1.

CONSEQUENTIALIST & NON- CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES

2.  EGOISM
3.  Misconception about Egoism  Psychological Egoism
4.  Problems with Egoism  UTILITARIANISM  Six points about Utilitarianism 
Utilitarianism in an Organizational Context
5.  Critical Inquires of Utilitarianism  The Interplay between Self- Interest and Utility
6. 4. CONSEQUENTIALIST & NON- CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES
7.  KANT’S ETHICS  Good Will 
8. The Categorical Imperative  Kant in an Organizational Context  Critical Inquires of
Kant’s Ethics
9.  OTHER NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST PERSPECTIVES  Prima Facie Principles 
Assisting Others  Moral Rights  Non-consequentialism in an Organizational Context 
Critical Inquires of Non-consequentialism
10. 5. CONSEQUENTIALIST & NON- CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES 
ULITARIANISM ONCE MORE  What will be the ideal code look like?  MORAL
DECISION MAKING: TOWARDS A SYNTHESIS  Obligations, Ideas and Effect
11. 6. CONSEQUENTIALIST & NON- CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES
CONSEQUENTIALIST THEORIES  Many philosophers have argued that the moral
rightness of an action is determined solely by its results. If its consequences are good, then
the act is right, if they are bad, the act is wrong. Moral theories who adopt this approach
are therefore called Consequentialist.  The question arises that should one considered the
consequences for oneself? Or the consequences for every one affected? Answer is the two
theories (1) Egoism {Self Interest} (2) Utilitarianism {Everyone interest}
12.  NON-CONSEQUENTIALIST/ DEONTOLOGICAL THEORIES  They contend that
right and wrong are determined by more than the likely consequences of an action  Non-
consequentialists do not necessarily deny that consequences are morally significant, but
they believe that other factors are also relevant to the moral assessment of an action
13. 7. EGOISM: The view that associates’ morality with self-interest is referred to as egoism.
Egoism contend that an act is morally right if and if it best promotes an agent’s long-term
interests.  PERSONAL EGOISM: Personal Egoists claim that they should pursue their
own best long-term interests but they do not say what others should do  IMPERSONAL
EGOISM: Impersonal Egoists claim that everyone should follow his or her best long-term
interests
14. 8. EGOISM MISCONCEPTION ABOUT EGOISM (Look detail in book) 1. One is that
egoists only do what they like , that they believe in “eat, drink, and ne merry” Not so. 2.
All egoist endorse hedonism (the view that only pleasure or happiness is of intrinsic value)
3. Egoists cannot act honestly, be gracious and helpful to others PSYCHOLOGICAL
EGOISM Proponents of the ethical theory of egoism generally attempt to derive their basic
moral principle from the alleged facts that humans are by nature selfish creatures.
According to this doctrine, termed psychological egoism, human beings are, as a matter of
fact, so constructed that they must be have selfishly. Psychological egoism asserts that all
actions are in fact selfishly motivated and that truly unselfish actions are impossible
15. 9. EGOSIM PROBLEMS WITH EGOISM (Look detail in book) 1. Psychological egoism
is not a sound theory 2. Ethical egoism is not really a moral theory at all 3. Ethical egoism
ignores blatant wrongs
16. 10. UTILITARIANISM is the moral doctrine that we should always act to produce the
greatest possible balance of good over bad for everyone affected by our action. CRITICAL
INQUIRES OF UTILITARIANISM 1. Is utilitarianism really workable? 2. Are some
actions wrong, even if they produce good? 3. Is utilitarianism unjust?
17. 11. UTILITARIANISM The Interplay Between Self – Interest and Utility  Both self-
interest and utility play important roles in organizational decisions, and the views of many
businesspeople blend these 2 theories. To the extent that each business pursues its own
interests and each businessperson tries to maximize personal success, business practice can
be called egoistic. But business practice is also utilitarian in that pursuing self-interest is
thought to maximize the total good, and playing by the established rules of the competitive
game is seen as advancing the good of society as a whole
18. 12. KANT’S ETHICS  German philosopher Immanuel Kant sought moral principles that
do not rest on contingencies and that define actions as inherently right or wrong apart from
any particular circumstances. He believed that moral rules can, in principle, be known as a
result of reason alone and are not based on observation.  “The basis of obligation must
not be sought in human nature, nor in the circumstance of the world.” – Kant  Moral
reasoning is not based on factual knowledge and that reason by itself can reveal the basic
principle of morality.
