Microwave Circuitsand Systems - Skript - Vol1 PDF

Microwave Circuits
and Systems
Fundamentals • Passive Components • Active
Components • Computer Aided Design • Noise •
Large Signal Effects • Systems
Prof. S. Peik
March 10, 2009

Prof. S. Peik
Foreword
These lecture notes are part of the elective module “Microwave Circuits and Systems”. These
notes are incomplete and to be used for reference only. They are not a substitute for attending
the lectures.
Lectures notes and more can be found at http://www.bits.hs-bremen.de/
The title page photograph:

The Horn Antenna at Bell Telephone Laboratories in Holmdel, New Jersey, was constructed
in 1959 to support Project Echo–the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s passive
communications satellite project. [1] The antenna is 50 feet in length with a radiating aperture
of 20 x 20 feet and is made of aluminum. The antenna’s elevation wheel is 30 feet in diameter
and supports the weight of the structure by means of rollers mounted on a base frame. All axial
or thrust loads are taken by a large ball bearing at the apex end of the horn. The horn continues
through this bearing into the equipment cab. The ability to locate receiver equipment at the
apex of the horn, thus eliminating the noise contribution of a connecting line, is an important
feature of the antenna. A radiometer for measuring the intensity of radiant energy is found in
the equipment cab.
To permit the antenna beam to be directed to any part of the sky, the antenna is mounted with
the axis of the horn horizontal. Rotation about this axis affords tracking in elevation while the
entire assembly is rotated about a vertical axis for tracking in the azimuth.When not in use, the
antenna azimuth sprocket drive is disengaged, thus permitting the structure to "weathervane"
and seek a position of minimum wind resistance. The antenna was designed to withstand winds
of 100 miles per hour and the entire structure weighs 18 tons.
The Horn Antenna combines several ideal characteristics it is extremely broad-band, has calcu-
lable aperture efficiency, and the back and sidelobes are so minimal that scarcely any thermal
energy is picked up from the ground. Consequently it is an ideal radio telescope for accurate
measurements of low levels of weak background radiation.
A plastic clapboarded utility shed 10 x 20 feet, with two windows, a double door and a sheet
metal roof, is found next to the Horn Antenna. This structure houses equipment and controls
for the Horn Antenna and is included in this nomination.
from: http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/butowsky5/astro4k.htm
Prof. Dr. Sören Peik

E609
Phone 5905-2437
email speik@hs-bremen.de
Stand: March 10, 2009 1

Contents
1 Introduction 7
1.1 Why Microwaves? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Resistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.3 Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.2 System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Frequency Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2 Transmission Line Theory 13

2.1 Time-Harmonic Signals on Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Solution of the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.3 Propagation Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Wave Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Time-Domain Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.6 Wave Length and Propagation Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7 Phase Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.7.1 Lossless Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.8 Determining the Constants by Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.9 End Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.10 Terminated Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.10.1 Infinite Long Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.10.2 Matched Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.10.3 Arbitrary Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.11 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.12 Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.12.1 Shorted Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2
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2.12.2 Detection of Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.13 Input Impedance of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.13.1 Impedance Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.13.2 Short and Open Line Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.14 Decibel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3 Realisations of Transmission Lines 41

3.1 Parallel Wire Cables / Twisted Pair Cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.2 Coaxial Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Planar Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4 Non TEM Wave Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4.1 Rectangular Wave Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.5 Free Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4 Network Theory 45
4.1 Impedance and Admittance Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Scattering Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.3 Reciprocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.3.1 Non-Reciprocal Linear Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.4 Properties of S-Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4.1 S-Parameter in dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4.2 Shift in Reference Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.4.3 S-Parameter Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.5 Transmission Matrix or ABCD-Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.6 Two-Port Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5 Smith Chart 64
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.2 Transformation of Z to Γ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2.1 Transformation due to Insertion of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Transformation of Z to Y and vice versa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4 Stub Line Design using the Smith Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.5 Matching using the Smith Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.5.1 Summary of Impedance Manipulation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Prof. S. Peik
6 Power Dividers and Couplers 80

6.1 Hybrid Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.2 Even-Odd-Mode Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
6.2.1 Applications for the Hybrid Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
6.3 Rat-Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
6.4 Magic T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.5 Wilkinson-Divider . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.5.1 Unequal Power Split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.6 Wave Guide Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.7 Line Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.8 Lange Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.9 Summary Planar Couplers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
6.10 Hole Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7 Passive Components 102

7.1 Discontinuities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.2 Attenuators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.3 Matched Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
7.4 Waveguide Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8 Computer Aided Design 105

8.1 CAD using Network Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.2 Full-Wave Analyser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9 Noise 106
9.1 Noise in a Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
9.2 Signal to Noise Ratio SNR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.3 Noise Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.4 Shot Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.5 Flicker Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.6 Thermal Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.6.1 Thermal Noise = Stochastic signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.6.2 Spectral Noise Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.6.3 Probability Density Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.6.4 Band-limited Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Prof. S. Peik
9.6.5 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.6.6 Noise in Threshold Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.7 Antenna Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
9.8 Equivalent Noise Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.9 Noise Figure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
9.9.1 Noise Figure of a Lossy Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
9.10 Noise Figure of Cascaded Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
9.11 Receiver G/T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
10 Transistor Amplifiers 119

10.1 Two-port Gain Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10.2 Transducer Gain and Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
10.3 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10.4 Derivation of the output stability equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
10.4.1 µ-Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
10.5 Design for Maximum Gain (Conjugate Matching) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
10.6 Constant Gain Circles and Design for Specified Gain (Unilateral Device) . . . . 133
10.7 Gain Circles (Bilateral Design) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
10.7.1 Operating and Available Power Gain Circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
10.7.2 Available Power Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
10.8 Constant Noise Figure Circles and Design for Low Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
10.9 Bipolar Transistor Biasing Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
10.9.1 Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.10Power Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.10.1 Vacuum Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
11 Large Signal Effects 149

11.0.2 1dB Compression Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
11.0.3 3rd Order Intercept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
11.0.4 Amplifier Dynamic Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
11.0.5 Passive Intermodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
12 Mixer 155
12.1 Up-Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
12.2 Down-Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
12.3 Image Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
12.4 Conversion Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
12.5 Intermodulation
Distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

Prof. S. Peik
13 Systems 158
13.1 Cell Phone Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.2 Broadcast Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.3 Point-to-Point Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.4 Satellite Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.5 Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
13.6 Microwave Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A Useful Tables 159

A.1 S-Parameter Touchstone Files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.1.1 NE321000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.1.2 BFR520 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
A.2 Wave Guide Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A.3 Coaxial Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A.4 HF-Connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
A.5 Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
A.6 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166

Introduction 1
C
onventionel circuit design uses lines as infinite short connections between two circuit
elements. It is assumed, that signals travel with infinite velocity and without attenua-
tion. In reality signals travel with finite velocity up to the speed of light c = 3 · 108 m
s.
At low frequencies, the assumption of infinite velocity is not a problem. However, at higher
frequencies the signal phase can be altered significantly within a few centimeters already, due
to the finite propagation velocity.
For example, At 5 GHz a 3cm long line produces a phase difference of 180 degrees between
input and output of the line. Assuming no delay yields completely wrong results.
Microwave engineering takes the wave propagation effects into account. As a result we cannot
only analyze and design at high frequencies, but also make use of this strange effect.
1.1 Why Microwaves?
At high frequencies the parasitic inductance and capacitance of a leaded resistor becomes pre-
dominant. Similar parasitic effects occour for inductors and capacitors.
1.1.1 Resistor
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1.1.2 Capacitor

Prof. S. Peik
1.1.3 Inductor
1.2 System
A typical System:

Prof. S. Peik
1.3 Frequency Ranges
There is no sharp separation between low and high frequencies. If we call a signal low or high
frequency signal depends on the application. First, we have the fundamental relation
v = f ·λ (1.1)
with v being the velocity of wave propagation and f the frequency and λ the wave length.
A rule of thumb, that circuits with dimensions larger than λ/10 of the highest frequency are
considered RF-circuits. Consequently, a 1000 km long phone line can be an RF circuit.
The phrase Microwave engineering is not exactly defined. Most people consider systems with
frequencies above 1 to 2 GHz as microwave systems.
The following table outlines the common frequency ranges. There are two different systems in
use, the decade system and the radar-band system.
Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.4 Applications

Prof. S. Peik
Frequency Wave Length

Range Designation
Very Low Frequency (VLF) <30kHz Super Long Waves (SLW) >10.000 m
Low Frequency (LF) 30-300kHz Long Waves (LW) 1000-10.000m
Medium Frequency (MF) 300-3000kHz Medium Waves (MW) 100-1000m
High Frequency (HF) 3-30MHz Short Waves (SW) 10-100m
Very High Frequency (VHF) 30-300MHz Ultra Short Waves (USW) 1-10m
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300-3000MHz Decimeter Waves (dm-W) 10-100cm
Super High Frequency (SHF) 3-30GHz Centimeter Waves (cm-W) 1-10cm
Extremely High Frequency (XHF) 30-300 GHz Millimeter Waves (mm-W) 1-10mm
Table 1.1: Frequency Band using Decades
Designation Frequency Wave Length

P-Band 220-300MHz 115cm
L-Band 1-2 GHz 20cm
S-Band 2-4GHz 10cm
C-Band 4-8 GHz 5cm
X-Band 8-12,5 GHz 3cm
Ku-Band 12,5-18GHz 2cm
K-Band 18-26,5GHz 1,35cm
Ka-Band 26,5-40GHz 1cm
Table 1.2: Radar Bands
Ultra Stable PLL

Basisbandprozessor Clock LO RF-Modul
IF-Carrier
90o
IF-Filter
I PAmp
Coding QPSK Mapping IF-Amp Mixer
X-Band RF
Data- 01
Source Q
ANT
01011001011
QAM-Modulator
Ant
LO
Mikrocontroller Power Management
Figure 1.2: Typical Transmitter

Prof. S. Peik
Ultra Stable PLL

LO
IF-Carrier
ANT
90o
Spiegelfreq.-Filter IF-Filter
IFA LNA Mischer I
AGC
Baseband
Processor
Q
2.2 GHz
QAM-Demodulator
LO
Figure 1.3: Typical Receiver

Transmission Line Theory 2
At low frequencies, lines act as a short connection between two devices. At higher frequencies,
this is not true anymore. Rather, the signal changes with the length of the line due to the finite
velocity of the signal propagation. For a closer examination we have to analyze a two wire line
in more detail. We assume a line with an arbitrary cross-section as shown in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1: Line: Cross-section, symbol and Equivalent Circuit
F.
The capacitance per line length is called the capacitance line parameter C′ with the unit m
′ ′ ′
Similarly we can define an R ,L and G . The line parameters can be determined through the
geometry of the line cross section.
This line can be represented as a chain of infinite small line sections. Each section acts like a
small two port with shunt capacitance C′ dz and conductance G′ dz and series inductance L′ dz
and resistance a R′ dz s shown in Figure 2.2.
13
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-du
i R’dz L’dz i+di
u G’dz C’dz u+du
dz
Figure 2.2: Equivalent circuit of a Line Element
Now we compare the input voltage u1 with the output voltage u2 . Using the schematic of Figure
2.2 we get for the main loop u2 = u1 + du. Or using the impedances
di
−u + R′ dz i + L′ dz + u + du = 0 (2.1)
dt
di
−du = R′ dz i + L′ dz (2.2)
dt
As i2 = i1 + di at the node we get
du
−i + G′ dz u +C′ dz + i + di = 0 (2.3)
dt
Hence, we get for the voltage drop
di
−du = R′ dz i + L′ dz (2.4)
dt
and the shunt branch current
du
−di = G′ dz u +C′ dz (2.5)
dt
Dividing both equation by dz we get
du di
− = R′ i + L′ (2.6)
dz dt
di ′ ′ du
− = G u +C (2.7)
dz dt
These equation describe the line completely for time variations t as well as local variations z.
For the lossless case , i.e. R = G = 0, we get
du di
− = L′ (2.8)
dz dt
di du
− = C′ (2.9)
dz dt

Prof. S. Peik
By differentiating both eqns with respect to dz and substitution we get
d2u d2u
= L′C′ (2.10)
dz2 dt 2
d2i d2i
= L′C′ 2 (2.11)
dz2 dt
For the lossy case we get
d2u du d2u
= R′ G′ u + (R′C′ + L′ G′ ) +C′ L′ 2 (2.12)
dz2 dt dt
d2i di d2i
= R′ G′ i + (R′C′ + L′ G′ ) +C′ L′ 2 (2.13)
dz2 dt dt
These equations are known as the telegraph equations. The equations for voltage and current
are the well known wave equations. We can conclude, that the voltage and current on the line
travels as waves on it. The velocity in the lossless case is
1 1 c m
vp = √ = √ =√ with c = 2, 998 · 108 (2.14)
εµ ε0 εr µ0 µr εr µr s
we note, that the velocity in free space, i.e. εr = µr = 1, the wave propagates with the velocity
of light c. This is a very strong indication, that light itself is an electromagnetic wave. As seen
from Figure 2.3 any shaped signal propagates on the line with the velocity v p . We can prove
that that kind of functions f (z,t) solve the wave equation.
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
Ausbreitung mit Geschw. v
t=t1
z
Ausbreitung mit Geschw. v
t=t1=z1/v
z
z1
Figure 2.3: Signal propagates on lossless line
2.1 Time-Harmonic Signals on Lines
When assuming time-harmonic signals on the line we can use the phasor representation

Prof. S. Peik
i(t) = Re{I e jωt } und u(t) = Re{U e jωt } (2.15)
In our differential equations we get
dU
= −(R′ + jωL′ )I (2.16)
dz
dI
= −(G′ + jωC′ )U (2.17)
dz
The solution of the coupled differential equations system is
d 2U
= (R′ + jωL′ )(G′ + jωC′ )U (2.18)
dz2
or using the abbreviation
γ2 = (R′ + jωL′ )(G′ + jωC′ ) (2.19)

we get
d 2U
= γ2 U (2.20)
dz2
We call γ the propagation constant.

This is the time-harmonic wave equation, that describes the voltage distribution on the line
completely. We can find a similar equation for the current
d2I
= γ2 I (2.21)
dz2
2.2 Solution of the Wave Equation
The general solution of the wave equation is
U(z) = U0+ e−γz +U0− eγz (2.22)

I(z) = I0+ e−γz + I0− eγz (2.23)
with U0+ and U0− or. I0+ and I0− being arbitrary constants fixed by the boundary conditions.
The constant can be either determined by fixing current and voltage at the beginning of the
line (constant current and voltage source) or at the end of the line (fixed impedance) or a
combination.

Prof. S. Peik
λ
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
Forward Wave
Backward Wave
Superposition= ?
Figure 2.4: Phasor diagram for forward and backward traveling wave
2.3 Propagation Constant
The constant γ is known as the propagation constant. As we already know
p
γ= (R′ + jωL′ )(G′ + jωC′ ) = α + jβ (2.24)
The propagation constant has a real and imaginary part γ. The real part α is called attenuation
constant. The imaginary part β is called phase constant.
The attenuation constant α describes the power loss in the line per length (typically meter, foot
or kilometer). A lossless line has attenuation constant of zero. An α = 5 km 1
means, that the
5
voltage on the line is attenuated by e per kilometer.
The phase constant β describes the phase rotation per length. A β = 45 m means, that the
voltage phasor rotates by 45 per meter length. The phase shift is always a delay in the direction
of propagation, as the wave needs time to travel along the line. The propagation constant
proportional to the phasor frequency.
2.4 Wave Impedance
When we use the voltage description of the wave equation from eqn. 2.74. By partial differen-
tiation of eqn. 2.74 y z we get:
dU
= γ(−U0+ e−γz +U0− eγz ) (2.25)
dz
And with eqn.2.16 we get
1 dU γ + −γz − γz

I=− = U0 e −U0 e (2.26)
R′ + jωL′ dz R′ + jωL′
R′ + jωL′
We we substitute γ = Z0 and get

Prof. S. Peik
1
U0+ e−γz −U0− eγz

I= (2.27)
Z0
U0+ −γz U0− γz
I= e − e (2.28)
Z0 Z
|{z} | {z0}
I0+ I0−
We can now relate I0+ and I0− to the voltages U0+ and U0− and get
U0+ U+
I0+ = ⇔ Z0 = +0 (2.29)
Z0 I0
U0− U−
I0− = − ⇔ Z0 = − −0 (2.30)
Z0 I0
The Voltage V + and and current I + on the line are in a fixed relation. This ratio is called the line
impedance or wave impedance. We see that
p p
R′ + jωL′ (R′ + jωL′ ) (R′ + jωL′ )
Z0 = = p (2.31)
γ (R′ + jωL′ )(G′ + jωC′ )
s
R′ + jωL′
Z0 = (2.32)
G′ + jωC′
In the lossless case r

L′
Z0 = (2.33)
C′
the line impedance is real. Note, that the real value does not mean, that the line is lossy! The
line impedance has the unit Ω (Ohm). This impedance characterizes the line behavior and is
the most important line parameter. Is is also important to know, that we cannot measure the
line impedance with ohm meters. The line impedance just relates voltage and current of the
forward traveling wave and backward traveling wave, respectively,
V0+
= Z0 (2.34)
I0+
V0−
= Z0 (2.35)
−I0−
2.5 Time-Domain Representation
When investigating the forward traveling wave U0+ e−γz only, with γ = α + jβ we get
U + = U0+ e−αz e− jβz (2.36)

Prof. S. Peik
+
Note, that the constant U0+ can be complex, such that U0+ = |U0+ |e jφ . Eqn 2.36 transformed
into time-domain yields
u+ (z,t) = |U0+ |e−αz cos(ωt − βz + φ+) (2.37)
This is the time-domain representation of a forward traveling wave. A similar equation can be
found for the backward wave.
2.6 Wave Length and Propagation Constant
As seen from eqn. 2.37 the voltage on a line depends on the time as well as on the location on
the line. The periodicity over time is known as the Period T = 1f . The “speed” of phase change
of time is known as the angular velocity ω = 2π f = 2π T . A similar relation of the phase change
over the length of the line can now be specified. This constant is known as the phase constant
β. From eqn. 2.37 we get the location z pl as the location with same phase as location z = 0 by
βz pl = 2π (2.38)
2π
z pl = (2.39)
β
The spatial period on the line is known as the wave length λ. As seen from eqn. 2.37 the wave
length λ and the phase constant β are related by
2π
λ= (2.40)
β
2.7 Phase Velocity
The nodes of constant phase propagate with the velocity v over the line.
The phase velocity on the line is
ω
v= (2.41)
β
also called the propagation velocity on the line.

Relating 2.41 with β = 2π
λ we get
ω
v= λ (2.42)
2π
ω
or using 2π =f

Prof. S. Peik
1
Ausbreitung
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 π 2π 3π 4π
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.5: Propagation of a Forward Wave over Time
v = f ·λ (2.43)
This equation is the most basic equation of wave propagation.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 1:
Consider the following observed voltage distribution on a line at t = 0 and t = 1ms.
t=0ms t= 1 ms
1 1
0.5 0.5
1/e
λ 90°»1m 90°»1m
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
z [m] z [m]
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
The attenuation can be derived from the envelope e-function. The envelope decays in 10 m to
1/e of the original value. Hence

1
e−αz = (2.44)
e z=10m
1 1
= (2.45)
e10m α e
10 m α = 1 (2.46)
1
α = 0.1 (2.47)
m
Np
The attenuation is 0.1 per meter or α = 0.1 m
The Wave length λ is 4m as seen from measurement. The phase changes by 90 within 1 m.
π/2
Hence, the phase constant is β = 1m = π2 rad 1m m
m . The phase velocity is v = 1ms = 1000 s . We can
now calculate the frequency
v 1000 m
s = 250Hz
f= = (2.48)
λ 4m
Alternatively we can calculate β and v from λ. Now
2π π rad
β= = (2.49)
λ 2 m
and
ω 2π250Hz m
= π 1 v= = 1000 (2.50)
β 2m
s
Since the voltage at z = 0 is 1 V and there is no backward traveling wave , the voltage function is
π
V (z) = 1Ve−0.1z− j 2 z (2.51)
2.7.1 Lossless Line
When looking at lossless lines with R′ = G′ = 0 our line equations simplify to
r
L′
Z0 = (2.52)
C′
p √
γ = jβ = jωL′ jωC′ = jω L′C′ (2.53)
ω 1
v = =√ (2.54)
β L′C′
2π 2π 1 v
λ = = √ = √ = (2.55)
β ω LC ′ ′ f LC′ ′ f

Prof. S. Peik
2.8 Determining the Constants by Boundary Conditions
From the initial definition of the transmssion line
U(z) = U0+ e−γz +U0− eγz (2.56)

I(z) = I0+ e−γz + I0− eγz (2.57)
we can set the boundary conditions at the input of the line, i.e. fixing current I(0) and voltage
U (0) at the input, we have
U(0) = Ua = U0+ +U0− (2.58)

1
I(0) = Ia = (U0+ −U0− ) (2.59)
Z0
and
Ua + Z0 Ia Ua − Z0 Ia
U0+ = und U0− = (2.60)
2 2
Ua /Z0 + Ia Ua /Z0 − Ia
I0+ = und I0− = − (2.61)
2 2
Hence we have for the voltage and current distribution along the line
1 1
U(z) = (Ua + Z0 Ia ) e−γz + (Ua − Z0 Ia ) eγz (2.62)
2 2
1 Ua 1 Ua
I(z) = + Ia e − −γz
− Ia eγz (2.63)
2 Z0 2 Z0
this is known as the physical Form of the line voltage/current distribution.

In mathematical form we get by rearranging
eγz + e−γz eγz − e−γz

U(z) = Ua − Z0 Ia (2.64)
2 2
or using the definitions of hyperbolic functions
U (z) = Ua cosh(γz) − Z0 Ia sinh(γz) (2.65)

Ua
I(z) = Ia cosh(γz) − sinh(γz) (2.66)
Z0

Prof. S. Peik
2.9 End Conditions
When fixing the current Ie = I(l) and voltage Ue = U (l) at the end of the line, i.e. z = l we get
U(l) = Ue = U0+ e−γl +U0− eγl (2.67)

1
I(l) = Ie = (U0+ e−γl −U0−eγl ) (2.68)
Z0
where now
1 1
U0+ = (Ue + Z0 Ie )eγl and U0− = (Ue − Z0 Ie )e−γl (2.69)
2 2
1 1
I0+ = (Ue /Z0 + Ie )eγl and I0− = − (Ue /Z0 − Ie )e−γl (2.70)
2 2
and we get
1 1
U (z) = (Ue + Z0 Ie ) eγ(l−z) + (Ue − Z0 Ie ) e−γ(l−z) (2.71)
2 2
1 Ue γ(l−z) 1 Ue
I(z) = + Ie e − − Ie e−γ(l−z) (2.72)
2 Z0 2 Z0
In mathematical form we have
U(z) = Ue cosh(γ(l − z)) + Z0 Ie sinh(γ(l − z)) (2.73)

Ue
I(z) = Ie cosh(γ(l − z)) + sinh(γ(l − z)) (2.74)
Z0
Note, that the output current ,Ie is defined as flowing ou of the network, i.e. from left to right.
Some publications define the current right to left, hence the plus signs of the equations reverse
to minus signs.
2.10 Terminated Lines
We can solve the differential equations with boundary values only. In our case, this means, that
the lines must be terminated .
A terminated line is given in Figure 2.6 . The line is fed to the left with the harmonic voltage
phasor Vo e jωt . The source has the source impedance Zi . The line is loaded at the end with an
Impedance ZL . This is called the termination. The line has the length l.
The solution of this boundary problem can be derived with the well known techniques. The
voltage distribution on the line can be derived (see [1]) to be the phasors

Prof. S. Peik
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo Zl
Figure 2.6: Line with Source and Load
V (z) = V0+ e−γz +V0− eγz (2.75)

I(z) = I0+ e−γz + I0− eγz (2.76)
with V0+ and V0− and. I0+ And I0− being constants to be determined.
The first part of the right side describes a forward traveling wave. The second part a backward
traveling wave.
Let us now analyse the forward and reflected wave patterns for various terminations of the line:
• Infinite line,
• termination with ZL = Z0 , and
• arbitrary load ZL or
• open or shorted line, e.g. ZL = ∞or ZL = 0.
2.10.1 Infinite Long Line
On an infinite long attenuated we cannot have a backward traveling wave, as the source of that
wave is in infinite distance. Hence our voltage and current distribution is constructed of the
forward wave only, hence
U(z) = Ua e−γz (2.77)

Ua −γz
I(z) = e (2.78)
Z
with
U0+ = Ua U0− = 0 (2.79)
or in time-domain representation
u(z,t) = |U0+ |e−αz cos(ωt − βz + φ− ) (2.80)

i(z,t) = |U0+ |e−αz cos(ωt − βz + φ− ) (2.81)
A snapshot of such a wave is shown in Figure 2.7.

Prof. S. Peik
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
1
Ausbreitung
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
z
-0.2
λ
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.7: Wave on an infinite Long Line
2.10.2 Matched Load
When the line is terminated by an impedance equal to the line impedance we call this a matched
load as shown in Figure ??, i.e.
Zl = Z0 (2.82)
At the end we have the relation of voltage and current of
Ue
= Zl = Z0 or Ue = Z0 Ie (2.83)
Ie
When plugging this into eqn 2.70 we get
U(z) = Ue eγ(l−z) (2.84)

Ue γ(l−z)
I(z) = e (2.85)
Z0
As for z = 0 (Beginning of Line) we get Ua = Ue eγl we have
U(z) = Ua e−γz (2.86)

Ua −γz
I(z) = e (2.87)
Z0
Voltage and current distribution on the line with matched load are identical to the distribution
on an infinite line. There is no backward wave.
Matched termination is often a desirable goal, as for the matched case, we do not get problems
from reflected waves and also maximize the power delivered to the load.

