III.

PERPETUATION OF LIFE
A. REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURE OF PLANTS
FLOWERS- specialized reproductive structures of angiosperms (a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed
within a carpel)
RECEPTACLE- thickened region of cells

4 SPIRALS/RINGS/ WHORLS
1. CALYX- The calyx, which is the outermost whorl of a flower, protects the inner whorls, especially when the flower is in its
bud state. The calyx is made up of sepals, which are two small green structures at the flower's base that look like tiny leaves.
2. COROLLA- composed of the flower's petals. The petals serve two purposes: to protect the reproductive organs of the
flower and to attract pollinators.
3. STAMEN- male reproductive part. The stamen is made of a thin vertical thread-like structure called a filament topped
with a circular or oblong structure called an anther. The anther produces pollen, which is the male contribution to
the reproduction process in plants
4. CARPELS- produces female gametophytes and contains the pistil of the flower.
pistil is the plant's female reproductive organ
three parts:
a. ovary contains the eggs, or ovules, of the plant, and when the ovules are fertilized, the ovary sometimes turns
into a fruit to house the seed.
b. style, which supports the stigma.
c. stigma catches grains of pollen that the wind or pollinators disperse, and the pollen grains travel down the style
to the ovary.

Pollination is the act of transferring pollen grains from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma.
Types of pollination
STAMEN- male
PISTIL- female
1. SELF-POLLINATION: flower-to-flower pollination in a plant
 Autogamy - Autogamy is the type of self-pollination where the pollen is transferred to the stigma of the same
flower.
 Geitonogamy - It is a process when the pollen is transferred to another flower on the same plant.

2. CROSS POLLINATION: plant-to-plant pollination

B. REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION-single individual produces an offspring
A. BUDDING- a new individual grows from on the body of its parent
B. FRAGMENTATION- parent breaks off and develop into small new animals
C. TRANSVERSE FISSION- divides into two and each part grows the missing part
D. PARHTENOGENESIS- female offspring develop from unfertilized egg
2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION- two parents produce haploid gametes that combine at fertilization
VARIATIONS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
A. HERMAPHRODITES-sexually reproducing individuals that can make both egg and sperm
B. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION-eggs or gametes are release in the water and are fertilized there
C. INTERNAL FERTILIZATION-sperm fertilizes egg inside the female’s body

C. GENETIC ENGINEERING- process by which an individual’s genome is deliberately modified

* TRANSGENIC- gene is altered or reinstated into an individual of the same species. (yeast and bacteria)
* GMO- genetically modified organism
* ANIMAL AND PLANT HEALTH INSPECTION SERVICE (APHIS)- regulates the introduction and use of genetic
engineering
* XENOTRANSPLANTATION- transfer of organ from one species to another

IV. HOW ANIMALS SURVIVE

A. NUTRITION AND DIGESTION
1. FIVE STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING
a. INDIGESTION- taking of food or simply eating
b. DIGESTION- act of dismantling complex food into simpler absorbable form
c. ABSORPTION- absorbing digested food by cells lining the digestive tract
d. ASSIMILATION- utilization of absorbed nutrients by the cells and tissues
e. DEFECATION- elimination of waste and undigested food particles from the body
2. FEEDING STRATEGIES:
a. CARNIVORE
b. HERBEVORE
c. OMNIVORE
3. FEEDING BEHAVIOR
a. SUSPENSION FEEDERS- trapping and filtering suspended food particles from the surrounding waters
(WHALES)
b. DEPOSIT FEEDERS- obtain nutrients from the deposit of terrestrial soil and soft-bottom habitats such as mud
and by swallowing bulk of the sediment
c. FLUID FEEDERS-obtain nutrients from fluid
d. FORAGING-obtaining nutrients due to the ability to select and search for suitable food
e. HERBIVORY- eating of pure plants
 f. PREDATION- capture of pray

B. MAMALIAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

1. DIVISION OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
a. ALIMENTARY CANAL- digestive tubes stretching from the buccal cavity to the anus
b. ACCESSORY ORGANS- secrete chemicals for digestion
2. COMPONENTS FOR THE DIGESTION
a. MOUTH- where chewing and munching food happens
b. PHARYNX- opens the trachea going to the lungs, and closes the entrance to the windpipe or trachea
* esophagus- acts as food bolus that moves the food to the stomach via peristalsis (alternating wave-like
contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscles
c. STOMACH- churning of food bolus
* enzymatic reaction- modifying of food bolus to chime
* pyloric sphincter- contracting muscle used to regulate movement of food chime to the small intestine
d. SMALL INTESTINE- final break down food chyme
* bile- secreted by the liver that helps digest fats
* pancreatic juices- neutralizes the acidic chyme that came out from the stomach
* microvillus- increases the surface area of the small intestine for increase absorption capacity
e. LARGE INTESTINE- absorb water and salt
* colon- large portion of the large intestine where feces formation occurs
* feces- waste material
* rectums- storage for feces
f. ACCESSORY ORGANS
* liver- bile
* gallbladder
* pancreas-

