CHAPTER 3 TOURISM IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT

The concept of Environment……………………………………………………………………………….. 48

Courses of Impacts of Tourism……………………………………………………………………………… 49

Negative Impacts of Tourism on the Environment………………………………………………. 50

Positive Impact of Tourism on the Environment…………………………………………………. 58

The Concept of Environment

The scope of the concept of environment covers the following aspects (Swarbrooke 1999):

1. Natural environment (e.g., caves, mountains, beaches, seas, coasts, beaches)

2. Wildlife (flora and fauna)
3. Farms
4. Built environment (e.g., infrastructure, villages and cities, buildings)
5. Natural resources (climate, water, air)
6. Weather/ Climate
7. Natural phenomena (eclipses, volcanic eruptions, animal migration, aurora borealis, tides)

According to ecosystem Org, there are two major types of ecosystems: terrestrial and aquatic.
Terrestrial ecosystems include forests, desert, grassland, and mountain ecosystems.

Forest ecosystems are ecosystems in which there is an abundance of flora and fauna in relatively
small space, or where the destiny of living organism is quite high. A small change in this ecosystem could
affect the whole balance, effectively bringing down the whole ecosystem. Forest ecosystems may be
tropical evergreen forests (ruled by tall trees), tropical deciduous (shrubs and dense bushes), temperate
evergreen forest (trees, mosses, and ferns), temperate deciduous forest (trees with leaves shed during
the winter months), and the taiga (situated just before the arctic regions, defined by evergreen conifers).
Forest ecosystems may be used for a variety of tourism or leisure activities including camping, hunting,
and orienteering, among others.

Desert ecosystems are located in regions that receive an annual rainfall less than 25 inches. They
occupy about 17% of all the land on our planet. They are characterized by extremely high temperature,
low water availability, intense sunlight and consequently scarce fauna and flora. Vegetation consists
mainly of shrubs, bushes, few grasses, and rare trees, with their stems modified to conserve water as
much as possible. Desert ecosystems may be utilized for dune bashing, caravanning, or motor rallies.

Grasslands are located in the tropical and temperate regions. The main plants are grasses, plants,
and legumes that belong to the composite family. A lot of grazing animals, insectivores, and herbivores
inhabit the grasslands. The main types of grasslands ecosystems are savanna (tropical grasslands, which
are dry seasonally and have few individual trees) and prairies. They support a large number of predators

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and grazers. Prairies are temperate grassland which only has different types of grasses. Grasslands offer
camping and hunting opportunities.

Mountain ecosystem provides diverse habitats for large number of animals and plants. High
Altitude Mountains are homes to thick-furred animals, which hibernate in the winter season. Lower slopes
are covered with coniferous forests. Mountains could be used for mountaineering, skiing, rock-wall
climbing, base jumping, camping, and the like.

Aquatic ecosystems are either marine (saltwater) or freshwater ecosystems.

Marine ecosystems cover only 0.8% of Earth’s surface and 97% of the planet’s water. Marine
ecosystem could be oceanic, profoundly, inter-tidal estuaries, and coral reefs, salt marshes, and
hydrothermal vents. Oceanic is relatively the shallow part of oceans which lies on the continental shelf.
Profoundly refers to deep or bottom water part of the sea. Many fish and other marine animals live in
marine ecosystem. Marine ecosystems may be used for such tourism activities as sailing, diving,
snorkeling, fishing, parasailing, jet skiing, and many other water activities.

Freshwater ecosystems cover only 0.8% of earth’s surface and contain 0.009% of the total water.
Three basic kinds of freshwater ecosystems are lentic (slow-moving or still water), such as lakes or ponds;
loti (fast moving), such as streams and rivers, and wetland in which the soil is saturated for lengthy period
of time. These ecosystems are home of reptiles, amphibians, and about 40% of fish species. Turbulent
water contains a greater concentration of dissolved oxygen, which can support grater biodiversity than
slow-moving waters. Freshwater ecosystems may be used for fishing, camping, sailing, whitewater rafting,
canoeing, and the like.
Since tourism could exist in most of these ecosystems, ecosystems are also prone to tourism-
induced impacts. Furthermore, ecosystems are interlinked; impacts on one will be felt in the others. For
example, land clearing to build a theme park in a forest could cause soil erosion, which could ne washed
by heavy rain and Couse siltation in rivers. Silt and other pollutants eventually reach the sea.
The environment plays a significant role in the tourism industry. Several tourism forms and
activates are nature-related, such as ecotourism, wildlife tourism (hunting and photo safari), ski tourism
mountain tourism, cruise tourism, dive tourism, costal tourism, marine tourism, trekking, camping and
glamming.