Prof. S. Peik
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo Zl
1
Ausbreitung
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
-0.2
λ
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.8: Wave on a line with Matched Termination
2.10.3 Arbitrary Load
In the arbitrary load case we get reflected waves.

The load forces the voltage Ue and the current Ie at the end of the line (z = l) to be
Ue
= Zl (2.88)
Ie
With eqn. 2.70 we get
1 1
U(z) = (Zl + Z0 )I e eγ(l−z) + (Zl − Z0 )I e e−γ(l−z) (2.89)
|2 {z } |2 {z }
U0+ U0−
In order to simplify the calculations we move and flip our coordinate system to the end of the
line, i.e. z′ = l − z. Note, the variable z′ counts positive to the left. We get now
1 1
U(z′ ) = (Zl + Z0 )I e eγz + (Zl − Z0 )I e e−γz
′ ′
(2.90)
|2 {z } |2 {z }
U0+ U0−
Where
U0− Zl − Z0
= (2.91)
U0+ Zl + Z0

Prof. S. Peik
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo Zl
1
Ausbreitung
0.8
hinlaufende Welle
0.6
0.4 rücklaufende Welle

0.2
-0.2
λ
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.9: Not Matched Load with Reflected Wave
This ratio of the forward and backward wave voltage at z = l is called reflection coefficient
ZL
Zl − Z0 Z0 −1
Γ= = ZL (2.92)
Zl + Z0 Z0 +1
We can also determine Zl

Z0 from the reflection coefficient Γ
ZL 1 + Γ
= (2.93)
Z0 1−Γ
To summarize, the waves on the line have now the form

′ ′

U (z′ ) = U0+ e jβz + Γ e− jβz (2.94)
with U0+ being the incident wave at z = l.

When using Zl = Z0 we observe that Γ = 0 as mentioned before.
2.11 Reflections
Wave propagate through the line. When the hit a termination or a discontinuity they will be
absorbed or reflected.
The reflected amount in amplitude and phase is described by the reflection coefficient
Phasor of incident wave at termination V−
Γ= = + (2.95)
Phasor of reflected wave at termination V

Prof. S. Peik
The reflection coefficient can be complex. For passive terminations, the reflection coefficient
is always |Γ| ≤ 1, i.e. Γ lies always inside the unit circle of the complex plane.
The reflection coefficient can be derived from the line impedance Z0 and the load (termination)
impedance ZL by
ZL − Z0
Γ= (2.96)
ZL + Z0
Depending on the type of load we get the following types of reflection
• Open line end withZL = ∞:

Incident and reflected wave have the same amplitude and phase , hence Γ = 1
• shorted line with ZL = 0 Ω:

Incident and reflected wave have the same amplitude and a 180 phase difference , hence
Γ = −1
• Matched load:
The load impedance is equal to the line impedance ZL = Z0 . There are no reflections, i.e.
Γ = 0.
• General load
ZL −Z0
The load is ZL 6= Z0 . There is a reflected wave withΓ = ZL +Z0 .
When the imaginary part of Γ is positive, the load is inductive. When the imaginary part of Γ
is negative, the load is capacitive.

Prof. S. Peik
2.12 Standing Waves
When terminating the line with Zl the incident wave is reflected by Γ = ZZli +Z
−Z0
0
. In order to avoid
multiple reflections we terminate the left end of the line with the input impedance Zi = Z0 .
Now the voltage on the line is
′
U (z′ ) = U0+ eγz + Γe−γz
′
(2.97)
In case of a lossless line withγ = jβ we get

′ ′

U (z′ ) = U0+ e jβz + Γe−βz (2.98)
2.12.1 Shorted Line
With the shorted line we have Γ = −1, and consequently
′ ′

U (z′ ) = U0+ e jβz − e− jβz (2.99)
1 jβ
| with sin(β) = (e − e− jβ ) (2.100)
2j

= U0+ 2 j · sin(βz′ ) (2.101)
We observe from eqn 2.98 that the voltage distribution on the line is composed of two waves
with opposite direction of propagation. The voltage distribution on the line U (z) is using
β = 2π
λ:
2πz′
U(z) = Uo+ · 2 j · sin( ) (2.102)
λ
This phasor has a special property. The amplitude of the phasor is constant for the constant
location z. there are even zeros at
λ 3λ
z′0 = 0, , λ, , 2λ, · · · (2.103)
2 2
where the voltage is always zero. At these locations we can shorten the line without disturbing
the wave pattern. At the maxima between the zero nodes we have an amplitude of 2U0+ .
The time-domain representation is:
2πz′ jωt 2πz′ jωt−π/2

u(z,t) = Re{Uo+ · 2 j · sin( ) e } = Re{Uo+ · 2 · sin( )e } (2.104)
λ λ
2πz′ π
u(z,t) = 2 |U0+ | · sin( ) cos(ωt − + φ+ ) (2.105)
λ 2
Several snapshots in time of the standing wave are shown in Figure 2.11.
As the wave on the line does not move to the left or right we call this a standing wave.

Prof. S. Peik
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
u(z) 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 λ/2 λ 3λ/2 2λ 5λ/2 3λ z
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
i(z)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 λ/2 λ 3λ/2 2λ 5λ/2 3λ z
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.10: Standing Wave on a Shorted Line

Prof. S. Peik
Similarly we get for an open line with Γ = 1
2πz′
U(z) = U ho · 2 · cos( ) (2.106)
λ
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
u(z)
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 λ/2 λ 3λ/2 2λ 5λ/2 3λ z
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
i(z) 1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 λ/2 λ 3λ/2 2λ 5λ/2 3λ z
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
Figure 2.11: Standing Wave on an open Line
The superimposed phasors of voltage and current on the line have the same phase everywhere
U(z′ ) At the distance of λ2 we observe locations with zero voltage or zero current, respectively.
We call this nodes.
At certain moments in time the voltage on the line is zero everywhere! A quarter period later,
we observe no current anywhere. The energy oscillates between electric and magnetic fields,
that means the line with a standing wave is an oscillator.
2.12.2 Detection of Standing Waves
Standing waves can be easily detected. A probe inserted into the line can detect the amplitude
of the voltage phasor U(z) = U + (z) +U − (z). A line with a movable probe in the line is called
a slot line.

Prof. S. Peik
Zi Zo
Uo ejωt V Zl
Figure 2.12: Operation of a Slot line
Generally, the waves on a line are neither purely propagating nor purely standing waves. Mostly
we deal with a superimposition of a forward traveling wave and a smaller backward traveling
wave. The two waves interfere in a pattern as shown in Figure 2.13.
The standing wave pattern shows a minimum and a maximum depending on the reflections on
the line. Is the minimum zero, we call this locations knots. The minimums are separated by
half the wave length λ2 . Consequently, we can find the frequency of the wave in the line when
we know the phase velocity v p and the standing wave pattern.
Zi
Uo ejωt Zo
2
U/Uin Γ=1,VSWR=OO
1.5
Γ=0,7,VSWR=5,666:1
1
Γ=0,VSWR=0
0.5
λ/2
Figure 2.13: Standing Wave Pattern
The maximum voltage is
Vmax = 1 + |Γ| (2.107)
The minimal voltage is

Vmin = 1 − |Γ| (2.108)
The ratio between the maximal and minimal voltage is called the voltage standing wave ratio
VSWR
Vmax 1 + |Γ|
V SW R = = (2.109)
Vmin 1 − |Γ|

Prof. S. Peik
From the VSWR we can determine the absolute value of Γ
V SW R − 1
|Γ| = (2.110)
V SW R + 1
The Phase φΓ of Γ can be derived from the minimal distance zmin between the first minimum
and the load location
φΓ = π + 2βzmin (2.111)
With the slot line we can determine the wave length, the frequency, the phase velocity and the
load impedance. Slot lines were widely used in microwave labs before the advent of modern
computerized vector network analyses.
Figure 2.14: Slot Lines a)Coaxial Type b)Waveguide ,from [10]

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 2:
Assume the following wave pattern on a 50Ω-Line.
U DUT
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
U [V]
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
z [cm]
The minimums are separated by λ/2 = 1, 6cm. Hence λ = 3, 2cm and for an air filled line f =
9, 36GHz. Max. and min. voltages are 24V or 12 Volt. This is a VSWR=2:1. It follows,
|Γ| = 31 = 0, 333
First Minimum at zmin = 0, 6cm.
follows θΓ = π + 2 3,22π
cm 0, 6cm = 5.4 = 315 = −45
Hence, the reflection coefficient isΓ = 0, 333∠ − 45
Forward and backward traveling waves are now:
V0+ +V0− = 24Vand V0+ −V0− = 12V. follows:
V0+ = 18Vand V0− = 6V
The backward traveling wave is therefore V − = ΓV0+ = 6Ve j45
The total voltage at the end is V (z = 0) = 18V + 6Ve− j45 = 22, 6e− j10.8 . Die Amplitude 22,6 V
can be read from the graph.
Hence, the load impedance is
ZL 1+Γ
= = 1, 38 + j0.735 (2.112)
Z0 1−Γ
ZL = (69.5 − j36, 8)Ω (2.113)
2.13 Input Impedance of a Line
We assume a line as shown in Figure 2.15. As shown below we can determine the input
impedance of this arrangement.
Zo Zl
Zin
Figure 2.15: Input impedance of Line with Load
Stand: 10. März 2009 34

Prof. S. Peik
Let us revisit eqn. 2.70 and 2.71
U(z) = Ue cosh(γ(l − z)) + Z0 Ie sinh(γ(l − z)) (2.114)

Ue
I(z) = Ie cosh(γ(l − z)) + sinh(γ(l − z)) (2.115)
Z0
Ue
with the ratio Ie = Zl for the load impedance.
Now, we determine the ratio of the voltage and the current at the beginning of the line by
U(0) Zl cosh(γl) + Z0 sinh(γl) Zl cosh(γl) + Z0 sinh(γl)

Zin = = Zl = Z0 (2.116)
I(0) cosh(γl) + Z0 sinh(γl) Z 0 cosh(γl) + Zl sinh(γl)
sinh
or using the hyperbolic function tanh = cosh we get
ZL + Z0 tanh γl
Zin = Z0 (2.117)
Z0 + ZL tanh γl
In the loss less case with γ = jβ we get:
ZL + jZ0 tan βl
Zin = Z0 (2.118)
Z0 + jZL tan βl
E XAMPLE 3:
Find the input impedance of the circuit below
0.3λ -j25Ω
j50Ω ZL=(100-j25)Ω
Zo
Z4 Z3 Z2 Z1
WE have for βl = 2π 0.3λ = 015π

λ and solving the chain
Z1 = 100 − j25 (2.119)

Z2 = Z1 − j25 = 100 − j50 (2.120)
Z2 + jZ0 tan(0.15π)
Z3 = Z0 = 24.812 + 24.621 j (2.121)
Z0 + jZ2 tan(0.15π)
Z3 · j50
Z4 = Z3 k j50 = = 10.031 + 19.833 j (2.122)
Z3 + j50
MATLAB Code:
j=sqrt(-1)
Z0=50
Z1=100-j*25
Z2=Z1-j*25
Z3=Z0*(Z2+j*Z0*tan(2*pi*0.3))/(Z0+j*Z2*tan(2*pi*0.3))
Z4=Z3*j*50/(Z3+j*50) # parallel circuit

Prof. S. Peik
2.13.1 Impedance Transformation

λ π
When we choose l = 4 we get an interesting relation. Usingβl = 2 we get now
Z02
Zin = (2.123)
Zl
Z2
in other words: The impedance Zl at the end is transformed into a new impedance Z0l at the
input. This only works for a length of exactly λ/4. Hence, the transformation is strongly
frequency dependent. We can widen the bandwidth of the transformation by cascading several
of this λ/4-Transformers.
λ
For a line length of l = 2 we get another interesting relation. Now β = π and
Zin = Zl (2.124)
This means, that inserting a line of half a wave length does now change the impedance of the
load. No matter if the load is matched or not. This is also valid for one frequency only.
2.13.2 Short and Open Line Impedance
The open or short ended line is a special case of Eqn. 2.117. The input impedance is always
purely imaginary. The open-ended or shorted line is, therefore, a reactance.
For shorted line:
Zin = Z0 tanh γl = jZ0 tan βl (2.125)
For open-ended line:
Zin = Z0 coth γl = − jZ0 cot βl (2.126)
With open or shorted lines we can realize reactance with arbitrary values.
With a closer look we can see that we can model these lines using L-C equivalent circuits.

Prof. S. Peik
Zin/Z0 8
6 Kurzschluß am Leitungsende
0
π/4 π/2 3π/2 π 2π 3π
-2
-4
-6
-8
Zin/Z0 8
Leerlauf am Leitungsende
6
0
π/4 π/2 3π/2 π 2π 3π
-2
-4
-6
-8
λ/8 λ/4 3λ/4 λ/2 λ 3π
Figure 2.16: Input Impedance of a Shorted and Open-Ended Line

Prof. S. Peik
Kurze Leitung mit l<λ/4: <λ/4
L
Zo
Zin
<λ/4
C
Zo
Zin
Kurze Leitung mit l<λ/4;3λ/4;5λ/4...:

λ/4
C L
Zo
Zin
λ/4
C
Zo L
Zin
In microwave engineering L’s and C’s are often realized using line segments.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 4:
Consider the circuit shown below. The load resistance is ZL = − j50Ω. The source voltage is
Uo =10V∠0o .
λ/4
50Ω
U0 U1 Zo=50Ω U2 ZL
z
FindU 1 and U 2 . Find and sketch the VSWR.
Z02 2500
First we find the input impedance: Zin = Zl = − j50 = j50 (or with Smith)
Now the reflection coefficient is Γ = ZZinin −50 j−1
+50 = j+1 = j (or with Smith)
j
Hence U1 = ZinZ+50
in
U0 = j+1 U0 = 12 (1 + j)10V = √ 10
∠45o
2
Hence:
Zin −Z0
U1 = U(z = 0) = 21 (1 + j)10V = U0+ +U0− und Γ = Zin +Z0 = j
following: U − = jU + in :U1 = Uo+ + jU0+ or U0+ = U1
(1+ j) = 5V
Alternatively,
we get use the fact, that the incident wave U0+ is always independent of the load and the incident
wave is half the source voltage when source and line is matched, hence U0+ = 5V and
U0− = jU0+ = j5V
λ λ
U(z = λ4 ) = U0+ e− jβ 4 +U0− e jβ 4 = 5Ve− jπ/2 + j5Ve jπ/2 = 5V(− j) + j5V( j) = 5V(−1 − j) = 10
√ ∠−
2
135o
V SW R = U Umin = ∞
max
as the load is purely imainary, all power is reflected.
2.14 Decibel
RF-Engineers use Decibel for dimensionless ratios.

The linear factor of amplification V and loss A for two related Voltages is defined as
V2 V1
V= und A = (2.127)
V1 V2
Now we can also give logarithmic definitions in so called Neper and Decibel
|V1 | |V + |
aN p = ln = ln + 0 −αl = αl (2.128)
|V2 | |V0 |e
|V1 | |V0+ |
adB = 20 · log10 = 20 · log10 + −αl = 20 · log10 eαl = 8, 686 αl (2.129)
|V2 | |V0 |e
The unit decibel usually relates two powers, hence we can also write
P1
adB = 10 · log10 for loss (2.130)
P2
P2
adB = 10 · log10 for amplification (2.131)
P1
2
We can see that the voltage and power definition are related by the well known equation P = VR

Prof. S. Peik
The relation between Neper and Decibel is:
1 Np = 8.686 dB 1 dB = 0.115 Np (2.132)
Common dB Values are:

Ratio dB
1 0 dB
2 3 dB
3 4.77 dB
4 = 2·2 6 dB = 3+3
8 9 dB
10 10 dB
100 20 dB
1000 30 dB
1
2 -3 dB
1
10 -10 dB
There are also definitions for Power with reference to a reference power.
P
dBW means: dB greater than 1W PdBW = 10 log 1W
P
dBm means: dB greater than 1mW PdBm = 10 log 1mW
for example;
1mW=0dBm
10mW=10dBm
100mW=20dBm
1000mW=30dBm=0dBW

Realisations of Transmission
Lines
3
3.1 Parallel Wire Cables / Twisted Pair Cables
A commonly used cable type is the parallel wire cable as shown.
σ
σ κ,µ,ε
2a
d
Abbildung 3.1: Parallel Wire Cable
The line parameters are
πε µ d πκ 1
C′ = L′ = ln G′ = R′ = σ (3.1)
ln da π a ln da πaδ
with an impedance of
η0 d
Z0 = √ ln (3.2)
π εr a
and a propagation velocity of

s
1 1 c
v= √ = = √ mit µr = 1 (3.3)
L′C′ εµ εr
41
Prof. S. Peik
σ κ,µ,ε
Radius: a
Radius: b
Abbildung 3.2: Koaxialleitung
3.2 Coaxial Lines
The line parameters for a coaxial line are
2πε µ b 2πκ σ 1 1
C′ = L′ = ln G′ = R′ = ( + ) (3.4)
ln ba 2π a ln ba 2πδs a b
For the lossless case we gat a line impedance of

√
η0 b 60 b
Z0 = √ ln = √ ln (3.5)
2π εr a εr a
E XAMPLE 5:
Realisieren Sie je ein Koaxkabel mit 50Ω und 75Ω. Das Dielektrikum ist Polyäthylen mit εr =2,25
Dann folgt:
b
a = 3, 4 für 50Ω
b
a = 6, 4 für 75Ω
The attenuation of a coaxial cable follows
R0 1 + ab
α= q b
(3.6)
2b µε ln a
b
the Minimum ist at a = 3, 6. In this case the attenuation is
1, 8R0
αmin = q (3.7)
b µε
The optimal value of Z0 for minimal losses is hence
r r
ln b µ µr
Z0,opt = a = 76.6 (3.8)
2π ε εr
For polyethylene (εr =2,25) as cable filling we get Z0 ≈ 50Ω. Hence, the popular polyethylene
cables use 50Ω line impedance.
Stand: 10. März 2009 42

Prof. S. Peik
3.3 Planar Transmission Lines
Planar transmission lines are usually printed on circuit boards. The most often used structure
is the microstrip line as shown in Figure 3.3.
Substrate
w
h εr
Ground Plane
Figure 3.3: Microstrip Line
There is no closed solution for the line impedance. However a good approximation exists. First,
we define an effective dielectric constant
1 w
εe f f = εr + 1 + (εr − 1) · F( ) (3.9)
2 h
where
 2
1
w  √ + 0, 04 1 − wh wenn w
h ≤1
1+12 wh
F( ) = (3.10)
h  √ 1 h wenn w
h >1
1+12 w
Now

√η0 1 ln 8 h + 0, 25 w
w
 εe f f 2π w h wenn h ≤1
Z0 = √η0 1
wenn w
>1 (3.11)
 εe f f w +2,46−0,49 h + 1− h 6 h
h w ( w )
The effective dielectric constant is from the “dielectric mixture” seen by the wave travelling
guided by the microstrip line. The wave (E- and H- field) is partly in the air εr = 1 and partly
in the substrate (εr > 1).
We can find the wave length and propagation speed in the substrate now
λ0
λMS = √ (3.12)
εe f f
c
v = √ (3.13)
εe f f
where λ0 = c
f is the wave length in free space.
We can use programs like TXLine for finding the impedance numerically.
Stand: 10. März 2009 43

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 6:
Design a λ/4 Impedance transformer from 100Ω to 50Ω on Al2O3-Substrat with a thickness of
50mil (50/1000 in=1.27mm) at 3 GHz. √ √
we need three line sections: 50Ω of arbitrary length, Z2 = Z1 Z3 = 5000 = 70.7Ω with length
l = λ4l and a 100Ω line length arbirtrary
Using Tx-Line: with Alumina (=AL2O3) εr = 9.8
for 50Ω-line: length arbitrary and width w = 1.23mm, eff dielectric const: ee f f = 6.74
for 70.7Ω-line: length l = 9.9mm and width w = 0.53mm, eff dielectric const: ee f f = 6.33
for 100Ω-line: length arbitrary and width w = 0.17mm, eff dielectric const: ee f f = 6.04
A λ/4 section in the 70.7Ω-line is
λMS λ c 3 · 108
l= = √0 = √ = √ = 9.9mm (3.14)
4 4 εe f f f 4 εe f f 3 · 109 · 4 · 6.33
1.23mm
0.17mm 0.53mm
100Ω 70.7Ω 50Ω

9.9mm
50mil=1.27mm
Figure 3.4: Realisation of λ/4-Transformer on 50mil Al2O3-Substrate for f = 3GHz
3.4 Non TEM Wave Guides
3.4.1 Rectangular Wave Guide
3.5 Free Space

Network Theory 4
T he typical microwave circuit is composed of passive and active components. These circuits
can often be represented by cascaded two port or multi port networks. Hence, it is feasible
to analyze the circuits behavior through an analysis of the separated components followed by
a combination of the components through network theory.
4.1 Impedance and Admittance Matrix
The individual components of the circuit can be identified as components with N ports. This
means, the component has N pairs of connections as shown in Figure 4.1 . Note, that this
representation is only valid for time invariant linear and causal systems.
I2
I1 I3
U1 U3
[Z]
IN
UN
Figure 4.1: N-Port Network
The port have the voltages V1...N and currents I1...N . the impedance matrix of this N-port is
defined as
    
V1 Z11 Z12 · · · Z1N I1
 V2   .. .. 
I2 
   Z21 . .  
 ..=  ..  (4.1)
 .  ...
 ..
.
..
.

 . 
VN ZN1 · · · · · · ZNN IN
45
Prof. S. Peik
Using vector notation we have
~V = [Z]~I (4.2)
Similarly, we can define a admittance matrix
    
I1 Y11 Y12 · · · Y1N V1
 I2   .. .. 
V2 
   Y21 . .  
 .. = .. .. ..
 ..  (4.3)
 .  
 . . .

 . 
IN YN1 · · · · · · YNN VN
using vector notation
~I = [Z]~V (4.4)
Obviously, the two matrices are inverse to each other
[Z] = [Y ]−1 (4.5)
Both matrices [Z] and [Y ] describe the voltage-current behavior of the circuit completely. We
can find the individual elements of the matrix through measurements, i.e.

Vi
Zi j = (4.6)
I j Ik =0 if k6= j
This means, that we can find element Zi j by leaving all ports open with exception of port j.
Now, we can measure the voltage at port i and calculate the element Zi j through the ration Vi /I j .
Similarly, for the admittance matrix

Ii
Yi j = (4.7)
V j Vk =0 if k6= j
This means, Yi j can be derived by shorting all ports with exception of port j .
The elements of the matrices [Z] and [Y ] are complex numbers. Consequently, there are 2N 2
independent values for the complete matrix. In practice, most networks are reciprocal and
lossless, thus the matrix elements are reduced. The impedance and admittance matrix of recip-
rocal networks (no active elements, no ferrite, plasma etc.) are always symmetrical. Lossless
networks are pure imaginary, in addition to the symmetry.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 7:
Assume a lowpass network as shown below R.
I1 R I2
V1 1 C 2 V2
We find the network parameters Zi1 by setting i2 = 0 (port two open) and calculate the voltages
assuming a current i1
U1 1
Z11 = = R+ (4.8)
I1 jωC
U2 1
Z12 = = (4.9)
I1 jωC
Similarly for port two, i.e. setting i1 = 0(port one open)
U2 1
Z22 = = (4.10)
I2 jωC
U1 1
Z21 = = (4.11)
I2 jωC
The Z-matrix is hence " #

1 1
R+ jωC jωC
[Z] = 1 1 (4.12)
jωC jωC
[Y] is found by matrix inversion or setting the voltages to 0 at the ports (short)
1
R − R1
[Y ] = (4.13)
− R1 R1 + jωC
E XAMPLE 8:
Assume a network as shown below R.
V3
V1 R V2
R R
The Z-Matrix is
 2 1 1 
3 3 3
Z = R 1 2 − 13  (4.14)
3 3
1
3 − 13 2
3
Y does not exist as some elements are infinite! Singular matrix!

Prof. S. Peik
4.2 Scattering Parameters
At higher frequencies, it is very difficult to measure current and voltage directly. Hence, we
cannot describe the ports through voltages and currents easily. Incident and reflected waves
have a much more meaning at RF frequencies. Consequently, we describe our networks by the
relations of incident and reflected waves.
This yields the definition of the scattering matrix.
V2
V2
+
-
+
+
V3
V1
-
-
V1 [S] V3
Referenzebene
+
N
V
V
V
+
-
-
N
V
Figure 4.2: N-Port S-Parameter Definition
    
V1− S11 S12 · · · S1N V1+
 V2−   .. .. 
V2+ 
   S21 . .  
 .. =  ..  (4.15)
 .   ...
 ..
.
..
.

 . 
VN− SN1 · · · · · · SNN VN+
Since we generally can have different line impedances for the different
p ports we can describe
the wave amplitudes more general through a normalization with Z0,i
V+
ai = p (4.16)
Z0,i
V−
bi = p (4.17)
Z0,i
In other words, the phasor of the incident waves are called a1 , a2 , a3 and so on. The phasors of
the reflected waves are called b1 , b2 , b3 and so on. The main advantage of this notation is, that
we can immediately determine the power transported in these waves by
P1 = a2 (4.18)
and similar for all other a’s and b’s. Hence our S-Matrix definition changes to

Prof. S. Peik
    
b1 S11 S12 · · · S1N a1
 b2   .. .. 
a2 
   S21 . .  
 .. = . .. ..
 ..  (4.19)
 .  
 .. . .

