Unit – I

Advances in Information
Communication
Networks

Developed By Manish D. Patel

 Students are always busy with electronic gadget
like laptop,mobile,PDA etc.

 They want to learn how to communicate with it.

 Today mostly communication is completely

digital.
 Analog Data Signal

 Digital Data Signal

Information Capacity

 Power consumption and Bandwidth are the most

important parameters in digital communications.

 Information capacity represents the number of

binary digits transmitted through a system in a
given unit of time. Information capacity is also
represented in terms of bit rate (data rate.)
Bit rate

 Bit rate is defined as the number of bits those

are conveyed or processed per unit of time
(second).

 It is normally measured as number of bits

transmitted per second (b/s).

 For example assume bit rate of 256 bits/second.

It means total 256 bits are transmitted through
channel in terms of 0’s and 1’s per second.
Baud rate

 A baud rate is the measurement of the

number of times a signal in a communications
channel changes per second.

 Assume baud rate of 256 bits/second. It

means channel changes its state 256 times
per second. Changing of state means ‘1’ to ‘0’
and ‘0’ to ‘1’.
 The relation between bit rate (bps) and baud rate
(baud per second) can be given as:

Bps=baud per second * the number of bit per baud

 The number of bit per baud is determined by the

modulation technique.
Shannon’s and Hartley’s law

 Maximum number of distinct pulses that can

be transmitted and received reliably over a
communications channel is limited by the
channel bandwidth.

 Hartley has derived the relation between

channel band width and transmission time
He states that “information capacity is the
product of Bandwidth and transmission time.”
 Information Capacity (Bits)= Bandwidth
(Hertz) * Transmission Time (Seconds)
 Signal to Noise ratio is the most important
figure of merit for any type of communication.
 Higher the S/N ratio better the
communication.
 If Channel has constant S/N ratio then to
increase the number of coding level through
the channel requires more transmitted power.
Theorem

 The Shannon-Hartley theorem defines the capacity of

channel for known Band width and S/N ratio.
 Shannon’s limit:

Information Capacity= Bandwidth * [log2(1+S/N)]

 When the bandwidth of a system is doubled with

constant transmitted power, noise power is also doubled
due to doubled bandwidth.
 Channel capacity will increase due to doubled band
width but it will not be exactly doubled.
TYPES OF DIGITAL
MODULATION TECHNIQUES.
 Need for digital modulation

 The move to digital modulation provides more

information capacity, compatibility with digital
data services, higher data security, better
quality communications, and quicker system
availability.
 Digital modulation schemes transform digital
signals into waveforms that are compatible
with the nature of communications channel.
 For designers of digital communication
priority is good bandwidth efficiency with low
bit-error-rate.
 Every time one of these efficiency parameters
(bandwidth, power or cost) is increased,
another one decreases, or becomes more
complex or does perform well in a poor
environment.
 Cost is a dominant system priority. Low-cost
systems are always demand.
Two major categories of digital
modulation.
1. One category uses amplitude variation to transmit
the information.
 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) : It transmits the
information by variation of the amplitude of carrier.
2. Second category uses either frequency or phase
variation with constant amplitude to transmit the
information.
 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): It transmits the
information in term frequency variation.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): It transmits the
information in terms of phase change.
Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)

 Digital data is transmitted in terms of amplitude

variation of carrier signal.
 Amplitude of carrier signal varies according to
the bit stream (modulating signal) by keeping
phase and frequency of carrier signal constant.
 In ASK different amplitude levels are used to
represent different levels adopted by the digital
message so,
 Number of amplitude levels = number of levels
in digital message.
 Advantages :

 Both ASK modulation and demodulation

processes are relatively inexpensive.

 The ASK technique is also commonly used

to transmit digital data optical fibre. In optical
fibre if the light source is LED then 1 is
represented as a short pulse of a light and 0
by absence of light. With laser light source
bias current is varied to emit low level light.
 Disadvantages :
 As shown in fig. 1.16 you can see the sharp
discontinuities at the transition point (the point
where digital signal changes from 1 to 0 or 0 to
l).These results in signal having an unnecessarily
wide band width of signal.
 Bandwidth can be limited before transmission.
 One of the disadvantage compare to FSK and
PSK is that it does not have the constant envelope
so it makes amplification difficult.
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
 Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency
modulation scheme in which digital
information is transmitted through discrete
frequency change a carrier wave.
 FSK can be classified as BFSK,MSK and
AFSK.
(A) Binary FSK (BFSK)

