the amount of force exerted per

unit area.
Units:

The old air pump in the gasoline

stations used the unit pounds per
square inch (psi), which is
supposedly discouraged.
Units:

Later on, the new air pumps

used kilopascal (kPa) or newton
per square meter (N/m^2), the SI
unit for pressure.
Units:

In chemistry, a widely used unit for

pressure is the atmosphere (atm), but
the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry discourages its usage.
However, it takes some time for usage of
this unit to be discontinued.
Units:

Another old and popular unit for

pressure is the Torr (mmHg), yet the
International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry is also discouraging the usage
of this unit.
Units:

1atm = 760 Torr

(mmHg)
1atm = 101.3 kPa
Pressure (atm)
Volume (L)
Temperature (K)
K = ºC + 273.15
Boyle’s Law
Charles’ Law
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Combined Gas Law
Avogadro’s Law
Ideal Gas Law
Real Gas Law
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure
Graham’s Law of Diffusion
ROBERT BOYLE
Father of Modern Chemistry
Chemist and Natural Philosopher
Listmore, Ireland
January 25, 1627 – December 30 1690
The volume of a given amount of gas
is inversely proportional to its
pressure at constant temperature.
It is valid only if the amount of the
gas and the temperature is constant.
In equation:
P1 V1 = P2 V2
The graph of Boyle’s Law

The plot is called

ANISOTHERM – the
relationship exhibited
only at constant
temperature.
Solve the following problems:

1. A gas sample occupies a volume of

2.5L at a pressure of 1.5atm. What
would be the volume of the gas if its
pressure is reduced to 1atm at the
same temperature?
Solve the following problems:

2. The gas inside a balloon has a

volume of 15.0L at a pressure
2.0atm. Calculate the pressure of
the gas if its volume is compressed
to 10.0L at the same temperature.
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 1. A 40L balloon is filled with

gas at 4atm. What will be its new
volume at standard pressure of
1atm?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 2. A gas at 30.0°C occupies

500mL at a pressure of 1.00atm.
What will be its volume at a pressure
of 2.50atm?
JACQUES-ALEXANDRE CHARLES
Mathematician, Physicist, Inventor
Beaugency, France
November 12, 1746 – April 7, 1823
The volume of a given amount of gas is
directly proportional to its absolute
temperature at constant pressure.
It is valid only if the amount of the gas
and the pressure is constant.
In equation:
V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
The graph of Charles’ Law

The plot is called

ANISOBAR – the
relationship exhibited
only at constant
pressure.
Solve the following problems:

1. At 30ºC, the volume of a sample

of air was 5.8L. What would be the
volume of the air sample if it is
heated to 60ºC at the same
pressure?
Solve the following problems:
2. A given amount of oxygen gas has
a volume of 25.0L at a temperature
of 37ºC and a pressure of 1.0atm.
At what temperature would this gas
occupy a volume of 22.0L at a
pressure of 1.0atm?
Solve the following problems:
Q2. - 3. A balloon was inflated to a
volume of 2.5L at 11AM when the
temperature is 30°C. At 9PM, the
temperature fell to 10°C. What will
be the volume of the balloon if the
pressure remains constant?
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 - 4. A sample of 50.0L of
nitrogen at 20°C is compressed to
5.0L. What must the new
temperature (in Kelvin) be to
maintain constant pressure?
JOSEPH – LOUIS GAY – LUSSAC
Experimentalist
Limoges, France
December 6, 1778 – May 9,
1850
The pressure of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute
temperature (Kelvin).
It is valid only if the amount of the
gas and the volume is constant.
In equation:
P1 / T1 = P2 / T2
 The graph of
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Solve the following problems:

1. 25.0L of a gas is held in a fixed

container at 1.25atm at 20°C. What
will be the pressure of the gas if the
temperature is increased to 35°C?
Solve the following problems:

2. A container of gas is initially at

0.500atm and 25˚C. What will the
pressure be at 125˚C?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 5. A gas container is initially

at 47mmHg and 77K (liquid nitrogen
temperature.) What will the
pressure be when the container
warms up to room temperature of
25˚C?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 6. The temperature of a

sample of gas in a steel tank at
30.0kPa is increased from -
100.0˚C to 25.0˚C. What is the
final pressure inside the tank?
The ratio of the product of
pressure and volume and the
absolute temperature of a gas is
equal to a constant.
In equation:
P1V1 / T1 = P2V2 / T2
P1V1T2 = P2V2T1
Solve the following problems:
1. Helium in a 100mL container at a
pressure of 66.6kPa is transferred to a
container with a volume of 250mL. What
is the new pressure if no change in
temperature occurs? What is the new
pressure if the temperature changes
from 20oC to 15oC?
Solve the following problems:
2. What will have to happen to
the temperature of a sample of
methane if 1000mL at 98.6kPa
and 25oC is given a pressure of
108.5kPa and a volume of 900
mL?
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 - 7. A 5000mL container is filled with
helium gas to a pressure of 3.0atm at 250ºC.
Approximately how many toy balloons at STP
can be filled by helium from this container,
assuming each balloon can contain 1L? Recall
that STP means standard temperature and
pressure (1atm and 273.15K).
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 - 8. A bicycle tire was inflated to a
pressure of 3.74atm during early morning
when the temperature was 15ºC. At
noontime, the temperature rose to 35ºC.
What was the resulting pressure in the tire
(assuming that its volume is at standard and
it did not change)?
AMEDEO AVOGADRO
Physicist
Turin, Italy
August 9, 1776 – July 9, 1856
The volume of the gas at a given
temperature-pressure is directly
proportional to the number of
moles contained in the volume.

In equation:
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
This law is based on Avogadro’s hypothesis:
The same volume of two gases at the
same temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules.
The SI unit MOLE is related to the number
of molecules in a substance.
Experiments have shown that the volume
of 1.0mole of a gas at 0oC and 1atm is
22.4L.
Solve the following problems:

1. 1.0 mole of a gas occupies a

volume of 22.4L gas at 0ºC and
1atm. What would be the volume of
7.5 moles of the gas at the same
temperature and pressure?
Solve the following problems:

2. If I fill a balloon with 5.2 moles of

gas and it creates a balloon with a
volume of 23.5 liters, how many
moles are in a balloon at the same
temperature and pressure that has a
volume of 14.9 liters?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 – 9. A 25.5 liter balloon holding 3.5

moles of carbon dioxide leaks. If we are
able to determine that 1.9 moles of
carbon dioxide escaped before the
container could be sealed, what is the
new volume of the container?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 – 10. Pedro adds 1.25 moles of

helium to a balloon that already contained
4.51 moles of helium creating a balloon
with a volume of 8.97 liters. What was
the volume of the balloon before the
addition of the extra gas?
The volume (V) occupied by n moles of
any gas has a pressure (P) at
temperature (T) in Kelvin.
In equation:
PV = nRT
where R stands as the gas constant
with a value equal to
0.0821 L·atm
mol·K
The value of R can be calculated
from the molar volume at 0ºC and
at 1atm, where V=22.4L, using
the equation:
R = PV
nT
R = (1atm)(22.4L) / (1mol)(273K)
The ideal gas equation can be
transformed into an expression involving
density.
The number of moles (n) can be
expressed in terms of mass and molar
mass (weight or molecular weight).
In equation:
𝒎
PV= RT
𝑴
Using the equation:
𝒎
PV= RT
𝑴
We can derive a formula in finding for
density (ρ):

𝒎
PM= RT
𝑽

PM = ρRT
With this equation PM = ρRT with density
involved we can say that:
ρ 1T 1 = ρ 2T 2
This equation shows that the density of a gas
is inversely proportional to its temperature.
This means that hot air has a lower density
than cold air.
Applications: hot air balloon, passive cooling
in building design
Solve the following problems:

1. A gas sample occupies a

volume of 12.0L at 50ºC and
700Torr. How many moles of
gas are contained in the
sample?
Solve the following problems:

2. The volume of a gas sample

at 0ºC and 1.0atm is 10.0L.
How many moles of gas are
contained in the sample?
Solve the following problems:

3. Find the mass of 543mL of

acetylene gas, C2H2, collected
at a pressure of 85.0kPa and
standard temperature.
Solve the following problems:

4. What is the density of

CO2 gas measured at 5 C and
o

200 kPa?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 – 11. What pressure will

37.18grams of CO2 gas exert
on a container at standard
temperature and volume?
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 – 12. Calculate the

volume that will be occupied by
20.0g carbon dioxide at 25ºC
and 1.25atm.
Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 13. What is the density

of CH4 gas measured at 15 C o

and 150 kPa?