 . 
bN SN1 · · · · · · SNN aN
The S-parameters can be determined through

bi
Si j = (4.20)
a j ak =0 wenn k6= j
This means, we can determine the parameter Si j if we have only a wave a j incident into port
j and all ports are matched, such that no waves are reflected back into the N-port. Now we
measure the reflected wave bi at port i. The ratio of bi and a j is Si j .

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 9:
Find the S-Parameters of the following circuit for a wave impedance of Z0 = 50Ω
50Ω
1 50Ω 2
We find S11 and S21 by loading port 2 with 50Ω and we excite port 1 with V0 and 50Ω source
resistance, hence
50Ω V+
1 50Ω
V0 V1 50Ω V2 50Ω
V-2
V-1
The input impedance of port 1 including the load at port 2 is Zin = 50Ω + (50Ω k 50Ω) = 75Ω
Using the voltage divider rule we get VV01 = 125Ω
75Ω = 3 , hence
5
3
V1 = V0 (4.21)
5
We also know, that the incident wave coming from the source is
V:0
V1+ = (4.22)
2
Now we get using V1 = 53 V0 = V1+ +V1− = V0
2 +V1− following
3 1 1
V1− = V0 − V0 = V0 (4.23)
5 2 10
The output voltage is VV21 = 75Ω
25Ω = 1 hence V = 1 V = 1 V
3 2 3 1 5 0
As there is no incident wave V2+ into port 2 (port has matched load), we have
1
V2− = V2 = V0 (4.24)
5
With all wave quantities solved we can now determine
V1− 1
10 V0 1
S11 = = 1V
= (4.25)
V1+ 2 0
5
V2− 1
5 V0 2
S21 = = 1V
= (4.26)
V1+ 2 0 5
Now we repeat the procedure with port 1 loaded with 50Ω and excite port 2. As a result we get
2 1
S12 = S22 = − (4.27)
5 5
We see, that S21 = S12 which follows also from reciprocity. The device is reciprocal.
Alternatively we can find S11 and S22 from the input impedance Zin directly:
S11 = Γ1 when port 2 is loaded with 50Ω.
Zin − Z0 25Ω 1
S11 = Γ1 = = = (4.28)
Zin + Z0 125Ω 5
Note, the Definition of the S-Parameter is only complete , if we also give provide
• the reference impedance Z0,i of the feed lines and

Prof. S. Peik
• the reference plane for the wave phasors at each port
S-Parameter are often used for two ports as shown in Figure 4.3.
V+1 V+2
[S]
-
V 1 V-2
Figure 4.3: 2-Port Network
4.3 Reciprocity
A network is called reciprocal when
Si j = S ji for reciprocal networks (4.29)
This means, the network transfers power in forward direction exactly as in backward direction.
Interestingly, all linear pasive networks are reciprocal with the exceptance of networks with
gyrotropic media. Even wireless links with antennas are reciprocal.
4.3.1 Non-Reciprocal Linear Devices
There are two linear devices in the realm of microwave engineering which are non-reciprocal:
the isolator and the circulator.
An isolator acts as a valve for electromagnetic waves. An incident wave into port 1 is transfered
to port 2 but an incident wave into port 2 is blocked from tranfer. Hence the S-Matrix for the
isolator is
0 0
[S] = (4.30)
1 0
Figure 4.4: Symbol for Isolator
A circulator is a three port network. It acts as a roundabout for waves. A wave incident into
port 1 is transfered to port 2. A wave incident in port 2 is transfered to port 3. A wave incident
in port 3 is transfered into port 1. The S-Matrix is
 
0 0 1
[S] =  1 0 0  (4.31)
0 1 0

Prof. S. Peik
2 2
1 1
3 3
Figure 4.5: right- and lefthanded Circulator
for the right handed circulator

Details about these gyrotropic devices are discussed in Chapter ??.
4.4 Properties of S-Parameters
The S-parameters can be translated into Z- oder Y-Parameter. Translations are given in Table
4.2.
Moreover, for reciprocal Networks we get
[S] = [S]T for reziprocal Networks (4.32)
For lossless reciprocal Networks we get
[S][S]∗ = [U ] (4.33)
with [U ] being the identity matrix. From this relation follows
|S21 |2 = 1 − |S11 |2 (4.34)
This is obvious, as the power flowing into port 1 must be completely leave the network in port
1 and 2, i.e. |S11 |2 and |S21 |2 ) add to 1.
4.4.1 S-Parameter in dB
S-parameters are often given in dBs. Since the S-parameters base on voltage waves the trans-
lating is
Si j,dB = 20 log10 Si j (4.35)
For passive structures the S-parameters are always smaller than 1 or negative in logarithmic
scale. When analyzing two-ports
• the negative S11 in dB is called Return Loss of port one;
• the negative S21 = S12 in dB is called Insertion Loss.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 10:
A reciprocal two-port network transmits 21 of the incident wave amplitude through the network.
1
A fraction of 100 is reflected at port 1.
1
A fraction of 10 is reflected at port 2.
This means:
S11 = ba11 = 100
1
= 0.01 or S11,dB = 20 log 0.01 = −40 dB
The return loss of port 1 is 40 dB.
We can also note that 10000 1 or 0.01% of the power is reflected at port 1
S22 = ab22 = 10
1 = 0.1 or S
11,dB = 20 log 0.1 = −20 dB
The return loss of port 2 is 20 dB.
1
We can also note that 100 or 1% of the power is reflected at port 2
b2 1
S12 = S21 = a1 = 2 = 0.5 or S11,dB = 20 log 0.5 = −6 dB
The insertion loss of the device is 6 dB.
We can also note that 14 or 25% of the power is transmitted through the device. Since the device
is reciprocal, the same is true for the reverse direction.
The network is not loss less, as S11 2 + S2 6= 1
21
E XAMPLE 11:
Often we can determine the scattering matrix of a complex network with several components, by
tracking the waves through the network. All components must be matched, though, otherwise
we get reflections within the network.
The scetched microwave circuit uses 50Ω line impedances. All ports are matched.
Wilkinson divider Isolator
Open end
1
2
3 Ratrace-Coupler
50Ω
Calculate the S-matrix of the four port. Take the phase into consideration!
Following the track of a signal that is incident to port one we get a 1/2 power split with 90
−j
degree phase change in the divider,e.g. √ voltage wave fraction.
2
Further, in the rat race we get again a 1/2 power split, with 90 degree delay in the arm to port
−j
2. Hence we get an additional √ .
2
−j
−j √
Consequentely the parameter S21 = √ = 21 = 0.5∠180o
2 2
For the others we get similar results. Note There is no power reflected from the open end, as
there is an isolator included.

0 − 21 − 12
S =  − 12 0 0 
− 12 0 0
4.4.2 Shift in Reference Plane
Since S-Parameters describe the ratio between incident to reflected wave, it is important to
define a reference plane, where wave phase is measured. Moving this reference plane on loss
less feed lines will result in a shift of phase.

Prof. S. Peik
V’+1 V+1
V’-1 V-1
z1=l1 z1=0
N-Port
V’+n V+n
V’-n V-n
z1=ln z1=0
Figure 4.6: Moving the Reference Plane
Let us assume an N-port as shown in Figure 4.6 with the reference plane at zn = 0. Now we
shift the plane to zn = ln . We will now derive a new S-matrix [S′ ] which uses the new reference
planes. We define
[V − ] = [S][V + ] (4.36)
′− ′ ′+
[V ] = [S ][V ] (4.37)
The shift of reference plane causes a phase shift in the loss less feed line, such that
′
Vn+ = Vn+ e jθn (4.38)
′−
Vn = Vn− e− jθn (4.39)
with θn = βn ln being the electrical length between 0 and ln . Using this information we get for
the new S-matrix equation
 jθ   − jθ 
e 1 0 0 0 e 1 0 0 0
 0 e jθn 0
 0   ′−
 0
 e− jθn 0 0   ′+
 . . .  [V ] = [S]  . . ..  [V ] (4.40)
 0 . . . . .
.   0 . . . . . 
0 0 0 e jθ N 0 0 0 e jθN−
 jθ −1  − jθ 
e 1 0 0 0 e 1 0 0 0
 0 e jθn 0 0   0 e− jθn 0 0 
[V ′− ] = 
    ′+
. . .  [S]  . . ..  [V(4.41)
]
 0 .. .. ..   0 .. .. . 
0 0 0 e jθN 0 0 0 e− jθN
| {z }
   
e− jθ1 0 0 0 e− jθ1 0 0 0
 0 e− jθn 0 0   0 e− jθn 0 0 
[V ′− ] = 
    ′+
.. .. ..  [S]  .. .. .. [V ]
(4.42)
 0 . . .   0 . . . 
0 0 0 e− jθN 0 0 0 e− jθN
[V ′− ] = [S′ ][V ′+ ] (4.43)

Prof. S. Peik
Following
   
e− jθ1 0 0 0 e− jθ1 0 0 0
 0 e− jθn 0 0   0 e− jθn 0 0 
[S′ ] = 
   
.. .. ..  [S]  .. .. ..  (4.44)
 0 . . .   0 . . . 
0 0 0 e− jθN 0 0 0 e− jθN
′ = e− j2θn S , i.e. the reflected wave travels

Note, that the reflection coefficients change by Snn nn
an extra length of two times ln .
4.4.3 S-Parameter Measurements
Today S-parameters are measured using network analysers as shown in Figure 4.7. A reference
signal R is fed into the device under test (DUT) from the left. Some part of reflected power
A and the transmitted power B is coupled out from the lines using directional couplers. The
left coupler also couples out some part of the reference signal R. Bias tees are used to feed
DC-Power into the DUT.
Figure 4.7: Scalar Network Analyzer. [13]
4.5 Transmission Matrix or ABCD-Matrix
The Z-,Y- and S-matrix can be used for an arbitrary number of ports. In most cases however,
we will need two-port networks only which will be chained (cascaded) together. For this kind
of problem we can define the ABCD-Matrix or transmission matrix.
The ABCD-matrix is defined with port currents and voltages as shown in Figure 4.8. Note, that
the right current is directed to the right.
Now we can define

Prof. S. Peik
I1 I2
V1
[ABCD] V2
Figure 4.8: ABCD-Matrix
V1 = AV2 + BI2 (4.45)

I1 = CV2 + DI2 (4.46)
oder in matrix notation

V1 A B V2
= (4.47)
I1 C D I2
Die determinant of the ABCD-Matrix is for reciprocal Networks always 1.
det(ABCD) = 1 (4.48)
Due to the special definition of the current directions, we can easily calculate the ABCD matrix
of cascaded two-ports as shown in Figure 4.9. We get

V1 A1 B1 A2 B2 V3
= (4.49)
I1 C1 D1 C2 D2 I3
| {z }
[V2 I2 ]
I1 I2 I2 I3
V1
[ABCD]1 V2 [ABCD]2 V3
Figure 4.9: Cascaded Two-Port Networks
We can calculate the total ABCD matrix through matrix multiplication
[ABCD]ges = [ABCD]1 · [ABCD]2 · · · [ABCD]N (4.50)
The ABCD matrix can be given for any linear reciprocal two-port. We can build libraries of
these matrices for reference. The most commonly used networks are are given in Table 4.1.
The two-port parameter can be converted between all representations through Table 4.2.

Prof. S. Peik
Network ABCD-Parameter
V1 Z V2 A=1 B=Z
C=0 D=1
V1 Y V2 A=1 B=0
C =Y D=1
V1 Z0,β V2 A = cos βl B = jZ0 sin βl

C = jY0 sin βl D = cos βl
N:1
A=N B=0
V1 V2 C=0 D = N1
V1 Y3 V2 A = 1 + YY23 B = Y13
Y1 Y2
C = Y1 +Y2 + YY1Y3 2 D = 1 + YY13
V1 Z1 Z2 V2 A = 1 + ZZ31 B = Z1 + Z2 + ZZ1 Z3 2
Z3 C = Z13 D = 1 + ZZ23
Table 4.1: ABCD-Parameter for some Two Ports

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 12:
Find the voltage at the load of the network shown below. Use ABCD matrices
j100Ω j100Ω 3:1 λ/4
5V -j25Ω
Z0=50Ω 150Ω VL=?
We divide the network into three subnetworks with the ABCD-matrices

A B −3 − j200Ω 3 0 0 j50Ω
= 1 · 1 · 1 (4.51)
C D j 25Ω −3 0 3 j 50Ω 0
4

3 − j450Ω
= 1 (4.52)
− j 50Ω −6
Now we have three equations with three unknowns
V0 = AVL + B IL (4.53)
I0 = CVL + D IL (4.54)
VL = 150Ω IL (4.55)
with eqn. 4.55 in eqn. 4.53 we get
B
Vo = (A + )VL (4.56)
150Ω
V0 15 60 135
VL = B = 4 − j9 V = ( 97 + j 97 )V = (0.618 + j1.39)V (4.57)
A + 150Ω
= 1.52∠66o (4.58)

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 13:
0.3λ -j25Ω
j50Ω ZL=(100-j25)Ω
Zo
Z4 Z3 Z2 Z1
Solution with ABCD-matrices:

1 0 cos(βl) j50 sin(βl) 1 − j25 1 0 A B
ABCD = 1 j 1 =
j50 1 50 sin(βl) cos(βl) 0 1 100− j25 1 C D
(4.59)
where βl = 2π · 0.3. Now with
V1 = AV2 + BI2 (4.60)

I1 = CV2 + DI2 (4.61)
and I2 = 0, since we model the right terminal as open, we get for the input impedance Zin = V1 /I1
A
Zin = = (10.031 + 19.833 j)Ω (4.62)
C
MATLAB Code:
j=sqrt(-1)
Z0=50
betal=2*pi*0.3
ABCD1=[1 0 ;1/(j*50) 1]
ABCD2=[cos(betal) j*Z0*sin(betal) ;j*1/Z0*sin(betal) cos(betal)]
ABCD3=[1 -j*25; 0 1]
ABCD4=[1 0 ;1/(100-j*25) 1]
ABCD=ABCD1*ABCD2*ABCD3*ABCD4
# We have an Open End i.e. i2=0 , the ratio V2/I2 is Zin
# V1=A*V2+B*I2
# I1=C*V2+D*I2
# Zin=A/C
Zin=ABCD(1,1)/ABCD(2,1)
Compare with Solution above

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 14:
Consider the circuit from Section 2.13.2. The load resistance is ZL = − j50Ω. The source voltage
is Uo =10V∠0o .
λ/4
50Ω
U0 U1 Zo=50Ω U2 ZL
z
FindU 1 and U 2 .
Z02 2500
First we find the input impedance: Zin = Zl = − j50 = j50 (or with Smith)
Zin j 1 10
Hence U1 = =
Zin +50 U0 = j+1 U0j)10V 2 (1 + =√ ∠45o
2
Now we can find the current aat the line input
U0 U (5 + j5)V
= 1 =
I1 = = (0.1 − j0.1)A (4.63)
Ri + Zin Zin j50Ω
With the ABCD-Matrix of the line

cos(βl) j50 sin(βl) 0 j50Ω
ABCD = j = j (4.64)
50 sin(βl) cos(βl) 50Ω 0
Now with A = 0and D = 0 and
V1 = AV2 + BI2 (4.65)

I1 = CV2 + DI2 (4.66)
follows
(5+ j5)V
I j50Ω
I1 = CV2 ⇔ V2 = 1 = j
= −(5 + j5)V (4.67)
C
50Ω
Hence U2 = −(5 + j5)V

Prof. S. Peik
4.6 Two-Port Networks
Two-port networks can be connected is various ways. The behavior of the total network can be
derived from the matrices of the building blocks.
Parallel Networks
When two two-ports are in parallel, the voltages at input and output, respectively, are equal.
[Y1]
[Y2]
Therefore, we can derive the total Y-matrix by adding the Y-matrices of the component net-
works. We get

Y1,11 +Y2,11 Y1,12 +Y2,12
[Yges ] = [Y1 ] + [Y2 ] = (4.68)
Y1,21 +Y2,21 Y1,22 +Y2,22
Series
To networks are in series, if the currents at the inputs and outputs, respectively, are the same.
[Z1]
[Z2]
Therefore, we can derive the total Z-matrix by adding the Z-matrices of the component net-
works. We get

Z1,11 + Z2,11 Z1,12 + Z2,12
[Zges ] = [Z1 ] + [Z2 ] = (4.69)
Z1,21 + Z2,21 Z1,22 + Z2,22

Prof. S. Peik
Cascaded Networks
For two cascaded networks, as shown here, we use the ABCD matrix as already demonstrated.
[ABCD]1 [ABCD]2
We can derive the total ABCD-matrix by multiplying the ABCD-matrices of the component
networks. We get

A1 B1 A2 B2
[ABCD]ges = [ABCD]1 · [ABCD]2 = · (4.70)
C1 D1 C2 D2

Stand: March 10, 2009
S Z Y ABCD
(Z11 −Z0 )(Z22 +Z0 )−Z12 Z21 (Y0 −Y11 )(Y0 +Y22 )+Y12Y21 A+B/Z0 −CZ0 −D
S11 S11 ∆Z ∆Y A+B/Z0 +CZ0 +D
2Z12 Z0 −2Y12Y0 2(AD−BC)

S12 S12 ∆Z ∆Y A+B/Z0 +CZ0 +D
2Z21 Z0 −2Y21Y0 2
S21 S21 ∆Z ∆Y A+B/Z0 +CZ0 +D
Table 4.2: Translation of Two Port Parameters,
(Z11 +Z0 )(Z22 −Z0 )−Z12 Z21 (Y0 +Y11 )(Y0 −Y22 )+Y12Y21 −A+B/Z0 −CZ0 +D
S22 S22 ∆Z ∆Y A+B/Z0 +CZ0 +D
(1+S11 )(1−S22 )+S12 S21 Y22 A

Z11 Z0 (1−S11 )(1−S22 )−S12 S21
Z11 |Y | C
2S12 −Y12 AD−BC

Z12 Z0 (1−S11 )(1−S 22 )−S12 S21
Z12 |Y | C
63
2S21 −Y21 1
Z21 Z0 (1−S11 )(1−S 22 )−S12 S21
Z21 |Y | C
(1−S11 )(1+S22 )+S12 S21 Y11 D
Z22 Z0 (1−S11 )(1−S22 )−S12 S21
Z22 |Y | C
(1−S11 )(1+S22 )+S12 S21 Z22 D

Y11 Y0 (1+S11 )(1+S22 )−S12 S21 |Z| Y11 B
−2S12 −Z12 BC−AD

Y12 Y0 (1+S11 )(1+S22 )−S12 S21 |Z| Y12 B
−2S21 −Z21 −1
Y21 Y0 (1+S11 )(1+S22 )−S12 S21 |Z| Y21 B
(1+S11 )(1−S22 )+S12 S21 Z11 A
Y22 Y0 (1+S11 )(1+S22 )−S12 S21 |Z| Y22 B
(1+S11 )(1−S22 )+S12 S21 Z11 −Y22

A 2S21 Z21 Y21 A
Prof. S. Peik
B Z0 (1+S11 )(1+S 22 )−S12 S21
2S21
|Z|
Z21
−1
Y21 B
1 (1−S11 )(1−S22 )−S12 S21 1 −|Y |
C Z0 2S21 Z21 Y21 C
(1−S11 )(1+S22 )+S12 S21 Z22 −Y11
D 2S21 Z21 Y21 D
|Z| = Z11 Z22 − Z12 Z21 |Y | = Y11Y22 −Y12Y21 Y0 = 1

Z0 ∆ = (Y11 +Y0 )(Y22 +Y0 ) −Y12Y21 ∆ = (Z11 + Z0 )(Z22 + Z0 ) − Z12 Z21
Smith Chart 5
The Smith Chart is a very useful tool for calculating the relation of a complex normalized load
impedance
Zl /Z0 with the reflection coefficient Γ. The Smith Chart simplifies the calculation and design of
complex microwave networks enormously. The Smith Chart arranges the complex Γ plane into
a grid of circles, which can be identified as the normalized load impedances ZZ0l .The complete
Smith Diagram is shown in Figure 5.14.
Im Linien mit konst. Realteil von Z

Linien mit konst. Imagteil von Z
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Ζ=j0.25
Kurzschluß Ζ=0.2 Ζ=0.5 Ζ=1 Ζ=2 Ζ=4

Re
Offen
Ζ=-j0.25
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Figure 5.1: The Smith Chart
64
Prof. S. Peik
5.1 Background
Let us consider a black box with a connector pair. We can characterize this box by either its
impedance Zl or by its reflection coefficient Γ when connected to a line with impedance Z0 .
The two definitions are related by the equation
Zl − Z0
Γ= (5.1)
Zi + Z0
When we include a piece of transmission line of length l, then we can derive the input impedance
by
ZL + jZ0 tan βl
Zin = (5.2)
Z0 + jZL tan βl
as shown in Section 2.13.

In the following it is useful to normalized all impedances to an arbitrary reference impedance.
Usually for reference the line impedance Z0 is of the system is used. We can define a normal-
′
ized Impedance Zl by
Z0 Yl
Znorm = = (5.3)
Zl Y0
The Smith diagram is used to graphically solve and combine these equations. Figure 5.2 shows
a typical problem, that can be solved using the Smith diagram.
l3
Zo Zl
Zin l1 l2
Figure 5.2: Example Problem for the Smith Diagram

Prof. S. Peik
5.2 Transformation of Z to Γ
Let consider the reflection coefficient of a normalized impedance

Zl ′
−1 Z −1
Γ=
Z0
Zl = l′ (5.4)
Z0 + 1 Zl + 1
From the previous chapter we know, that |Γ| ≤ 1. Hence, the reflection coefficient is always
′
inside the unity circle in the complex Zl plane.
Im
Bereich der gültigen Reflexionsfaktoren
Γ1
Re
Figure 5.3: Valid Range of values for the reflection Coefficient
The question is now, how Γ changes in the Γ plane due to a change of the normalized load
impedance Zl′
Mathematically speaking, we are looking for the mapping of the plane ZZ0l into Γ as given by
equation 5.4. The Mapping is linear, that means a circle is mapped into a circle. Note, that a
straight line is considered a circle with infinite radius. We observe the following:
• The point ZZ0l = 1 (matched load) is mapped onto the origin of the wΓ-plane. the reflection
coefficient is zero,.
• When we move away ZZ0l away from ZZ0l = 1 parallel to the imaginary axis, the mapped
point on the Γ plane moves on a circle as shown in Figure 5.4.
• When we move ZZ0l parallel to the Im-axis (we change the reactance) we follow circles in
the Γ−Plane as shown in Figure 5.6.
• When we move ZZ0l parallel to the Re-axis (we change the resistance) we follow circles in
the Γ−Plane as shown in Figure 5.7.
Now we can draw a grid of constant resistance and reactance circles in the Γ-Plane. This chart
was first suggested by Smith and is named after him. The complete Smith chart is shown in
Figure 5.14.

Prof. S. Peik
Im Im
Zl/Zo Γ
Abbildung Γ1
1 Re Re
Figure 5.4: Mapping of Complex Load with Real Part equals 1, Changing Reactance
Im Im
Γ
Zl/Zo
Abbildung Γ1
1 Re Re
Figure 5.5: Mapping of Reactive Load
Im Im
Zl/Zo
Abbildung Γ1
1 Re Re
Figure 5.6: Mapping of Complex Load, Changing Reactance

Prof. S. Peik
Im Im
Zl/Zo
Abbildung
1 Re Re
Γ1
Figure 5.7: Mapping of Complex Load, Changing Resistance
Im Linien mit konst. Realteil von Z

Linien mit konst. Imagteil von Z
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Ζ=j0.25

Re
Offen
Ζ=-j0.25
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j

Prof. S. Peik
5.2.1 Transformation due to Insertion of a line
In this section we show how to use the Smith Chart for deriving the input impedance of a line
load combo as sketched in Figure 5.9 .
+ +
Γ1 U1 Zo Γ2 U2 Zl
- -
U1 U2
Figure 5.9: Reflection at the beginning and end of a line
From transmission line theory we know that we can observe a forward and backward traveling
wave on the line. On a lossless line the wave amplitude of the forward (or backward) traveling
wave is constant; only the phase changes. That means, that the wave phasor is changed only by
e− jβl between start and end of the line of length l. We get for the left port 1 and the right port
2 the following equation
U1− = U2− e− jβl und U1+ = U2+ e jβl (5.5)
It follows for the reflection coefficient

U1− U2− e− jβl
Γ1 = = + jβl = Γ2 e−2 jβl (5.6)
U1+ U2 e
Winkel=2βl
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Ζ=j0.25 Γ1
Γ2
Ζ=j0
Ζ=-j0.25
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Figure 5.10: Rotation of Γ in the Smith Chart due to an inserted line
We can interpret this phase shift of two times βl as a rotation of Γ2 of βl in the complex plane
to the right. Due to an inserted line we get a new reflection coefficient Γ1 . This is shown in
Figure 5.10.
E XAMPLE 15:
We insert a 50Ω-line of length 0.3λ to a normalized Load of Z ′ = 0.3 + j0.4.

Prof. S. Peik
5.3 Transformation of Z to Y and vice versa
The impedance Z can be obtained from the admittance Y (and vice versa) from mirroring the
admittance point on the origin of the Smith Chart.
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Ζ=j0.25 Y
Ζ=1 Ζ=2
Ζ=j0
Ζ=-j0.25
Ζ
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Figure 5.11: Inversion from Z to Y by mirroring
The Impedance or admittance, respectively, can be read from the Z impedance grid.
E XAMPLE 16:
We find the admittance of a normalized Z ′ = 2 + j by mirroring about the centre and get Y ′ =
0.4 − j0.2.
We can completely convert the Smith chart into an admittance diagram and will get Figure
5.12. In this new admittance chart we can read admittance directly.
We can overlay both diagrams and get the combined chart as shown in Figure 5.13.