 The simplest FSK is binary FSK (BFSK). With

this scheme, the “1” is called the mark
frequency and the "0" is called the space
frequency.
 For FSK two different carrier signals are used
one carrier of frequency and other one of low
frequency. In digital signal 1 and 0 both
modulates the different carrier signal.
Normally high frequency carrier is modulated
by 1 and low frequency carrier is modulated
with 0.
 Resulting signal shows two frequencies high
frequency for 1 and low frequency for 0 as
shown in fig. 1.17. The two binary states, logic 0
(low) and 1 (high), are each represented by an
analogue waveform.
 With binary FSK, the centre or carrier frequency
is shifted by binary input data. Thus the input
and output rates of change are equal and
therefore the bit rate and baud rate equal.
(B) Minimum-shift keying

 It is found that binary data consisting of sharp

transitions between "1" and "0" states and
vice versa potentially creates signals that
have sidebands faraway from the carrier,
 and this creates problems for many radio
communications systems,
 as any sidebands outside the allowed
bandwidth cause interference to adjacent
channels and any radio communications links
that may be using them.
 Minimum frequency-shift keying or minimum-
shift keying (MSK) is a particular spectrally
efficient form of coherent FSK.
 In MSK the difference between the higher
and lower frequency is equal to half the bit
rate.
 There is no phase change at discontinuities
as shown in fig. 1.18.
 A variant of MSK called GMSK is used in the
GSM mobile phone standards
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

 Phase-shift keying (PSK) is a digital modulation

scheme that conveys data by changing, the phase
of a reference signal (the carrier wave).
 PSK uses a finite number of phases; each
assigned a unique pattern of binary digits. Usually,
each phase encodes an equal number of bits.
 Since the data to be conveyed are usually binary,
the PSK scheme is usually designed with the
number of phasor points being a power of 2.
 Basic PSK technique is Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK) in which binary values (0 and 1) are
represented as a different phase.
 Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK)
 Basic form of phase shift keying
 It is occasionally called Phase Reversal
Keying (PRK).
 A digits signal alternating between +1 and -1
(or 1 and 0) will create phase reversals i.e.
180 degree phase shifts as the data shifts
state as shown in fig. 1.19.
 Using phasor diagram the phase of the signal is
represented by the angle around the circle, and
the amplitude by the distance from the origin or
centre of the circle.
 Phase shift keyed systems use constant amplitude
and therefore points appear on one circle with
constant amplitude and the changes in phase
being represented by movement around the circle.
 For binary shift keying using phase reversals the
two points appear at opposite points on the circle
as shown in fig. 1.20.
 Because of its simplicity BPSK is appropriate for
low-cost passive transmitters, and is used in RFID
standards.
 problem with phase shift keying is that the
receiver cannot know the exact phase of the
transmitted signal to determine whether it is in a
mark (1) or space (0) condition.
 To overcome this problem, PSK systems use a
differential method for encoding the data onto the
carrier. This is accomplished, for example, by
making a change in phase equal to a one, and no
phase change equal to a zero.
 QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shift
Keying
 QPSK uses the four different phases to
represent a sequence of two binary digits.
Sequence of two binary digits can form only
four combinations so for each combination one
identical phase is used.

 QPSK uses four points, on phasor diagram,

equispaced around a circle. With four phases,
QPSK can encode two bits per symbol, as
shown in fig. 1.21.
 QPSK is used to double the data rate
compared to BPSK with the same
bandwidth or halve the bandwidth with
same data rate. Fig. 1.22 shows the QPSK
signal for a signal with digital data stream
010010110101.
 Offset Quadrature Phase-Shift
Keying (OQPSK)
• Offset quadrature phase-shift keying
OQPSK is a variant of Phase Shift Keying
modulation using 4 different values of the
phase to transmit. It is sometimes called
Staggered quadrature phase shift keying
SQPSK .
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)
 QAM is both an analog and a digital modulation
scheme.
 QAM (Quadrature amplitude modulation) is a
method of combining two amplitude-modulated
(AM) signals into a single channel, thereby
doubling the effective bandwidth.
 In the case of QAM, the amplitude of two carrier
waves, 90 degrees out-of-phase with each other
(in Quadrature) are changed (modulated or
keyed) to represent the data signal.
 One of the carrier signals is a sine wave, and the
other is a cosine wave. The two modulated
carriers are combined at the source for
transmission.
 At the destination, the carriers are separated, the
data is extracted from each, and then the data is
combined into the original modulating information.
 The modulated waves are a combination of both
phase-shift keying (PSK) and amplitude-shift
keying (ASK), or in the analog case of phase
modulation (PM) and amplitude modulation.
 In the digital QAM case, a finite number of at
least two phases and at least two amplitudes
are used
 Amplitude modulating two carriers in
Quadrature can be equivalently viewed as both
amplitude modulating and phase modulating a
single carrier.
 Phase modulation (analog PM) and phase-shift
keying (digital PSK) can be regarded as a
special case of QAM, where the magnitude of
the modulating signal is a constant, with only
the phase varying.
• Let us consider 3 bits per baud so total 8
combinations are possible.
• To encode 8 different combination using
QAM we will consider two amplitude levels
(suppose it's 1 and 2) and 4 different
phases. Combining two amplitude levels
and different phases combinations can be
derived.
 Now let's assume the bit stream :
001010100011101000011110

