed in a Greek island through the European
commission [12]. [39] compared the cost of microgrid to cost
of grid extension in providing electricity to a rural area in
Ntabankulu Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa.
The result showed that the costs of electricity using an off-
grid microgrid and the main grid were $0.320/kWh and
$0.544/kWh respectively. Also, islanded microgrid provides
a good platform to study RES integration. The power
generated can be consumed locally meaning that the
resilience and flexibility of microgrid can be enhanced [40].
Another area where islanded microgrid is deployed is in the
military which can be mobile or base station. In [41], a remote
military microgrid made up of two diesel generators, solar PV
panels and hybrid energy storage is used to analyze the
performance of energy storage system. The microgrid is
designed such that the critical loads (computers, radars)
which are essential for the success of military operation are
connected such that they received constant power while the
non-critical loads can be shed. Due to the increasing
penetration of RESs that are unpredictable and uncertain, the
energy management system in microgrid is complicated. The
battery energy storage system (BESS) is recognized as the
most favourable approach to smooth out load variations for
increased efficiency of the power supply. In islanded
microgrid due to labor and transport costs, it is not
economical to frequently replace the BESS, therefore, there
is need to coordinate and control the BESS in an economical
and efficient manner [42]. However, one of the short comings
of BESS is that their lifetime is considerably shorter than that
of other components in a microgrid. The lifetime
characteristics of BESS have not been fully studied in many
RE-based microgrid [20].
3.2 Base transceiver station/GSM base station
The roles of telecommunication and information
communication technology (ICT) in the fourth industrial
revolution cannot be overemphasized, specifically, global
system for mobile (GSM). The most energy demanding
device in the GSM network is the base transceiver station
(BTS). Close to 90% of the total energy consumed in the
mobile network is used by equipment in the BTS. The BTS
provides the frequency interface between the communication
network and user [43], hence it is a critical load that needs
uninterrupted power supply for quality of service. As at 2012,
about 40% of BTs in the world are off-grid not connected to
the main electricity grid. As a result, most of the BTS are
powered by diesel generators, the operational expenditure
(OPEX) of which could be ten times more on a yearly basis
and in addition produces approximately 33.3 tons of carbon
dioxide (CO2) annually. In recent years, BTS powered by
RES have gained the attention of GSM service providers [44].
For economic and environmental reasons, the power systems
for GSM and 4G base stations located in remote areas are now
designed with RES. In [45], a hybrid RE plant is proposed
comprising of solar PV, a wind turbine and a fuel cell (with
hydrogen production and storage facility). As reported in
[46], carbon emission can be reduced by over 87.47% while
the total fuel (diesel) consumption reduced by over 10 400
litres per annum using a hybrid of wind turbine and solar PV
as main power supply and a diesel generator as back up for
the BTS. The use of RES to power BTS is further justified in
[47]. Besides the high cost of diesel fuel and cost of its
transport to the BTS, the BTS are sources of pollution due to
huge green-house gas emissions. Therefore, use of RES
reduces energy costs significantly and also improves the
energy efficiency of the BTS in remote areas.
3.3 University campus microgrid
The university campus is an idea environment to
encourage the development of energy sustainability and
utilization of RE [48]. Institutional or university campuses
can be easily transformed to microgrid having many
buildings that are closely located. These buildings are
connected electrically within the same network that is
connected usually to the main grid through a single point of
common coupling (PCC), allowing seamless transition
between islanding mode and grid connected mode [12], [17].
In other words, due to small distance between DERs, and
loads in university campuses, the development of a microgrid
comes handy [13]. A typical campus microgrid could consist
of (i) the energy generation (both controllable and RES), (ii)
the energy storage system (iii) the load (critical and non-
critical) and (iv) controllers for interconnection with the main
grid. Figure 3 below shows 24-hour (31st October 2018) load
profile of the Howard College campus of the university of
kwa-zulu natal (UKZN) as well as the solar irradiance for
same day. The load data is obtained with permission from the
UKZN energy management office and the solar irradiance is
as measured by the SAURAN weather station equipment
(pyranometer) located on the campus. As it can be seen the
peak load occurred over the period of high irradiance and with
adequate investment and good technical design of solar PV,
energy cost of the campus can be reduced. The city of
eThekwini electricity office has designed a solar map that
calculates and estimate possible costs and potential savings
for residents in the city of Durban, South Africa who want to
install Photovoltaic panels on their roofs [49].
