CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Landfilling involves the controlled disposal of solid waste on or in the upper layer of
the earth’s mantle. Disposal on or in the earth’ mantle is, at present, the only viable
method for the long-term handling of solid waste that are commonly generated in the
society which is not for further uses in daily life of humans. Landfilling is the
method of disposal used most commonly for municipal wastes. Land farming and
Deep-well injection have been commonly used for industrial wastes. Although
incineration is often considered a disposal method but it is really considered a
processing method. Improved aspects in the implementation of sanitary landfills
includes:

• Site selection,
• Landfilling methods and Operations
• Occurrence of gases and leachate in landfills
• Movement and Control of landfill gases and leachate.

1.2. Municipal Solid Waste(MSW)

Municipal solid waste in developing countries mainly consist of degradable
materials (>70), which plays a significant role in GHG (Greenhouse gas) emissions
in urban localities. The increasing municipal solid waste generation along with the
high fraction of organic waste and its unscientific disposal is leading to emission of
GHG (methane, CO2, etc.) in the atmosphere. Proportion of municipal solid wastes
collected by the agencies disposed at identified sites is about 60%, while the balance
is disposed-off at unauthorized disposal sites leading to the environmental
consequences including greenhouse gas emissions. Mitigation strategy necessitates
understanding of composition of waste for its treatment and management in an
environmentally sound way. The study revealed that the per capita waste generated
is about 91.01 ± 45.5 g/day with the per capita organic waste generation of 74 ± 35
g/person/day. The household per capita waste generation was positively related with
income and education levels, while negatively related with family (household) size.
The organic fractions constitute 82% with the strong recovery potential and
conversion to energy or compost range. The total organic waste generated is about
231.01 Gg/year and due to mismanagement consequent emissions are about 604.80
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Gg/year. Integrated solid waste management strategy is suggested to manage the

organic fractions through technology and policy interventions, which helps in
mitigating GHG emissions with potential economic benefits.

1.3. Sources of MSW

Organic

Kitchen, Agro,
Vegetable and
Garden Waste

MSW
(Municipal solid
Waste)

Recyclable Inert

Plastic, Paper, Sand, pebbles

tin-can, metals, and gravels
glass,etc.

Figure 1.1. Sources of MSW.

Figure 1.2. Composition of MSW in India

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The general sources of MSW are household wastes like kitchen waste, vegetable
waste, plastics, tin-cans, metals etc. The inert types of waste may include pebbles
and sands that mix up easily with other organic MSWs. As mentioned earlier,
Organic part of the waste generally covers 82% of the MSW on a regular basis.

1.4. Process of MSW management

As shown in the figure 1.2., the MSW is first collected and goes through a process of
separation, handling and storage where recyclable and reusable things are separated
off the collected waste. The recyclable and reusable material is sent to a material
recoverable facility where material is further processed to obtain new application.
The waste that mainly includes organic waste can be treated in three ways
biologically, thermally and by landfill techniques.

Municipal Solid
Waste management
(MSW)

Handling &
Separation/ Storage Reduce, Reuse and
& Processing Recycle

Collection &
Transport

Biological Treatment
Aerobic Digestion/compost
Anaerobic Digestion
Landfill

Household waste
Thermal Treatment Hazardous waste
Incineration Dry Tomb
Pyrolysis Bioreactor
Gasification
Thermolysis
Energy from waste

Figure 1.3. Process of Municipal Solid Waste management

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The most preferable method for municipal waste management is Landfill which has
prevalent effects on environment and nearby resources. The drinking water
resources are mostly affected by land-filling process.