Prof. S. Peik
Im Linien mit konst. Realteil von Y

Linien mit konst. Imagteil von Y
Y=-j
Y=-j2 Y=-j0,5
Y=-j0,25
Kurzschluß Y=5 Y=2 Y=1 Y=0,5 Y=0,25

Re
Offen
Y=j0,25
Y=j2 Y=j0,5
Y=j
Figure 5.12: Admittance Chart
Im Impedanzkoordinaten Z
Admittanz Koordinaten Y
Y=-j
Ζ=j
Y=-j2 Y=-j0,5
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Y=-j0,25
Ζ=j0.25

Re
Y=5 Y=2 Y=0,5 Y=0,25
Offen
Y=j0,25
Ζ=-j0.25
Y=j2 Y=j0,5
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Y=j
Ζ=−j
Figure 5.13: Combined Impedance and Admittance Chart

Prof. S. Peik
A complete Smith Chart with all bells and whistles are shown in Figure 5.14. The Chart can
be downloaded at www.nt.hs-bremen.de/peik/amw.
Smith Chart
0.12 0.13
0.11 0.14
0.38 0.37 0.15
0.1 0.39 0.36
90
0.4 100 80 0.35 0.1
9
0.0 6
45
50
1 110 40 70 0.3
1.0
0.4 4
0.9
1.2
0.1
55
8
0.8
0.0 35
7
1.4
2 0.3
0.7
0.4 0 60 3
12
0.6 60
Yo)
1.6
7 jB/ 0.1
0.0 E (+ 30 8
3 NC 0.3
TA
1.8
0.4 EP 0.2 2
50
65
0 SC
13 SU
2.0
VE
0.5
6
0.1
TI
0.0
CI 25
9
4
0.3
PA
0.4
1
70 CA
R
,O 0.4
o)
0
40
14
5
0.4
0.2
0.0
/Z
5
0.3
20
jX
0.4
(+
T
3.0
75
EN
0.6
N
PO
4
0.2
0.0
OM
0
6
0.2
0.3
1
30
15
0.4
9
EC
>
0.8 15
R—
80
4.0
NC
TO
TA
0.22
1.0
AC
ERA
0.47
0.28
5.0
RE
1.0
GEN
0.2
160
IVE
20
85
10
UCT
ARD
0.8
0.23
IND
S TOW
0.48
0.27
ANG
90
0.6
ANG
LE OF
NGTH
10
LE OF
170
0.1
0.4
TRANSM
0.0 —> WAVELE
0.24
0.49
0.26
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT IN DEG
20
0.2
ISSION COEFFICIENT IN
50
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
10
20
50
0.25
0.25
± 180
0.0
50
RESISTANCE COMPONENT (R/Zo), OR CONDUCTANCE COMPONENT (G/Yo)
D <—
0.2
20
RD LOA
0.24
0.49
0.26
0.4
-170
0.1
DEGR
TOWA
10
REES
EES
0.6
-90
0.23
THS
o)
0.48
0.27
jB/Y
ENG
0.8
E (-
-10
L
-160
-85
-20
NC
E
0.2
V
1.0
WA
5.0
TA
0.22
0.47
0.28
EP
1.0
—
SC
<
SU
-15 -80
4.0
-15
VE
0.8
4
0.2
I
0
-30
CT
0.0
0.3
6
0.2
1
0.4
DU
9
IN
0.6
-75
3.0
O
),
5
Zo
-20
0.2
0.0
X/
5
0.3
0.4
0.4 (-j
40
-4
-1
0
T 0.4
EN
-70
N
PO
6
0.1
.0
OM
0
9
-25
4
0.3
C
0.4
0.5
1
2.0
NC 30 -5
TA 0
-65
-1
AC 7 0.1
1.8
RE 0.2
VE 0.0 8
0.6
ITI 0.3
AC 0.4
3 -30 2
1.6
CAP
-60
0 -60 0.1
-12 8
0.7
.0 7
1.4
0
2 -35 0.3
0.8
0.4 3
1.2
-55
0.9
0.1
1.0
9 -70
-110 0.0 0 6
-4
0
-5
0.3
-4
1
0.1 0.4 -100 -80 0.15 4
-90
0.11 0.14 0.35
0.4 0.12 0.13
0.39 0.36
0.38 0.37
O (C dB O ]
F
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∞ 40 30 ∞
R
20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 3 4 5 10 20

S
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 20 30 ∞ 0 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 10 15 ∞

I
or
E
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.01 0 0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2 2.5 3 4 5 10 ∞
F,
EF
O
1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 1 0.99 0.95 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
.C
SM
CENTER
N
A
TR
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2
ORIGIN

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 17:
0.3λ -j25Ω
j50Ω ZL=(100-j25)Ω
Zo
Z4 Z3 Z2 Z1
Solution: normalized to 50Ω:
Z4= 0.20+0.40j
Z3= 0.50+0.49j
Z1= 2.00-0.50j
Z2= 2.00-1.00j
Zin = Z4 · 50Ω = (10 + j20)Ω
5.4 Stub Line Design using the Smith Chart
We can also apply Smith Chart matching on stub tuning elements.

Using the chart we can immediately find the reactance of short or open lines of arbitrary length.
Starting with a short line at the far left point on the smith chart, we rotate clockwise (equivalent
to adding a line) in order to find the desired reactance. The same applies to the open ended line
with the far right point. The procedure is sketched in Figure 5.15.

Prof. S. Peik
Ζ=j
ZIN
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Ζ=j0.25 ZL
C Z0
Zin Zin Ζ=1

Offen
Ζ=j0
Kurz
L Z0
Zin Zin Ζ=-j0.25
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
ZIN Ζ=−j
Figure 5.15: Finding the Reactance of a Short or Open Ended Line using the Smith Chart
E XAMPLE 18:
Find the input impedance for the circuit below with ZL = (30− j25)Ω and l1 = 0.25λ and l2 = 0.15λ.
Γ l1
ZL
Zo
Z
ZIN o
l2
Solution
Z2= 0.98+0.82j
Z1= 0.60-0.50j
Z3= 0.53-0.78j
Z5= 0.00-0.73j
5.5 Matching using the Smith Chart
Using clever combinations of series and shunt circuits we can match an arbitrary load to a line
impedance of Z0 . The design procedure for these matching networks is simplified using the
Smith Chart.

Prof. S. Peik
The six basic matching circuits R,L,C in series or shunt we can move the impedance point in
the Smith Chart. Figure 5.16 shows the directions of this movement.
Ζ=j
C Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
ZL Ζ=j0.25 ZL
L
Ζ=1
Ζ=j0
ZL
R in Series
L in Series
R Ζ=-j0.25
C in Series
ZL
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Y=-j
Admittance Chart
C
Y=-j2 Y=-j0,5
ZL
Y=-j0,25
L
Y=1
ZL
R parallel
L parallel
R
Y=j0,25
C parallel
ZL
Y=j2 Y=j0,5
Y=j
Figure 5.16: The Six Directions of Movement

Prof. S. Peik
For matching we can also use line elements. One method uses open or short ended lines in
series or in shunt as reactance jXL or − jXC . These line elements are commonly called stubs.
Alternatively we can insert a line as a phase shifter.
E XAMPLE 19:
Example
Find a matching network to match ZL = 100 + j100Ω to ZIN = 50Ω. Assume a line impedance of
Z0 = 50Ω.
? ZL
ZIN Z1
Solution
Using lumped elements we can either
• add a shunt inductor first followed by a series capacitor
• add a capacitor first followed by a series inductor
ZC ZI ZI ZC
ZL ZL
Z3 Z2 Z1 Z3 Z2 Z1
Smith Solution:
ZL = j272.5Ω and ZC = − j86.5Ω ZC = − j97.5Ω and ZL = j73.1Ω
Z2= 1.00+1.73j
Z1= 2.00+2.00j Z1= 2.00+2.00j
Z3= 1.00+0.00j Z3= 1.00-0.00j
Z2= 1.00-1.73j
The commonly used methods of line matching, using inserted line plus stub line, are shown in
Figure 5.17.

Prof. S. Peik
Rotation by l1
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Stub Line in Series
Ζ=j0.25 ZL
Ζ
Additional Impedance fom Stub Line
Zo Zo ZL Ζ=1
Ζ=j0
l1
ZIN Zo
l2 Ζ=-j0.25
Z
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Rotation by l1
Y=-j Admittance Chart
Y=-j2 Y=-j0,5
Stub Line in Parallel ZL Y=-j0,25
Y=1
Yo Yo ZL
l1 Additional Admittance from Stub Line
ZIN l2 Yo Y Y=j0,25
Y=1/Z
Y=j2 Y=j0,5
Y=j
Figure 5.17: Matching using Lines.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 20:
Match ZL = (100 + j100)Ω to 50Ω using distributed elements (lines):
Γ l1
ZL
Zo
Z
ZIN o
l2
Solution
with l1 = 0.219λ and l2 = 0.338λ
Z5= 0.00+0.62j
Z1= 2.00+2.00j
Z3= 1.00-0.00j
Z2= 0.29-0.45j

Prof. S. Peik
5.5.1 Summary of Impedance Manipulation Methods
The following Figure summarizes all methods for manipulating the impedance of a two port
network. There is also a computer program, which depicts the Smith Chart matching tech-
niques. The program Smith can be downloaded at http://www.hta-be.bfh.ch/~wwwel/projekte/cae/
Ζ=j
Ζ=j0.5 Ζ=j2
Insert Line
Ζ=j0.25 ZL
L in Series
Ζ=1
Ζ=j0
R in Shunt
R in Series
L in Shunt
Ζ=-j0.25
C in Shunt C in Series
Ζ=−j0.5 Ζ=−j2
Ζ=−j
Figure 5.18: Summary of All Manipulation Methods

Power Dividers and Couplers 6
In microwave engineering three and four port devices play an important role. They are used as
power dividers and couplers.
Power divider divide the incident wave symmetrically are unsymmetrically. Most often used
are the symmetric 3dB-Divider with a power split of 50:50. The same device is used as a power
combiner in reverse direction.
P2=αP1 P2
Power Power
P1 P1=P2+P3
Divider Combiner
P3=(1-α)P1 P3
Figure 6.1: Power divider and combiner
Besides the exact power division ratio the matched termination of all ports is important when
designing a power divider.
Symmetric divider have an S-parameter matrix of
 
0 1 1
1 
S= √ 1 0 0  (6.1)
2 1 0 0
Coupler are used for coupling out or in a fraction of the power propagating through a line.
Coupler are often four port networks: Input port output port, coupled port isolated port, as
shown in Figure 6.2.
Input Through Input Through

1 2 1 2
4 3 4 3
Isolation Coupled Isolation Coupled
Figure 6.2: Schematics for couplers
An incident wave a1 into port 1 is divided into a through fraction α and a coupled fraction β.
80
Prof. S. Peik
Using S-parameters we get β = |S31 | and α = |S21 |.

For example, typical couplers q branch out one
q tenth of the power. The remaining power is
transmitted to port 2 , i. e. α = 109
and β = 10 1
. We call this a 10dB-coupler. Coupling one
over hundred of the power into port three , we call this 20dB-coupler.
In praxis, the coupled pass also inhibit a phase delay with respect to the input and through pass.
We differentiate between two different coupler types:
π
• Symmetrical couplers with a phase shift of 90o = 2 and a scattering matrix of
 
0 α jβ 0
 α 0 0 jβ 
S=  (6.2)
 jβ 0 0 α 
0 jβ α 0
• Anti-symmetrical coupler with a phase shift of 180o = π and a scattering matrix of

 
0 α β 0
 α 0 0 −β 
S=  β 0 0 α 
 (6.3)
0 −β α 0
The following three parameters usually characterize the coupler:
• Coupling factor C = 10 log PP31 = −20 log βin dB
• Directivity D = 10 log PP34 = 20 log |Sβ14 | in dB
• Isolation I = 10 log PP14 = −20 log |S14 |in dB
As mentioned before, the phase delay between the ports is also important. Often we choose 0,
90 oder 180.
The next section discusses the main coupler types and the design procedure.

Prof. S. Peik
6.1 Hybrid Coupler
An often used coupler is the hybrid coupler,sometimes called a quadrature or 90-coupler. Fig-
ure 6.3 shows a typical hybrid coupler in planar microstrip technology. The branch lines are√all
λ/4 long. Two lines have an impedance of Z0 the two other lines have an impedance of Z0 / 2.
The coupler can be either design as a square or a circle.
Quadratisch Rund
In 1 Z0/ 2 2 Through
Z0 Z0/ 2 Z0
In 1 2 Through
λ/4 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
Z0 Z0
Isolated 4 3 Coupled
Z0/ 2
Isolated 4 Z0/ 2 3 Coupled
λ/4
Figure 6.3: Hybrid Coupler in square or circular shape
A wave incident into port 1 is split equally into two wave in the through path (port 2) and the
coupled path (port 3). Port 4 is isolated. The amplitude is split into √12 of the incident wave.
Hence, the hybrid is a 3dB-coupler.
The waves leaving the coupler are with a 90 phase shift. All ports are matched. Consequently,
the S-matrix is  
0 j 1 0
−1  j 0 0 1 
S= √   (6.4)
2 1 0 0 j 
0 1 j 0
6.2 Even-Odd-Mode Analysis
We can analyze the behavior of four port couplers though an even-odd-mode analysis. The
method can be used for any symmetrical three or four port network. As an example, we will
discuss the method on the hybrid coupler Figure 6.4 shows the circuit
√ schematic of a hybrid
coupler. Note, that the horizontal lines have an impedance of Zw / 2.
The even-odd mode analysis works as follows:
We want to analyze the behavior of the fort when exciting the circuit with a source voltage of
v0 at port one, as shown in Figure 6.5 (a).
We can think of this excitation as a superimposition of four sources of voltage v0 /2 as shown
in Figure 6.5 (b). Adding all sources together, we get the excitation of the circuit at (a).
Now we can analyze two circuits separately:
• an even mode excited circuit with two sources of v0 /2 in phase and
• an odd mode excited circuit with two sources of v0 /2 in reverse phase (180)

Prof. S. Peik
λ/4
1 2
Z0/ 2
Symmetry Plane
λ/4
Ζ0 Ζ0
Z0/ 2
4 3
Figure 6.4: Hybrid coupler
This is shown in Figure 6.5(c).

That means, we feed two identical waves of a1e and a3e into port 1 and 3 in the even mode case
and two opposite phased waves a1o and a3o in the odd mode case.
Using this technique, we can reduce a symmetrical four port into two two port networks. To
find the S-parameters of the two-ports is usually trivial. Finally, the results of the two two-port
networks can be superimposed in order to find the S-parameters of the four-port network.
Let us go through the procedure for the hybrid coupler. Now we use the following definitions:
• incident waves at port 1 to 4 of the four port network are denoted a1 to a4
• reflected waves are denoted b1 bis b4 , respectively; consequently we get
[~b] = [S][~a] (6.5)
• the waves for the even mode use index e, i.e. a1,e . . . a4,e and b1,e . . . b4,e
• the waves for the odd mode use index o, d.h. a1,o . . . a4,o and b1,o . . . b4,o
Even Mode: The incident waves at port 1 a1,e and port 4 a4,e have the same amplitude and
phase. The wave of port 1 and port 2 meet at the symmetry plane with the same amplitude and
phase. They do not interfere and cross each other. At the symmetry plane we get the illusion,
that the wave is reflected by a wall, which, reflects everything as an open end. We call this a
magnetic wall.
As a result, we can analyze the circuit, by applying a magnetic wall at the symmetry plane and
look at the top half only:

Prof. S. Peik
V0
(a)
Z0/ 2
Ζ0 Ζ0
Z0/ 2
V0/2 V0/2
(b)
Z0/ 2
Ζ0 Ζ0
V0/2 -V0/2
Z0/ 2
Figure 6.5: Decomposition of One Port Excitation into Even and Odd Mode

Prof. S. Peik
a1
b1 b2
Z0/ 2
Ζ0 Ζ0
b4
Z0/ 2 b3
=
Even Mode + Odd Mode
a1,e a1,o
b2,e b2,o
b1,e Z0/ 2 b1,o Z0/ 2
Ζ0 Ζ0 Ζ0 Ζ0
b4,e b4,o
Z0/ 2 b3,e Z0/ 2 b3,o
a4,e=a1,e a4,o=-a1,o
Figure 6.6: Even Mode Excitation
λ/4
1 2
Z0/ 2
λ/8 Ζ0 Ζ0
-jZ0
λ/4
-jZ0
Z0/ 2
The open lines are of length λ/8 and behave like capacitors with jXC = − jZ0 .
The ABCD-matrix of this is
" #
cos βl j √Z02 sin βl

A B 1 0 √
1 0
= (6.6)
C D j Z10 1 j Z02 sin βl
cos βl j Z10 1
" #
j √Z02

1 0 0 1 0
= √ (6.7)
j Z10 1 j Z02 0 j Z10 1
" #
− √12 j √Z02

√
1 −1 jZ0
= =√ 1 (6.8)
j Z02 − √12 2 j Z0 −1

Prof. S. Peik
From conversion of the ABCD-parameter we can find the S-matrix

1 0 −1 − j
Se = √ (6.9)
2 −1 − j 0
Odd Mode: The incident waves at port 1 and 4 have the same amplitude and opposite phase.
The wave of port 1 and port 2 meet at the symmetry plane with the same amplitude and 180
phase shift. They do not interfere and cross each other. At the symmetry plane we get the
illusion, that the wave is reflected by a wall, which reflects everything as a short end. We call
this an electric wall.
V0/2
Z0/ 2
Ζ0 Ζ0
Z0/ 2
-V0/2
Figure 6.7: Odd Mode Excitation
λ/4
1 2
Z0/ 2
λ/8
jZ0
λ/4
jZ0
Z0/ 2
This two port can be represented by the ABCD-matrix

1 1 jZ0
[ABCD] = √ (6.10)
2 j Z10 1
From the ABCD-parameter we can find the S-matrix:

1 0 1− j
So = √ (6.11)
2 1− j 0
Superposition
Due to the nature of even and odd mode excitation we get

Prof. S. Peik
• for even excitation a1,e = a4,e or a2,e = a3,e
• for odd excitation a1,o and a4,o = −a1,o or a2,o and a3,o = a2,o
When we now superimpose the excitation of even and odd mode excitation, i.e we feed in
a1,e and a4,e and a1,o and a2,o simultaneously, we get the excitation of port one a1 with all re-
flected waves b1 to b4 .
a1=a1,e+a1,o a2=a2,e+a2,o
b1=b1,e+b1,o 1 2 b2=b2,e+b2,o
a1=a1,e-a1,o a3=a2,e-a2,o
b4=b1,e-b1,o 4 3 b3=b2,e-b2,o
From the above figure we can derive the even and odd waves
1
a1,e = (a1 + a4 ) (6.12)
2
1
a1,o = (a1 − a4 ) (6.13)
2
1
a2,e = (a2 + a3 ) (6.14)
2
1
a2,0 = (a2 − a3 ) (6.15)
2
Now we can find the b’s through superimposition. For example b1 = b1,e + b1,0 and for the two
port networks
b1,e = S11,e a1,e + S12,e a2,e (6.16)

b1,0 = S11,o a1,o + S12,o a2,o (6.17)
Consequently
b1,e + b1,o = (S11,e a1,e + S12,e a2,e ) + (S11,o a1,o + S12,o a2,o ) (6.18)
1
= [S11,e (a1 + a4 ) + S11,o (a1 − a4 ) + S12,e (a2 + a3 ) + S12,o (a2 − a3 )] (6.19)
2
1 1 1 1
b1 = (S11,e + S11,o ) a1 + (S11,e − S11,o ) a4 + (S12,e + S12,o ) a2 + (S12,e − S12,o ) a3
(6.20)
2 2 2 2

Prof. S. Peik
We also know for the complete four-port network:
b1 = S11 a1 + S12 a2 + S13 a3 + S14 a4 (6.21)
Comparing the coefficients yield
1
S11 = (S11,e + S11,o ) (6.22)
2
1
S12 = (S12,e + S12,o ) (6.23)
2
1
S13 = (S12,e − S12,o ) (6.24)
2
1
S14 = (S11,e − S11,o ) (6.25)
2
Using the results of the fractional networks for the hybrid we get:
S11 = 0 (6.26)
j
S12 = −√
2
1
S13 = −√
2
S14 = 0 (6.27)
Because of symmetry we can find the remaining parameter by comparison:
 
0 j 1 0
−1  j 0 0 1 
S= √   (6.28)
2 1 0 0 j 
0 1 j 0
The equations 6.26 to 6.27 are general equations, which can be used for any even-odd-mode
analysis.
6.2.1 Applications for the Hybrid Coupler
The hybrid is often used as an equal power divider. The signal can be fed into either port
1 or port 4. Both feeding sources do not interfere with each other. They can even be used
simultaneously without interfering. The signals are added at the ports 2 and 3.

Prof. S. Peik
In -3dB, -90° of In
Z0
Isolated -3dB, -180° of In
Z0
Isolated -3dB, -180° of In
Z0
In -3dB, -90° of In
Z0
We can use the hybrid also for designing a reflection free match for an a matched load. In order
to do so we need two identical not matched loads as shown below. The reflections of the loads
are subtracted at port 1 and added at port 4. That way, there is no reflected wave at port 1. Port
4 must be matched and is used for dissipating the reflected power of the loads.
In
(no Reflection) not matched
Reflections
have 90° Phase difference
Load
not matched
Z0
The effect is utilized in so called balanced amplifiers and balanced mixers as shown in Figure.
Two identical not matched transistors are balanced by two hybrid couplers. Another application
is the feed for a circular polarized antenna. The two feeds are 90 phase shifted, hence, creating
a circular polarized wave.
2 not matched identical Amplifier

Z0
In
(No Reflection)
Load
Out
Z0 (No Reflection)
Figure 6.8: Balanced Amplifier
In
(No Reflection)
Circular Polarised
Patch Antenna
Z0
Figure 6.9: Circular Antenna Patch Feeding Network

Prof. S. Peik
6.3 Rat-Race
A similar coupler is the so called rat race coupler

√ or 180-ring coupler, as shown in Figure 6.10.
All lines in the ring have an impedance of Z0 / 2. Three lines are λ4 long. The right line is 3λ
4
long. The rat race coupler can be analyzed using even-odd analysis, too. The interested reader
might refer to [4, 5].
Z0
1
Z0 λ/4
λ/4 3λ/4
2 Z0
Z0
λ/4
3 Z0
Figure 6.10: Rat-race Coupler
This network also splits the power in halves. However, the outgoing waves have a phase dif-
ference of 180. Die S-Matrix is
 
0 1 1 0
j  1 0 0 −1 
[S] = − √   (6.29)
2 1 0
 0 1 
0 −1 1 0
This network can be analyzed through an even-odd analysis, too. The rat race is not symmetric
on the y axis. Hence, it behaves differently when different ports are fed. The operation of the
rat race is shown in Figure 6.11.
Out 0° Out 180°
Isoliert In
In
2 Isoliert 2 2 Out 0° 2
Out 0°
1 1 1 1
Out 0° 3 Out 0° 3 3 3
4 4 In 4 Isoliert 4
Isoliert In Out 0° Out 180°
Figure 6.11: Operation of Rat-race Coupler
Rat race couplers are often used for adding and subtracting two incoming signals. When feed-
ing a wave into port 2 and 3 for example, port 1 offers the sum signal and port 4 offers the
difference signal. This is illustrated in Figure
6.12.

Prof. S. Peik
In B
A+B
2
In A 3
4
A-B
Figure 6.12: Addition and Subtraction of Signals
6.4 Magic T
We can realize the rat-race coupler using wave guides, as well. Even though the looks of the
circuit are very different, the s-matrix stays the same, i.e.
 
0 1 1 0
j  1 0 0 −1 
[S] = − √   (6.30)
2 1 0
 0 1 
0 −1 1 0
This coupler is called a magic tee. The magic tee is a wave guide four port as shown in Figure
6.13. We can think of the magic tee as a superposition of two wave guide tees. One branch lies
in the plane of the H-field and one branch lies ion the plane of the E-field. We arms are hence
called , E-arm and H-arm.
E-Arm
H-Plane 2 3
E-Plane
H-Arm
Figure 6.13: Magic Tee
Figure 6.14 illustrates the operation of the magic tee. Comparing with the rat-race, the signals
flow exactly as in the rat race coupler.
The phase differences are due to the different field patterns in the E-plane and the H-plane.
Figure E 6.15 and 6.16 explain the various phase differences in the different arms.