19. 13. KANT’S ETHICS GOOD WILL  According to Kant, nothing is good in itself except
a good will. This does not mean that intelligence, courage, self-control, health, happiness,
and other things are not good and desirable. But Kant believed that their goodness depends
on the will that makes use of them.  By will Kant meant the uniquely human capacity to
act from principle. THE CATAGORICAL IMPERATIVE The categorical imperative is
the central philosophical concept in the deontological moral philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
Introduced in Kant's 1785 Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, it may be defined as
a way of evaluating motivations for action.  Kant believed that reason alone can yield a
moral law. We need not rely on empirical evidence relating to consequences and to similar
situations.  Kant’s categorical imperative says that we should act in such a way that we
can will the maxim of our action to become a universal law.
20. 14. KANT’S ETHICS KANT IN AN ORGANIZATIONAL CONTEXT  The categorical
imperative gives us firm rules to follow in moral decision making, rules that do not depend
on circumstances or results and that do not permit individual exceptions.  One of the
principal objections to egoism and utilitarianism is that they permit us to treat humans as
means to ends. Kant’s principles clearly forbid this.  Kant stresses the importance of
motivation and of acting on principle. According to Kant, it is not enough just to do the
right thing; an action has moral worth only if it is done from a sense of duty – that is, from
a desire to do the right thing for its own sake
21. 15. KANT’S ETHICS CRITICAL INQUIRES OF KANT’S ETHICS (Look detail in
book)  What has moral worth?  Is the categorical imperative an adequate test of right?
 What does it mean to treat people as means?
22. 16. PRIMA FACIA PRINCIPLES  Philosophers like W.D. Ross believe that most, or
even all, of our moral obligations are prima facie ones. A prima facie obligation is simply
an obligation that can be over-ridden by a more important obligation.  Ross thought that
the various prima facie obligations could be divided into seven basic types. PRIMA FACIA
OBLIGATIONS Duties of Fidelity(Loyalty) Duties of Reparation(Compensation,
 Repayment) Duties of Gratitude(Thanks, Appreciation) Duties of Justice(equity, fair play)
Duties of Beneficence(charity, mercy) Duties Not to Injure Others (Not to harm) Duties of
Self-Improvement(improve one’s knowledge, character or status)
23. 17. ASSISTING OTHER  Most non-utilitarian philosophers believe that we have some
obligation to promote the general welfare, but they typically view this obligation as less
stringent than, for example, the obligation not to injure people. They see us as having a
much stronger obligation to refrain from violating people’s rights than to promote their
happiness or well-being.  Many moral philosophers draw a related distinction between
actions that we are morally required to take and charitable or supererogatory acts – that is,
actions that would be good to take but not immoral not to take.
24. 18. MORAL RIGHTS  A right is an entitlement to act or have others act in a certain way.
The connection between rights and duties is that, generally speaking, if you have a right to
do something, then someone else has a correlative duty to act in a certain way.  Moral
rights are noneconomic rights that are considered to be the inalienable rights of the creators
of works.
25. 19. NON CONSEQUENTIALISM IN AN ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT  NC
stresses that moral decision making involves the weighing of different moral factors and
considerations  NC acknowledges that the organization has its own legitimate goals to
pursue.  NC stresses the importance of moral rights
26. 20. CRITICAL INQUIRES OF NON CONSEQUESTIALISM  How well justified are
these non consequentialist principles and moral rights?  Can non consequentialists
satisfactorily handle conflicting rights and principles?
27. 21. MORAL DECISION MAKING: TOWARD A SYNTHESIS  Theoretical
controversies permeate the subject of ethics, and philosophers have proposed rival ways of
understanding right and wrong. These philosophical differences of perspective, emphasis,
and theory are significant and can have profound practical consequences  In any moral
discussion, make sure participants agree about the relevant facts  Once there is general
agreement on factual matters, try to spell out the moral principles to which different people
are, at least implicitly, appealing