B. GAS EXCHANGE
1. RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS
a. HOMOGLOBIN-
b. FETAL HEMOGLOBIN- found in the fetus
c. MYGLOBIN- found in tissues and muscles of vertebrates
2. MAMMALIAN RESPIRATION
* BREATHING- oxygen is carried to the lungs via the respiratory system
SEQUENTIAL MANNER OF RESPIRATION
a. NOSE AND MOUTH
b. PHARYNX
c. LARYNX
d. TRACHEA
e. BRONCHOILES
f. ALVEOLL

C. CIRCULATION
* CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- provides a mechanism for the transport of gasses, nutrients and waste products going in and
out of the cell.
* GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY- provides digestive purpose and aids transport
4. TYPES OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
a. OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- blood and interstitial fluid have no distinction, hemolymph serves as blood and
interstitial fluid
b. CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM- pump blood into a hemocoel with the blood diffusing back to the circulatory
system between cells. Blood is pumped by a heart into the body cavities, where tissues are surrounded by the blood.
c. VERTEBRATE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
c.1. PULMONARY CIRCULATION- transports blood between heart and lungs
c.2. SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION-blood is transported to the heart and the rest of the body

D. BODY DEFENSE
* IMMUNE SYSTEM- composed of structures and organs known to produce protection against disease-causing
microorganisms called pathogens (e.g: bacteria, fungi, parasites and viruses)
1. INVERTIBRATE IMMUNITY
* PHAGOCYTOSIS- process wherein a cell binds to the item it wants to engulf on the cell surface and draws the item inward
while engulfing around it.
2. VERTIBRATE IMMUNITY- complex but enables the mammalian species to have multilayers of defenses against harmful
pathogens and foreign particles
a. INNATE IMMUNITY- inherent ability of the body to fight off invaders
b. PHYSICAL BARRIERS- serves as the first line of defense
b.1. SKIN- prevents entry of harmful microorganisms
b.2. SECRETIONS- contains substance that suppresses the growth of microorganisms
b.3. MUCUS- traps inhaled bacteria
c. NON-SPECIFIC IMMUNE CELLS -second line of defense (white blood cells)
c.1. NEUTROPHYLL- destroys bacteria by engulfing them
c.2. EOSINOPHYLL- attacks parasitic worms
c.3.BASOPHYLL- releases histamines involved in allergic reactions
c.4. MONOCYTES- pick up cellular debris and foreign intrudes by phagocytosis
d. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY- third layer of defense
 * B-CELLS AND T-CELLSA-lymphocytes that mature in the bone marrow and thymus which are bot
involved in immune recognition.

E. NERVOUS SYSTEM
DIVISION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)- brain and the spinal cord
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)- nerves extending from the spinal cord that carries signals from the CNS

* RECEPTORS- sensory organs with specialized structures that causes impulses to carry both electrically and chemically
between the nerve cells when stimulated (E.G: eyes, nose, skin, taste buds and ears)
* NERVES- communication line consisting of neuron fibers
* NEURONS- carries out impulses or signals from one part of the body to another
STUCTURE OF A NEURON
a. DENTRITES- receives impulses
b. AXON
c. SCHWANN CELLS- insulates the axon with a covering called myelin
d. NODES OF RANVIER- gaps between the Schwann cell and axon
TYPES OF NEURONS
a. SENSORY NEURON (PNS)- functions in sensory input
b. INTEREURON (CNS) – integrate information received from sensory neuron
c. MOTOR NEURON (PNS) – acts in generating motor output

F. HOMEOSTASIS
- refers to any process that living things use to actively maintain stable conditions necessary for survival.
* MOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE- disturbance in homeostasis
* EFFECTOR- causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to the normal range.
TWO TYPES OF FEEDBACKS
1. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM- sends a signal back to the stimulus to lessen the intensity of the
stimulus
2. POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM - intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than
reversing it. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point.

G. PROTECT, SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT

 INTEGUMENT- protective covering of an animal
 CUTICLE- a protective and waxy or hard layer covering the epidermis
1. INVERTIBRATE PROTECTIVE COVERING
a. PLASMA MEMBRANE
b. IRIDYCOTES (CEPHALOPODS)- a cell that occurs especially in the skin of fishes and reptiles
c. HYPODERMIS (ARTHROPODS)
LAYERS OF CUTICLE
c.1. PROCUTICLE- protein that directly covers the epidermis
c.2. EPICUTICLE- outermost moisture proofing barrier
g. CALCIFICATION (FOR CRUSTACEANS)- hardening of the cuticle with the deposition of calcium carbonate in
the procuticle
h. SCLEROTIZATION (FOR INSECTS)- protein molecules are linked together to produce an insoluble protein
sclerotin
2. VERTIBRATE PROTECTIVE COVERING
- made up of several layers of different tissues
LAYERS OF THE VERTIBRATE INTEGUMENT
a. EPIDERMIS-outermost layer of skin consisting of stratified keratinized epithelium
* KERATIN- replaces dead cells which gives rise to accessory structure like hair
b. DERMIS- thick layer composed of dense connective tissue