Prof. S. Peik
In A-B
Isoliert
4 4 4
E-Arm E-Arm E-Arm
Out 0° Out 0° Out 0° Out 180° A B

2 3 2 3 2 3
H-Arm H-Arm H-Arm
In Isoliert A+B
1 1 1
Figure 6.14: Operation of magic tee
Input
o o
0 180
Figure 6.15: E-Field Pattern of the waves in the E-Arm
o o
0 0
Input
Figure 6.16: E-Field Pattern in the H-Arm

Prof. S. Peik
6.5 Wilkinson-Divider
The Wilkinson divider is a 3-dB divider network. An incident wave is split evenly into halves
with all ports matched.
The structure of the Wilkinson divider is shown in Figure 6.17. The two λ/4 lines transform
the matched right lines to 2Z0 . Connecting both in parallel to the left line, the left line sees
a load of Zo again. The network is matched with respect to port 1. The resistor 2Z0 is added
with the effect, that port 2 and 3 are also matched. The divider can be analyzed by an even odd
analysis, see [5, 4].
λ/4
2 Z0 Z0
Z0
2
Z0 1 4Z 0
1 2Zo 1.4
2Zo
Z0 Z0
2 Z0 3 1.4
14Z
0
Z0
λ/4
Figure 6.17: Wilkinson Divider
λ/4 2
2 Z0 Z0
1
Z0 Z0
Figure 6.18: Wilkinson-Divider in Microstrip Technology
Consequently, the S-matrix of this device is

 
0 1 1
j
[S] = − √  1 0 0  (6.31)
2 1 0 0
When feeding a signal into port 2 or three, only half of the signal is transmitted to port one.
The remainder of the power is dissipated in the resistor.
6.5.1 Unequal Power Split
from www.microwaves101.com
We are talking about 2-way Wilkinson splitters here. The way to make power split unequally
requires two things: the quarterwave sections must be of different impedance, to encourage
more of the signal to travel in/out the lower-impedance arm, and a second set of quarter-wave
sections are needed, to transform the arm impedances back to 50 ohms. The structure looks

Prof. S. Peik
similar to a two-stage Wilkinson without the second isolation resistor (here "RW" is the Wilkin-
son isolation resistor).
Figure 6.19: Unequal Power Split Circuit
Topology for unequal-split Wilkinson The following set of equations when satisfied ensure that
the ports will be matched and port 2 and port 3 will be isolated:
−1.5 !0.5
PA PA −0.5
Z0A = Z0 + (6.32)
PB PB
0.5 0.25
PA PA
Z0B = Z0 1 + (6.33)
PB PB
−0.25
PA
Z0C = Z0 (6.34)
PB
0.25
PA
Z0D = Z0 (6.35)
PB
−1.5 −0.5 !0.5
PA PA
RW = Z0 + (6.36)
PB PB
6.6 Wave Guide Branches
Wave guide power divider can be realized by simple T-sections. A branch off in the H-Plane
is called an H-arm. A branch off in the E-plane is called an E-arm. See also Figure 6.15 and
6.16.

Prof. S. Peik
6.7 Line Coupler
Line couplers are couplers using two parallel electromagnetically coupled lines of length l. A
line coupler is shown in Figure 6.20. The line coupler is a reverse directional coupler, that is
the coupled wave is transmitted into the reverse direction.
In 1 2 Out (Transmission)
Z0,e Z0,o
Coupled 3 4 Isolated
Figure 6.20: Line Coupler
These couplers can also be analyzed by even odd analysis. In the even mode we can erect an
magnetic wall in the symmetry plane. Both lines have now a capacitance line parameter of
Ce = C11 and Ce = C22 , respectively as shown in Figure 6.21 . In the even mode the half circuit
has a line impedance of r
L
Z0,e = (6.37)
Ce
In the odd mode we can use an electric wall. As seen from Figure 6.21 the capacitance is
therefore C0 = C22 + 2C12 , whereas C12 is the capacitance line parameter between the lines.
Even Mode Odd Mode
Magnetic Wall Electric Wall
2C12 2C12
C11 C22 C11 C22
Figure 6.21: Line Coupler Cross-section in Even Mode and Odd Mode
The Even- a nd Odd-Impedance of the paired coupled line can be found from tables or graphs
as shown in Figure 6.22. We need a special graph for each line type and substrate. There are
also computer programs calculating odd and even impedances.
Using this knowledge we can design line couplers. for a match to the port impedance Z0 need
the relation as derived in [4] p
Z0 = Z0,e Z0,o (6.38)
As shown in [4] the maximum voltage coupling C is reached when the coupled line length is
λ/4, 3λ
4 , · · · . This results in a coupling factor of
Z0e − Z0,o
C= (6.39)
Z0e + Z0,o

Prof. S. Peik
Figure 6.22: Diagram for Coupling Values of coupled Strip Lines [4]
Now we can find the required even and odd impedances for a given C by
r
1 +C
Z0,e = Z0 (6.40)
1 −C
r
1 −C
Z0,o = Z0 (6.41)
1 +C
Line couplers are usually used for weak couplings around -10 to -30 dB. 3dB couplers are not
realizable.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 21:
Design a line coupler with 20dB coupling on a substrate with 0,158mm thickness and εr = 2, 56
with 50 Ω port impedance at 3 GHz.
The coupling C is
20
C = 10− 20 = 0, 1 (6.42)
therefore the even and odd impedance is
Z0,e = 55, 28Ω (6.43)

Z0,o = 45, 23Ω (6.44)
Using the diagram in Figure 6.22 we can find the line width using
√
εr Z0,e = 88, 4Ω (6.45)
√
εr Z0,o = 72, 4Ω (6.46)
following wb = 0, 72and bS = 0, 34 with line widths of W = 0, 72 b = 0, 114cm and a gap of S =

0, 34b = 0, 054cm
There is a 0,5 mm gap only. The length of the coupled line section is
1 λ0 1 c
l= √ =√ = 1, 56cm (6.47)
er 4 er 4 f

Prof. S. Peik
6.8 Lange Coupler
The Lange Coupler is a broadband coupler with couplings up to 3dB. The scattering matrix is
identical to the one of the 90-Hybrid:
 
0 j 1 0
−1  j 0 0 1 
S= √   (6.48)
2 1 0 0 j 
0 1 j 0
A Lange coupler is shown in 6.23. The design of Lange couplers is explained in [21, 23, 22, 24].
1 2
l
3 4
Figure 6.23: Lange Coupler
6.9 Summary Planar Couplers
A summary of planar coupling structures is given in Figure 6.1.

Prof. S. Peik
Quadratisch
Z0 Z0/ 2 Z0
In 1 2 Through
λ/4 Z0 Z0
Z0 Z0
Isolated 4 3 Coupled  
Z0/ 2 0 j 1 0
−1  j 0 0 1 
 
λ/4
90-Hybrid S= √2  1 0 0 j 
0 1 j 0
2
Z0
1
Z0 λ/4
λ/4 3λ/4
2 Z0
Z0  
λ/4
0 1 1 0
3 Z0
 1 0 0 −1 
Rat Race/Magic T 4 [S] = − √j2 
 1 0

0 1 
0 −1 1 0
1 2
 
Z0,e Z0,o 0 α jβ 0
 α 0 0 jβ 
Line Coup. 3 4
S= 
 jβ 0 0 α 
0 jβ α 0
1 2
l
 
0 j 1 0
−1  j 0 0 1 
 
Lange 3 4
S= √2  1 0 0 j 
0 1 j 0
λ/4 2
2 Z0 Z0
1
Z0 Z0
 
0 1 1
Wilkinson 3 [S] = − √j2  1 0 0 
1 0 0
Table 6.1: Summary of Planar Couplers

Prof. S. Peik
6.10 Hole Coupling
Many more couplers exist. One widely used type of couplers uses coupling holes between wave
guides. There are millions of different hole shapes and location in use. A detailed description
of hole couplers can be found in [6, 7].
Lochkopplung Schlitzkopplung
Figure 6.24: Coupled Wave Guide Through Holes

Prof. S. Peik
6.11 Problems
1. Derive the matrix 6.9.
2. Explain, why we can design a matched termination for an unmatched load using a hybrid.
Why can’t we use two different loads?

Passive Components 7
(passive components)
7.1 Discontinuities
In der Mikrowellentechnik werden hï¿½fig keine konventionellen konzentrierten Elemente wie

Spulen und Kondensatoren verwendet. Vielmehr reichen schon Sprnge, Schlitze, etc. in der
Leitung um bestimmte Bauteile nachzubilden. Wir nennen diese Stellen in Leitungen Diskon-
tinuitï¿½en.
Einige dieser Diskontinuitï¿½en fr Hohlleiterschaltungen und planare Schaltungen sind hier
skizziert.
Induktive Blende Kapaztive Blende Lochblende Resonator Abstimmschrauben
Impedanzänderung Impedanzänderung Rechteck-Rundübergang
Figure 7.1: Diskontinuitï¿½en in Hohlleitern
Diskontiuitï¿½en kï¿½nen ber die S-Parameter charakterisiert werden, wenn sie lineare Bauele-
mente darstellen.
102
Prof. S. Peik
L
Z0 C Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0 Z0
Figure 7.2: Diskontinuitï¿½en in Mikrostreifenleitungen
7.2 Attenuators
7.3 Matched Loads
../mit/snaps/hohlleiterabschluss_nimtz.gif
Figure 7.3: Wave Guide Termination, from [10]
../mit/snaps/koax_abschluss_nimtz.gif
Figure 7.4: Coaxial Termination, from [10]
7.4 Waveguide Excitation
(excitation of waveguides)
Bisher sind wir davon ausgegangen, dass eine Welle sich bereits im Hohlleiter ausbreitet. Die
Welle muss natrlich in einem realen System irgendwie im Hohlleiter angeregt werden.

Prof. S. Peik
../mit/snaps/s_abschluss_nimtz.gif
Figure 7.5: Microstrip Termination, from [10]
Stiftkopplung Schleifenkopplung
Figure 7.6: Excitation of Wave guide from a Coaxial Line by Probe or Loop

Computer Aided Design 8
Es gibt zwei Arten von Simulatoren, den Schaltungbasierten Simulator (circuit-based) ï¿½nlich
wie Spice und Simulatorn welche die Felder berechnen, sog. Full-Wave Analysatoren.
8.1 CAD using Network Theory
Smith
AWR Microwave Office
Agilent ADS
Ansoft Designer
8.2 Full-Wave Analyser
FEM-Simulatoren:
Agilent HFSS
CST Microwave Office
Mode-Matching:
Microwave Wizard
Momenten Methode:
Sonnet em
105
Noise 9
Noise is unwanted energy, which tend to interfere with the proper reception and reproduction
of transmitted signals. The Noise n(t) is a signal with is superimposed on our signal s(t).
Noise is usually only an issue in reveiving systems.
Even though noise power is usually very small, noise is the limiting factor in any communica-
tion system. When the noise power level N is comparable to the signal power level S, the signal
may not be detected or decoded correctly. The exact knowledge of the noise behaviour of your
system is essential for the professional design of a communication system.
Noise is most prominent in reveiving systems as the power levels are usually very small and
even small amounts of noise can affect the signal integrity. The typical signal strength for a
wifi-System, for example, is around -80 dBm (10 pW) . Hence, even noise levels around -100
dBm can affect the signal. In this chapter we will develop a detailed understanding of noise
and develop a theory for predicting the reveicer performance.
9.1 Noise in a Receiver
A receiver receives a signal with an antenna (or by cable) and amplifies the signal, filters the
signal, frequency-converts the signal and demodulates the signal. Each of these steps amplify
or attenuate the signal.
Besides the signal the receiver picks up noise by the antenna, the so called antenna noise. The
noise comes from natural sources in the sight of the antenna, as any object at temperature
above absolute zero (0K) will radiate electromagnetic waves. In addtion, the antenna may pick
up man made noise from other transmitters, sparks in engines etc.
A second source of noise in a receiver is noise generated inside the receiver from the elec-
tronic components in the receiver. Figure 9.1 shows a typical reciever and the signal and noise
sources.
106
Prof. S. Peik
Antenna Reveiver
Si So
No
Ni
Noise picked up by antenna Additional Noise internally generated
Figure 9.1: Signal and Noise in a Receiver
9.2 Signal to Noise Ratio SNR
The ratio of the signal power S to noise power N is a measure of the quality of a signal. the
hgher the ratio the better the signal can be distinguished from the noise.
S
SNR = (9.1)
N
The SNR is often given in dB. The higher the SNR the fewer bit errors occour in a digital
system.
9.3 Noise Types
Noise Sources
• Internal
– Thermal Noise in Electronic Components (White Noise, Gaussian Noise, Johnson

noise)
– Shot Noise,
– Flicker Noise in Electronic Components (White Noise, Gaussian Noise)
– Other Noise (Sparks etc.)
• External
– Atmospheric
– Industrial (Man made Noise)
– Extraterrestrial
* Solar noise
* Cosmic noise
9.4 Shot Noise
Shot Noise was studied by Schottky, who likened it to shot hitting a target. Shot noise results
from the fluctuations in electrical currents, due to the random passage of discrete electrical
charges through the potential barriers in vacuum tubes and P-N junctions. Its noise character-
istic is white. The noise current is p
iN = 2qIDC B (9.2)

Prof. S. Peik
where in is the RMS shot noise current, q is the electron charge, IDC is the DC bias current and
B is the bandwidth of the observed signal.
E XAMPLE 22:
For a current of 100mA this gives a value of in = 0.18nA for a 1Hz Bandwidth.
If this noise current is fed through a resistor the resulting noise power will be P = 2 q I B R.
9.5 Flicker Noise
Flicker Noise appears in vacuum tubes and semiconductor devices at very low frequencies.
Its origin is believed to be attributable to contaminants and defects in the crystal structure in
semiconductors, and in the oxide coating on the cathode of vacuum tube devices. Commonly
referred to as 1/f noise because of its low-frequency variation. Its spectrum rises above the shot
noise level below a corner frequency, fL , which is dependent on the type of device and varies
from a few Hz for some bipolar devices to 100 MHz for GaAs FETs.
Figure 9.2: Flicker Noise over Frequency, from: www.rfic.co.uk Noise Tutorial
9.6 Thermal Noise
Thermal noise is created by the motion of electrons in a resistor. Because the resistor is at a
temperature above absolute zero (0 K), the electrons move randomly in the solid. This random,
fluctuating movement of electrons produces a noise voltage at the terminals of the resistor.
The internal resistance of transistors, diodes, and other active electronic components creates
thermal noise. For capacitors and inductors, the internal resistances are negligible and they can
be considered to be noiseless.

Prof. S. Peik
Vn
R V
A resistor R at Temperature T generates an available noise power (matched load with R) of
Vn2
Pn = = kT B (9.3)
4R
where k = 1.38 · 10−23 KJ (Boltzman’s constant) and B is the bandwidth of the system. Thermal
noise is also known as "white noise" because the amplitude of thermal noise is not dependent
on frequency (see next section). In other words, thermal noise contains noise signals of all
frequencies and all these signals have the same average amplitude. Thermal noise is also known
as Gaussian noise.
9.6.1 Thermal Noise = Stochastic signal
Noise is a strange signal. Its voltage cannot be predicted over time. It is said to be a non
deterministic or stochastic signal. This means, we have to treat the mathmatical destription of
a noise signal in a special way. Since we cannot predict the voltage of noise over time, we
cannot give a time series function of noise, as we can for other signals.
Nevertheless, we can give
• the fourier transform of the noise, i.e. the power spectral density and
• a propability distribution of the noise voltage.
9.6.2 Spectral Noise Density
The power can be represented in terms of the power spectral density
Pn kT n0
Sn (ω) = = = (9.4)
3B 2 2
with no = kT
This is known as the two-sided power spectral density. having frequency terms from −B to B.
The spectrum is constant, i.e. we have white noise.

Prof. S. Peik
Probability Density Function PDF(N0) Spectral Density Function n0
PDF(V)
Vn
t
n0/2
0
-10 -5 0 5 10 V[V] ω[1/s]
9.6.3 Probability Density Function
The noise amplitudes follow a Gaussian distribution,

1 2 2
fn (n) = √ e−v /2σ (9.5)
2πσ2
where σ2 is the variance of the Gaussian noise. This noise distribution is known as white Gaus-
sian noise. σ describes the effective voltage of the noise signal. The square σ2 describes the
noise power.
9.6.4 Band-limited Noise
The so-called power spectral density (PSD) shows how much power a signal caries at a par-
ticular frequency In the case of thermal noise, the power is spread uniformly up to very high
frequencies (about 10% drop at 2 GHz)
The power spectral density is defined as
Pn kT n0
Sd (ω) = Sn (ω) = = = (9.6)
2B 2 2
with no = kT . This is known as the two-sided power spectral density. having frequency terms
from −B to B.
The total average noise power N in a particular frequency band can be found by integrating the
PSD Z ω2
N= SD (ω) dω (9.7)
ω1
Spectral Density Function

Sx(ω) Sy(ω)=|H(ω)|2Sx(ω)
n0/2
ω[1/s] Bandpass H(ω) ω[1/s]
For band limited noise we get the total noise power of
Pn = B no (9.8)

Prof. S. Peik
9.6.5 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth
Equivalent Noise Bandwidth (ENBW) is defined as the frequency span of a noise power curve
with an amplitude equal to the actual peak value, and with the same integrated area. In other
words the NBW describes the bandwidth of a ‘brick wall’ system with the same noise power
as the actual system.
9.6.6 Noise in Threshold Detection
Consider a signal s(t) with two states 1 and 0, represented by the voltage v0 and 0.
v0
A signal larger than 2 is detected as 1 below as 0.
To this signal we add a Gaussian noise signal n(t). Our outcome of the sum signal r(t) =
s(t) + n(t) is shown here
Probability Density Function PDF
"0" "1"
0 v0 v0 r(t)[V]
Pe(1) 2
The probability of a 1 detected as a zero is

1 1 v0
Perror (1) = erfc (x0 ) = erfc ( √ ) (9.9)
2 2 2 2σ2
where erfc is the complementary error function
With the signal-to-noise ration of v0 /σ we can plot the
the probability of a Bit error
1
0.5*erfc(10**(x/20)/2/sqrt(2*1**2))
BER 0.1
0.01
0.001
1e-04
1e-05
1e-06
1e-07
1e-08
1e-09
1e-10
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
S/N [dB]
Error Probabilities of 10−6 to 10−8 are often desired in practice.

Prof. S. Peik
9.7 Antenna Noise
Antenna noise temperature Ta is at the temperature T of the black body

An Antenna pointed to the ground acts like a Resistor at Temperature
T0 = 290K (9.10)
T=290 K
Antenna
Ground = R V
Antenna pointed partly into deep space picks up noise from
• Cosmic Noise (stars and interstellar matter)
– decreases with frequency ∝ 1f (neglectible. above 1 GHz)

– Certain parts of sky have hot sources
3
• Sun TSun ≈ 12000 f 4 K
– Point Antenna away
• Moon= Black Body with Tmoon ≈ 200 − 300K
• Earth Surface T ≈ 290 K
• Propagation Medium: rain, vapor, etc
– Noise reduces with elevation angle
• Man made noise

Prof. S. Peik
Figure 9.3: Antenna Noise Temperature as a function of Zenith Angle and Frequency
9.8 Equivalent Noise Temperature
Microwave components generate noise. The noise can be characterized by an equivalent noise
figure
T=0 K T=Te=N0/GkB
Ni=0 No Ni=kTeB No=GkTeB
G G
R
Noisy
R = R
Noiseless
R
Ampl. Ampl.
The equivalent noise temperature Te of an amplifier is the temperature to be added to the input
resistance temperature, in order to represent the noise inside the amplifier
E XAMPLE 23:
Receiver with Antenna
TA = 290K and Te = 40K
Rceiver gain G = 100 = 20dB and B = 10MHz
Signal in is Si = 800fW
Solution
N0 = 4.548pW and S0 = 80pW
SNRi = 13dBand SNRo = 12.549dB
SNR is reduced by 0.551dB!
9.9 Noise Figure
The noise figure of a two port is defined as as the ratio of the input S/N to the output S/N
Si /Ni
F= ≥1 (9.11)
So /No

Prof. S. Peik
with the condition that R is at temperature T0 = 290K. The noise figure is often given in dB
F,dB = 10 log F = SNRi,dB − SNRo,dB (9.12)
Typical values for a low noise amplifier are 0.3 dB to 1 dB at 5 GHz.

Antenna with Te=290K
Reveiver
Si So
Te, F
Ni No
Figure 9.4: Input and Output Noise in a Receiver
When my input is at T0 =290 K and my receiver has am equivalent noise temperature of Te and
a gain of G then
Si = Si (9.13)
Ni = kT0 B (9.14)
S0 = GSi (9.15)
N0 = Gk(T0 + Te )B (9.16)
For the noise figure follows
SNRi Si /kT0 B T0 + Te
F= = = (9.17)
SNRo GSi /Gk(T0 + Te)N T0
or following
Te
F = 1+ (9.18)
T0
Te = (F − 1)T0 (9.19)
E XAMPLE 24:
From Example above:
SNRi
F = SNR o
= 0.55dB
or from Noise Temperature
F = 1 + 29040 = 1.13 = 0.56dB
Caution! This calculation works only for antenna temperatures of 290K
9.9.1 Noise Figure of a Lossy Element
A line or other lossy element with loss L has a noise figure of

Te T
F = 1+ = 1 + (L − 1) (9.20)
T0 T0

Prof. S. Peik
= L,F,Te
At room temperature T = T0 the noise figure is simply
F =L (9.21)
9.10 Noise Figure of Cascaded Components
For cascaded components the gain in dB adds up and the noise figure follows the equation:
F2 − 1 F3 − 1
Ftot = F1 + + + ··· (9.22)
G1 G1 G2
or using Temperatures
Te2 Te3
Te,tot = Te1 + + + ··· (9.23)
G1 G1 G2
G1,F1,Te1 G2,F2,Te2 G3,F3,Te3
E XAMPLE 25:
A satellite antenna is connected via a cable with 6dB loss to a receiver with an amplifier with a
noise figure F = 1dB and a gain of G = 30dB. Calculate the total noise figure for a) the chain
cable-amplifier and b) the chain amplifier-cable
a)
G = 14 · 1000 = 250 = 24dB
F = 4 + 1.26−1
0.25 = 5 = 7dB
b)
G = 1000 · 14 = 250 = 24dB
4−1 = 1.263 = 1dB
F = 1.26 + 1000
In the forst arrangement the SNR is reduced dramatically by 7dB whereas in the second arrange-
ment the SNR is reduced by 1 dB only. The cable has no impact.
This is wha all satellite receivers incorperate a first amplifier at the antenna, the so called low
noise box (LNB) or low noise converter (LNC)

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 26:
Given is a Receiver as shown with LNA, Bandpass filter and down-converting mixer. The Gains,
losses, Noise figures are
Low-Noise
Bandpass Filter Mixer
Amplifier
Si Ni So No
G=10dB L=1dB L=3dB

F=2dB F=4dB
The receiver is fed by an Antenna with noise temperature Ta = 15K. The system is at temperature
To = 290K. The If Bandwidth is 10 MHz.
-Find the noise figure and output noise of the system
- Find the two-sided noise power spectral density
-Find the minimum required input power for an output S/N of 20dB
Solution:
Conversions to absolute numbers
Amplifier: G = 10dB = 10, F = 2dB = 1.58
Filter: G = −1dB = 0.79, F = 1dB = 1.26
Mixer: G = −3dB = 0.5, F = 4dB = 2.51
The total Gain is Gtot =3.95=6dB
Overall noise figure:
1.26 − 1 2.51 − 1
F = 1.58 + + = 1.8 = 2.55dB (9.24)
10 10 · 0.79
The equivalent noise temperature is
Te = (F − 1)T0 = (1.8 − 1)290K = 232K (9.25)

Output noise is
N0 = k(Ta + Te )BG = 1.35 · 10−13 W = −98.7dB (9.26)
with Ta as the Antenna Noise
Power spectral density of the output noise over the IF bandwidth is
No
Sn (ω) = = 6.8 · 10−21 W/Hz (9.27)
2B
For an Output S/N of 20dB=100 we get
So So No 1.35 · 10−13 W
Si = = = 100 · = 3.42 · 10−12 W = −84.7dBm (9.28)
Gtot No Gtot 3.95
In order to achieve a good S/N it is important to know:
• first stage amplifier needs very low noise figure
• first stage amplifier needs high gain
• no lossy elements before the first amplifier
• passive components need low loss, esp. at the front
• Cooling of the front end improves S/N
Hence, efforts (=$ spent) are made in the front end of the receiver. Low noise amplifier (LNA)
is the determining factor of the receiver. Typically G = 20dB and F = 0.5dB at C-Band.