Causes of Impacts of Tourism

Tourism can impact the environment in a number of ways. The impact may be caused
by tourist behavior, construction, the quality of infrastructure, and the dynamics between
tourism supply and demand, design of facilities and infrastructure, and their siting. Other cause
of impact is violation of tourism development guidelines by developers and ineffective law
enforcement.

Tourism can impact the environment through their behavior, such as throwing trash,
rowdiness, or spitting. They could actually affect the environment by their mere presence.

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Humans emit moisture through their breath and body heat breaths and body heat. This moisture
can increase humidity in confined spaces. Other causes of impact are poor design and poor choice
of location or siting. For example, our malls and office buildings are constructed right beside the
main thoroughfares, which cause traffic build-up especially during rush hours. In Malaysia, the
major highways are flanked by service roads, which avoid the situation described above.
Similarly, airport built very close to the city center, such as the Ninoy Aquino International
Airports will be prone to traffic congestion. For this reason, many international airports are
constructed on sparsely populated locations or built on dedicated reclaimed land, or manmade
island isolate their effects
As noted in the first chapter, an impact represents a long term change. A ball chewed gum
spat out by one tourist on city sidewalk will not be that noticeable. The gum could be easily
broken down by natural processes as well. However, when the number of tourists spitting out
chewed gum on the pavement increases, they become very obvious. When the gum is thrown
more frequently, nature will not be able to break them down soon enough. Therefore, an impact
could be caused by the imbalance between the tourists’ waste generation and the nature’s
capacity to break them down.
According to the U.S Environmental Protection Agency (1995), infrastructure could impact
the environment through improper sitting, which can destroy threatened species, and unique
features, such as hot springs, They could also disrupt animal territories, their movement ,and
migration patterns; and alter the environment through bulldozing of mountains, cutting down
trees, reclamation, building piers, etc. Piers made of packed earth impede regular sea currents
and cause accretion of sand, rocks, and other sea materials on one side of the pier and erosion
on the other. Concreting can lead to increased water run offs (USEPA 1995), Instead of getting
absorbed by the soil and being stored in the roots of trees and underground aquifers, storm water
turns into destructive floods.
One of the ways negative impacts are prevented is the imposition of guidelines. Example
of such guideline is concern building height limit, beach setback, building materials, and
architectural design. Unfortunately some resorts were built prior to the imposition of said
guidelines. However, some developer owners who are aware of such guidelines violate them with
impunity. This is because the enforcement is lax, the enforcing authorities could be bribed, or
relate to the owners, or the developers are local politicians who dictate the kind of development
in their areas.

Negative Impacts of Tourism on the Environment

Tourism development has an effect on wildlife and plants, environmental quality,
topography, and even climate change.
Hunter and green (1996) in Swarbrooke (1999) identified the impacts of tourism on the
physical environment to be the disruption of breeding habits of animal, the killing of animal

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hunting or as source of souvenirs, migration of animals, trampling of vegetation, clearing of
vegetation to accommodate tourist facilities and creation of sanctuary for animal conservation.
Moreover, they noted that tourism also produces pollution of various types (air, water, noise and
light), and contributes to erosion, depletion of water, fossil fuels, and fish stocks. Tourism also
poses risks of fire and incites conflict over resources. Moreover, there are visual impacts of
tourism caused by litter, sewage, and algal blooms.
Huttche, White, and Flores (2002) observed the following effects of tourism on coastal
areas: bacterial contamination, siltation from dredging or construction, pollution and excess
nutrients from poor waste disposal and sewerage, overfishing to provide fish tourists, and coral
breakage from diving and anchoring, or for sale as souvenirs. Furthermore, tourism also results
in removal of mangrove, blockade of animal movement through structures, land clearing,
encroachment into estuaries and lagoons, and destruction of submerged vegetation (such as sea
grass). Mangroves are essential for the protection of coastal areas because they absorb the
energy of the waves, and act as filter that prevents garbage from land form reaching the sea.
Finally, they observed a change in salinity regime, degradation of animals’ habitats, sand mining,
and dune migration.
Warnken and Pratt (2007) found that the recreational vessels contribute significantly to
overall levels of microbial sewage indicators.
Briddle, Kirkpatrick, and von Platern (2006) studied the effect of human defecation in
campsites in Australia. The result indicates that human wastes were not only unsightly but also
contaminated water supply especially after periods of heavy rainfall.
Horses and other pack animals can also effect the environment through their manure.
Manure from trails and stables can enter waterways via run-off, leading to nutrient loading, algal,
and aquatic plant blooms. Manure also emits unpleasant odors and attracts pests (USEPA 1995).

