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INTRODUCTION
Feed represents 60 to 80% of the total cost of commercial swine production. Thus it is very important to provide
economical and nutritionally balanced feed during all phases of the life stages. Properly balanced feeds that
meet the pig’s daily nutrient requirements can maximize production levels to produce profits or minimize
losses.
Proper feeding and nutrition, along with optimum health care of animals and good management practices,
contribute a lot to the success of a piggery enterprise.
Pigs have no fixed nutrient requirement; instead, the main consideration is the level of production where
these specific nutrients will be used. Hence, the guarantee of maximum profitability can only be seen
based on the total cost per kilogram gain of lean meat produced.
As the whole range of the pig’s body functions responds in a continuous manner to each nutrient, our main
option is to provide the level of dietary nutrients that maximize these functions.
With this topic on feeding, you will gain information on the basic nutrient requirements of pigs, the different
factors that have to be considered in determining the amount of feeds for the different classes of pigs as well
as the feeding scheme.
Maintenance
Nutrients for maintenance are needed by the animal to keep its body functioning without any gain or loss
in body weight. The maintenance requirement for food depends upon the body size, temperature and
activities. About 30-40% of the total feed intake of growing-finishing pigs and 40-50% of the level of fat
growth are considered part of the maintenance activities of growing pigs.
Growth or production
Nutrients for growth are primarily utilized for the increase in size of muscles, bones, internal organs and
other parts of the body of the growing pigs. A certain level of fat growth is also considered part of the
growing activities of growing-finishing pigs. The requirement for growth depends upon the age, breed, and
sex of the animal..
Reproduction
This is mainly considered in breeding herds and replacement stocks. Nutrients are needed for ova
production in sows and sperm cesss for boars as well as for fetal growth and development in gestating
animals.
Lactation
The lactation requirements of females for moderate to heavy milk production are much more rigorous than the
maintenance or pregnancy requirements. Fortunately, females can store up body reserves during pregnancy
and then draw upon them during lactation. But, if there is no proper body storage, something must "give" -
and that something will be the mother.
The growth of the fetus and the lactation that will follow shall take priority over the maternal requirements.
Hence, the female's body will be deprived, or even stunted if she is young, before the developing fetus or milk
production will be materially affected, when there is nutrient deficiency.
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Chapter 1 NUTRIENTS
Nutrients absorbed from the digested feeds are used for the different body processes. The usage varies
with age and productivity of the animal. Part of it are used to carry on the essential body functions such
as metabolism, maintenance of the body temperature and maintenance of the body itself through repair
and replacement of body cells and tissues.
The portion of the absorbed nutrients used for growth is known as “production requirement”
1. WATER
Water is the most essential but most often neglected nutrient. Pigs need plenty of clean, fresh water at
all times. Performance of all types of pigs is reduced when they are lacking in water. The rate of gain and
the amount of feed consumed are all affected by water restriction.
Water Sources
Functions of water
Solvent; water is the major transportation medium for nutrients and metabolic wastes
Lubricant; water aids in movement of joints and passage of materials through the digestive tract
Regulation of body temperature by evaporative cooling
Medium for the conduct of biochemical reactions of the digestive and metabolic processes
Production; water is a part of body tissue and of milk.
The required quantity of water depends on the age of pigs, production level and climate. All feeds contain
water in different amount. But pigs will have to drink additional water to satisfy their requirements. It is said
that pigs requires 3 – 5 liters of water for each kg. of feed consumed. In practice this means that there
should be a reliable and continuous supply of clean, fresh drinking water.
On the other hand, excessive as well as limited water consumption may reduce actual feed intake, thus
decreasing feed efficiency.
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The required water quantity depends on the age of the pigs, production level and environmental
temperature or climate.
Young pigs and lactating sows require higher amounts of water for growth and milk production. Moreover,
the higher the temperature, the greater the water comsumption.
For a good milk production, lactating sows require a water intake of 20 – 25 liters per day. To meet this
high water intake, lactating sows must have access to water ad libitum.