Prof. S. Peik
9.11 Receiver G/T
The sensitivity of a radio telescope is a function of many factors including antenna gain G
and system noise temperature T. We all understand the need for high gain antennas and low
noise preamplifiers. But how do we measure just how well the system is performing? A
convenient figure of merit is the ratio G/T - the higher this ratio the better the sensitivity of
the system to weak signals. To obtain G/T one could determine G and T separately, but these
are difficult measurements. Fortunately it is relatively easy to obtain the ratio G/T by a single
measurement.
The G/T is defined as the ratio of the antenna gain to the system noise temperature of a receiver.
The usual unit is dB/Kelvin. Sometimes, the temperaure is given in dB with reference to a
temperature T0 .
G/T is a figure of merit. The bigger the number the more gain we get per (received and inter-
nally generated) noise.
With the figure of merits from the transmitter (EIRP) the path (path loss) and the receiver (G/T)
we can determine the over all link performance, i.e. the SNR at the reciever output
S0 EIRP · L1p · G 1 11G

SNR = = = EIRP (9.29)
N0 kT B Lp k B T

G
SNRdB = EIRPdB − L p,dB −10 log(k) −10 log(B) + (9.30)
| {z } T dB
+228.6dB
The SNR depends linearly on:
• EIRP
• Path Loss
• Bandwidth
• G/T

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 27:
A satellite is at 8000 km distance and transmits with EIRP=100W at 10GHz with 100MHz
Bandwidth.
Receiver A has an antenna gain of 60 dB and an antenna noise of 40K plus receiver noise of
100K. 2
The path loss is L p = 4πR
λ = 1.1229e + 19 = 190.5dB
The system noise temperature is T = Ta + Te = 150K
The absolute gain is 106 .
Hence the G/T is G 1000000
T = 140 = 7142 = 38.5dB
We can now determine the complete link performance, i.e. SNR, with the three perfomance
values EIRP,G/T and path loss

G
SNRdB = EIRPdB − L p,dB −10 log(k) −10 log(B) + (9.31)
| {z } T dB
+228.6dB
= 20dB − 190.5dB + 228.5 − 80dB + 38.5dB (9.32)
= 17dB (9.33)

Transistor Amplifiers
10
• Amplification is one of the most basic and prevalent microwave circuit functions;
• In the past, microwave amplifiers used tubes or diodes in a negative resistance reflection-
type circuit;
• Nowadays, most of the microwave amplifiers use GaAs FETs (Gallium Arsenide Field
Effect Transistor);
10.1 Two-port Gain Definitions
Let us consider the power transfer characteristics of an arbitrary two-port network with arbi-
trary sources and load impedances.The general configuration is shown in the figure below.In
the following we derive expressions for three types of power gain in terms of S parameters of
the two-port network and the reflection coefficients at the source and load.
ZS
ΓS Γin [S] Γout ΓL ZL
Figure 10.1: A two-port network with general source and load impedances.
• Power Gain G = PPinl is the ratio of power dissipated in the load Zl to the power delivered
to the input of the two-port network.This gain is then independent of of Zs .
119
Prof. S. Peik
• Available Gain GA = PPavav ns is the ratio of power available from the two-port network to
the power available from the source.This gain depends on Zs , but not on Zl .
• Transducer Power Gain GT = PPavl s is the ratio of power delivered to the load to the power
available from the source. It depends on both Zl and Zs .
In the Figure above,the reference coefficient seen looking from the network toward the load is
Zl − Z0
Γl = (10.1)
Zl + Z0
while the reflection coefficient seen seen looking from the network toward the load is
Zs − Z0
Γs = (10.2)
Zs + Z0
(Z0 = characteristic impedance reference of the S parameters of the two-port network)
In general, the input of the terminated two-port network will be mismatched with a reflection
coefficient given by Γin , which can be determined as follows. From the definition of the S
parameters and the equality V2+ = ΓlV2− , we have
V1− = S11V1+ + S12V2+ = S11V1+ + S12 ΓlV2− , (10.3)
V2− = S21V1+ + S22V2+ = S21V1+ + S22 ΓlV2− . (10.4)

Eliminating V2− from (10.3) and solving for V1− /V1+ gives
V1− S12 S21 Γl Zin − Z0

Γin = + = S11 + = . (10.5)
V1 1 − S22 Γl Zin + Z0
This is a general result for the input reflection coefficient of a two-port network with an arbitrary
load. Zin is the impedance seen looking into port 1 of the terminated network. Similarly, the
reflection coefficient seen looking into port 2 of the network when port 1 is terminated by Zs is
V2− S12 S21 Γs

Γout = = S22 + . (10.6)
V2+ 1 − S11 Γs
By voltage division,
Zin
V1 = Vs = V1+ +V1− = V1+ (1 + Γin ). (10.7)
Zs + Zin
Using
1 + Γin
Zin = Z0 , (10.8)
1 − Γin
from (10.5) and solving for V1+ in terms of Vs gives
Vs (1 − Γs )
V1+ = . (10.9)
2 (1 − Γs Γin )
If peak values are assumed for all voltages, the average power delivered to the network is
1 |Vs |2 |1 − Γs |2
Pin = |V1+ |2 (1 − |Γin |2 ) = (1 − |Γin |2 ), (10.10)
2Z0 8Z0 |1 − Γs Γin |2

Prof. S. Peik
where (10.9) was used. The power delivered to the load is
|V2− |2
Pl = (1 − |Γl |2 ). (10.11)
2Z0
Solving for V2− from (10.4), substituting into (10.11), and using (10.9) gives
|V1+ |2 |S21 |2 (1 − |Γl |2 ) |Vs |2 |S21 |2 (1 − |Γl |2 )|1 − Γs |2

Pl = = . (10.12)
2Z0 |1 − S22 Γl |2 8Z0 |1 − S22 Γl |2 |1 − Γs Γin |2
The power gain can then be expressed as
Pl |S21 |2 (1 − |Γl |2 )
G= = . (10.13)
Pin |1 − S22 Γl |2 (1 − |Γin |2 )
The power available from the source, Pav s , is the maximum power that can be delivered to
the network. This occurs when the input impedance of the terminated network is conjugate
matched to the source impedance.
Thus, from (10.10),

|Vs |2 |1 − Γs |2
Pav s = Pin = . (10.14)
Γin =Γ∗s 8Z0 (1 − |Γs |2 )
Similarly, the power available from the network, Pav n , is the maximum power that can be
delivered to the load. Thus, from (10.12),

|Vs |2 |S21 |2 (1 − |Γout |2 )|1 − Γs |2
Pav n = Pl = . (10.15)
8Z0 |1 − S22 Γ∗out |2 |1 − Γs Γin |2 Γl =Γ∗out

Γl =Γ∗out
In (10.15), Γin must be evaluated for Γl = Γ∗out . From (10.5), it can be shown that
|1 − S11 Γs |2 (1 − |Γout |2 )
|1 − Γs Γin |2

, (10.16)
Γl =Γ∗out |1 − S22 Γ∗out |2
which reduces (10.15) to
|Vs |2 |S21 |2 |1 − Γs |2
Pav n = . (10.17)
8Z0 |1 − S11 Γs |2 (1 − |Γout |2 )
Observe that Pav s and Pav n have been expressed in terms of the source voltage,Vs , which is
independent of the input or load impedances.
Using (10.17) and (10.14), the available power gain is
Pav n |S21 |2 (1 − |Γs |2 )

GA = = . (10.18)
Pav s |1 − S11 Γs |2 (1 − |Γout |2 )
From (10.12) and (10.14), the transducer power gain is
Pl |S21 |2 (1 − |Γs |2 )(1 − |Γl |2 )

GT = = . (10.19)
Pav s |1 − S22 Γl |2 |1 − Γs Γin |2
A special case of the transducer power gain is the matched transducer power gain. GT m , which
occurs when both the input and output networks are matched. Then Γl = Γs = 0, and (10.19)
reduces to
GT m = |S21 |2 . (10.20)

Prof. S. Peik
Another special case is the unilateral transducer power gain, GT u, where S12 = 0. From (10.5),
Γin = S11 when S12 = 0, so (10.19) gives the unilateral transducer gain as
|S21 |2 (1 − |Γs |2 )(1 − |Γl |2 )

GTu = . (10.21)
|1 − S11 Γs |2 |1 − S22 Γl |2

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 28:
A certain microwave transistor has the following S parameters at 10 GHz with a 50 Ω reference
impedance:
S11 = 0.45∠150 o
S12 = 0.01∠−10o
S21 = 2.05∠10o
S22 = 0.40∠−150 o
The source impedance is Zs = 20 Ω and the load impedance is Zl = 30 Ω. Compute the available
power gain, the transducer power gain, and the actual power gain.
Solution
From (10.1) and (10.2), the reflection coefficients at the source and load are
Zs − Z0 20 − 50
Γs = = = −0.429, (10.22)
Zs + Z0 20 + 50
Zl − Z0 30 − 50
Γl == = −0.250. (10.23)
Zl + Z0 30 + 50
From (10.5) and (10.6 the reflection coefficients seen looking at the input and output of the
terminated network are
S12 S21 Γl
Γin = S11 + (10.24)
1 − S22 Γl
(0.01∠−10o )(2.05∠10o )(−0.250)
= 0.45∠150o + (10.25)
1 − (0.40∠−150o )(−0.250)
o
= 0.455∠150 , (10.26)
(10.27)
S S Γs
Γout = S22 + 12 21 (10.28)
1 − S11 Γs
(0.01∠−10o )(2.05∠10o )(−0.429)
= 0.40∠−150o + (10.29)
1 − (0.45∠150o )(−0.429)
o
= 0.408∠−151 . (10.30)
Then from (10.18) the available power gain is
|S21 |2 (1 − |Γs |2 )
GA = (10.31)
|1 − S11 Γs |2 (1 − |Γout |2 )
(2.05)2 (1 − (0.429)2 )
= (10.32)
|1 − (0.45∠150o )(−0.429)|2 (1 − (0.408)2 )
= 5.85. (10.33)
From (10.19), the transducer power gain is
|S21 |2 (1 − |Γs |2 )(1 − |Γl |2 )

GT = (10.34)
|1 − S22 Γl |2 |1 − Γs Γin |2
(2.05)2 (1 − (0.429)2 )(1 − (0.250)2 )
= (10.35)
|1 − (0.40∠−150o )(−0.250)|2 |(1 − (−0.429)(0.455∠150o )|2
= 5.49. (10.36)
and from (10.13), the actual power gain is
|S21 |2 (1 − |Γl |2 ) (2.05)2 (1 − 0.250)2

G = (10.37)
|1 − S22 Γl | (1 − |Γin | ) |1 − (0.40∠−150o )(−0.250)|2 (1 − (0.455)2 )
2 2
= 5.94 (10.38)

Prof. S. Peik
10.2 Transducer Gain and Stability
A single-stage microwave transistor amplifier can be modeled by the circuit in Figure

Z
Input Output
matching Transistor matching
Z
circuit [S] circuit
G S G 0 G L
S in out L
FIGURE 1 The general transistor amplifier circuit

Figure 10.2: General Transistor Amplifier Circuit
the transducer power gain GT is given by :
1 − |ΓS |2 2 1 − |ΓL |
2
GT = |S21 | (10.39)
|1 − Γin ΓS |2 |1 − S22 ΓL |2
1 − |ΓS |2 2 1 − |ΓL |
2
= |S 21 | (10.40)
|1 − S11 ΓS |2 |1 − Γout ΓL |2
... where reflection coefficients Γin and Γout are defined as:
S12 S21 ΓL
Γin = S11 + , (10.41)
1 − S22 ΓL
S12 S21 ΓS
Γout = S22 + , (10.42)
1 − S11 ΓS
If we define GT as the ratio of the power delivered to the load and the power available from the
source, then we can define separate effective gain factors GS (for the input matching network),
G0 (for the transistor) and GL (for the output matching network) as follows:
1 − |ΓS |2
GS = , (10.43)
|1 − Γin ΓS |2
G0 = |S21 |2 ; (10.44)
1 − |ΓL |2
GL = , (10.45)
|1 − S22 ΓL |2
Therefore, the overall transducer gain is GT = GS G0 GL .
If the transistor is unilateral then the reflection coefficients become Γin = S11 ,Γout = S22 and
the unilateral transducer gain reduces to:
GTU = GS G0 GL (10.46)
where
1 − |ΓS |2
GS = (10.47)
|1 − S11 ΓS |2
G0 = |S21 |2 (10.48)
1 − |ΓL |2
GL = (10.49)
|1 − S22 ΓL |2

Prof. S. Peik
10.3 Stability
What about the stability of the amplifier?

Because Γin and Γout depend on source and load matching, the stability of the amplifier de-
pends on ΓS and ΓL .
Thus, we define two types of stability:
1. Unconditional Stability: if |Γin | < 1 and |Γout | < 1 for all passive source and load
impedances (i.e.|ΓS | < 1 and |ΓL | < 1).
2. Conditional Stability: if |Γin | < 1 and |Γout | < 1 only for a certain range of passive source
and load impedances.
If the amplifier is to be unconditionally stable, ΓS and ΓL must satisfy the following conditions:

S 12 S21 Γ L
|Γin | = S11 + (10.50)
1 − S22 ΓL

S12 S21 ΓS
|Γout | = S22 +
(10.51)
1 − S11 ΓS
For an unilateral device, these conditions reduce to |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1 that are sufficient
for unconditional stability.
Otherwise, the equations (10.50) and (10.51) define a range for ΓS and ΓL where the amplifier
is stable. This range can be found using the Smith charts and plotting the input and output
stability circles.
10.4 Derivation of the output stability equation
We can derive the equation for the output stability circle as follows.
First we express the condition |Γin | = 1 as

S11 + S12 S21 ΓL = 1

(10.52)
1 − S22 ΓL
|S11 (1 − S22 ΓL ) + S12 S21 ΓL | = |1 − S22 ΓL | (10.53)
Now we define ∆ (the determinant of the scattering matrix) as
∆ = S11 S22 − S12 S21 , (10.54)
Then the above result becomes
|S11 − ∆ΓL | = |1 − S22ΓL |, (10.55)

Prof. S. Peik
Using the identity z · z∗ = |z|2 we get
∗
|S11 |2 + |∆|2 |ΓL |2 − (∆ΓL S11 + ∆∗ Γ∗L S11 ) = 1 + |S22|2 |ΓL |2 − (S22Γ∗L + S22(10.56)
ΓL )
(|S22 |2 − |∆|2 )ΓL Γ∗L − (S22 − ∆S11
∗
)ΓL − (S22∗
− ∆∗ S11 )Γ∗L = |S11 |2 − 1 (10.57)
(S22 − ∆S11
∗ )Γ + (S∗ − ∆∗ S )Γ∗
L 11 L |S11|2 − 1
ΓL Γ∗L − 22
= (10.58)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2 |S22 |2 − |∆|2
Now complete the square by adding |S22 − ∆S11

∗ |/(|S |2 − |∆|2 )2 to both sides:
22

ΓL − (S22 − ∆S11) |S22 − ∆S11
∗ ∗ 2 |S11 |2 − 1 ∗ |2
= + (10.59)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2 |S22 |2 − |∆|2 (|S22 |2 − |∆|2)2
S12 S21
= (10.60)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2
In the complex Γ plane, an equation of the form |Γ − C| = R represents a circle where C is the center
(complex number) and R is the radius (a real number).
Now square both sides and simplify to obtain,
∗
|S11 |2 + |∆|2 |ΓL |2 − (∆ΓL S11 + ∆∗ Γ∗L S11 ) = 1 + |S22|2 |ΓL |2 − (S22Γ∗L + S22ΓL ) (10.61)
Now complete the square by adding |S22 − ∆S11

∗ |/(|S |2 − |∆|2 )2 to both sides:
22

ΓL − (S22 − ∆S11) |S22 − ∆S11
∗ ∗ 2 ∗ |2
|S11 |2 − 1
= +
|S22 |2 − |∆|2 |S22 |2 − |∆|2 (|S22 |2 − |∆|2)2

S12 S21
=
(10.62)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2
In the complex Γ plane, an equation of the form |Γ − C| = R represents a circle where C is the center
(complex number) and R is the radius (a real number).
The equation 10.62 defines the output stability circle with the center CL and radius RL where
(S22 − ∆S11 ∗ )∗
CL = (center), (10.63)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2

S12 S21
RL =
(radius), (10.64)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2
Stability of the output can now be read by:
• If the stability circle lies completely outside the smith chart, the two-port is stable for all
load impedances
• If the stability circle encloses the smith chart completely, the two-port is stable for all
load impedances

Prof. S. Peik
• If S11 < 1 and the center of the smith chart is outside the stability circle, the two-port is
stable for load impedances outside the stability circle (this is the common situation for
transistors!)
• If S11 < 1 and the center of the smith chart is inside the stability circle, the two-port is
stable for load impedances inside the stability circle
• If S11 > 1 the region without the centre of the smith chart is stable
Note that the procedure of finding the equation for the input stability circle is the same as for
the output, with interchanged S11 and S22 . Therefore we obtain similar results for the input
stability circle:
(S11 − ∆S22 ∗ )∗
CS = (center), (10.65)
|S11 |2 − |∆|2

S12 S21
RS = (radius), (10.66)
|S11 |2 − |∆|2
Given the S parameters, we can plot the input and output stability circles to define where
|Γin | = 1 and |Γout | = 1, i.e. we need to determine which areas of the Smith chart represent the
stable region, for which |Γin | < 1 and |Γout | < 1. (An example is given in the Figure 10.3)
For an unconditionally stable device, the stability circles are outside (or totally enclose) the
Smith chart.
This result can be mathematically stated as:
||CL | − RL | > 1 for |S11 | < 1, (10.67)
||CS | − RS | > 1 for |S22 | < 1, (10.68)

where necessary and sufficient conditions for amplifier stability are:
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |∆|2

K= > 1, (10.69)
2|S12 S21 |
and
|∆| < 1. (10.70)
We can prove the above result using inequalities of (10.50) and (10.51) where the amplifier is
unconditionally stable if:

S 12 S21 Γ L
|Γin | = S11 + < 1, (10.71)
1 − S22 ΓL
for all |ΓL | < 1.
Rewriting the inequality, we obtain:

Prof. S. Peik
Unstable Region
Stable
Stable
Unstable Region
S11<1 S11>1
Stable Unstable Region
Unstable Region
Stable
Figure 10.3: Output Stability Circles for a Conditionally Stable Device

1 S12 S21 S22 ΓL
S22 S11 + < 1 (10.72)
S22 1 − S22ΓL

1 S12 S21
∆+ < 1 (10.73)
S22 1 − S22ΓL
This equation can be rewritten as

1 S12 S21 S12 S21 |S22 |e jψ
∆+ + <1 (10.74)
|S22 | 1 − |S22|2 1 − |S22|2
which must be true for all values of the angle ψ.This follows from the fact that, if we let ΓL = |ΓL |e jθ ,
then the allowable values of ΓL for a passive load and matching network must lie within the unit circle
defined by |ΓL | = 1.Then the factor that maps the circle into a new circle with center 1/(1 − |S22|2 ) and
radius |S22 |/(1 − |S22|2 ) is 1/(1 − S22ΓL ).We can see this also by setting |ΓL | = 1 and writing this factor
as
1 1
jθ
= (10.75)
1 − S22e 1 − |S22|e jθ

Prof. S. Peik
where maximum and minimum of the factor occur for φ = 0 and φ = π respectively and are given by
1/(1 − |S22|) and 1/(1 + |S22|).The center is of the circle is the average of these values and the radius
is half the difference given by 1/2[(1 − |S22|) + (1 + |S22|)] = 1/(1 − |S22|2 ) and 1/2[(1 − |S22|) − (1 +
|S22 |)] = |S22 |/(1 − |S22|2 ) respectively.
Thus we have that 1/(1 − S22e jθ ) = 1/(1 − |S22|2 ) + (|S22e jθ )/(1 − |S22|2 ). This allows us to rewrite the
equation (??).
The equation (??) can be further simplified as

1 S12 S21 |S12 S21 |
∆ + + < 1
|S22 | 1 − |S22|2 1 − |S22|2

1 S12 S21 |S12 S21 |
0≤ ∆ + < 1− (10.76)
|S22 | 1 − |S22|2 1 − |S22|2
Squaring both sides of the inequality and simplifying gives
2|S12S21 | < 1 − |S11|2 − |S22|2 + |∆|2, (10.77)
which is identical to the condition in (10.69). We can see that K remains unchanged after we interchange
S11 and S22 , and therefore the condition in (10.69) applies to |Γout | < 1 as well as |Γin | < 1.
Next, from R.H.S. of 10.76 we can see that
0 < 1 − |S22|2 − |S12S21 |, (10.78)
and the corresponding result obtained from (10.51) is
0 < 1 − |S11|2 − |S12S21 |, (10.79)

Adding the two inequalities gives
2|S12 S21 | < 2 − |S11|2 − |S22|2 . (10.80)
From the triangle we know that
|∆| = |S11 S22 − S12S21 | ≤ |S11 S22 | + |S12S21 |, (10.81)
so the above result can be reduced to
2(|∆| − |S11S22 |) < 2 − |S11|2 − |S22|2 (10.82)

1
|∆| < 1 − (|S11 |2 − 2|S11S22 | + |S22|2 ) (10.83)
2
1
|∆| < 1 − (|S11 | − |S22|)2 < 1 (10.84)
2
which is identical to the condition in (10.70).
In other words:
a two-port network will be unconditionally stable if and only if
K > 1 and |∆| < 1.

Prof. S. Peik
10.4.1 µ-Test
A new test involving one parameter only is the µ-Test with
1 − |S11 |2
µ= ∗ | + |S S | > 1 (10.85)
|S22 − ∆S11 12 21
The µ is the distance of the closed point of the stability circle to the center of the Smith chart
E XAMPLE 29:
The S parameters for the HP HFET-102 GaAs FET at 2 GHz with a bias voltage Vgs = 0 are
given as follows (Z0 = 50Ω):
S11 = 0.894∠ − 60.6◦ , S21 = 3.122∠123.6◦ , S12 = 0.020∠62.4◦ , S22 = 0.781∠ − 27.6◦ ,
Determine the stability of this transistor by calculating K and |∆|, and plot the stability circles.
From
1 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 + |∆|2
K= > 1, (10.86)
2|S12 S21 |
|∆| < 1 (10.87)
we compute K and |∆| as
∆ = S11 S22 − S12 S21 = 0.696∠ − 83◦ (10.88)
1 + |∆|2 − |S11 |2 − |S22 |2
K= = 0.607 (10.89)
2|S12 S21 |
We have |∆| = 0.696 < 1, but K < 1, so the device is potentially unstable.Using the µ-Test we get
1 − |S11 |2
µ= ∗ | + |S S | = 0.86481 (10.90)
|S22 − ∆S11 12 21
The Circles ist 0.86481 units away from the centre.

The centers and radii of the stability circles are given by:
(S22 − ∆S11∗ )∗
CL = = 1.361∠47◦, (10.91)
|S22 | − |∆|2
2
|S12 S21 |
RL = = 0.50, (10.92)
|S22 |2 − |∆|2
(S11 − ∆S22∗ )∗
CS = = 1.132∠68◦, (10.93)
|S11 | − |∆|2
2
|S12 S21 |
RS = = 0.199. (10.94)
|S11 |2 − |∆|2
This data can be used to plot the input and output stability circles, as shown below. Since
|S11 | < 1 ana |S22 | < 1, the central part of the Smith chart represents the stable operating region
for ΓS and ΓL .The unstable regions are inside the circles.
Load
Source

Prof. S. Peik
10.5 Design for Maximum Gain (Conjugate Matching)
For a given transistor, the gain G0 is fixed. The total gain of the amplifier is then determined by
GL and GS of the matching sections. The maximum gain is then realized when these sections
provide a conjugate match between the amplifier source or load impedance and the transistor.
Maximum power transfer from the input matching network to the transistor occurs when
Γin = Γ∗S , (10.95)
and from the transistor to the output matching network when
Γout = Γ∗L , (10.96)
Assuming lossless matching sections, these two conditions will maximize the overall trans-
ducer gain. Then the maximum gain will be given by
1 1 − |ΓL |2
GTmax = |S21 |2 . (10.97)
1 − |ΓS |2 |1 − S22 ΓL |2
In case of a bilateral transistor, Γin is affected by Γout and vice versa. Using (10.95) and (10.96)
in (10.41) and (10.42) we get necessary equations:
S12 S21 ΓL
Γ∗S = S11 + , (10.98)
1 − S22 ΓL
S12 S21 ΓS
Γ∗L = S22 + , (10.99)
1 − S11 ΓS
The solution for ΓS is then q

B1 ± B21 − 4|C1 |2
ΓS = . (10.100)
2C1
Similarly, the solution for ΓL can be written as
q
B2 ± B22 − 4|C2 |2
ΓL = . (10.101)
2C2
where B1 ,C1 ,B2 ,C2 are defined as
B1 = 1 + |S11 |2 − |S22 |2 − |∆|2 , (10.102)
B2 = 1 + |S22 |2 − |S11 |2 − |∆|2 , (10.103)

C1 = S11 − ∆S22
∗
, (10.104)
C2 = S22 − ∆S11
∗
, (10.105)

Prof. S. Peik
The maximum transducer gain is much simpler in case of unilateral transistor, and is reduced
to
1 1
GTUmax = 2
|S21 |2 . (10.106)
1 − |S11 | 1 − |S22 |2
E XAMPLE 30:
Design an amplifier for maximum gain at 4.0 GHz using single-stub matching sections.Calculate
and plot the input return loss and the gain from 3 to 5 GHz. The GaAs FET has the following S
parameters (Z0 = 50Ω):
f (GHz) S11 S21 S12 S22
3.0 0.80∠ − 89◦ 2.86∠99◦ 0.03∠56◦ 0.76∠ − 41◦
4.0 0.72∠ − 116◦ 2.60∠76◦ 0.03∠57◦ 0.73∠ − 54◦
5.0 0.66∠ − 142◦ 2.39∠54◦ 0.03∠62◦ 0.72∠−
68◦
We first check the stability of the transistor by calculating ∆ and K at 4.0 GHz:
∆ = S11 S22 − S12 S21 = 0.488∠ − 162◦ , (10.107)
1 + |∆|2 − |S11|2 − |S22|2

K= = 1.195. (10.108)
2|S12 S21 |
Since |∆| < 1 and K > 1, the transistor is unconditionally stable at 4.0 GHz.There is no need to
plot the stability circles.
For maximum gain, we should design the matching sections for a conjugate match to the tran-
sistor.Thus, ΓS = Γ∗in and ΓL = Γ∗out , and ΓS ,ΓL can be determined from:
q
B1 ± B21 − 4|C1|2
ΓS = = 0.872∠123◦ (10.109)
2C1
q
B2 ± B22 − 4|C2 |2
ΓL = = 0.876∠61◦ (10.110)
2C2
Then the effective gain factors can be calculated as
1
GS = = 4.17 = 6.20dB (10.111)
1 − |ΓS |2
G0 = |S21 |2 = 6.76 = 8.30dB (10.112)

2
1 − |ΓL |
GL = = 1.67 = 2.22dB (10.113)
|1 − S22ΓL |2
So the overall transducer gain will be
GTmax = 6.20 + 8.30 + 2.22 = 16.7dB (10.114)
(The final amplifier circuit is shown here)

0.206
50 ohm 0.120 50 ohm

50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
0.206
0.206
(b) RF circuit

Prof. S. Peik
10.6 Constant Gain Circles and Design for Specified Gain (Unilateral
Device)
In many cases it is preferable to design for less than the maximum gain.In such cases, the
input and output matching sections are purposely mismatched to reduce overall gain.The design
procedure involves constant gain circles on the Smith chart. For simplification, only the case
of unilateral device is discussed here.
In practice, |S12 | can be approximated to zero, and the error caused by this approximation is
given by the ratio GGTU
T
.
It can be shown that this ratio is bounded by
1 GT 1
2
< < , (10.115)
(1 +U ) GTU (1 −U )2
where U is defined as the unilateral figure of merit,
|S12 ||S21 ||S11 ||S22 |

U= , (10.116)
(1 − |S11 |2 )(1 − |S22 |2 )
The expression for GS and GL for unilateral case are given by equations (10.47) and (??).
• These gains are maximized when ΓS = S11

∗ and Γ = S∗ and are given by:
L 22
1
GSmax = , (10.117)
1 − |S11 |2
1
GLmax = . (10.118)
1 − |S22 |2
Now define normalized gain factors gS and gL as
GS 1 − |ΓS |2
gS = = (1 − |S11 |2 ), (10.119)
GSmax |1 − S11 ΓS |2
GL 1 − |ΓL |2
gL = = (1 − |S22 |2 ), (10.120)
GLmax |1 − S22 ΓL |2
Then we have that 0 ≤ gS ≤ 1, and 0 ≤ gL ≤ 1.
For fixed values of gS and gL , the above equations represent circles in the ΓS and ΓL plane.To
show this, we consider the equation 10.119, which can be expanded to give
gS |1 − S11 ΓS |2 = (1 − |ΓS |2 )(1 − |S11 |2 )(10.121)

(gS |S11 |2 + 1 − |S11 |2 )|ΓS |2 − gS (S11 ΓS + S11
∗ ∗
ΓS ) = 1 − |S11 |2 − gS (10.122)
gS (S11 ΓS + S11
∗ Γ∗ )
1 − |S11 |2 − gS
ΓS Γ∗S − S
= (10.123)
1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2

Prof. S. Peik
Now add (g2S |S11 |2 )/[1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 ]2 to both sides to complete the square:
∗

gS S11 (1 − |S11 |2 − gS )[1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 ] + g2S |S11 |2
ΓS − = (10.124)
1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 [1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 ]2
Simplifying gives
∗
√ 2
g S = 1 − gS (1 − |S11 | )
s
ΓS − 11
(10.125)
1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2 1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2
which is the equation of the circle with the center and the radius given by
∗
gS S11
CS = , (10.126)
1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2
√
1 − gS (1 − |S11 |2 )
RS = , (10.127)
1 − (1 − gS )|S11 |2
The result for the constant gain circles of the output section can be shown to be
∗
gL S22
CL = , (10.128)
1 − (1 − gL )|S22 |2
√
1 − gL (1 − |S22 |2 )
RL = , (10.129)
1 − (1 − gL )|S22 |2

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 31:
Design an amplifier to have a gain of 11 dB at 4.0 GHz. Plot constant gain circles for GS = 2dB
and 3dB, and GL = 0dB and 1dB.Calculate and plot the input return loss and overall amplifier
gain from 3 to 5 GHz.The FET has the following S parameters (Z0 = 50Ω):
f (GHz) S11 S21 S12 S22
3 0.80∠ − 90◦ 2.8∠100◦ 0 0.66∠ − 50◦
4 0.75∠ − 120◦ 2.5∠80◦ 0 0.60∠ − 70◦
5 0.71∠ − 140 ◦ 2.3∠60 ◦ 0 0.58∠ − 85◦
Since S12 = 0 and |S11 | < 1 and |S22 | < 1,the transistor is unilateral and unconditionally stable.
We can calculate the maximum matching section gain from:
1
GSmax = = 2.29 = 3.6dB, (10.130)
1 − |S11|2
1
GLmax = = 1.56 = 1.9dB. (10.131)
1 − |S22|2
The gain of the mismatched transistor is
G◦ = |S21 |2 = 6.25 = 8.0dB, (10.132)
so the maximum unilateral transducer gain is
GTmax = 3.6 + 1.9 + 8.0 = 13.5dB. (10.133)
Thus we have 2.5 dB more gain than is required by the specifications.