Solve the following problems:

Q2.1 - 14. Find the mass of

750mL of carbon dioxide gas
collected at a pressure of 55.0kPa
and standard temperature.
JOHANNES DIDERIK VAN DER WAAL
Mathematician and Physicist
Leyden, The Netherlands
November 23, 1837 – March 8,
1923
 Ideal Gas Real Gas
Obey PV=nRT Always Only at very low
P and high T
Molecular volume Zero Small but
nonzero
Molecular attractions Zero Small

Molecular repulsions Zero Small

Real molecules take up space
and interact with each other
(especially polar molecules).

Need to add correction

factors to the ideal gas law to
account for these.
Ideally, the volume of the molecules was
neglected in the ideal gas. For example:
Ar gas, to scale, in a box of
3nmx3nmx3nm

1atm 10atm 30atm

The following are the
necessary corrections needed:

VOLUME CORRECTION (V’)

PRESSURE CORRECTION
(Pc)
The actual volume free to move in is
less because of particle size.
More molecules will have more
effect.
Corrected volume will be
V’ = V – nb
where b is a constant that differs for
each gas
Because the molecules are
attracted to each other, the
pressure on the container will be less
than ideal.
Pressure depends on the number of
molecules per liter.
Since two molecules interact, the
effect must be squared.
In equation:

n 2
Pobserved  P  a ( )
V
Using the corrections, the equation for
the real gas law would be:
n 2
[Pobs  a ( ) ] (V  nb)  nRT
V
“a” and “b” are determined by
experiment, they are different for each
gas
bigger molecules have larger “b”
“a” depends on both size and polarity
Solve the following problems:
1. For nitrogen gas,
a=0.14L^2 atm mol^-2 and
b=3.87x10^-5L mol^-1. If
1.0 mole of nitrogen is confined
to 2.00L and is at P=10atm
what is Tig and TVdW?
Solve the following problems:
2. Carbon dioxide gas (1.00 mole) at 373
K occupies 536 mL at 50.0 atmosphere
pressure. What is the calculated value of
the pressure observed using Van der
Waals equation?
[Data - Van der Waals constants for
carbon dioxide: a = 3.61 L2 atm mol-2; b
= 0.0428 L mol-1]
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 15. (i) Using Van der Waals equation,
calculate the temperature of 20.0 mole of
helium in a 10.0 litre cylinder at 120
atmosphere pressure. [Data - Van der Waals
constants for helium: a = 0.0341 L2 atm mol-2;
b = 0.0237 L mol-1]
(ii) Compare this value with the temperature
calculated from the ideal gas equation.
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 16. Determine the pressure in atm
exerted by 1 mole of methane placed into a bulb
with a volume of 244.6mL at 25°C. Carry out
two calculations: in the first calculation,
assume that methane behaves as an ideal gas;
in the second calculation, assume that
methane behaves as a real gas and obeys the
van der Waals equation.
(a= 2.303 L2atm mol–2 and b= 0.0431 L/mol)
THOMAS GRAHAM
Chemist
Glasgow, United Kingdom
Dec. 20, 1805 – Sept. 16, 1869
It always proceeds from a region of
high concentration to a region of
lower concentration.
The process of gradual
mixing of molecules of one
gas with molecules of
another gas due to their
molecular motion (KE).
The passing of gas molecules
through a tiny opening in a
container.
Kinetic energy is determined by the
temperature of the gas.

At the same temperature& KE,

heavier molecules move more slowly.