A good quality drinking water of sufficient quantity has a big influence on the performance of the pigs.
Nursery pigs 4
Growing pigs 11
Finishing pigs 15
Gestating sows 23
Boars 30
Source: Feding Pigs under Stressful Conditions; Infonews bulletin, U.S. Grains Council
November, 2003
2. PROTEIN
Protein is essential for the growth and maintenance of organs and muscle tissues. Proteins are also
essential in the formation of hormones, enzymes and antibodies. In spite of these, protein is frequently
the limiting factor in the diet. This is because grains and their by-products are deficient in both quantity
and quality of protein. Further, protein supplements are expensive such that some farmers tend to feed
little protein.
In general it can be stated that animal by-products have high quality protein as well as legumes while
cereals have low quality protein.
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True proteins are made of many amino acids combined with one another. Amino acids are the building
blocks of protein. Animals cannot produce amino acids; they must have a dietary source of these. But,
some amino acids can be synthesized out of other amino acids; these are called the non-essential amino
acids.
On the other hand, there are 10 amino acids that cannot be synthesized in the pig’s body. These are
called essential amino acids.
Moreover, an animal needs a specific amount of each particular amino acid for continuous growth and
reproduction. Once one or more of these required amino acid is used up and cannot be synthesized from
other amino acids, growth and production stops. The amino acid that is used up first is called the
“limiting amino acid”. Often lysine and methionine are the limiting amino acids. It must be remembered
that excess protein cannot be stored as amino acid except in limited quantity. If amino acid is not
immediately required, it is broken down and used as an energy source.
High protein diets tend to pollute the environment, first, the volume of wastewater is increased due to
increased water needs, then more nitrogen and maybe phosphorus excreted.
On the nutrition side, lowering the protein content of the feed then fortified with added synthetic amino
acids can minimize nitrogen excretion. Such formulations maintain the performance of high protein diets.
3. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates provide the largest source of energy in the pig’s diet. It includes simple sugars, starches
and fibers. Excess energy will be deposited as fat, while a small amount will be deposited in the liver as
glycogen.
Increasing the level of fiber in the ration results in reduced available energy by minimizing digestion of
sugar and starch (these are ready source of energy). However, pigs can also digest crude fiber (CF),
although in very small quantity. Its value therefore, as nutrient source is very limited. But crude fiber in
the ration does have positive effects by activating the peristaltic movement of the intestines resulting in
increased secretion of enzymes, which facilitates better digestion and increased water retention. Also,
fiber adds bulk to the feed giving the animal a feeling of satisfaction.
Fiber in the diet also creates a medium for microflora to live and thrive in the large intestine. This
microflora produce the cellulase, which enables the animal to digest cellulose (the main component of
fibrous materials), into glucose, effecting a more efficient digestion. In the meantime, Vitamin B12 and
Vitamin K are synthesized.
Gestating sows are well suited to consume high fiber diets. Sows can obtain some energy from dietary
fiber using hindgut fermentation. Low energy and high fiber diets reduce constipation problems and are
useful to prevent obesity in sows. The larger gut fill with low energy and high fiber gestation feed
enhances feed intake when the sows are transferred to their higher energy diets.
In addition, increased dietary fiber during gestation reduce stress behaviour in sows such as kicking, bar
biting and sham chewing.
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4. Fats
Generally, most of the feed ingredients used for pig feeds contain more fat than required, such that fat
deficiency is very seldom seen. Fats provide the most concentrated source of energy to the body.
Dietary fats provides 2.25 times more eneergy on a weight basis than does carbohydrates. It also
contains vitamins (A, D, E, and K) while making feeds more palatable and less dusty. Dietary fats also
contain the essential fatty acids that are used for the synthesis of various hormones. The presence of fat
in the intestinal tract is essential for the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
Dietary fats releases less heat when it is digested and metabolized, and thus will impose less heat stress
on the animal when environmental temperatures are high. Because the lower heat increment from
dietary fat produces less heat, the inclusion of fat in swine diets during the summer months can result in
improved weight gains and feed conversion responses.