 QAM will encode this bit stream in the

combination of three bits so' let us breakup
entire bit stream in to triads : 001-010-100-
011-101-000-011-110

 Resulting encoded data using QAM is shown

in fig.1.25.
 As the number of bits per baud increases number of amplitude levels and
phase also increases.

 The most common ones are 16-QAM, 64-QAM, 128-QAM and 256-QAM.
 Choice of Digital modulation
Techniques
ASK FSK PSK
1 Variation of amplitude Variation in frequency Variation in phase of
of carrier wave of carrier wave carrier wave

2 Frequency and Phase Amplitude and Phase Amplitude and

remain constant remain constant during Frequency remain
during full signal full signal constant during full
signal
3 Amplitude is constant Frequency is constant Phase is constant during
during each bit interval during each bit interval each bit interval

4 Only one carrier Two carrier frequency Only one carrier

frequency is used. is used. frequency is used.
5 Highly susceptible by Good noise ignorance. Good noise
noise. performance.
Ignore noise.
 Performance of a particular modulation technique
is measure using two criteria: Power efficiency and
Bandwidth efficiency.
 Power Efficiency: is the ability of a modulation
technique to operate at a specific probability of
error using the lowest amount of transmitted
power (or the ability of a modulation technique to
provide the lowers probability of error at a specific
amount of signal power).
 Note that Eb has the units of (Joules) and N0 has
the units of (Watts/Hz).
 BANDWIDTH EFFICIENCY

 Bandwidth efficiency is often referred as

information density or spectral efficiency.
 It is used to compare the performance of various
digital modulation techniques.
 Bandwidth efficiency is the ratio of the
transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth
required for particular modulation scheme.
 Mathematically bandwidth efficiency is given by
Bandwidth Efficiency = transmission bit rate /
minimum bandwidth
= bits per second/ hertz
 PULSE CODE MODULATION
(PCM)
 PCM is a process of converting analog signal in to
digital signal.

 Analog signal can be converted in digital signal by

either sampling or by quantization.

 In PCM analog signal is quantized for conversion in

digital signal.
PCM
PCM
 amplitude lies between -Mp to +Mp, this range is divided
in L intervals (0 to 14 in fig. given below).
 Each interval has magnitude of 2Mp/L.
 Now find out the mid point of each interval shown in fig. (m0 to m13).

Fig. 1.5 Analog signals is divided in number of levels

 After finding out the mid point of each interval
now take the sample of the analog signal at
each mid level as shown in fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Sampled Signal

 Each sample is now approximated by the
midpoint value of the sub interval in which the
sample falls. This signal is the quantized
signal which is shown in fig. 1.7.

Fig. 1.7 Quantized signal

 In Quantized signal the exact value of
amplitude is not transmitted, nearest level of
the amplitude of analog signal is transmitted
instead of the exact value of the amplitude.
 It definitely adds some error in the output
because of approximation errors can be
reduced by increasing numbers of level.
 In this Quantized signal each of 14 levels are
assigned one binary of four digits (24 = 16) as
shown in fig. 1.8
 This technique is known as the pulse code
modulation because signal is transmitted by
assigning binary code to each pulse.
 Fig. 1.9 shows the pulse code waveform for
4-bits coding.
 CODING METHODS

 A digital signal is a discontinuous signal that changes from one state to

another in discrete steps. Normally two levels are used in transmission of
digital data. That is '1' and '0'.

 Digital data is not directly transmitted after Analog to Digital conversion.

After Analog to Digital transmission line coding process is taken place to
arrange the symbols. Line coding process is used to arrange symbols
represent binary data in a particular pattern for transmission.

 The most common types of line coding used include non-return-to-zero

(NRZ), return-to-zero (RZ), and diphase or Manchester.

