Ajman University of Science & Technology

Faculty
l off Dentistry
i
Histology
gy & Cell Biologygy
08 01 112
Dr. Al-
All-Moutassem Billah
ll h Khair
h

Bone
Bone
 Bone
B
Bone (
(osseous ti ) is
tissue) i specialized
iali d form
f r off supporting
rti tissue
ti i which
in hi h
the extracellular matrix is mineralized
mineralized.. This produces an extremely hard tissue
p
capable off pprovidingg support
pp for f fleshy
f y structures,, pprotection ffor vital organs
g
and storage of bone marrow.
marrow.
¾ Bone serves as a storage of calcium and phosphate, and other minerals.
minerals.
¾ Bone is vascular tissue and metabolites exchange between bone cells and blood
capillaries depends on communication through the canaliculi, because they are
unable
bl to
t diffuse
diff through
th h the
th calcified
l ifi d matrix
ti .
¾ Bone consists of bone tissue, hemopoietic tissue, fat tissue, blood vessels,
nerves and the hyaline cartilage if the bone forms a freely movable joint
joint..
¾ Bone tissue is classified into compact (dense) and spongy (cancellous) bone.
bone.
Dense layer
y fforms the outside off the bone and cancellous fforms a meshworkk in
the interior of the bone.
bone. The spaces of the meshwork are occupied by marrow and
blood vessels.
vessels.
 Bone
¾ composed like other connective tissues,
Bone is composed, tissues of cells and an organic
mineralized extracellular matrix (70%
70% inorganic & 30%
30% organic by weight).
weight).
The mineral (50
50%% off the dryy weight
g off the bone matrix)x) is mainlyy calcium
phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals [ Ca10 (PO4)6 (OH)2 ]. It also
contains small proportion of MgCO2 , CaCO2 , citrate, F, Na, K, and have
affinity
ffi i for
f heavy
h metall & radioactive
di i environmental
i l pollutants
pollutants.
ll .
The collagen fibers are type I and form the high content (90
90%
%) of organic
matrix..
matrix
The ground substance (10%10% of the organic matrix), like in cartilage, contains
kkeratan sulfate,
f , chondroitin sulfate,
f , hyaluronic
y acid,, except
x p that the pproportion
p
of sulfated glycoproteins is much less than in cartilage.
cartilage. The glycoproteins may be
responsible for promoting calcification of bone matrix.
matrix.
The bone cells are derived from mesenchyme and known as osteoprogenitor
cells (osteogenic), osteoblasts, osteocytes and osteoclasts.
osteoclasts.
Bone cells
Osteogenic cells are found in developing bone and on surfaces of mature bone.
bone.
They are flattened cells with condense nuclei
nuclei.. Osteogenic cells develop and
differentiate to form osteoblasts.
osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts are responsible for the synthesis and secretion of the organic
components of the matrix-
matrix-osteoid
osteoid;; osteoid rapidly undergoes mineralization to
form bone.
bone. Osteoblasts are found as a continuous layer on the surfaces of the
b
bone, especially
i ll during
d i development
d l t andd growth
th off the
th bone
bbone.. They
Th are cuboidal
b id l
to low columnar cells with prominent nucleus and cytoplasmic organelles.
organelles. When
theyy stopp the synthesis
y pprocess theyy become fflattened
flattened--osteogenic
g cells.. Some
cells
osteoblasts become trapped within the bone as osteocytes.
osteocytes.
Osteocytes are derived from osteoblasts when they become surrounded by
newly formed matrix during development of the bone.
bone.
Eachh osteocyte occupies own
lacuna.. They have almond
lacuna
shape with long cytoplasmic
processes by which, they can
communicate with the
adjacent cells to exchange
the molecules.
molecules. Osteocytes
contain reduced number of
cytoplasmic organelles.
organelles.
Osteocytes
y are responsible
p
for maintenance of the bone
matrix and their death leads
to resorption of bone matrix
matrix..
Lacunae are small cavities within the bone matrix and they communicate
by tiny channels known as canaliculi, that contain cytoplasmic processes of
osteocytes.. The communication take place in 3D directions
osteocytes directions..
 Osteoclasts are multinucleate, very
large motile cells with ruffled
large,
surface facing the bone matrix
matrix.. They
are probably derived from fusion of
monocyte--phagocyte system cells
monocyte cells..
They are scattered on the surfaces of
th bone
the b within
ithi depressions
d r i k
known
as Howship’s lacunae.
lacunae.
Osteoclasts are actively involved in
resorptive processes associated with
continuous remodeling of bone.
bone. They
secrete collagenase and other enzymes
and providing low pH, promoting the
local dissolving of calcium salt and
digestion of collagen fibers.
fibers.
Bone surfaces
¾ The external surface of the bone is covered by a sheath of dense connective
tissue called periosteum.
periosteum. It consists of an outer fibrous layer that resembles other
d
dense connective tissues andd an inner cellular
ll l layer
l that
h contains theh osteogenic
cells, which are responsible for the appositional growth and repair of the bone.bone.