Land degradation
Land degradation can be defined as “the temporary or permanent lowering of the
productive capacity of land (UNEO 1992B?). It covers soil degradation, adverse human impacts
on water resources, deforestation, and lowering of the productive capacity of range lands. Land
degradation on-site effects due to water erosion occur through changes in the water regime,
including the reduction in river water quality and sedimentation of river beds and reservoirs. The
main off-site effect of wind erosion is overblowing or sand deposition.
Tourism can contribute to land degradation through urban sprawl caused by migration to
tourism centers (e.g., Baguio City), and commercial development of areas adjacent to a tourist
attraction. Uncontrolled migration leads to sudden increase of population, which can strain social
service infrastructure, such as toilets, parks and health facilities. Increase number of tourists also
causes traffic congestion. Land may also be degraded due to over drafting over groundwater is

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extracted beyond the equilibrium yield of the aquifer. This could happen when several high-rise
condominium are built in a tourist town (e.g., Tagaytay).
Another cause of land degradation is the build-up of non-biodegradable trash, such as
plastic bottles; loss of biodiversity through overhunting; animal migration caused by human
interference; consumption of animal food products, such as bird’s nest and turtle eggs by
tourists; and quarrying to flatten mountains to provide filling materials for land reclamation
projects.
Takashi, Masaaki, Mizuho, Lizada, & Kitolelei (n.d) noted that environmental degradation
is evident in boracay Islands items of sand erosion, costal pollution and sporadic tree cutting.
Furthermore, although a wastewater treatment facility was built in joint venture with Japan, the
facility could not keep pace with the waste being disposed by the tourism establishments.
Wastewater is not properly treated, and sulfide spills to the shorelines result in the foul smell of
the sand.
Tourism can cause coastal land degradation. In Belize, large-scale tourism development
has resulted in the transformation of entire cays, lagoons, and other tourism demands (UNEP
2007).

Wastes
Tourist and tourism establishments contribute to environmental degradation through the
production of wastes, such as food waste, leftover food by customers, kitchen food scraps, and
spoiled food; grey water from bathing and from swimming pools, human waste, sewage sludge,
coffee wastewater, and paper products from business operations. Improper disposal of such
wastes can lead to visual pollution and may cause health problems, as when decomposing food
items attract rats, flies, and cockroaches that can transmit harmful germs to humans or other
animals.

Solid waste products that are not disposed of properly in designated areas turn into litter.
The most common types of litter are plastic bottles, cigarette butts, aluminum foil packaging,
discarded cans, disposable lighters and disposable diapers. Cigarette butts can take 5 years to
400 years to completely disintegrate. This solid waste material can block drainage pipes, and
cause flooding in the urban centers. When left at beach resorts, they eventually end up in the
seas and oceans, and probably combine with a huge floating junk in the Pacific Ocean. Plastic
products have been found in the carcasses of birds, turtles, whales, and other marine animals
which make them for food.
Litter can leach into water sources, contaminate soil, and pollute the air. Discarded paper
cups or beverage cans can hold rainwater, which can become breeding location for disease-
carrying mosquitos. Animals can get trapped in the plastic used up hold six-packs. Broken glass
cans lacerate humans and other mammals. Organic litter in large amounts can seep through the

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beach and lead to algal blooms. Cigarettes could also start bushfires if they are not put out. On
an average day, single tourists in Europe will generate a kilo of solid waste (IFEN 2000 in UNEP
2005).
Other sources and types of wastes are construction and demolition waste, waste heat from
air conditioners, power generators, and vehicles and inorganic wastes, such as metals, computer
products, plastics, and Styrofoam packaging.