The addition of fat to the gestating sow ration during late pregnancy and lactation increases milk yield
and the fat content of colostrum and milk. Consequently, more energy is available to the pigs. This
increases pig survival from birth to weaning between 2.7 and 6.2 % if survival for the herd is below 80 %.
Fat supplementation reduces weight loss during lactation and decreases the interval from weaning to
service. Consideration should be given to fat quality in terms of fatty acid composition. Oxidation should
be prevented as rancid fats are not palatable and have a negative effect on feed quality and animal
metabolism.
5. Vitamins
Vitamins are very important in the normal functioning of the body of the animal. Although vitamins are
required in small quantities, they serve several essential functions in maintaining normal growth and
reproduction. Some vitamins are found in adequate amounts in the feedstuffs used in pig diets, others
must be supplemented.
If vitamins are not supplemented in the diet, visible and invisible deficiency symptoms occur. But the
assessment of exact vitamin requirement is very difficult. In practice, vitamin supplementation must be
high enough to prevent signs of deficiency and retarded growth.
A good premix will supply all the necessary vitamins. But it must be remembered that vitamins are
destroyed by heat and light.
6. Minerals
The pig requires at least 14 minerals are known to be required by pigs including calcium, phosphorus,
potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, managanese, copper, iodine, selenium and
chromium. Pigs also require other trace minerals which have been shown to have physiological role.
The functions of these minerals are extremely diverse, ranging from the formation of bones and teeth,
muscle contraction, osmotic balance and other regulatory functions.
Most pigs are now raised in confinement, without access to soil or forage, this rearing environment may
increase the need for mineral supplementation.
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Nutrient Requirement:
Nutrients are required to satisfy the various metabolic functions of the body for maintenance, growth, lactation
and reproduction.
Most of the nutrients are contained to some extent in feedstuffs but other nutrients are in not enough levels
to meet the needs of the pig. For example calcium have to be added to pig feeds to obtain the levels required
for good animal performance.
The requirement for each nutrient depends on several factors. Among the most important are:
Because of these interacting factors, it is not possible to recommend a precise amount of a particular nutrient
under all conditions. Therefore adjustments must be made to accommodate the feeding program for a
particular set of circumstances.
% % % % % % %
1
If ADG exceeds 700 gm, increase Lysine, Meth & Cyst, Ca and P by 5%-6%
2
Lactating feed can be used for gilts
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Energy Weakness, low body temperature, loss of Hypoglycemia, loss of subcutaneous fat,
weight, coma and death. reduced blood glucose, Ca and Na.
Protein Impaired growth, unthriftiness, reduced Signs in baby pigs-serum albumin, anemia,
amino acid resistance to bacterial infections gross edema.
Vitamin D Rickets, lameness, stiffness, joint Lack of bone calcification, rib & vertebra
enlargement, osteomalacia fracture.
Vitamin K Pale newborn piglets with loss of blood from Increased blood clotting time, internal
umbilical cord, Generalized hemorrhage. hemorrhage, anemia caused by blood loss.
Prolonged blood clotting time
Phosphorus Poor growth, rickets, osteomalacia. Lack of bone calcification, bones easily
fractured.
Potassium Anorexia, rough hair coat, emaciation, ataxia Reduced heart rate.
Iron Poor growth, rough hair coat, pallor, anoxia. Enlarged heart and spleen, fatty liver, ascites,
clumping of blood.
Zinc Poor growth and appetite, parakeratosis. Retarded testicular development, impaired
reproductivity of sows.
Iodine Goiter, myxedema, sows farrow weak and Enlarged hemorrhagic thyroid.
hairless piglets.
Water Poor appetite, dehydration, loss of body Loss of temperature regulation, tissue
weight, salt poisoning, death. dehydration.