We use equations (11.89),(11.92) and (11.93) to calculate the following data for the constant
gain circles:
GS = 3dB gS = 0.875 CS = 0.706∠120◦ RS = 0.166

GS = 2dB gS = 0.691 CS = 0.627∠120◦ RS = 0.294
GL = 1dB gL = 0.806 CL = 0.520∠70◦ RL = 0.303
GL = 0dB gL = 0.640 CL = 0.440∠70◦ RL =
0.440
The constant gain circles are shown in Figure 1a below .

The final amplifier circuit is shown in Figure 1b below .
FIGURE 1 (a) Constant gain circles; (b) RF circuit
GL max
GS max
* G L = 1 dB
S11
*
S11
G S= 3 dB G L = 0 dB
L 0.045
S
G S= 2 dB
50 ohm 0.179 50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
0.432
0.100
(b) RF circuit
10.7 Gain Circles (Bilateral Design)
In the bilateral case we have to use different gain definitions, as the output produces a feedback
to the input.

Prof. S. Peik
10.7.1 Operating and Available Power Gain Circles
In case when the reverse gain of S12 is not negligible, the input impedance depends on the
load reflection coefficient and hence, the output impedance becomes a function of the source
reflection coefficient.
In such case, we use bilateral approach in designing an amplifier with predefined gain. More-
over, there are two alternative design methods, based on the use of operating power gain G
and on the use of the available power gain GA .
Operating Power Gain
The operating power gain G is given by
(1 − |ΓL |2 )|S21 |2 (1 − |ΓL |2 )|S21 |2

G= = = go |S21 |2 (10.134)
(1 − |Γin |2 )|1 − S22ΓL |2
2
S21 S12 ΓL
1 − S11 + 1−S22 ΓL |1 − S22ΓL |
2
where go is the proportionality factor given by
1 − |ΓL|2 1 − |ΓL |2
go = = (10.135)
|1 − S22ΓL |2 − |S11 − ∆ΓL |2
2
21 S12 ΓL
1 − S11 + S1−S Γ
2
22 ΓL
|1 − S 22 L |
We can write (10.135) in terms of circle equation for the load reflection coefficient ΓL as
|ΓL − dgo | = rgo (10.136)
The center position is given by

go (S22 − ∆S11∗ )∗
d go = (10.137)
1 + go(|S22 |2 − |∆|2)
The radius is defined as p

1 − 2kgo|S21 S12 | + g2o|S21 S12 |2
rgo = (10.138)
|1 + go(|S22 |2 − |∆|2 )|
where k is the Roulette stability factor.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 32:
Design an amplifier with 8.5 dB power gain using a BJT with IC = 10mA ana VCE = 6V , operating
at a frequency 2.4 GHz. The corresponding S-parameters are:
• S11 = 0.35∠35◦ ,
• S21 = 2.8∠ − 70◦ ,
• S12 = 0.25∠ − 65◦ ,
• S22 = 0.3∠ − 20◦ ,
From
1 − |S11|2 − |S22 |2 + |∆|2
k= > 1, (10.139)
2|S12 S21 |
and
|∆| < 1 (10.140)
we compute K and |∆| as

∆ = S11 S22 − S12 S21 = 0.643∠40.3◦ (10.141)
1 + |∆|2 − |S 11 |2 − |S 22 |2
k= = 1.09136 (10.142)
2|S12 S21 |
Therefore, the transistor is unconditionally stable. Now we compute the factor go as

G
go = = 0.9 (10.143)
|S21 |2
where G = 7.079 or in dB G = 8.5dB.Substituting go into (10.138) and (10.137), we find the

center and the radius of the constant operating gain circle in the ΓL plane to be:
go (S22 − ∆S11∗ )∗
dgo = = 0.44∠17.9◦ (10.144)
1 + go (|S22 | − |∆|2 )
2
p
1 − 2kgo |S21 S12 | + g2o |S21 S12 |2
rgo = = 0.21 (10.145)
|1 + go (|S22 |2 − |∆|2 )|
The constant circle is shown in Figure 1. There are a great variety of possible choices for the
load reflection coefficient to ensure G = 8.5 dB operating gain by placing a proper matching
networks.
As we can see from the example above, by choosing an arbitrary ΓL we can find ΓS from
S − ∆Γ ∗
11 L
ΓS = (10.146)
1 − S22 ΓL
and Γin from
ΓS = Γ∗in (10.147)
However, in many applications, ΓS has to satisfy a certain condition which limits the choice of
ΓL . In such case, the constant gain circle in (10.136) in the ΓL plane has to be mapped into a
circle in the ΓS plane as
|ΓS − dgs | = rgs (10.148)

From the requirement that ΓS = Γ∗in we have that
S11 − ∆ΓL
Γ∗S = (10.149)
1 − S22ΓL

Prof. S. Peik
X=j0.9
X=j1.2
X=j
8
X=j0.
0.7
.4
X=j1
X=j
1.6
j0.6
X=j
X=
j1.8
j0.5
X=
j2
X=
X=
.4
j0
X=
j3
X=
j0.3
X=
0.2
X=j X=j5
X=j10
X=j0.1
R=0.5
R=0
R=1
R=2
X=−j0.1
X=−j10
j0.2 X=−
X=− j5
− j0.3
X=
X=
−j3
.4
−j0
X=
.5
X=
−j0
−j2
X=
X=
.2
.6
−j1
j−01
X=−
.8
X=
−0.4
.7
j1.6
X=−j
−1
0.68
X=j
1.
X=−j1.2
X=j−1.8
−0.9
1.4
X=j−
X=−j
Figure 10.4: Constant operating power circle in the ΓL plane.
or
S11 − Γ∗S
ΓL = (10.150)
∆ − S22Γ∗S
We can substitute (10.150) into (10.136) to obtain
S − Γ∗ 2
11 S 2
− d go = rgo (10.151)
∆ − S22Γ∗S

which can be rewritten in the form of (10.148), where the circle radius is
rgo |S12 S21 |
rgs = (10.152)
||1 − S22dgo |2 − rg2o |S22 |2 |
and the center of the circle is given by

(1 − S22dgo )(S11 − ∆dgo )∗ − rg2o ∆∗ S22
d gs = |1 − S22dgo |2 − rg2o |S22 |2 (10.153)
10.7.2 Available Power Gain
In case when the perfect matching is required on the output side of the amplifier, we use the
available power gain approach. The constant available gain circle equation can be derived to
relate the reflection coefficient to the desired gain as
|ΓS − dga | = rga (10.154)

with the center of the circle given by
ga (S11 − ∆S22∗ )∗
d ga = (10.155)
1 + ga(|S11 |2 − |∆|2)
and the radius defined as

p
1 − 2kga|S21 S12 | + g2a|S21 S12 |2
rga = (10.156)
|1 + ga(|S11 |2 − |∆|2 )|

Prof. S. Peik
The proportionality factor is

GA
ga = (10.157)
|S21 |2
where GA is the available power gain.
As for the constant operating power gain circle, we can map the constant available power gain
circle into the ΓL -plane by
|ΓL − dgl | = rgl (10.158)
Then the radius is given by
rga |S12 S21 |
rgl = (10.159)
||1 − S11dga |2 − rg2a |S11 |2 |
and the center of the circle is given by
(1 − S11dga )(S22 − ∆dga )∗ − rg2a ∆∗ S11
d gl = |1 − S11dga |2 − rg2a |S11 |2 (10.160)
10.8 Constant Noise Figure Circles and Design for Low Noise
Another important design consideration for the microwave amplifier is its noise figure;
Now we will derive the equations for constant noise figure circles, and show how they are used
in transistor amplifier design.
The noise figure of a two-port amplifier can be expressed as

RN
F = Fmin + |YS − Yopt |2 , (10.161)
GS
where the following definitions apply:
• Ys = GS + jBS = source admittance presented to transistor.
• Yopt = optimum source admittance that results in minimum noise figure.
• Fmin = minimum noise figure of transistor,attained when YS = Yopt .
• RN = equivalent noise resistance of transistor.
• GS = real part of source admittance.
Instead of the admittance YS and Yopt , we can use the reflection coefficients ΓS and Γopt where:
1 1 − ΓS
YS = , (10.162)
Z 0 1 + ΓS
1 1 − Γopt
Yopt = , (10.163)
Z0 1 + Γopt
Using (10.162) and (10.163), the quantity |YS −Yopt |2 can be expressed in terms of ΓS and Γopt
:
4 |ΓS − Γopt |2
|YS −Yopt |2 = 2 , (10.164)
Z0 |1 + ΓS |2 |1 + Γopt |2
Also,

Prof. S. Peik

1 1 − ΓS 1 − Γ∗S 1 1 − |ΓS |2
GS = Re{YS } = + = (10.165)
2Z0 1 + ΓS 1 + Γ∗S Z0 |1 + ΓS |2
Using the results in (10.161) gives the noise figure as
4RN |ΓS − Γopt |2

F = Fmin + , (10.166)
Z0 (1 − |ΓS |2 )|1 + Γopt |2
For a fixed noise figure F, we can show that this result defines a circle in the ΓS plane. First
define the noise figure parameter N as:
|ΓS − Γopt |2 F − Fmin

N= = |1 + Γopt |2 , (10.167)
1 − |ΓS |2 4RN /Z0
Then we rewrite (10.167) as
(ΓS − Γopt )(Γ∗S − Γ∗opt ) = N(1 − |ΓS |2 ) (10.168)

ΓS Γ∗S − (ΓS Γ∗opt + Γ∗S Γopt ) + Γopt Γ∗opt = N − N|ΓS |2 (10.169)
(ΓS Γ∗opt + Γ∗S Γopt ) N − |Γopt |2
ΓS Γ∗S − = (10.170)
N +1 N +1
Now add |Γopt |2 /(N + 1)2 to both sides to complete the square and obtain
p

ΓS − Γ opt = N(N + 1 − |Γopt | )
2
(10.171)
N + 1 (N + 1)
The result defines circles of constant noise figure with centers at

Γopt
CF = , (10.172)
N +1
and radii of p
N(N + 1 − |Γopt |2 )
RF = , (10.173)
N +1

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 33:
A GaAs FET is biased for minimum noise figure, and has the following S parameters and noise pa-
rameters at 4 GHz (Z0 = 50Ω): S11 = 0.6∠ − 60◦ ,S21 = 1.9∠81◦ , S12 = 0.05∠26◦ ,S22 = 0.5∠ − 60◦ ;
Fmin = 1.6dB,Γopt = 0.62∠100◦ ,RN = 20Ω. For design purposes, assume the device is unilateral,
and calculate the maximum error in GT resulting from this assumption. Then design an amplifier
having a 2.0 dB noise figure with the maximum gain that is compatible with this noise figure.
We first compute the unilateral figure of merit as
|S12 S21 S11 S22 |

U= = 0.059. (10.174)
(1 − |S11|2 )(1 − |S22|2 )
Then the ratio GT /GTU is bounded as
1 GT 1
2
< < , (10.175)
(1 + U) GTU (1 − U)2
or
GT
0.891 < < 1.130. (10.176)
GTU
In dB,
−0.50 < GT − GTU < 0.53dB (10.177)
where GT and GTU are now in dB. Thus we should expect less than about ±0.5 dB error in gain.
Next, we compute the center and the radius of the 2 dB noise figure circle:
|ΓS − Γopt |2 F − Fmin 1.58 − 1.445

N= = |1 + Γopt |2 = |1 + 0.62∠100◦ = 0.0986
1 − |ΓS |2 4RN /Z0 4(20/50)
(10.178)
Γopt ◦
CF = = 0.56∠100 (10.179)
N +1
p
N(N + 1 − |Γopt |2 )
RF = = 0.24. (10.180)
N +1
The noise figure circle is plotted in Figure 11.30a(Pozar book). Minimum noise figure (Fmin =
1.6dB) occurs for ΓS = Γopt = 0.62∠100◦ .
Next we calculate data for several input section constant gain circles:
GS (dB) gS CS RS
1.0 0.805 0.52∠60◦ 0.300
1.5 0.904 0.56∠60◦ 0.205
1.7 0.946 0.58∠60◦ 0.150
These circles are also plotted in Figure 1a below.From the Smith chart, the optimum solution is
ΓS = 0.53∠75◦ , yielding GS = 1.7 dB and F=2.0 dB.
For the output section we choose ΓL = S22 ∗ = 0.5∠60◦ for a maximum G of
L
1
GL = = 1.33 = 1.25dB. (10.181)
1 − |S22 |2
The transistor gain is
G0 = |S21 |2 = 3.61 = 5.58dB, (10.182)
so overall transducer gain will be
GTU = GS + G0 + GL = 8.53dB. (10.183)

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 34:
FET NE321000 (see Appendix) is biased with Vds = 2V and Id = 10mA. For gain design purposes,
assume the device is unilateral. Then design an amplifier at f = 8GHz having a 2.0 dB noise
figure with the maximum gain that is compatible with this noise figure.
The S-Parameters are from the Touchstone file:
! f S11 S21 S12 S22
! GHz MAG ANG MAG ANG MAG ANG MAG ANG
8.00 0.941 -50.1 4.280 143.5 0.074 58.6 0.567 -39.1
The noise Parameters are from the Touchstone file:
! f Fmin Gammaopt Rn/50
! GHz dB MAG ANG
8.00 0.26 0.770 18.8 0.32
First, we compute the center and the radius of the 2 dB noise figure circle. We may use the PC
Tool “Amplifier Wizard”.
F − Fmin
N= |1 + Γopt |2 = 0.143773 (10.184)
4RN /Z0
Γopt
CF = = 0.6732105∠18.8◦ (10.185)
N +1
p
N(N + 1 − |Γopt |2 )
RF = = 0.246 (10.186)
N +1
The noise figure circle is plotted here. Minimum noise figure (Fmin = 0.26dB) occurs for ΓS =
Γopt = 0.77∠18.8◦ .
Next we calculate data for several input section constant gain circles:
GS (dB) gS CS RS
1.0 0.805 0.52∠60◦ 0.300
1.5 0.904 0.56∠60◦ 0.205
1.7 0.946 0.58∠60◦ 0.150
These circles are also plotted in Figure 1a below.From the Smith chart, the optimum solution is
ΓS = 0.53∠75◦ , yielding GS = 1.7 dB and F=2.0 dB.
For the output section we choose ΓL = S22 ∗ = 0.5∠60◦ for a maximum G of
L
1
GL = = 1.33 = 1.25dB. (10.187)
1 − |S22 |2
The transistor gain is
G0 = |S21 |2 = 3.61 = 5.58dB, (10.188)
so overall transducer gain will be
GTU = GS + G0 + GL = 8.53dB. (10.189)

Prof. S. Peik
C ONT. E XAMPLE 34:

A complete AC circuit for the amplifier is shown in Figure 1b below.
FIGURE 1 (a) Constant gain and noise figure circles; (b) RF circuit
Noise figure
circle Gain circles
(F = 1.6 dB) * G S= 1.7 dB

S11
opt
G S= 1.5 dB
CF
G S= 1.0 dB
F= 2.0 dB
S
G S= 2 dB
0.25
50 ohm 0.226 50 ohm

50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
50 ohm
0.136
0.144
(b) RF circuit
10.9 Bipolar Transistor Biasing Networks
Generally, there are two types of biasing networks:
• Passive or self-biased networks usually incorporate a resistive network, which provides

the appropriate voltages and currents for the RF transistor. Main disadvantages of such
networks are sensitivity to changes in transistor parameters and poor temperature stabil-
ity.
• Active-biasing networks are often used to compensate for these drawbacks.
Two possible topologies shown in Figure 1.

The purpose of the CB and RFC coil connected to the base and collector terminal is to isolate
the RF signal from the DC power source.
To illustrate how to compute the resistors for the two biasing networks shown in Figure 10.5,
we consider the following example

Prof. S. Peik
VCC
R1 I1
IS CB
IC RFC
R2
RFC RF out
CB
RF in
Figure 10.5: Passive biasing networks for an RF BJT in common-emitter configuration

VCC
R4
CB
R2 IC RFC
R3 IB RFout
VX RFC
I X
R1 CB
RFin
Figure 10.6: Another Passive biasing networks for an RF BJT in common-emitter configuration
E XAMPLE 35:
Design biasing networks according to Figures 1 (a) and (b) for the BJT setting of IC = 10mA,
VCE = 3V , and VCC = 5V .
(Assume that the transistor has a β = 100 and VBE = 0.8V )
Solution: From Figure 1(a) we see that I1 through R1 is equal to the sum of the collector and
base currents.
Since IB = IC /β, we obtain:
I1 = IC + IB = IC (1 + β−1 ) = 10.1 mA (10.190)
The value of R1 can be found as

VCC −VCE
R1 = = 198Ω (10.191)
I1
Similarly, we can compute R2 as
VCE −VBE VCE −VBE
R2 = = = 22kΩ (10.192)
IB IC /β
Next, considering Figure 1(b), the situation becomes more complicated because we have freedom
of choosing values for VX and IX through the voltage divider resistor R3 . Arbitrary setting VX to
1.5 V, we determine R3 to be
VX −VBE VX −VBE
R3 = = = 7kΩ (10.193)
IB IC /β
Usually, The value of IX is chosen to be 10 times larger than IB . Therefore, IX = 10IB = 1mA, and
the resistances for the voltage divider are computed as
VX
R1 = = 1.5kΩ (10.194)
IX
Prof. S. Peik
Now let us consider an example of an active biasing network for a BJT in common-emitter
configuration. As shown in Figure 2, we employ a low-frequency transistor Q1 to provide
the necessary base current for the RF transistor Q2 .The resistor RE1 improves stability of the
quiescent point. The good temperature stability is achieved if Q1 and Q2 have the same thermal
properties.
VCC
I1 R C2
CB
R C1 I C2 RFC
R B1 R B2 I B2 RFout
VC1
Q2
IB1 I C1 RFC
Q1 CB
RE1 RFin
Figure 10.7: Active biasing networks for a common-emitter RF BJT
The following example illustrates the determination of the component values for the network
depicted in Figure 10.7.
E XAMPLE 36:
Design biasing networks according to Figure 2 for IC2 = 10mA, VCE2 = 3V , and VCC = 5V .
(Assume that both transistors have β = 100 and VBE = 0.8V )
Solution: Similar to the previous example, here we have several degrees of freedom. Thus, we
choose IC1 such that IC1 = 10IB2 = 1mA. Then the current I1 through RC1 is composed of collector
current IC1 and base currents IB1 and IB1 :
I1 = IC1 + IB1 + IB2 = IC1 (1 + β−1 ) + IC2 /β = 1.11mA (10.197)
Assuming VC1 = 3V , we find

VC1 −VBE2
RB2 = = 22kΩ (10.198)
IB2
VCC −VC1
RC1 = = 1.8kΩ (10.199)
I1
The freedom of choice allows us to choose VE1 to 1V, and we find
VC1 −VBE1 −VE1
RB1 = = 120kΩ (10.200)
IB1
and
VE1
RE1 = = 1.11kΩ (10.201)
IC1 − IB1
Finally, the collector resistor RC2 is
RC2 = (VCC −VCE1 )/IC2 = 200kΩ. (10.202)

Prof. S. Peik
Another active biasing network for a BJT in common-emitter configuration is shown in Figure
10.8. The diodes D1 and D2 provide a fixed reference for the voltage drop across the base-
emitter junctions of both transistors. Resistor R1 adjusts the biasing current to the base of Q1
and R2 limits the change of this adjustment.
VCC
R CB
2
RFC
R 1 Q 1
D 1 RFout
RFC
Q 2
D 2
C B
RFin
Figure 10.8: Active biasing networks containing low-frequency transistor and two diodes
Active biasing networks containing low-frequency transistor and two diodes.

Ideally, for the temperature compensation, Q1 and one of the diodes should remain at ambient
temperature while the second diode should be placed at the same heat-sink as Rf transistor Q2 .
10.9.1 Remarks
It is important to remember that in all biasing networks the operational conditions of the tran-
sistor at RF frequencies are entirely independent of the DC configuration. Thus, we can modify
network in Figure 10.7 for common-base RF operation, as shown in Figure 10.8.
Another important fact is that, at DC, all blocking capacitors represent an open circuit and
all RFCs behave like short circuits. The redrawn network is shown below. However, at RF
frequency all blocking capacitors become short circuits and all RFCs become open circuits.
This transforms the biasing network into a common-base mode, as shown below.
10.10 Power Amplifiers
10.10.1 Vacuum Tubes
Klystron
Magnetron
Traveling Wave Tube
Solid State Power Amplifiers

Prof. S. Peik
VCC
I1 R C2
CB
RC1 I C2 RFC
R B1 R B2 I B2 RFout
VC1
Q2
I B1 I C1 RFC
RFin
Q1 CB RFC
RE1
Figure 10.9: Modification of the active biasing network

Prof. S. Peik
VCC
R C2
CB
R C1 RFC
R B1 R B2
Q2
RFC
Q1 CB RFC
RE1
VCC
R C2
CB
RC1 RFC
R B1 R B2 RF in
Q2
RFC
RF out
Q1 CB RFC
RE1
Figure 10.10: (a)DC equivalent circuit (b) RF equivalent circuit

Large Signal Effects
11
The amplification of any active device is not completely linear. Non-linearities arise especially
at higher input powers.
11.0.2 1dB Compression Point
At large input signals the amplifier is driven into saturation. The amplifier cannot amplify
the signal with a constant gain G anymore. We can illustrate the effect when plotting the input
power Pin to output power Pout graph of an amplifier. The saturation of the amplifier is typically
not abrupt as seen from Figure 11.1.
In order to define a point where the amplification is not longer linear, we define the 1dB com-
pression point. At the 1 db compression point the output signal is 1dB smaller than it should
be using linear amplification. The 1dB compression point is a common quantity used as the
maximum power rating of the amplifier.
We can think of the Pin − to-Pout curve as an arbitrary function, that is developed using a Taylor
series expansion
∞
f (x) = c0 + c1 x + c2 x2 + c3 x3 + · · · = ∑ cn xn (11.1)
n=0
For the input signal vi (t) using voltages the output voltage is
∞
vo (t) = a0 + a1 vi (t) + a2 [vi (t)]2 + a3 [vi (t)]3 + · · · = ∑ an [vi (t)]n (11.2)
n=0
Using this expansion we can derive the output signal for a sinusoidal input signal vin. For a
given input sinusoidal input signal
vin = V0 cos ω0 t (11.3)
the output signal is in the form
vo (t) = a0 + a1V0 cos ω0 t + a2V02 cos2 ω0 t + a3V03 cos3 ω0t + · · ·
149
Prof. S. Peik
Pout
30
[dBm]
20
1dB
10
1dB-Compression Point
0
-10
-20
Pin [dBm]
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Figure 11.1: Definition of 1dB Compression Point
1 3 1
= (a0 + a2V02 ) + (a1V0 + a3V03 ) cos ω0 t + a2V02 cos 2ω0 t
2 4 2
1 3
+ a3V0 cos 3ω0 t + · · · (11.4)
4
This result leads to the voltage gain of the signal component at frequency ω0
(ω0 )
vo a1V0 + 43 a3V03 3
Gv = (ω )
= = a1 + a3V02 (11.5)
vin 0 V0 4
where we have retained only terms through the third order.