Pollution
The major forms of pollution are air, water, light, visual, and noise pollution.
Air pollution is caused by the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere.
Tourism contributes to the production of greenhouse gases (GHG) through exhaust from cars,
buses and airplanes used by tourists and other travelers. Transportation is responsible for 90%
of tourism-produced emissions. Traditional travelers on All Saints Day or Holy Week in the
Philippines cause traffic jams that result in far heavier gas emissions per vehicle than on average
days (Cruz 2009).
These gases include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and
nitrogen oxides. The most voluminous of these is carbon dioxide, which is also the most effective
at trapping the heat, radiated by the Earth back into the atmosphere. The accumulation of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has been causing climate change. Some of the
manifestations of climate change are the changing seasonal patterns, global warming, and
increasing severity of typhoons. Global warming is also contributing to the melting of alpine
glaciers and the continental ice sheets in the Arctic Ocean and Antarctica. His melting causes sea
levels to rise, which leads to the inundation of low-lying Small Island and coastal zone. The other
negatives effect of GHG emissions are ocean acidification, intensified heat island effect, and
flooding. Another kind of pollution is light pollution, which according to Global at Night, is the
“excessive, misdirected, or obtrusive artificial light.” Light pollution from tourism can emanate
from strong lights from airports, seaports, beach resort and hotels, street lights and neon signage
in entertainment districts. Light pollution can wash out starlight in the night sky, interfere with
astronomical research, has adverse health effects, and waste energy.
The main sources of light pollution are glare, light trespass, and sky glow. Glare from
unshielded lightning is a public health hazard; it can cause loss of contrast, sometimes, blinds
people temporarily, and makes driving difficult.
Light pollution poses serious threats to nocturnal wildlife. It can confuse the migratory patterns
of animals, alter competitive interactions of animals, change predator –prey relations, and cause
physiological harm. Humans are dependent on circadian rhythms. The production of melatonin,
the hormone produced by the pineal gland and involved in regulating the sleeping and waking
cycles, is regulated by light and dark (day and night). When humans are exposed to light while
sleeping, melatonin production can be suppressed, which can lead to sleep disorders, increased

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headaches, fatigue, stress, obesity, anxiety, and some type of cancer. Over illumination
constitutes energy wastage, which also contributes to carbon footprint.
On the other hand, tall buildings, which may include hotels, could deprive people living in
lower structures of the health benefits of exposure to sunlight. In this case, it is not light pollution,
but dimming that is the problem. Not only global warming but also global dimming has also been
observed. There has been about 4% reduction of direct irradiance OT the earth’s surface since
the 1960s caused by the accumulation of pollutants in the atmosphere

Noise Pollution includes roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as well as high-
intensity sonar. Noise pollution from tourism may be generated by transportation (airplane,
buses, train and cars), road traffic, appliances (vacuum cleaner), and industrial equipment. Noise
in hotels comes from chatter, air-conditioning units, power generators and vacuum cleaners.
Sharma and Bhattacharya (2014) in their study of noise levels in Bhojpuri, a tourist destination in
Madhya Pradesh, India, found that while the permitted ambient noise level in a residential area
is 45-55 decibels (dB), the noise level in the village areas adjacent to a tourist spot is generally
above 80 dB during the peak season, and above 55 dB with the average of 62 dB during the lean
season. Noise makes people talk louder, further increasing the din. Animals may also avoid noisy
habitats.

Visual pollution or the loss of aesthetic appeal is caused by the presence of eyesores, such
as overhead power lines, motorway billboards, and scarred landforms, open storage of trash or
litter. Buildings constructed by the coastline can also become visual polluters by blocking the
view of beautiful sunsets or sea views. Clashing and unfitting architectural styles also contribute
to visual pollution. Vandalism and destruction of geological formation through vandalism and
erosion were other problems observed in tourist destination.

Water pollution is caused by discharging wastewater from commercial and industrial sources
(internationally or though spills) into surface waters; discharge of entreated domestic sewage
and chemical contaminants, such as chlorine from untreated sewage; release of waste and
contaminants into surface run-off flowing to surface water; waste disposal and leaching into
groundwater; eutrophication and littering. Ha Long Bay, a New 7 Wonders of Nature winner, is
suffering from severe water pollution. According to Clayfield (2015), the wastes come from the
hundreds of boats which have no proper water and sewage treatment. The water at the Bay is
“visible dirty” and there is lot of floating rubbish and even human waste. This makes the Bay unfit
for swimming; various kinds of aquatic life cannot survive in its toxic waters.

