Terms to know in Mendelian Genetics heterozygote has a different, intermediate phenotype compared to
the homozygous dominant or homozygous recessive individuals,
alleles
The different forms of a gene. Y and y are different alleles of the
gene that determines seed color. Alleles occupy the same locus,
or position, on chromosomes.
autosomal
A locus on any chromosome but a sex chromosome. Not sex-
linked.
co-dominant alleles
Two different alleles at a locus are responsible for different
phenotypes, and both alleles affect the phenotype of the
heterozygote. For example, consider the situation where there are
three alleles A,B, and O that determine human blood type. Three
possible genotypes are AA, BB, OO that correspond to the
phenotypes of blood type A, B, and O respectively; Two other
genotypes are AO and BO that correspond to blood types A and
B, respectively because the O allele is recessive, The remaining
genotype is AB, corresponding to blood type AB. Both the A and
B alleles contribute to the phenotype of the heterozygote. Thus
the alleles A and B are said to be co-dominant.
complete linkage.
Complete linkage describes the inheritance patterns for 2 genes
on the same chromosome when the observed frequency for
crossover between the loci is zero.
dioecious
Organisms produce only one type of gamete; i.e. humans
dominant trait.
A trait expressed preferentially over another trait.
Drosophila melanogaster
The fruit fly, a favorite organism for genetic analysis.
epistasis.
One gene masks the expression of a different gene for a different
trait.
F1 generation
Offspring of a cross between true breeding plants, homozygous
for the trait of interest
F2 generation
Offspring of a cross involving the F1 generation.
genotype
The genetic constitution of an organism with respect to a trait. For
a single trait on an autosome, an individual can be homozygous
for the dominant trait, heterozygous, or homozygous for the
recessive trait. Yellow seeds are dominant, but yellow seeded
plants could have a genotype of either YY or Yy.
hemizygous
If there is only one copy of a gene for a particular trait In a diploid
organism, the organism is hemizygous for the trait, and will
display a recessive phenotype. X-linked genes in fly or human
males are hemizygous.
heterozygous
Differing alleles for a trait in an individual, such as Yy.
homologous chromosomes
The pair of chromosomes in a diploid individual that have the
same overall genetic content. One member of each homologous
pair of chromosomes in inherited from each parent.
homozygous
Both alleles for a trait are the same in an individual. They can be
homozygous dominant (YY), or homozygous recessive (yy).
hybrid
heterozygous; usually referring to the offspring of two true-
breeding (homozygous) individuals differing in the traits of
interest.
incomplete dominance
Intermediate phenotype in F1, parental phenotypes reappear in
F2. The flowers of the snapdragon plant can be red, pink, or
white. Color is determined at a single locus. The genotype RR
results in red flowers and rr results in white flowers. The
heterozygote genotype of Rr results in pink flowers. When the
this is said to be incomplete dominance.
lethal alleles.
Mutated genes that are capable of causing death.
linkage.
genes that are inherited together on the same chromosome.
Three inheritance patterns are possible: non-linkage, Partial
linkage, and complete linkage.
mendel's law of independent assortment of alleles.
Alleles of different genes are assorted independently of one
another during the formation of gametes.
mendel's law of segregation
Alleles segregate from one another during the formation of
gametes.
monoecious
Organisms produce both male and female gametes; i.e. garden
pea.
monohybrid cross.
Cross involving parents differing in only one trait.
mutation
Change in the DNA sequence of a gene to some new, heritable
form. Generally, but now always a recessive allele.
non-linkage.
Non-linkage describes the inheritance patterns for 2 genes on the
same chromosome, when the expected frequency for crossover
between the loci is at least one. The observed inheritance patters
for non-linked genes on the same chromosome is the same as for
2 genes on different chromosomes.
partial linkage.
Partial linkage describes one of the inheritance patterns for 2
genes on the same chromosome, when the expected frequency
for crossover between the loci is greater than zero but less than
one. From partial linkage analysis we can learn about the order
and spacing of genes on the same chromosome.
phenotype
The physical appearance of an organism with respect to a trait,
i.e. yellow (Y) or green (y) seeds in garden peas. The dominant
trait is normally represented with a capital letter, and the
recessive trait with the same lower case letter.
pleiotropic.
A single gene determines more than one phenotype for an
organism.
recessive trait.
The opposite of dominant. A trait that is preferentially masked.
reciprocal cross
Using male and female gametes for two different traits, alternating
the source of gametes.
sex chromosomes
Sex determination is based on sex chromosomes
sex-linked.
A gene coded on a sex chromosome, such as the X-chromosome
linked genes of flies and man.
test cross
Generally a cross involving a homozygous recessive individual.