 In a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) line coding l's are represented by one

significant condition and 0's are represented by some other significant
condition.

 In Non Return to Zero coding 0 levels is not used so it is known as Return to

Zero coding.

 According to the representation of '1' and '0' coding can be classified

following types.
CODING METHODS

1. Unipolar coding (ON-OFF)

2. Biopolar Coding

3. Non-Return-to-Zero Space coding

4. Non-Retum-to-Zero Inverted (NRZI)

coding
1.Unipolar coding

1.Non Return to Zero (Unipolar NRZ)

 "1" is represented by one physical level
(such as a DC bias on the transmission
line).and"0" is represented by another level
(usually a positive voltage). It is shown in
fig.l.10(a).

 In clock language, "1" transitions remains

high on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit and "0" transitions remains low
on the trailing clock edge of the previous bit,
or just the opposite.
2. Return to Zero (Unipolar RZ)
 "1" is represented by one physical level
(such as a DC bias on the transmission
line) and"0" is represented by another
level (usually a positive voltage).
 The only difference with NRZ is every
time it touches the dc level (voltage
axis).
 It is shown in fig.1.10 (b).
2.Bipolar Coding

1.Non Return to Zero (Bipolar NRZ)

 "1" is represented by one physical level
(usually positive voltage) and "0" is
represented by another level (usually a
negative voltage).
 It is shown in fig.1.11 (a).
 In clock language, in bipolar NRZ-Level the
voltage "swings" from positive to negative
on the trailing edge of the previous bit clock
cycle.
 2. Return to Zero (Bipolar RZ)
 "1" is represented by one physical
level (usually positive voltage) and
“0” is represented by another level
(usually a negative voltage).
 The only difference with NRZ is every
time it touches the dc level (voltage
axis).
 It is shown in fig. 1.11 (b).
3.Non-Return-to-Zero Space coding

 In Non-Return-to-Zero "1" is
represented by no change in physical le
and "0" is represented by a change in
physical level as shown in fig. 1.12

 In clock language, the level transitions

on the trailing clock edge of the
previous bit to represent a "0."
4.Non-Return-to-Zero Inverted
(NRZI) coding
 NRZI is same as Non Return to Zero
but in Non-Return to Zero Inverted "1 "is
represented by change in physical level
and !0" is represented by no change in
physical level.

 It is shown in fig. 1.13.

 NRZ codes make the most efficient use

of system bandwidth.
 Manchester encoding

 In Manchester code (also known as Phase

Encoding, PE or Biphase encoding of each
data bit has at least one transition and
occupies the same time. It therefore has no
DC component, and is self-clocking.

 To encode the digital data with Manchester

line code original binary data is EX-ORed
with the clock signal and then transmit the
output as a data.
 In fig. 1.15 one clock signal is given along
with one data stream and Manchester
encoded data.

 In Manchester encoding, a high-to-low level

transition occurring in the middle of the bit
duration represents a binary 1. A low-to-high
light level transition occurring in the middle
of the bit duration represents a binary 0.
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

 Advantages :
 Of the most important advantages of wireless
networks that have made ​them spread
significantly and replace wired networks

1.Flexibility (wirelessness): the benefits of

wireless networks over wired networks and one
of the benefits of this flexibility, as radio waves
go through walls and wireless computer you
can be in any domain .
2.Ease of use: wireless networks easy to setup

3.Planning: the wired and wireless networks

must be carefully plan, but worst in wired
networks
4.Place devices: wireless network can be hidden
can be placed behind the screens of these
networks are well suited for places or sites
that can be difficult to connect a wired
network, such as the old museum buildings.
 5. Durability: Wireless networks can be solid,
but possible to suffer from radio interference
from other devices.

6.Prices:
Disadvantages :
1. Compatibility issues: Organs made
by different companies may not be
able to communicate with each other
or you may need to extra effort to
overcome these problems.

2. Ethernet. The wireless networks

are often slower than networks
Although directly using the
techniques of Ethernet
3. Wireless networks the weakest in
terms of privacy protection as any
person within the scope of coverage
of a wireless network can attempt to
penetrate this network .
WIRELESS NETWORK
GENERATIONS
APPLICATION OF WIRELESS
COMMUNICATION
 Mobile telephones
 Wireless data communications
Wi-Fi, Cellular data service, Mobile
Satellite Communications, Wireless
Sensor Networks
 Wireless energy transfer
 Wireless Medical Technologies
 Computer interface devices
Radio path(Direct, Line Of Site
and obstructive)
)