Climate Change

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 According to UNEP (n.d) tourism is linked to climate change as many aspects of the
industry will be contributing more global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Compared with the
emission of countries, tourism would be the fifth biggest polluter worldwide. The emissions
produced by tourism of 4-5 week duration are bigger than the emissions produced by billions of
people leaving and working for one year in industrialized countries or emerging economies.
Trips by bus and train account for 34% of all trips, but for only 13% of all CO2 emissions in
tourism, excluding emission from accommodation. On the other hand, air travel accounts for just
2.7% of all tourist trips, but contributes 17% to global tourist emissions. Emissions produced by
holiday by cycle and tent are almost zero, while emission from South Pole crossing amount to
more than 10 tons of CO2.
By 2035, tourism’s contribute to climate change will have grown considerably. A business-
as-usual projection base on anticipated growth rates in tourist arrival and the distance travelled
by various means of transport indicate that tourist trips will grow by 179% and guest nights will
grow by 156% CO2 emissions will increase by about 152%, or more than three times higher than
today.

Water Stress
Tourism contributes to natural resources depletion. According to Tapper, Hadjikakou,
Noble and Jenkinson (2011), countries in the Caribbean, Mediterranean, and North Africa are
suffering from severe water stressed caused in part by tourism development. Water scarcity is
attribute partly to tourism generated pollution, unregulated tourism development, and
population growth and fluctuations during tourism high seasons.

Habitat Fragmentation
Habitat Fragmentation is frequently caused by humans when native vegetation is cleared
for human activities, which include construction of theme parks, resorts, hotels and airports.
Reclamation causes animal habitats, which were once continuous, to become fragmented. This
fragmentation result in decreased areas for feeding and breeding animals and other organism
that occupied the habitat to have reduced carry capacity. For example, when forests are cleared,
animals that depends on predators. If monkeys cease to exist, endangered species, like the
Philippines eagle will also succumb. Philippine eagle are extremely rare because they lay only one
egg at a time. Endemic organisms are most affected by habitat destructions, because such
organisms have very specific requirements for their survival that can only be found within a
certain ecosystem. Habitat loss decreases the range of certain animal populations, which can
result in reduced genetic diversity, which translates into the production of infertile offspring.

Animal Species Extinction

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 Tourism can contribute to the extinction of animals in a number of ways; one is by offering
animal products as food. Sea turtle eggs and meat are sometimes offered as delicacies in the
south. In many African countries, exotic animals known as “bush meat” are also eaten as food.
According to UNEP, commercial hunting of wild animals for meat has decimated endangered
population of certain species of animals, such as chimpanzees. Angono, Rizal has restaurant that
offers snakes and monitoring lizard. Another way by which animals become endangered is by
hunting. Some breeders even raise lions to be released in the wild to be hunted down by tourists.
Because they did not develop their natural instincts, these lions become easy targets by the
paying clients. After being hunted down, their heads or bodies are stuffed as trophies, or made
into carpet or rags. Animal parts, such as skin, claws, feet, teeth and horns are popular souvenir
items. The indiscriminate hunting of elephants and rhinos for their tusks and horns has
contributed to the extinction of a few species of these animals. As of inbreeding, this could result
in genetic defects send lower immunity to diseases of such animals, threatening their long term
survival.
Incidentally, the exposure to wild animals increases the risk of transmission of diseases, such
as the case of acquired immune deficiency syndrome, severe acute respiratory syndrome and
avian flu. Contact with primate blood and bodily fluids during hunting and butchering exposes
people to new viruses, with no known vaccines (UNEP 2007). Between 200 and 2003, Several
Ebola outbreaks in African countries were attributed to handling of gorilla or chimpanzee
carcasses. When transferred the viruses could easily be transmitted via tourism, such as the case
of SARS, which quickly spread around the Pacific Rim in the early 200s.
Invasive species of plants and animals can be introduced into an area VI tourist transport like
ships and luggage. They become nuisance because they grow in number in the absence of natural
predators in their new habitats, such as case of snakes which do not have natural enemies in
Guam. In countries’ endemic land birds (UNEP 2007).

Tourism Impacts on Coral Reefs

Tourism related impacts on coral reefs are significant, but they are also compounded by
other impacts that are not easily distinguished from those of tourism. This does not mean that
we must disregard the impacts of tourism activities. On the contrary, the tourism sector and
government agencies involved in tourism development must try to eliminate or reduce those
impacts that can be controlled, even if there is no 100% proof that a certain impact is directly
related to a tourist activity.
Physical damage of corals, such as breakage and lesions, may be caused by actions by
snorkelers and scuba divers. Motor boating and yachting may cause physical damage from
anchoring and grounding on bouts. Fishing contributes to over-exploitation of reed fish stocks.
Tourists who collect shells, lobster, conches, or corals are expediting the extinction of this rare
species. Maintaining landscape and gardens in tourist resorts can produce fertilizer run-off, which