The periosteum is bound to the underlying bone by group of its collagen fibers
known as Sharpey’s fibers.
fibers. Periosteum is not present on the articular surface,
which is covered by hyaline cartilage-
cartilage-articular cartilage.
cartilage. The articular cartilage
is exposed to the joint cavity and is not covered with perichondrium.
perichondrium.
¾ The internal surfaces of the bone are lined by endosteum
endosteum.. It is a layer of
connective
ti tissue
ti cells
ll containing
t i i osteogenic
t i cells
cells.
ll . The
Th cells
ll are flattened
fl tt d andd
have capability to divide and differentiate into osteoblasts.
osteoblasts.
The functions of periosteum and endosteum are nutrition of bone tissue and
form a supply of osteoblasts for growth and repair of bone.
bone.
 Periosteum

Bone ↑
Sharpey’s fibers
↓
Types of bone tissues
General appearance of bone in cross section shows dense areas without cavities
cavities--
compact bone and areas with numerous interconnecting cavities-
cavities-cancellous bone.
bone.
Bothh compact andd cancellous
ll bones
b h the
have h same basic
b microscopic histological
h l l
structure.. Microscopic examination of bone shows two types
structure types:: primary,
immature-- woven bone and secondary, mature
immature mature-- lamellar bone
bone..
¾ Primary bone tissue is the first bone to appear in embryonic development and
in fracture repair and other repair processes
processes.. It is characterized by irregular
array of fine collagen fibers, a lower content of minerals, and a higher number of
osteocytes than secondary bone.bone. It is temporary and replaced in adults by
secondary
d boneb exceptt fewf areas like
lik : near sutures
like: t off skull
k ll bones,
b i tooth
in t th socket
kt
and in the insertion of some tendons.
tendons.
¾ Secondary bone tissue is found in adults and characterized by regular
arrangement of collagen fibers in specific structures known as lamellae.
lamellae.
Lamellar
La llar (secondary)
( dar ) bone
b in i which
whi h the
th collagen
llag fibers
fib r can
a be
b parallel
arall l to
t each
a h other
th r (at left)
l ft) orr
organized concentrically around neurovascular channels, to constitute the haversian systems.
Among the numerous haversian systems are some interstitial lamellae.
Adult bone
¾ Mature compact bone is largely composed of cylindrical units units--osteons or
Haversian systems
systems.. It consists of concentric lamellae of bone matrix surrounding
the osteonal canal (Haversian canal),
canal) that contains the vascular and nerve
supply of the osteon.
osteon. Canaliculi containing the processes of osteocytes are
arranged
g mostlyy in a radial ppattern with respectp to the canal
canal.. Each Haversian
system is a long cylinder parallel to the long axis of the diaphysis.
diaphysis. It consists of
central canal surrounded by 4-20 concentric lamellae.
lamellae.
Between the osteons are remnants of the previous osteonal lamellae “interstitial
lamellae”, that no longer surrounding Haversian canals.
canals.
At the
th outermost
t t aspectt off the
th compactt bone
b there
th are few
f lamellae
l ll called
ll d outer
t
circumferential lamellae, that laid down at the bone surface by osteoblasts of
the pperiosteum
periosteum.. A
At the inner medullaryy aspect,
p , similar but irregular
g inner
circumferential lamellae merge with trabeculae of cancellous bone.
bone.
Adult bone
The collagen fibers in the concentric lamellae in an osteon are laid down parallel
to one another
h ini any giveni l ll but
lamella b ini different
diff directions
di i i adjacent
in dj
lamellae, giving a great strength to the osteon.
osteon.
Volkmann’ss canals are transverse or oblique channels in lamellar bone through
Volkmann
which the blood vessels and nerves travel from the periosteal and endosteal
surfaces to reach the osteonal canals, also they connect osteonal canals to one
another.. They are not surrounded by concentric lamellae.
another lamellae.
The canals in compact bone are lined by endosteum.
endosteum.
Bone remodeling showing 3 generations of haversian systems and their successive contributions
to the formation of intermediate, or interstitial, lamellae. Remodeling is a continuous process
responsible for bone adaptations, especially during growth.
Part of Haversian system shows
the numerous canaliculi that
permit
i communication
i i between
b
lacunae and with the Haversian
canal (blood supply)
supply).. This
provide nourishment for a chain
of about 15 cells.
cells.
Each Haversian system is
surrounded by a deposit of
amorphous
h material
t i l called
ll d
cement that consists of
mineralized matrixx with ffew
collagen fibers.
fibers.
Ad lt bone
Adult b
¾ Spongy bone is very similar to compact bone except that the tissue is arranged
as trabeculae or spicules
spicules;; numerous interconnecting marrow spaces of various
size are present between the bone tissue
tissue.. The matrix of the bone is lamellated.
lamellated. If
the trabeculae are sufficiently thick they will contain osteons.
osteons.
¾ The medullary cavity and the spaces in spongy bone contain bone marrow. marrow.
Red bone marrow consists of developing blood cells in different stages of
development and a network of reticular fibers and cellscells.. In later stages of
growth and in the adult, when the rate of blood cell formation has diminished,
the tissue in the medullary cavity consists mostly of fat cells
cells;; it is then called
yellow marrow.
marrow.