Hence, larger M = smaller v

Consider two gases at same T:
Gas 1: KE = 1/2 m1v1^2
Gas 2: KE = 1/2 m2v2^2
 Since KE1 = KE2; hence, the
equation for Graham’s Law is:
𝐯𝟏 𝐌𝟐
=√
𝐯𝟐 𝐌𝟏
Under the same conditions of
pressure and temperature, the rate
of diffusion of a gas (v=speed) is
inversely proportional to the square
root of its molar mass.
In equation:
𝐯𝟏 𝐌𝟐
=√
𝐯𝟐 𝐌𝟏
Solve the following problems:
1. Determine the relative rate
of diffusion for krypton(Kr) and
bromine gas (Br2).
Solve the following problems:
2. A molecule of oxygen gas has
an average speed of 12.3m/s at a
given T and P. What is the average
speed of hydrogen molecule at the
same conditions?
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 17. An unknown gas
diffuses 4.0 times faster than
oxygen gas. What is its molar
mass? Name the unknown gas.
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 18. Compare the rates
of effusion of carbon dioxide and
oxygen gas.
JOHN DALTON
Chemist and Physicist
Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England
Sept. 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844
The total pressure in a container is
the sum of the pressure each gas
would exert if it were alone in the
container.
The total pressure is the sum of the
partial pressures.
Ptotal = P1+P2+P3....Pn
For each gas P=nRT/V
Solve the following problems:
1. To a tank containing nitrogen gas
at 2.0atm and oxygen gas at 1.0atm,
we add an unknown quantity of CO2
until the total pressure within the
tank is 4.6atm. What is the partial
pressure of CO2?
Solve the following problems:
2. If i place 3mol of N2 and 4mol
of O2 in a 35L container at a
temperature of 25ºC, what will
the pressure of the resulting
mixture of gases be?
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 19. In a gas mixture
composed of N2, Ne and He, the
partial pressure of N2 is 0.50atm,
that of Ne is 1.1atm, and that of
He is 0.80atm. What is the total
pressure of the mixture?
Solve the following problems:
Q2.1 – 20. A sample of oxygen gas,
which is saturated with water vapor,
is kept in a 10L vessel at 30ºC and
has a pressure of 758Torr. If the
pressure of the water vapor at this
temperature is 31.8Torr, what would
be the pressure of the dry oxygen?
The theory assumes that a model which
can be used to explain why gases behave
the way they do.
The model is described through a
set of postulates:
1. Gases are made up of very small
molecules, which are separated by a
very great distance between them.
The dimension of the molecules is very
much smaller than the distance
between them.
The model is described through a
set of postulates:
2. Because of the very great distance
between them, the force of attraction
between the molecules is negligible.
The molecules are independent of
each other.
The model is described through a
set of postulates:
3. The molecules are in constant
motion, moving randomly in all
directions.
The model is described through a set of
postulates:
4. Due to great number of molecules and
their random motion, it is unavoidable that
the molecules will collide with each other
and with the walls of the container.
During these collisions, there is no change
in the momentum of the molecules.
The model is described through a
set of postulates:
5. The average kinetic energy of
the molecules is determined only
by the absolute temperature of
the gas.
QUIZ NO. 2.2
1. Under which of the following
volumes will 1.00 mol of an ideal gas
exhibit the greatest pressure at 300
K?
A.0.01 L
B.0.10 L
C.1.00 L
D.10.0 L
QUIZ NO. 2.2
2. How will the volume of 0.50 mol of
a gas behave if the temperature is
raised from 30ºC to 60ºC at constant
pressure?
A.The volume will increase.
B.The volume will be doubled.
C.The volume will decrease.
D.The volume will be halved.
QUIZ NO. 2.2
3. Which among the following systems
will have the greatest volume at STP?
A. 1.00 g N2 gas (M = 28 g/mol)
B. 1.00 g NH3 gas (M = 17 g/mol)
C. 1.00 g CO2 gas (M = 44 g/mol)
D. 1.00 g He gas (M = 4 g/mol)
QUIZ NO. 2.2
4. How will the density of a gas vary if its
temperature is increased from 25oC to
50oC at constant pressure?
A.The density of the gas will not change
B.The density of the gas will increase
C.The density of the gas will decrease
D.The density of the gas will double
QUIZ NO. 2.2
5. Which of the following volumes of
oxygen will contain the greatest
number of molecules at 300K and 1
atm pressure?
A.0.01 L
B.1.00 L
C.0.10 L
D.10.0 L
QUIZ NO. 2.2
6. In which of the following gas mixtures
of N2(g) and He(g) is the partial pressure
of He(g) the greatest?
A. 2 moles N2(g) and 3 mole He(g)
B. 3 moles N2(g) and 1 mole He(g)
C. 4 moles N2(g) and 2 mole He(g)
D. 5 moles N2(g) and 5 mole He(g)
QUIZ NO. 2.2
7. Hydrogen, H2(g),reacts with oxygen,
O2(g), to form water H2O(l):
2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(g)
How many liters of oxygen gas, measured at
STP, will be needed to react completely with
10.0 L hydrogen gas, also measured at STP?
A. 5.00 L C. 20.0 L
B. 10.0 L D. 100.0 L
QUIZ NO. 2.2
8. Which of the following postulates of the Kinetic
Molecular Theory for gases can explain why gases
exhibit pressure?
A. The molecules are in constant random motion.
B. The molecules collide with the walls of the
vessel.
C. The distance between the molecules is great.
D. The molecular kinetic energy depends on
temperature.
QUIZ NO. 2.2
9. How will the velocity of a gas molecule
vary if its molecular weight is increased
from 32 g mol-1 to 64 g mol-1?
A. The velocity will increase
B. The velocity will decrease
C. The velocity will double
D. The velocity will remain the same