4 UNIVERSITY CAMPUS MICROGRID AROUND 4.1 Objectives
THE WORLD It is important to understand the fundamental reasons
There is no doubt that university campuses around the world where UCM is to be implemented. Among the several
can become sustainable universities by developing microgrid objectives of the microgrid to be implemented at the MCAST
systems, particularly PV systems. An example is found in campus is to serve as pilot projects for demonstrating and
University of Southampton (Highfield campus), where 5 016 implementing novel ideas relating to microgrids and
PV panels are installed to meet about 3.76 % of the annual smartgrids. Also, students and staff are engaged in research
energy demands in the campus with a payback period of 5.6 that will improve energy efficiency on campus [12]. The
years [48]. A typical UCM single line diagram is shown in primary objective of the microgrid at the Jiangan campus of
Figure 4. Sichuan university (SCU) is to investigate the potential of
16000 solar power in building sustainable university [48]. Three
objectives for a UCM according to [14] are;
14000
a) To help the campus avoid peak load in period of
12000 high demand
10000 b) To satisfy part of the residential campus load
8000 c) To charge employees’ electric vehicles
Whereas, the microgrid implemented at the university of
6000
California, San Diego (UCSD) aims to create a self-
4000 sustaining campus and reduce the university’s carbon
2000 footprint [34]. The campus was able to buy gas at an attractive
0 rate thereby reducing the payback period [16]. According to
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 the report in [8], the main objective of ABB microgrid
solution is to demonstrate how DERs would work together to
Campus Load Profile [kW] reduce costs and emissions on a typical grid. A proposed
Solar irradiance Profile [W/m2 ] energy resource management (ERM) in [50] was applied to
distribution network of a university campus in Portugal to test
Fig 3: Typical 24-hour solar irradiance and campus load profiles and validate the hour-ahead and the day-ahead resources
scheduling. The common objective of the microgrids
developed at university of Genoa and Technical University of
Main
Grid Eindhoven is to reduce the usage of fossil-based energy
generation and to improve economic performance as well as
the reliability [51]. The smart polygeneration microgrid
PCC
(SPM) at the Savona campus of Genoa university has two
main objectives: to serve as a test bed for testing, research and
development and to generate clean energy for the university
loads [52], [53]. One of the nine campuses of the Democritus
University of Thrace (DUTH), the Kimneria campus located
in the city of Xanthi in Greece is used as attest case to (i)
minimize electricity costs (ii) design the campus energy
Substation 2
Substation 1

management (iii) develop campus model in studies of active

distribution networks and (iv) raise awareness on energy
saving [54]. The paper investigated the real and reactive
power consumption of nine campuses of DUTH for the
purpose of energy benchmarking of the campuses. The focus
of [21] is to study the performance of the Washington State
University (WSU) microgrid system when DG is added. As
at May 2014, the microgrid at WSU is made up of 1.75 MW
diesel generator and two natural gas generators with total
capacity of 2.2 MW. The campus microgrid at Illinois
M Institute of Technology (IIT), Chicago has a master controller
with the following objectives; (i) to reduce daily peak load
Diesel PV Load PV Load
Generator
Battery (ii) to eliminate costly outages and power disturbances (iii) to
supply the hourly campus load profile and (iv) to mitigate
Building A Building B greenhouse gas production [23].
4.2 UCM Configuration/ Structure
Fig 4: A single line diagram for a typical UCM A proposed UCM in [14] consist of a 300 kW rated
rooftop PV array, a super capacitor storage system of 130 F,
a Li-Ion battery storage system and a fuel cell of 15 kW. The
connected loads are 34 student apartment and electric
vehicles. Included in this UCM are power electronic inverters
and smart switches for connection or disconnection of various
devices. For example, the microgrid developed at IIT is made
up of a small turbine, 2 x 4 MW combined cycle gas units and
a 500 kWh energy storage unit. The microgrid at the
Hangzhou Dianzi University in China has a 120 kW diesel
generator, 120 kW solar system, some fuel cells with the
energy storage system consisting of a 50 kWh battery and a
100kW capacitor [12]. In developing the microgrid at
MCAST, three buildings having a total of 63 kW (21 kW
each) PV installed on their rooftops, a 15-20 kWh battery
storage system (BSS) and a diesel generator are configured
for the UCM. The diesel generator is sized with the BSS such
that the base and intermediate loads during islanded operation
are meet. Solar PV panels were installed on roofs of four
buildings at SCU located in Shuanghu, Chengdu, South West
China rated at 6, 25, 50 and 75 kWp respectively producing a
total of 137 241.3 kWh in 2017, while the total energy
demand of the Jiangan campus in 2016 was approximately 22
million kWh [48]. The UCSD microgrid is made up of the
followings [34];
i. 3 MW of rooftop PV installed on all structurally
available rooftops
ii. 2.8 MW fuel cells (using bio-gas from the local
city of San Diego)
iii. 3.8 million-gal thermal energy storage system
(used to reduced peak)
iv. Lithium-Ion batteries with approximate capacity
of 138 kW/210 kWh
v. 125-kW/300kWh flow battery energy storage
system.
The main components of the microgrid in DUTH campus are;
a 20 kWp PV unit, a 10 kW/50 kWh ESS, a smart microgrid
energy management system (SMEMS) and electrical loads.
The SMESS controls and coordinates other components of
the microgrid by sending appropriate system signals based on
network data recorded [54]. There is an on-going project at
Durban University of Technology (DUT), Durban South
Africa to install more solar PV panels on the S block of the
Steve Biko campus for teaching and research purposes.