A: Thick section of bone illustrating the
cortical compact bone and the spongy bone.
B: Microscopic
p section off cancellous bone.
Bone formation
Th development
The d l t off a bone
b i traditionally
is t diti ll classified
l ifi d as endochondral
d h d l andd
intramembranous ossification
ossification.. The distinction between two types rests on
whether a cartilageg model serves as the pprecursor off the bone ((endochondral)) or
whether the bone is formed by a simpler method; method; direct replacement of
mesenchyme by bone (intramembranous).
(intramembranous). The bones of the extremities and those
off parts off the
h axiall skeleton
kl that
h bear
b weight
h develop
d l by b endochondral
d h d l
ossification (short & long bones, vertebrae, pelvis and bones of the base of the
skull).. The flat bones of the skull, face, clavicle, maxilla and the most of the
skull)
mandible develop by intramembranous ossification.
ossification.
In both processes, the bone tissue that appears first is primary, which is
temporary tissue and is soon replaced by the lamellar-
lamellar-secondary bone.
bone. This
replacement take place by bone remodeling, which also occurs throughout adult
life..
life
lif
Bone development is controlled by growth, thyroid and the sex hormones.
hormones.
¾ Intramembranous ossification
1. In a center of well
well--vascularized connective tissue (mesenchymal membrane)
mesenchymal cells differentiate Ö osteogenic cells (bone blastema) Ö develop in
osteoblasts (osteoblasts + collagen fibers immersed in dense ground substance)
2. Osteoblasts secrete new bone matrix (osteoid) around themselves, which later
become calcified (deposition of hydroxyapatite crystals).
crystals).
3. Some osteoblasts become surrounded by matrix, which become osteocytes Ö
spicules of bone are formed (surrounded by a layer of osteoblasts).
osteoblasts).
4. Spicules
S i l off boneb i
increase i size
in i byb appositional
i i l growthh as layers
l off bone
b
(center of ossification) Ö spongy bone.
bone.
5. Several centers of ossification grow radially and fuse together
together..
6. Primary bone tissue undergoes remodeling and replaced by secondary bone.bone.
Then two layers
y off compact
p bone (p (plates)) will arise in the outer pportion off
intramembranous bone and a spongy bone (diploё) occupies the center of the flat
bone..
bone
7. Bone marrow, endosteum and periosteum develop from undifferentiated
mesenchymal cells that do not undergo ossification.
ossification.
¾ Endochondral (intracartilaginous) ossification
1. Inner mesenchymal cells of the perichondrium around the diaphysis of the
cartilage model differentiate Ö osteogenic cells Ö osteoblasts Ö thin layer of
dense bone tissue around the mid portion of the cartilage model
model--bone collar
collar..
2. The bone collar prevents diffusion of nutrients to the center of cartilage Ö
changes
g begin
g to occur in this area (lacunae
( gradually
g y enlarge,
g matrix calcified,
f
chondrocytes die & small cavities form in the matrix).
matrix).
3. While the calcified cartilage disintegrated, a collection of mesenchymal,
osteogenic cells & blood vessels penetrate the bony collar from its periosteum to
the reach interior of cartilage and to form an osteogenic bud.
bud.
4. Mesenchymal
M h l & osteogenic
t ll Ö osteoblasts
i cells t bl t Ö surroundd the th remnants t off
calcified cartilage and cover it by bone matrix Ö cartilage spicules replaced by
bone spicules
p Ö pprimaryy ossification
f center off developing
p g longg bone is fformed
formed..
5. Primary ossification center
grows and distends toward the
ends of the bone (epiphysis) Ö
forms spongy bone in the center
and compact in the periphery of
the shaft (collar growth)
P ri h dri becomes
Perichondrium b periosteum
periosteum.
ri t .
6. Secondary ossification center
arises at the center of epiphysis,
similar to that of primary one.
one.
7. Spongy
p gy bone in epiphysis
pp y is
formed without definitive marrow
cavities, thin shell of compact bone
i the
in th surface
f andd layer
l off cartilage
til
remains on the articular surface.
surface.
¾ Epiphyseal plate
The area between the shaft and epiphysis is cartilage tissue called epiphyseal
cartilage, which is responsible for the growth of bone in length, and it
disappears in adults (age ≈ 20 years)
years).. The epiphyseal plate consists of five zones
starting from the epiphyseal side:
side:
Restingg zone
zone:: hyaline
y cartilage
g without morphologic
p g changes
g in the cells
cells..
Proliferating zone:
zone: chondrocytes divide rapidly and form column of stacked
cells parallel to the long axis of the bone.
bone.
Hypertrophic zone:
zone: large chondrocytes whose cytoplasm accumulated glycogen
and the matrix between cells is very thin.
thin.
Calcified cartilage zone
zone:: chondrocytes die and the thin matrix become calcified
by the deposit of hydroxyapatite crystals.
crystals.
Ossification zone
zone:: the bone tissue appears on the surface of calcified cartilage
by osteoblasts from the diaphysis area.
area.
Growtth of the
t bonne in di
diameteer