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Major Factors Influencing Nutrient Recommendations and Pig Performance:
1. Environment
Swine experts claimed that extremes in temperature is one of the most economically important stresses in
livestock production. Attention must be given to temperature as it affects feed intake and consequently
may affect weight gain and feed efficiency. Furthermore, it may also affect the animals’ susceptibility to
diseases and infection.
At each stage of production, the physical environment (temperature, humidity and air movement) can have
a profound influence on pig performance responses. There is a range of temperatures at which the pig is
comfortable (Comfort Zone), where weight gain and feed utilization are optimum.
The temperature range wihin the comfort zone can be influenced by several factors such as the type of
housing and bedding conditions. Beyond the range of comfort zone, the pig will modify its behavioral and
physiological responses, which could lower its weight gain and feed-intake responses.
The graph presented is another way to illustrate the condition of pigs at different temperature. As the
environmental temperature increases above the comfort zone or thermoneutral zone, feed consumption
declines proportionally, and extreme heat stress causes a drastic reduction in feed consumption.
Susceptibility to heat stress increases as body weight increases. Also high fiber diets increase heat stress.
Thus, nutrient density becomes more important in warm weather to maintain the daily requirement of the
animals.
Wet feeding is another possibility to stimulate the appetite of the animal. In addition, 3 to 4 times feeding
per day and providing a shower to the animals could also help to sustain feed consumption although the
latter would require high water cost.
Conversely, feed consumption increases as ambient temperature is reduced. In a cold environment, pigs
eat more because their energy requirement for maintenance is increased to maintain body temperature.
Generally, growth rate is not affected, but feed efficiency is poorer in cool climates. However, in a very
cold environment the pig's growth rate may be reduced because the pigs can not consume sufficient
energy to meet their requirement for growth and the increased requirement for maintenance.
When restricted feeding is practiced, pigs can not voluntarily adjust energy intake. Thus, the feed level
must be increased in accordance with the severity of the temperature decrease.
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2. Facilities
There is a wide range in the types of facilities that are used during each production phase. Proper housing
and ventilation can contribute a lot in the comfort of the pigs. Mangement of a facility that results in a
facility environment low in gases, odors, dusts and waste material will help to maintain pig health and result
in optimum growth and reproductive performance.
Such an environment will also be more healthy for the herdspersons working in that facility.
The social environment of the pig such as the pen space, feeder space per pig and group size can affect
its performance. For example, when pigs are housed in facilities with limited access to feeder space or
when the number of pigs per pen are over or underpopulated, performance responses and cost of gain
are affected.
3. Health
Perhaps no factor can influence the cost of gain and animal performance more than the presence of
subclinical swine diseases. Subclinical health conditions ultimately will influence the pig’s nutrient
requirements, feed intake and cost of gain. A successful preventive herd-health program in coordination
with a veterinarian can be an important investment for the swine producer.
4. Genotype
During the genetic selection process of the past few decades, changes have occurred in the way some
pigs have responded to the environment and to other conditions including the pig’s feed intake response.
Some breeds have demonstrated a lower feed consumption and a lower daily gain than others. Those pigs
with a higher potential for lean tissue growth, but which may also have lower feed intake, must have their
diets formulated differently than pigs of other genetic and appetite characteristics.
5. Management
Mangement will directly influence the decisions of how the various factors will be used and how will they
affect the pig enterprise. For example, the feeding program for pigs, the proper timing of insemination, the
proper timing for changing diets are decisions that can affect pig performance and production costs.
Under optimum environment, facilities, health and nutritional conditions, the daily and long-term
management decisions will greatly affect the pig’s response to different feeding programs.
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Chapter 2 DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
2.1 Digestion
Digestion is the breaking down of feed to a size and solubility necessary for absorption. It includes different
actions:
1. Mechanical action such as chewing and muscular contraction of the stomach and intestines.
2. Chemical action is the action of the enzymes produced by the body itself.
Nutrients from digested feeds are absorbed mainly in the small intestines. The digestive tract extends from
the mouth to the anus. The passage of feeds through the entire digestive tract takes about 24 to 36 hours.