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can contaminate groundwater supplies, and add to nutrients enrichment on the shoreline which
can lead to algal blooms. Toxic substances from inappropriate waste disposal can leach to water.
Consumption of certain seafood result in over explosion of high-priced species, such as snappers,
groupers, spiny lobsters and couches. Demand for marine souvenirs could also have the
disastrous outcome of certain species of shells, black corals and turtles to become extent.
Construction of artificial beaches, airport and marina could increase sedimentation.
Research carried by the Cooperative research Center for Sustainable Tourism found that
horse riding, mountain biking, off-roading and rock climbing to be high-impact activities in wild
areas.
According to the USEPA (1995), sitting building, facility or project can affect the
environment in a number of ways. Direct impacts include the destruction of existing habitats,
alteration of topography and hydrology and pollution. Indirect impacts came from energy use,
infrastructure construction for transporting people and material to the facility and waste disposal
activities. Siting facility in close proximity to sensitive ecosystems can damage these areas.
Improper siting with regard to slope and hydrology can cause alterations in the hydrological
regime, increase run-off, erosion and destabilized slopes or short lines
A 2005 study by Jones and Nelson on the impact of bird watching in Australia found that
birds living in locations with high or moderate levels of human disturbance were signify=cantle
lower in species diversity and lower number of individuals. They also found the number of some
species of birds tends to get larger in areas with greater human presence because of the lure of
food provided or brought by humans. Thus, even a supposed benign activates as bird watching
could pose threats to the long-term survival of some bird species.
Another area with environmental impact is vehicle maintenance, which has the potential to
generate solid and hazardous wastes. These include out-of-date supplies, wastewater, oils,
petroleum products and grease, solvents, paints, tires, waste material, cardboard and paper (US
EPA 1995).
The procurement, deliver of water, and treatment of wastewater affect the environmental.
Water procurement can affect the quality and quantity of surface and groundwater, cause land
subsidence from groundwater overdraft, and destroy habitat. Water delivery systems can
destroy habitat and ecosystems from canal and pipeline construction. Wastewater affects
surface water quality and habitats and requires energy treat. (US EPA 1995).

Beach Encroachment and Crowding

An impact that has been observed in Boracay east beach encroachment by resort owners,
abetted by beach setbacks that got smaller and smaller over the year. The mandatory setback
from the shoreline for buildings in the 1970s was 100 meters. However, this has been whittled

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down to 25 meters in 1997. Crowding of recreational areas by tourists was also noted in the
research of tourism impacts in Ghana by ataeye, Sirakya and Sonmez (2002).

Positive Impacts of Tourism on the Environment

Environmental Quality and Infrastructure Improvement

In tourism has the potential to improve environmental quality in many ways. First, tourism
can provide the incentive develop land for commercial development. Examples are theme parks
that are located in previously unproductive mountains areas. Areas, which are once occupied by
informal settlers, such as some parts of Intramuros, are earmarked for promenade construction
by the Pasig River, which will widen the leisure option of the city residents. Another positive
effect is when abandoned mines are converted into tourism oriental-facilities, such as a gold
course. Not only does the land become more aesthetically pleasing but also become more
economically productive. Infrastructure improvement, such as airports, seaports, expressways
and nautical highway system not only benefits tourists but the local population as well. Not long
ago, tourists to Boracay had to hire privately owned banks to bring them to the island from the
mainland. These days, there are daily scheduled trips provided by the transport business.
Moreover, essential amenities, such as piped water, and electricity have replaced well-
drawn water and gas lamps, respectively. Town and cities that eye to be tourist destinations tend
to beauty their areas, such as by constructing beautiful boundary markers, landscaping, painted
fences and manicured hedges along the main roads. They also exert effort to make their place
clean and orderly.

Species Regeneration
Infrastructure built for travel and tourism could actually be designed to enhance or create
habitats for animals. For example, in the construction work of the Kansai International Airport,
the perimeter of the man-made island shoreline was protected by gently sloping rock-piled
embankment. This type of embankment was suitable insertion ground for algae and encouraged
the growth of fish and shellfish. During the 1989-1990 monitoring of the airport’s impact 69 kind
of plants, 271 kinds of animals, and 59 kinds of fishes and shellfishes were observed.
Furthermore, certain kinds of fish and shellfish with previously had not been observed in the sea
area before were found. The airport isang is providing new living environment for ocean life
forms (Fuse, Ishiyama, Kubo, and Naito 1996).

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