This means, that the gain of an amplifier is the linear gain a1 plus an extra term a3 proportional
to the square of the input voltage V0 . The factor a3 is in most amplifiers negative, such that the
gain decreases with larger input powers. We call this effect the gain compression or saturation.
The gain compression limits the use of the amplifier for large input signals.
11.0.3 3rd Order Intercept
From eqn. 11.4 we observe, that some signal component is converted into signals with double
and triple the the input frequency. This will lead into signal distortions of the output signals.
For a single input frequency or tone the output will consist of harmonics of the input tone. of
the form nω0 for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .. Since the higher order harmonics are far outside the normal
passband, they do not interfere with the operation of the amplifier.
For two closely spaced input tones, however, the situation is different. Assuming an input
vin (t) = V0 (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t) (11.6)

Prof. S. Peik
the output is using trigonometry expansion formulas
v0 (t) = ao + a1V0 (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t) + a2V02 (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t)2 + a3V03 (cos ω1 t + cos ω2 t)3(11.7)
+ ···
1 1
= a0 + a1V0 cos ω1t + a1V0 cos ω2t + a2V02 (1 + cos 2ω1 t) + a2V02 (1 + cos 2ω2 t) (11.8)
2 2
+a2V02 cos(ω1 − ω2 )t + a2V02 cos(ω1 + ω2 )t + (11.9)
3 1 3 1
+a3V03 ( cos ω1 t + cos 3ω1 t) + a3V03 ( cos ω2 t + cos 3ω2 t) + (11.10)
4 4 4 4
3 3 3
+a3V03 [ cos ω2 t + cos(2ω1 − ω2 )t + cos(2ω1 + ω2 )t] + (11.11)
2 4 4
3 3 3
+a3V03 [ cos ω1 t + cos(2ω2 − ω1 )t + cos(2ω2 + ω1 )t] + · · · (11.12)
2 4 4
We see that the output spectrum consists of harmonics of the forms
mω1 + nω2 (11.13)
with m, n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . ..

These combinations of the input frequencies are called intermodulation products and the order
of a given product is defined as |m| + |n|. For example, two input tones have the following four
intermodulation products of second order.
2ω1 second harmonic of 1st tone m=2 n=0

2ω2 second harmonic of 2nd tone m=0 n=2
ω1 − ω2 difference frequency m=1 n = −1
ω1 + ω2 sum frequency m=1 n=1
Using smart filtering we can utilize the sum and difference signals to build a frequency con-
verter. In amplifiers these harmonics are undesired, as they may create distortion in the active
band when the two tones are close together.
The cubed terms lead to third-order intermodulation products. The spectrum is shown in Fig-
ure 11.2. We note, that some harmonics are very close to the operation band. Hence, these
harmonics should be suppressed as much as possible in an amplifier.
Input Tones
0 ω2−ω1 ω1 ω2 ω1+ω2 3ω1 3ω2 ω

2ω1−ω2 2ω2−ω1 2ω1 2ω2
2ω1+ω2 2ω2+ω1
Figure 11.2: Up to 3rd Order Harmonics of Two-Tone Signal

Prof. S. Peik
For small input signals the third harmonics are very small. When the input signal power in-
creases the 3rd harmonics increases quickly, as they are proportional to the cube of V0 . We
can plot the output power of the 1st harmonic (linear amplification) and the 3rd harmonic in a
double-logarithmic graph as seen in Figure 11.3.
Pout
30
[dBm]
20 3rd Order Intercept Point
10
e
ns
e
ons
po
0
s
Re
esp
r
de
rR
-10
Or
e
Ord
t
1s
-20
3rd
Pin [dBm]
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Figure 11.3: Definition of 3rd Order Intercept Point
Both first and third order response will exhibit compression at high input powers, so we show
ideal extensions of these two ideal lines. These lines intersect at the so called 3rd order In-
tercept point or IP3. At this power output level the signal of the third harmonic and the first
harmonic are the same. This is a theoretical value only, as the point cannot be reached due to
saturation.
The 3rd order intercept is a measure of the linearity of the amplifier at high power. The bigger
the number the better the large signal behavior. In practical applications we follow the rule that
the IP3 is about 12 to 15 dB larger than the biggest 1dB compression point.
We can calculate the power levels for the intercept point using the following derivation. The
power of the 1st harmonic is
1
Pω1 = a21V02 (11.14)
2
The power of the intermodulation product m = 2and n = 1 is
1 3 9
P2ω1 −ω2 = ( a3V03 )2 = a23V06 (11.15)
2 4 32
The IP3 is defined as the point where the two powers are equal
1 2 2 9
a1VIP3 = a23VIP3
6
(11.16)
2 32
Solving for VIP3 yields r

4a1
VIP3 = (11.17)
3a3

Prof. S. Peik
This means using eqn. 11.14
1 2a3
P3 = Pω1 |V0 =VIP3 = a21VIP
2
= 1 (11.18)
2 3a3
we get the output power of the IP3 point.
11.0.4 Amplifier Dynamic Range
Linear Dynamic Range
We can now define a range, for which the amplifier operates almost linearly. At the lower
end this range is limited by the noise N0 . At the upper end the range is limited by the 1dB
compression point. Hence the linear dynamic range is
DRl,dB = P1 − No (11.19)
where P1 is the Power at the 1 dB compression point.
Spurious Free Dynamic Range
We can also define the spurious free range. This is the range without noticeable third order
harmonics. As seen from figure , the spurious free dynamic range DR f upper limit is the power
level, where the harmonics start to show up from the noise. The lower limit is the noise floor
again.

Pω1
DR f = (11.20)
P2ω1 −ω2
P2ω1 −ω2 =No
Using clever substitutions we can express the third harmonic power P2ω1 −ω2 by Pω1 and P3 , i.e.
1 6 6
9a23V06 aV (Pω1 )3
P2ω1 −ω2 = = 8 16 0 = (11.21)
32 4a1 (P3 )2
9a23
Now we can express the spurious free range using the third order intercept point power P3 and
the noise power No by
23
Pω1 P3
DR f = = (11.22)
P2ω1 −ω2
P2ω1 −ω2 =No No
Using a logarithmic scale we get
2
DR f ,dB = (P3 − No ) (11.23)
3
Note that all powers are referenced to the output power.

Prof. S. Peik
E XAMPLE 37:
A receiver has a noise figure of 7 dB, a 1 dB compression point of 25 dBm (referenced to output),
a gain of 40 dB, and an IP3 of 35 dBm referenced to output. If the receiver is fed with an antenna
having a noise temperature of TA = 150K. and the desired output SNR is 10 dB, find the linear
and spurious free dynamic range. Assume a receiver bandwidth of 100 MHz.
Noise power at output: No =
Linear dynamic range DRl =
Spurious free dynamic range DR f =
Pout
30
[dBm]
Spurious Free Dynamic Range
20
1dB-Compression Point
Linear Dynamic Range
10
-10
Noise
-20
Pin [dBm]
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20
Figure 11.4: Definition of Dynamic Range
11.0.5 Passive Intermodulation
Intermodulation also occurs in passive devices like diodes and even metal to metal contacts.
Therefore, it is important to pay attention to junctions in microwave circuits of different metal
types, e.g. copper and aluminum.

Mixer
12
A mixer is a three port device that uses a nonlinear or time-varying element to achieve fre-
quency conversion
fRF fIF
fLO
An ideal Mixer multiplies two signals and delivers the product to the third port
Mixers are widely used for frequency conversion as the product
K
K · cos(ω1t) · cos(ω2 t) = {cos[(ω1 + ω2 )t] + cos[(ω1 − ω2 )t]} (12.1)
2
Mixers use diodes, BJTs or FETs as non-linear elements
12.1 Up-Conversion
The Output at the RF is

fRF = fLO ± fIF (12.2)
these Frequencies are called Sidebands. We have an upper sideband USB and a lower sideband
LSB.
since the signal of USB and LSB are identical one can be dropped so called single side band
transmission SSB
155
Prof. S. Peik
fIF fRF Carrier
Sidebands
fLO
0 fIF fRF=fLO-fIF fRF=fLO+fIF f
fLO
LO
Figure 12.1: Up-conversion of a Signal
fRF fIF
fLO
fIF=fRF-fLO fLO fRF fIF=fRF+fLO f
LO
Figure 12.2: Down-Conversion of a Signal
12.2 Down-Conversion
The Output at the IF is

fIF = fRF ± fLO (12.3)
The lower IF signal can be easily filtered out by a low pass filter.
12.3 Image Frequency
A down converter does not only down-convert the sum signal
fRF = fLO + FIF (12.4)
but also another difference signal

fIM = fLO − fIF (12.5)
this is the so called image frequency.

If there exists a signal at this frequency this is also converted to the same IF frequency as the
desired signal
Hence, the image frequency band must be filtered out in the RF section if there might be IM
signals.

Prof. S. Peik
Image Frequency
Desired Signal
fIF=fRF-fLO fRF fLO fRF fIF=fRF-fLO f

Figure 12.3: Image Frequency
E XAMPLE 38:
IM Example
A digital cell phone system operates at 869-894 MHz. The first IF is at 87 MHz with a channel
bandwidth of 30 kHz.
1. What are the possible positions for the LO frequency?
2. If the upper LO is determined calculate the IM frequency range.
Solution: 
 956 to 981 MHz
fLO = (869 to 894) ± 87 =
 782 to 807 MHz
Using upper Range gives the IF
fIF = fRF − fLO = (869 to 894) − (956 to 981) = −87 MHz
with the IM at
fIM = fLO − fIF = (956 to 981) + 87 = 1043 to 1068 MHz
12.4 Conversion Loss
The conversion Loss is the ratio of the RF to IF Powers at the mixer

available RF input power
Lc = 10 log ≥ 0 dB (12.6)
available IF output power
Active mixers can have an Lc < 0 dB
12.5 Intermodulation
Distortion
Since mixers involve non-linearity, they will produce intermodulation products. Typical values
for P3 range from 15 dBm to 30 dBm

Systems
13
13.1 Cell Phone Systems
13.2 Broadcast Systems
13.3 Point-to-Point Radio
13.4 Satellite Communication
13.5 Radar
13.6 Microwave Heating
158
Useful Tables A
A.1 S-Parameter Touchstone Files
A.1.1 NE321000
! NEC Compound Semiconductor Devices Ltd.

! 20. August 2002
! NE321000
! N-channel HJ-FET
! Vds = 2 V Id = 10 mA
# GHz S MA R 50
! f S11 S21 S12 S22
! GHz MAG ANG MAG ANG MAG ANG MAG ANG
2.00 0.998 -13.2 4.720 170.2 0.020 81.3 0.602 -10.0
3.00 0.987 -19.3 4.700 165.6 0.030 77.3 0.599 -14.8
4.00 0.981 -25.7 4.620 160.5 0.040 73.2 0.593 -19.9
5.00 0.970 -32.7 4.500 155.7 0.050 69.4 0.588 -25.6
6.00 0.962 -38.6 4.450 151.6 0.059 65.3 0.583 -30.1
7.00 0.952 -44.4 4.370 147.4 0.067 62.2 0.574 -34.4
8.00 0.941 -50.1 4.280 143.5 0.074 58.6 0.567 -39.1
9.00 0.927 -55.6 4.170 139.7 0.081 55.2 0.564 -43.1
10.00 0.912 -61.5 4.030 135.6 0.087 51.5 0.552 -47.2
11.00 0.898 -66.9 3.900 131.5 0.094 48.0 0.541 -52.0
12.00 0.882 -71.6 3.790 128.0 0.100 44.9 0.536 -55.5
13.00 0.868 -75.9 3.660 124.9 0.104 42.0 0.526 -58.6
159
Prof. S. Peik
14.00 0.855 -80.2 3.540 121.9 0.108 39.0 0.518 -62.1

15.00 0.843 -84.2 3.420 119.0 0.111 36.2 0.509 -65.0
16.00 0.827 -88.5 3.300 115.8 0.115 33.5 0.501 -68.3
17.00 0.807 -92.6 3.160 112.9 0.116 30.5 0.494 -71.2
18.00 0.796 -95.3 3.050 110.8 0.117 28.5 0.488 -73.2
19.00 0.793 -98.0 2.970 108.7 0.120 27.9 0.489 -75.2
20.00 0.788 -101.2 2.890 106.2 0.123 26.5 0.487 -77.4
21.00 0.782 -103.8 2.790 104.1 0.125 24.9 0.484 -80.9
22.00 0.783 -106.4 2.700 101.9 0.128 23.3 0.486 -82.7
23.00 0.785 -109.9 2.620 99.5 0.132 20.7 0.477 -84.1
24.00 0.778 -113.4 2.530 97.4 0.135 18.8 0.474 -87.9
25.00 0.766 -116.0 2.460 95.8 0.135 16.8 0.481 -88.3
26.00 0.757 -118.1 2.400 93.8 0.135 15.3 0.469 -89.2
27.00 0.753 -119.9 2.330 92.5 0.133 14.3 0.463 -91.6
28.00 0.755 -121.6 2.290 90.6 0.136 14.0 0.484 -93.5
29.00 0.748 -124.2 2.230 88.4 0.135 12.6 0.481 -95.2
30.00 0.743 -126.2 2.160 86.8 0.136 11.3 0.475 -97.5
! f Fmin Gammaopt Rn/50
! GHz dB MAG ANG -
2.00 0.21 0.940 3.7 0.31
4.00 0.22 0.870 8.2 0.31
6.00 0.24 0.820 13.3 0.32
8.00 0.26 0.770 18.8 0.32
10.00 0.28 0.730 24.8 0.32
12.00 0.31 0.690 31.4 0.31
14.00 0.38 0.670 38.4 0.31
16.00 0.45 0.640 45.9 0.30
18.00 0.52 0.630 53.9 0.29
20.00 0.59 0.620 62.4 0.28
22.00 0.66 0.610 71.4 0.27
24.00 0.72 0.620 80.8 0.25
26.00 0.79 0.630 90.8 0.23

Prof. S. Peik
A.1.2 BFR520
! Filename: BFR520D.S2P Version: 2.1

! Philips part #: BFR520 Date: Sep 1991
! Bias condition: Vce=3V, Ic=15mA
!
# MHz S MA R 50
! Freq S11 S21 S12 S22 !GUM [dB]
40 .731 -18.2 29.853 162.7 .010 82.7 .932 -10.7 ! 41.6
100 .629 -41.4 25.095 143.3 .021 72.2 .814 -22.5 ! 34.9
200 .461 -67.9 17.933 123.1 .034 67.4 .631 -31.7 ! 28.3
300 .359 -85.3 13.444 111.9 .044 67.2 .522 -34.1 ! 24.5
400 .297 -98.3 10.603 104.5 .054 68.2 .460 -34.3 ! 21.9
500 .256 -107.8 8.712 99.4 .064 69.4 .424 -34.1 ! 20.0
600 .229 -115.7 7.394 95.3 .074 70.1 .402 -33.6 ! 18.4
700 .205 -123.1 6.425 91.9 .084 71.4 .390 -33.2 ! 17.1
800 .185 -129.6 5.673 88.9 .094 71.9 .381 -32.5 ! 15.9
900 .170 -136.9 5.090 86.0 .104 72.1 .374 -32.1 ! 14.9
1000 .161 -145.2 4.602 83.4 .115 72.1 .368 -31.9 ! 14.0
1200 .156 -158.8 3.896 79.0 .135 72.2 .356 -32.1 ! 12.5
1400 .154 -167.2 3.405 75.1 .156 71.7 .346 -33.5 ! 11.3
1600 .140 -173.6 3.012 71.2 .175 71.0 .347 -34.0 ! 10.2
1800 .130 175.4 2.708 67.9 .195 70.4 .347 -35.0 ! 9.3
2000 .134 160.5 2.479 64.4 .215 69.3 .338 -34.8 ! 8.5
2200 .161 151.0 2.296 61.5 .235 68.3 .321 -35.2 ! 7.8
2400 .179 149.2 2.161 58.0 .257 67.2 .304 -38.2 ! 7.3
2600 .179 149.2 2.008 55.3 .274 65.8 .294 -42.1 ! 6.6
2800 .177 143.1 1.914 53.0 .293 65.0 .295 -44.2 ! 6.2
3000 .189 131.9 1.821 50.0 .313 63.5 .290 -43.9 ! 5.7
! Noise data:
! Freq. Fmin Gamma-opt rn
500 1.30 .164 27.0 .210
900 1.45 .130 58.0 .210
1000 1.50 .134 62.0 .240
2000 2.05 .160 -169.0 .160

Prof. S. Peik
A.2 Wave Guide Dimensions
A.3 Coaxial Lines
See Information from Manufacturers
A.4 HF-Connectors
BNC
50 is the most popular connector series, featuring a two stud bay-

onet coupling mechanism, which is particularly useful for fre-
quently coupled and uncoupled RF connections with frequencies
up to 4 GHz.
Compatibility: All 50 Ω BNC connectors and 75Ω BNC connectors are intermateable without
any restrictions.

Prof. S. Peik
TNC
TNC connectors are threaded RF connectors applicable from DC
up to 11 GHz. Precision designs using a dielectric bead are suit-
able for use up to 18 GHz. The threaded coupling mechanism
improves control over the interface dimensions and allows them to
be used under a higher environmental load than BNC, especially
under a high vibration load.
Compatibility: All 75 Ω TNC connectors and 50 Ω connectors are intermateable without re-
strictions.
N
N connectors are available with 50 Ω and 75 Ω impedance. The
frequency range extends to 18 GHz, depending on the connector
and cable type. The screw-type coupling mechanism provides a
sturdy and reliable connection. SUHNER N connectors are avail-
able for flexible cables, for semi-rigid cables and for corrugated
copper tube cables. Cable entries: clamp, crimp and solder types
available, as well as SUHNER QUICK-FIT for corrugated copper
tube cables.
Compatibility: Inner conductors of N 75 connectors have a smaller diameter than those of the
50 version. Therefore 50 Ω and 75 Ω connectors must not be mated with each other.
SMA
SMA connectors are precision connectors for microwave appli-
cations up to 18 GHz/ 26.5 GHz. They distinguish themselves
through their high mechanical strength, high durability, high reli-
ability and low VSWR. SMA launchers are the preferred connec-
tion element for varied microwave circuits including hermetically
sealed designs.
SMB
SMB subminiature connectors are suitable for applications from
DC up to 4 GHz. The SMB snap-on mechanism provides a fast
and reliable connection for applications with high packing density.
They are used in fixed and mobile communication equipment for
internal wiring.

Prof. S. Peik
3.5mm/K
PC 3.5 connectors are precision connectors for use in microwave
applications up to 65 GHz. They are especially suitable for use
with semi-rigid cables and microwave components. They are inter-
mateable with SMA, K and SK connectors. Due to an air dielectric
interface and the more durable construction a superior repeatabil-
ity further enhances the performance.

Prof. S. Peik
A.5 Greek Alphabet
Aα alpha Nν nu
Bβ beta Ξξ xi
Γγ gamma Oo omicron
∆δ delta Ππ pi
Eε, ε epsilon Pρ rho
Zζ zeta Σσ sigma
Hη eta Tτ tau
Θθ, ϑ theta ϒυ upsilon
Iι iota Φφ, ϕ phi
Kκ kappa Xχ chi
Λλ lambda Ψψ psi
Mµ mu Ωω omega

Prof. S. Peik
A.6 Constants
c Lichtgeschwindigkeit 2.998 × 108 m s−1

e Elementarladung 1.602 × 10−19 C
mn Neutronenruhemasse 1.675 × 10−27 kg
mp Protonenruhemasse 1.673 × 10−27 kg
me Elektronenruhemasse 9.110 × 10−31 kg
h Plancksches Wirkungsquantum 6.626 × 10−34 J s
h̄ Dirac’s Konstante (= h/2π) 1.055 × 10−34 J s
k Boltzmannkonstante 1.381 × 10−23 J K−1
G Gravitationskonstante 6.673 × 10−11 N m2 kg−2
σ Stefan-Boltzmann Konstante 5.670 × 10−8 J m−2 K−4 s−1
c1 Erste Strahlungskonstante (= 2πhc2 ) 3.742 × 10−16 J m2 s−1
c2 Zweite Strahlungskonstante 1.439 × 10−2 m K
εo Permittivitï¿½ im Vakuum 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2
µo Permeabilitï¿½ im Vakuum 4π × 10−7 H m−1
NA Avogadrokonstante 6.022 ×1023 mol−1
R Gaskonstante 8.314 J K−1 mol−1
a0 Bohrradius 5.292 ×10−11 m
µB Bohr magneton 9.274 ×10−24 J T−1
α Fine structure constant (= 1/137.0) 7.297 ×10−3
M⊙ Sonnemasse 1.989 ×1030 kg
R⊙ Sonnenradius 6.96 ×108 m
L⊙ Sonneluminositï¿½ 3.827 ×1026 J s−1
M⊕ Erdmasse 5.976 ×1024 kg
R⊕ mittlerer Erdradius 6.371 ×106 m
1 light year Lichtjahr 9.461 ×1015 m
1 AU Astronomische Einheit 1.496 ×1011 m
1 pc Parsec 3.086 ×1016 m
1 year

Bibliography
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2003
[2] H. Meinke, F. Gundlach: Taschenbuch der Hochfrequenztechnik. Berlin: Springer, 1992.

[3] O.
[3] Zinke, H. Brunswig: Lehrbuch der Hochfrequenztechnik. New York: Wiley, 1995.
[4] Pozar, Microwave Engineering, Addison-Wesley
[5] R.E. Collin, Foundations for Microwave Engineering, McGraw Hill
[6] Marcovitz, Waveguide Handbook
[7] Matthei, Jones, Filters and Coupling structures
[8] J. Detlevsen, U. Siart, Hochfrequenztechnik, Oldenbourg Verlag, 2003
[9] Voges, Hochfrequenztechnik, Hthig Verlag, 2003
[10] G. Nimtz, Mikrowellen, Pflaum Verlag,2001
[11] K, Pauli, Mikrowellentechnik, Franzis Handbuch, 1991
[12] Pehl, Mikrowellentechnik, Band 2, Hthig Verlag, Heidelberg
[13] Ludwig, Bretchko, RF Circuit Design, Prentice Hall, 2000
[14] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics, Third Edition, Wiley, 1998
[15] M. N. O. Sadiku, Elements of Electromagnetics, Oxford Press, 2001
[16] D. J. Griffiths, Introduction to Electrodynamics, Third Edition, 1999
[17] Paul Diamant, Dynamic Electrodynamics, Prentice Hall
[18] B. Thide, Electromagnetic Field Internet Textbook http://www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book/
[19] U. Gysel, HF-Einfhrung, ZH Wintherthur, Online Skript
[20] Bähtold, Hochfrequenztechnik, Online-Skript
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Microwave Circuits

March 10, 2009

The title page photograph:

Prof. Dr. Sören Peik

Stand: March 10, 2009 1

2 Transmission Line Theory 13

2.12.2 Detection of Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

3 Realisations of Transmission Lines 41

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6 Power Dividers and Couplers 80

7 Passive Components 102

8 Computer Aided Design 105

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9.6.5 Equivalent Noise Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

10 Transistor Amplifiers 119

11 Large Signal Effects 149

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A Useful Tables 159

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1.1 Why Microwaves?

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1.3 Frequency Ranges

Figure 1.1: Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Frequency Wave Length

Table 1.1: Frequency Band using Decades

Designation Frequency Wave Length

Table 1.2: Radar Bands

Ultra Stable PLL

Mikrocontroller Power Management

Figure 1.2: Typical Transmitter

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Ultra Stable PLL

Figure 1.3: Typical Receiver

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Figure 2.1: Line: Cross-section, symbol and Equivalent Circuit

i R’dz L’dz i+di

u G’dz C’dz u+du

Figure 2.2: Equivalent circuit of a Line Element

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By differentiating both eqns with respect to dz and substitution we get

For the lossy case we get

Ausbreitung mit Geschw. v

Figure 2.3: Signal propagates on lossless line

2.1 Time-Harmonic Signals on Lines

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i(t) = Re{I e jωt } und u(t) = Re{U e jωt } (2.15)

In our differential equations we get

The solution of the coupled differential equations system is

γ2 = (R′ + jωL′ )(G′ + jωC′ ) (2.19)

We call γ the propagation constant.

2.2 Solution of the Wave Equation

The general solution of the wave equation is

U(z) = U0+ e−γz +U0− eγz (2.22)

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2.3 Propagation Constant

The constant γ is known as the propagation constant. As we already know

2.4 Wave Impedance

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In the lossless case r

2.5 Time-Domain Representation