Digestion begins in the mouth. By mastication or chewing, the feed is broken down
Mouth into smaller pieces, increasing the surface area to facilitate chemical reactions with
various digestive juices and enzymes.
Saliva moistens the dry feed for easy swallowing, and it contains the enzyme amylase, which initiates the
breakdown of starch.
The tongue helps in the mixing of feed with the saliva. It has a large number of taste buds and determine the
palatability of the feed and the voluntary feed intake of the pig.
The esophagus is the muscular tube that connects the mouth with the stomach.
Esophagus During swallowing, the muscles of the esophagus contracts and relax in a series of
wave like motions towards the stomach, this is called peristalsis moving the food
into the stomach.
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The stomach is a bean shaped hollow organ with a capacity of about 6 to 8 liters in
Stomach a 100 kg. Pig.
The stomach is subdivided into the cardia, the fundus and the pyloric area.
The constant churning in the stomach during and some time after the meal futher softens the feed particles.
The wall of the stomach secretes the gastric juice that contains enzymes such as pepsin and hydrochloric
acid (HCL). Pepsin breaks down protein. Pepsin is only active in an acid environment.
Acid in the stomach also serves to protect the animal by inhibiting the growth of disease-causing bacteria
present in the stomach.
In nursing piglets, gastric juice also contains the enzyme rennin that breaks down the protein in milk.
The stomach is protected by a mucous lining from injury by acids and from the action of the digestive
enzymes.
Food usually stays in the stomach for one to two hours. Food leaving the stomach is almost in liquid form
and it is called chyme.
The small intestine is a long tube-like muscular organ which lied folded in
Small Intestine the abdominal cavity. In a 100 kg. Pig, it is about 18 meters long with a
capacity up to 19 liters. It consist of three sections, the duodenum, jejenum
and ileum.
Duodenum the duodenum is the part of the small intestine where the products of two gklands are
deposited.
Pancreatic juice also contains bicarbonate which reduces the acidity of the chyme entering the duodenum
from the stomach and bringing the pH to near neutral.
2. The liver secretes the bile which is stored in the gall bladder before being emptied into the intestine. It
helps prepare fats for digestion by breaking it up into very small particles, a process called emulsification.
Jejunum and ileum In these parts of the small intestine, a juice is produced containing digestive enzymes
Most of the digestion process occurs in the small intestine aided by the churning and mixing action that is
constantly taking place.
The small intestine is also the main site of absorption. It contains the villi, or the finger-like projection that
greatly increase the surface available for the absorption of nutrients.
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Action of Enzymes and Digestive Juices on Dietary Nutrients
Dietary nutrient Enzyme Required for Digestion End Product of Enzyme Action
The main function of the large intestines is the absorption of water and water soluble minerals. Here feces
are formed and stored in the rectum for expulsion from the anus.
2.2 Digestibility
Nutrient digestibility or nutrient availability refers to the percentage of a nutrient in a feedstufff that is
digested and absorbed by the pig.
The percentage that is digested is called the digestibility coefficient. Each feedstuff has its own set of
digestibility coefficients for each nutrient present in that feedstuff.
State of health
Pigs can hardly digest crude fiber, so the percentage or amount of crude fiber in their ration should be
limited.
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2.3. Absorption
Absorption is the process whereby nutrients move across the wall of the intestines and are picked up by the
blood stream. After the digestion of starch, protein and fats has taken place, nutrients are ready for
absorption into the pig’s blood stream. Absorption of these nutrients takes place in the small intestines.
Absorbed nutrients are carried via the blood and lymph to sites in the body where they are needed. The
inner wall of small intestine is designed to ensure the efficient absorption of nutrients. The surface consists of
finger-like projections called villi which increase the surface area of the gut wall and thus increase its
absorptive capacity. Along the villi are further small projections, called microvilli, which further increase the
surface area. The wall of the small intestine consists of very specialized cells to carry out the function of
absorption.