Presently at DUT, a 8 kW solar PV is installed on the rooftop
of the library building complex, Fig 5 shows a daily energy
generation profile for 22 January 2018.
Fig 5: Daily generation profile
4.3 Result and benefit
Two case studies were presented in [12] to demonstrate
operation of the microgrid in both islanded and grid
connected modes. The microgrid was able to exchange a
constant power of 50 kW with the main grid and operate
successfully in peak shaving mode consuming a max of 90
kW. It is reported in [48] that if the total installed capacity
at the Jiangan campus is between 8.3 and 11.6 MW, 33%
to 46% of energy demand of the campus will be covered
using solar PV and also mitigate carbon pollution on
campus. Through system optimization, the UCSD
microgrid generates 92% (of its own annual electricity
load) and 95% of heating and cooling load saving more
than US $800 000 per month. In all, the microgrid solution
at UCSD contributes to economic and reliable integration
of DERs [34]. The application of micro-optimal power
flow (µ-OPF) to the microgrid of Chalmers university
campus results into reduced total operation cost. With the
cost of battery storage expected to go down in future, the
investment in battery storage will be cost –effective.
Lastly, increasing the number of solar PV means improved
economic performance of the ESS [51]. The proposed
SMEMS for the DUTH microgrid results in an average
monthly saving of € 688 and a yearly saving of € 8258 [54].
It also shows that for every 20 Kw increase in PV capacity,
there would be a 2.8% reduction in average energy
consumed.
5 CONCLUSION
This paper successfully considers the prospects of
implementing microgrids on university campuses with
integration of RES. Apart from the technical and
environmental benefits of microgrid, the rising electricity
tariff and load shedding (interrupting the operations of the
universities as experienced recently in South Africa) should
be major drives for universities to consider the design and
implementation of UCM. The ivory tower needs to take the
driver seat in developing sustainable energy and intensify in
research that will increase the percentage of RESs in the
generation mix. Conclusively, UCM would enable
universities to meet their energy demands, especially critical
loads during outages or power disturbances in the main grid.
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available for a bts site," International Journal of Engineering, Akure (Nigeria) in December 1997.
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He then worked for several years in
Nov. 2013.
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power systems for GSM and 4G base stations in South Africa," 2017 Engineering at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. His research
IEEE AFRICON, Cape Town, 2017, pp. 1003-1008. interests are in power system stability, control, and optimization. He
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university,” Energy Procedia, vol. 145, pp. 582-585, July 2018. Engineering, MSc (Eng.) degrees
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in Electrical Engineering from
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2015 IEEE Eindhoven PowerTech, Eindhoven, 2015, pp. 1-6. in 1984 and 1987 respectively;
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Barillari, "The Smart Polygeneration Microgrid test-bed facility of Electrical Engineering, from the
Genoa University," 2012 47th International Universities Power University of Cape Town,
Engineering Conference (UPEC), London, 2012, pp. 1-6. Rondebosch, South Africa, in
[52] S. Bracco, F. Delfino, F. Pampararo, M. Robba and M. Rossi " The 1998; and the Post-Graduate
University of Genoa smart polygeneration microgrid test-bed facility:
Diploma in Business Management, from University of KwaZulu-
The overall system, the technologies and the research challenges,"
Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, vol. 18, pp. 442-459, Natal (UKZN), in 2004. He was Associate Professor of Electrical
February 2013. Engineering and a Research Coordinator with the University of
[53] M. Z. Elenkova, T. A. Papadopoulos, A. I. Psarra and A. A. Namibia, Namibia, from 2012 to 2014. He was Director of the
Chatzimichail, "A simulation platform for smart microgrids in Eskom Centre of Excellence in HVDC Engineering, UKZN, from
university campuses," 2017 52nd International Universities Power 2014 to 2016. He is currently a Full Professor and the Chair,
Engineering Conference (UPEC), Heraklion, 2017, pp. 1-6. Department of Electrical Power Engineering, at Durban University
[54] T. A. Papadopoulos, G. T. Giannakopoulos, V. C. Nikolaidis, A. S. of Technology, Durban, South Africa. His current research interests
Safigianni and I. P. Panapakidis, "Study of electricity load profiles in
include the grid integration of renewable energy using smart
university campuses: The case study of Democritus University of
Thrace," Mediterranean Conference on Power Generation, technologies and innovation for smart cities.
Transmission, Distribution and Energy Conversion (MedPower
2016), Belgrade, 2016, pp. 1-8.
Presenting author: The paper will be presented by Kayode T.
Kayode T. Akindeji has a B.Sc Akindeji
(Electronic and Electrical
Engineering) and M.Sc
(Electronic and Electrical
Engineering) both obtained at
Obafemi Awolowo University,
Ile –Ife, Nigeria. He is presently
doing his PhD (Electrical
Engineering) at University of
Kwa-Zulu Natal (UKZN),
Durban, South Africa. He also
lectures at the Department of
Electrical Power Engineering,
Durban University of Technology
(DUT), his research interest includes Smartgrids, Renewable Energy,
Distributed Generation, and Micro-grid.