1.5. Landfills
Landfills are site for waste disposal by the method of burying which is one of the
oldest from of waste management. Landfills are the most common methods of waste
disposal and are the same in most of the place around the world. Landfills are also
used for waste management purposes like for temporary storage, consolidation,
transfer and processing of waste material. Landfills are the main method of solid-
waste disposal as it is the simplest and most cost effective practice for storing the
MSW waste (Williams,2005). Moreover, the collection, transportation and disposal
of MSW are unscientific and unplanned in developing countries, such as India
(Gupta et al., 1998). Landfill sites act as biological reactors, in which refues
undergoes physical, chemical and biological transformation. Land filled putrescible
waste causes gas and leachate production (Regadío et al., 2015). The leachate is an
aqueous liquid stream generated from waste landfill site due to the percolation of
rainwater through the waste and inherent moisture carrying the soluble (toxic and
nontoxic) products of biochemical reactions occurring within the disposed waste
(Renou et al., 2008). The quantity and quality of leachate is primarily influenced by
the amount, waste composition and its solubility, moisture content of the solid
waste, as well as by local factors such as hydrogeological conditions, climate, and
height and type of landfill (Johansen and Carlson, 1976; Chu et al., 1994). The
composition of leachate varies significantly across landfills mainly due to waste
characteristics, composition, degradation stage and the land-filling technology. The
unscientific collection, segregation, disposal practices of MSW along with the
prevailing climatic condition and geology produce highly concentrated leachates
(Statomet al., 2004; Tatsi and Zouboulis, 2002; Kale et al., 2008). Generally, it
contains substantial amounts of dissolved organics[(biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD5) and chemical oxygen demand (COD)], inorganic salts, ammonia, heavy
metals and xenobiotic organic compounds (XOCs) that are originated from personal
care products, pharmaceuticals, industrial and household chemicals. The disposal of
the solid waste specially the municipal solid waste (MSW) constitutes an important
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and emerging problem. Globally, Solid waste generation is a natural phenomenon

and amount of waste produced is directly proportional to the population growth.
Less population means less demand for food and shelter, as well as lesser pressure
on other natural resources for their various needs. The last five decades have resulted
in an uncontrolled exploitation of different kinds of natural resources due to rapid
urbanization, industrialization and changes in the way of life. The uncontrolled
misuse of the abundant resources has finally resulted in generation of a huge
quantity of complex solid waste. The sustainable waste management practices are
necessary to keep the environment clean and green.
In present circumstances it is advisable that waste products of one industry
should be investigated be with an intention to use it as raw material for other
industry to get the desired product. Urban/municipal solid waste (MSW) is usually
regarded as the waste that is generated from human settlements, small industries,
commercial and municipal activities. There are few more sources from which MSW
originates i.e. waste water treatment. The A.S.A. Hungary Ltd. operated landfill is
located in Gyál –Hungary, where 100,000–150,000 tons of mixed municipal solid
waste is land-filled every year. Up till now five landfill sections have been put into
operation. The landfill under study represents an up-to-date facility. The applied
land-filling technology includes land-filled waste compaction with compactors and
periodical inert material covering. There is an installed advanced leachate collection
system with drainage and isolated leachate ponds. Leachate is sprayed back into the
waste body regularly without pre-treatment. There is an installed state of the art
active type of landfill gas extraction (vacuum is applied) and utilization system as
well. The installed electricity production power is higher than 2 MW. The anaerobic
degradation process in a landfill accepting biodegradable organic waste produces
landfill gas (LFG), which primarily consists of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide
(CO2). CO2 and CH4 are prominent greenhouse gases (GHGs) with CH4 having a
global warming potential 34 times that of CO2 over the 100-year time period (IPCC
2013), which if left to vent to the atmosphere poses potential climate change
impacts. In Canada, about 25% of anthropogenic CH4 emissions were from landfills
in 2001 (Environment Canada, 2002). However, instead of releasing into the
atmosphere, CH4 can be collected and harnessed as a clean renewable source of
energy (Bouallagui et al.,2003; Perez Lopez et al., 2005; Forster-Carneiro et al.,
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2008) or fugitive emissions could be mitigated by oxidizing the CH4 gas to carbon
dioxide (CO2) through various bio-based technologies such as landfill bio-covers,
CH4 bio-filters, bio-windows or bio-tarps (Majdinasab and Yuan, 2017). To ensure
regulatory compliance, efficient design of gas collection and recovery systems, it is
important to accurately quantify the rate and amount of CH4 generation (Krause et
al., 2016). Another reason to accurately quantify CH4 generation is in the
opportunity to purchase carbon credits as a result of the amount of carbon dioxide
equivalent (CO2 eqv.) of CH4 emissions controlled through recovery or mitigation
projects.