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feed factors
nutrient composition
digestibility or bioavailability
energy density of
formulated diet
presence or level of additive
presence of inhibitors
environment; temperature,
humidity, housing
health condition, stress and economics and other factors
level of sub-clinical
disease
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Chapter 3 FEEDING OF REPLACEMENT STOCKS
Most producers replace 30 to 40 percent of their sow herd each year. As a consequence, the selection and
management of replacement gilts are important considerations in maximizing reproductive efficiency of the
entire herd.
The main objective in feeding the future breeding stocks is for them to reach puberty and start their
productive lives well-developed, with the right weight at the right age.
Gilts reach puberty at an average age of 200 days. Many factors affect the age at which a gilt reaches puberty
like breed, growth rate, housing conditions at which the gilt is raised, degree of exposure to a mature boar and
nutrition.
Replacement stocks can be reared using two systems of feeding (1) Ad libitum feeding until the time of service
or insemination ( 2) Restricted feeding, then flushing 2 weeks before service or insemination.
The aim in feeding gilts is to have her reach at least 130
kg. at 210 days of age, be ready for service at second
TARGET FOR GILTS or third estrus and have a P2 body fat of 18 – 20 mm.
An ad libitum feeding program is easier to manage and ensures gilts are in good condition at the time of
breeding. Ad libitum feeding can be practiced provided that the gilt will not become too fat
which will result to reduced reproductive performance as a sow, small litter size and higher feed cost.
Gilts that are too thin may experience poor fertility and delayed estrus after weaning. Excessive fatness in
gilts will also lead to poor reproduction.
Flushing or feeding higher nutrient levels to restricted-fed gilts is recommended two weeks before the
expected date of breeding as this increases ovulation rate.
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Reproductive problems may result if mid-backfat depth is less than 7 mm. Therefore, sow longevity may be
increased by allowing the gilts to build up fat reserves prior to first service by ad lib feeding.
From 60 kg liveweight onwards, replacement stocks can be fed breeder or lactating feeds.
Excessive feeding might lead to: Insufficient feeding might lead to:
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Despite the importance of the boar to herd fertility, it has received little attention in the pig unit. If boars are to
be reared for breeding purposes, then physical soundness and future reproductive performance are as
important as good growth rate. Young boars are normally selected according to an index which includes
characteristics as growth rate, feed conversion, backfat thickness and breeding potential. They are normally
fed to appetite and it is assumed that this does not prejudice subsequent reproductive capacity. It may however
affect their physical ability to perform since ad lib fed animals tends to develop leg weakness.
Under normal conditions, boar attain puberty between 5 and 8 months of age, when they weigh 90 – 120 kg
body weight. Age is more important than body weight in determining the onset of puberty. There may be
differences in the age of attainment of puberty, crossbred boars reach puberty earlier than their purebred
counterparts.
Nutrition during the rearing period may influence the attainment of puberty, A 30 % reduction in feed intake
resulted in a 42 days delay in puberty for purebred and 30 days for crossbred boars.
Nutrition during the rearing period can influence both the age of puberty and the rate of sexual development
in young boars. However, unless severely undernourished, this does not appear to impose any lasting
damaging effect upon reproductive capacity other than the obvious effects on the growth and mature body
size of the animal.
In practice, most young boars are fed close to their appetite. When boars reach the weight of 90 kg. , it is
advised to start restricting the feeds to prevent leg problems, but restriction is done gradually so as not to affect
the boar performance.
For working boars, the feed allowance depends on its body condition, which is indirectly influenced by
the frequency of service or semen collection. Breeder or sow feed with Digestible Energy of at least 3,000
kcal/kg and minimum crude protein of 14% can be used for boars.
obesity laziness
poor libido poor service results
too heavy problems in natural service
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Effect of Nutrition on reproductive Performance:
We should remember that the consequences of poor nutrition, or of an environmental challenge, do not
become obvious immediately. Because it takes about 42 – 45 days for the process of sperm production and
transportation to be completed, there can be quite a delay between the “insult” to the boar and the resulting
reduction in his sperm quality.