When a single trait is being studies, a test cross is a cross
between an individual with the dominant phenotype but of
unknown genotype (homozygous or heterozygous) with a
homozygous recessive individual. If the unknown is heterozygous,
then approximately 50% of the offspring should display the
recessive phenotype.
true-breeding
Homozygous for the true-breeding trait.
wild-type allele
The non-mutant form of a gene, encoding the normal genetic
function. Generally, but not always a dominant allele.
MENDELIAN GENETICS
Mendelian genetics typically means the recognizable patterns or rules that
are associated with single gene inheritance. These patterns include
segregation of the different gene states, or alleles, from a hybrid individual
to produce two types of gametes, one for each of the two alleles. Depending
on the characteristics of the trait associated with the alleles, whether
dominant, codominant or recessive, and the genotypes for both parents,
segregation from single gene hybrids leads to recognizable patterns such as
the well known 3:1 ratio among the offspring. The rules of Mendelian
genetics extend to following two or more hybrid genes simultaneously, each
following the patterns known from single gene inheritance. The observation
that inheritance of a specific trait fits the patterns of segregation and known
ratios in the offspring is recognized by describing the trait as showing
Mendelian genetic behavior, with the conclusion that the trait is due to an
allele difference at a single gene.
Johann Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
Father of Genetics
Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental
laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited
as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked the segregation of
parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or
recessive traits. He recognized the mathematical patterns of inheritance from
one generation to the next. Mendel's Laws of Heredity are usually
stated as:
1) The Law of Segregation: Each inherited trait is defined by a
gene pair. Parental genes are randomly separated to the sex cells
so that sex cells contain only one gene of the pair. Offspring
therefore inherit one genetic allele from each parent when sex
cells unite in fertilization.
- states that allele pairs separate or segregate
during gamete formation, and randomly unite at fertilization.
There are four main concepts related to this principle. They are as
follows:
 A gene can exist in more than one form or allele.
 Organisms inherit two alleles for each trait.
 When sex cells are produced (by meiosis), allele pairs separate
leaving each cellwith a single allele for each trait.
 When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant, and
the other is recessive.
For example, the gene for seed color in pea plants exists in two forms. There
is one form or allele for yellow seed color (Y) and another for green seed
color (y). In this example, the allele for yellow seed color is dominant, and
the allele for green seed color is recessive. When the alleles of a pair are
different (heterozygous), the dominant allele trait is expressed, and the
recessive allele trait is masked. Seeds with the genotype of (YY) or (Yy) are
yellow, while seeds that are (yy) are green.
2) The Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are
sorted separately from one another so that the inheritance of one trait is not
dependent on the inheritance of another.
3) The Law of Dominance: An organism with alternate forms of a gene will
express the form that is dominant.
The genetic experiments Mendel did with pea plants took him eight years
(1856-1863) and he published his results in 1865. During this time, Mendel
grew over 10,000 pea plants, keeping track of progeny number and type.
Mendel's work and his Laws of Inheritance were not appreciated in his time.
It wasn't until 1900, after the rediscovery of his Laws, that his experimental
results were understood.
GREGOR MENDEL (1822-1884)
- Australian monk in Monastery of St. Thomas in Brunn, now Brno, Czech
Republic).
- Founder of genetics.
- High school Physics teacher
- devote his free time in experimenting pea plants which were readily
available then, easy to propagate, and produced large numbers of offspring.
When he was breeding plants, he began cross-pollinating peas
with contrasting traits. The pure breeding peas constituted the parental or P
generation. All offspring of these crosses resembled one another.
The offspring of the parental cross are called the first filial or F1
generation. He also called this a hybrids because they resulted from a
cross between two pure breeding plants with contrasting traits. When the
plant from the F1 generation were crossed with each other or self-pollinated,
the offspring (F2 or second filial generation) were of two types.
Mendel’s experiments enabled him to come up with the
Principles and Laws of Genetics, also known as Mendelian Genetics.
MENDEL’S PATTERNS OF INHERITANCE
1. Law of Probability
a. Phenotype & Genotype
Phenotype- the physical appearance of an organism
Genotype – the genetic makeup of an organism
b. Dominant trait & Recessive trait (Principle of Dominance)
Dominant
c. Genes
d. Alleles
2. Law of Segregation or Meiosis
- The two alleles for a character are packaged into separate gametes.
-Two copies of factor that is given by the parents to the offspring
1 allele – mother
1 allele – father
-Two alleles from father should separate and so with the mother
Ex. 46
23 23
3. Law of Independent Assortment
Summary of the Laws
I – hereditary factors (Genes) come in pairs
II – factor segregate in the formation of gametes or sex cells
III – one factor have segregated and are independent of each other