Figure 1.4. (a) Unmanaged Landfill (b) Modern Landfill

1.6. Advantage and Disadvantages of landfills

1.6.1. Advantages of landfills
• The main advantage is that burying can produce energy and can be obtained
by the conversion of landfill gas.
• The waste products of landfills can be used as direct fuel for combustion or
indirectly they can be processed into another fuel.
• Landfill is a specific location for waste deposition that can be monitored.
• On completion of the landfill it can be reclaimed and it can be used as parks
or farming land.
• In properly designed landfills the waste can be processed and all recyclable
materials can be used before closing.
• Organic material can also be separated from a properly designed landfill
which can be used for compost or production of natural gas.

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• The landfills that are properly managed can capture the natural gas or
methane that is produced by the underground decomposing material.

1.6.2. Disadvantages of landfills

• Landfills that are poorly designed or operated share more problems that are
faced at the uncontrolled dumping areas.
• The areas surrounding the landfills become heavily polluted.
• Landfill can pollute air, water and also the soil.
• In a poorly developed landfill it is difficult to keep the dangerous chemicals
from leaching out into the surrounding area.
• Dangerous chemicals can seep into the ground water system.
• Many insects and rodents are attracted to landfills and can result in
dangerous diseases.
• It can cause diseases and illness in the communities living around the
landfill.

1.7. Concerns involved in Land-filling of MSWs

The major concerns in land-filling of Municipal solid waste management are
enlisted below:
i. Uncontrolled release of landfill gases that might migrate off site and cause
odour and other potentially dangerous conditions.
ii. Impact of the uncontrolled discharge of landfill gases on the green house
effect in the atmosphere.
iii. Uncontrolled release of leachate that might migrate down to underlying
groundwater or to surface water.
iv. Breeding and hard boring of diseases vectors in improperly managed landfill.
v. Health and the environmental impact associated with the release of the trace
gases arising from the hazardous materials that were often placed in landfill.
vi. Objective for the design and operation of a modern landfill is to eliminate or
minimize the impacts associated with these concerns.

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Figure 1.5. Leachate at a landfill site

1.8. Modern Landfill
Well-engineered facilities that are located, designed, operated, and monitored to
ensure compliance with environmental regulations. Solid waste landfills must be
designed to protect the environment from contaminants which may be present in the
solid waste stream. The landfill siting plan which prevents the siting of landfills in
environmentally-sensitive areas as well as on-site environmental monitoring systems
which monitor for any sign of groundwater contamination and for landfill gas
provide additional safeguards is termed as modern landfill. Figure1.4. shows the
diagram of a modern landfill. The major features and considerations for a modern
day landfill are:
• Location restrictions ensure that landfills are built in suitable geological areas
away from faults, wetlands, flood plains, or other restricted areas.

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• Composite liners requirements include a flexible membrane (geomembrane)

overlaying two feet of compacted clay soil lining the bottom and sides of the
landfill, protect groundwater and the underlying soil from leachate releases.
• Leachate collection and removal systems sit on top of the composite liner
and removes leachate from the landfill for treatment and disposal.
• Operating practices include compacting and covering waste frequently with
several inches of soil (to) help reduce odor; control litter, insects, and
rodents; and protect public health.
• Groundwater monitoring requirements requires testing groundwater wells to
determine whether waste materials have escaped from the landfill.
• Closure and post-closure care requirements include covering landfills and
providing long-term care of closed landfills.
• Corrective action provisions control and clean up landfill releases and
achieves groundwater protection standards.
• Financial assurance provides funding for environmental protection during
and after landfill closure (i.e., closure and postclosure care)."