Generally boars on low plane of nutrition produce smaller volumes of semen than those on higher feed
intakes, research suggests there is little effect on motility, sperm cell concentration or the percentage of
abnormalities. Thus although the number of sperm cells is reduced, no reduction occurs in their fertilizing
capacity.
Overall, supplying about 280 grams of protein and 11.6 grams of lysine per day with an amino acid
pattern similar to that used for pregnant sows will also meet the requirement for the boar.
In the case of minerals and vitamins, there is no clear evidence that the boar’s needs depart substantially from
those of sows.
Certain anti-nutritional properties of feeds influence semen production. For example, mycotoxin such as
zearalenone, binds with estrogen causing decrease libido in boars. Similarly, the intake of high level of
zearalenone (>6000 ppm) by prepubertal boars has been shown to reduce the onset of puberty and cause
a reduction in testes’ size with corresponding reductions in semen quality.
Aflatoxin B1 has also been shown to affect semen characteristics and fertility adversely in breeding boars.
Those animals with the highest levels of aflatoxin B1 residues in their sperm experienced more fertility
disorders, lower sperm concentration, lower survival of the sperm and a larger proportion of the sperm with
morphological abnormalities.
The environmental conditions within which the boars are kept not only influences their feeding requirements
but also their reproductive performance. Low environmental temperatures per se do not influence sperm
production, provided, the dietary energy intake is sufficient to compensate for any additional extra
thermoregulatory heat produced by the animal.
High environmental temperatures (29oC), on the other hand, decrease both sperm production and sperm
motility. Boars are more sensitive to higher temperature than males of other species due to their limited
ability to sweat and hence lose heat by evaporation.
Thus, exposure of boars to high environmental temperatures results in rapid increases in respiration rate
and rectal temperature and reduced reproductive performance.
However, the effects of heat stress manifests after 2 – 6 weeks. A period of at least 6 weeks after the end
of exposure is needed for the quality and quantity of semen to return to normal.
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Chapter 4 FEEDING OF SOWS
different feeds
different amounts of certain
feeds
I. Pregnant Sow
During pregnancy, the need for nutrients
changes as the condition of the sow
progresses to supplement the increase
nutritional need of the rapidly growing
piglets.
Source: Pig International. Vol. 21 No. 4.
April 1991. p. 9
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PREGNANCY / GESTATION PERIOD :
In the first month of gestation, the feeds are used for maintenance
for restoration of the body condition
for building up body reserves.
In the USA, studies showed that sows fed restricted during pregnancy consumed significantly more feed
during their subsequent lactation period, compared with sows fed ad libitum.
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Day of weaning :
no feed, with limited water
lets milk dry up easily
prevents mastitis
provides “positive” stress
.,
Option 1.
Note: Very thin sows can be given 3.0 kg feed per day
Note: One ( 1 ) week before expected date of farrowing change feed from breeder to
lactating feed.
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Option 2.
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BASIC COURSE ON PIG HUSBANDRY - PIG NUTRITION 25
CONDITION SCORING FOR SOWS
Source: Feeding, Managing and Reproductive Efficiency of Today’s Lean Genotype Swine.
By Dr. Gilbert Hollis and Dr Rob Knox of the University of Illinois, USA.. and
Nutrition of Sows and Boars by WH Close and DJA Cole
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1. stage of lactation
2. condition of the sow
3. litter size
Excessive feeding during the first Insufficient feeding might lead to:
week after farrowing might lead
to:
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Remaining days of lactation - 2.0 kg + 0.30 per piglet (to be given to the sow)
+ half kilo (0.5 kg) depending on the condition of
the sow.