Figure 1.6. Diagram of a modern landfill

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1.9. Water Contamination by Landfill

Landfills have been identified as one of the major threats to groundwater resources
not only in India but throughout the world (United States Environmental Protection
Agency US EPA). More than 90% of the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generated
in India is directly dumped on land in an unsatisfactory manner. The solid waste
placed in landfills or open dumps are subjected to either groundwater underflow or
infiltration from precipitation or any other possibility of infiltration of water. During
rainfall, the dumped solid wastes receivers water and the by-products of its
decomposition move into the water through the waste deposition. The liquid
containing innumerable organic and inorganic compounds is called 'leachate'. This
leachate accumulates at the bottom of the landfill and percolates through the soil and
reaches the groundwater.

Areas near landfills have a greater possibility of groundwater contamination because

of the potential pollution source of leachate originating from the nearby dumping
site. Such contamination of groundwater results in a substantial risk to local
groundwater resource user and to the natural environment. The impact of landfill
leachate on the surface and groundwater has given rise to a number of studies in
recent years and gained major importance due to drastic increase in population.
There are many approaches that can be used to assess the groundwater and surface
water contamination. It can be assessed either by the experimental determination of
the impurities or their estimation through mathematical modeling.

1.10. Water Quality Assessment

Water quality assessment provides the base line information on water safety. Since
water quality in any source of water and at the point of use, can change with time
and other factors, continuous monitoring of water is essential. WHO guidelines
provide values for 96 substances (out of 128 chemicals initially reviewed). It is very
expensive, time consuming, difficult and largely unnecessary to test for all these
parameters. The list of parameters to be selected from the guidelines and included in
any water assessment and monitoring program will vary according to the local
conditions. This Technical Bulletin aims at providing parameters that are basic and
generally considered priorities in any water quality assessment programme. It also
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presents the testing kits that have been identified so far by BIS for assessment and
monitoring programmes.
The following basic parameters should be included:
i. Microbiological parameters: basic microbiological tests should cover
thermo- tolerant coliforms (a group of bacteria that grow at 44°C) and faecal
streptococci. In addition, physical and chemical parameters, such as
disinfectant residuals, pH and turbidity, affect the microbiological quality of
water.
ii. Physical parameters: in addition to turbidity, mentioned above, conductivity,
colour, taste and odour might cause rejection of water.
iii. Harmful chemicals: nitrate, iron, arsenic, fluoride, lead, cyanide, metals
(aluminium, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, mercury), selenium,
organics (including pesticides and disinfectant by-products), alkalinity and
corrosivity.

Table 1. PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LAKE WATER IN INDIA

Sr No Parameter BIS specification
1 Appearance Clear
2 Colour 5 Hazen max
3 Turbidity 5 NTU max
4 pH 6.5-8.5
5 EC Not mentioned
6 Alkalinity 200 mg/L max
7 Fluoride 1 mg/L max
8 Chloride 250 mg/L max
9 Phosphate Not mentioned
10 Sulphate 200 mg/L max
11 Total Hardness 300 mg/L max
12 Calcium Hardness 75 mg/L max
13 Mg Hardness 30 mg/L
14 Total Dissolved Solids 500 mg/L max
15 Silica Not mentioned

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1.11. SCOPE OF THE WORK

In the present study, the impact of leachate percolation on groundwater quality was
estimated from an unlined landfill site at Jhiri village of Ranchi District, Jharkhand.
Various physicochemical parameters including heavy metals were analyzed in the
leachate and in groundwater samples to understand the possible link of groundwater
contamination. The effect of depth and distance of landfill from groundwater sources
were also studied and some remedial measures were discussed to reduce further
contamination of groundwater.
Herein, this dissertation work would focus on following points:
i. Collection of water samples from water resources nearby to landfill area of
Jhiri, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
ii. To determine pH, Electrical conductivity, Alkalinity, Acidity, Hardness,
Chloride and free CO2 content of the collected water samples to study the
effects of landfill of municipal solid waste in nearby areas.

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