Note: One (1) week before expected date of farrowing until the day before weaning
fed sows with lactating feed.
Condition
Sow No. Date of Number of (Fat, Normal, Amount of
Farrowing Piglets Thin) Feed / Day (kg)
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Keeping all these in mind will lessen if not totally eliminate proper feeder
sows who get really thin after lactation due to insufficient design
feed intake. Moreover, please note that there is a
direct correlation between milk production and feed intake.
The higher the feed intake, the better the milk production is.
access to fresh,
(see Table 12). unspoiled feed
Source: Pork Production Course Manual, Animal Industry Division and Field Serices Sector Alberta Agriculture
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In the immediate post-weaning period you can continue feeding the lactating feed almost to appetite
Ideally, this should mean a daily feed intake of about 4 kg. It will help the sow to restore the tissues lost
during lactation. Also, the increased nutritional supplies will stimulate her metabolic and endocrinal status
to initiate follicular development and hence estrus.
The factors that affect the weaning to conception interval in sows include endocrine activity, uterine
changes, genotype, parity of the sow, season of the year and level of nutrition during the preceding
lactation.
Under good conditions, the sow usually exhibits estrus within 10 days after weaning, following a lactation
period of at least 3 weeks. Post-weaning anestrus in sows may be any one or a combination of the
following:
Underfeeding during lactation and following weaning, particularly in first-litter sows, is considered to be a
significant cause of postweaning anestrus. Approximately 50 % of primiparous sows fail to exhibit estrus
within one week of weaning, whereas almost 80 % of older sows are mated within this period.
Inadequate nutrition of sows during their first lactation and the associated body weight and fat losses have
been implicated as major factors affecting the incidence of postweaning anestrus. Lactating sows,
particularly primiparous sows, are often unable to consume sufficient quantities of feed to satisfy their
requirements for energy and amino acids.
Age and body weight are also important, primiparous sows that are older and heavier at farrowing exhibit
estrus earlier than younger sows, even when body weight losses during lactation are greater in older sows.
Weaning the piglets before three weeks of age can also cause postweaning anestrus in sows. The uterus
requires 14 days to return to its normal size and weight after farrowing and an additional 10 days before it
is ready to accept further implantation.
Practical Recommendations:
Following weaning, sows can be placed in paddocks, individually or
in groups of 4 – 6 and observed carefully twice a day for the first 10 days
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Feeding cycle of sows
Kg. Feed
6.0
The amount
5.5 of feed will
depend on the
4.5 number of
suckling piglets
4.0
F F
3.5 L L
U U
3.0 S Thin S
H H
2.5 I Thin Normal I
N and N
2.0 G Normal Fat G
1.5 Fat
1.0
0.5
0.0
STAGE OF PRODUCTION
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Condition: _________________________
No. of Piglets: _________________________
Litter Index: _________________________
Period between weaning and service: _________________________
Weaning Age: _________________________
Weaning
Total
Lost Days
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Chapter 5 FEEDING OF PIGLETS AND WEANERS
It is highly important that newborn piglets
receive colostrum. Colostrum contains
Feeding Guide for Piglets high levels of nutrients and antibodies
which are essential in protecting the piglets
against common infections.
Nevertheless, it is as important that piglets receive solid feed early in their life. Suckling piglets can be
given creep feed as early as 5 - 7 days of age, with a minimum CP of 22% (out of reach by the
sow).
The digestive system of piglets is still too immature to deal effectively with plant foods.
Start piglets on creep feeds by offering a small amount of feed on a clean, dry, solid floor.
Continue floor feeding for the first two to four days or until the piglets are eating the feeds.
Clear away any uneaten feeds and replace it daily. Twice to four times feeding per day is
much better.
When the piglets are obviously eating the feed, introduce a small feeder large enough to
accommodate all the piglets eg. heavy, shallow, circular trough.
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Young piglets lack the capacity to produce adequate amounts of hydrochloric acid and
pepsin.
Too cold, dirty and stressful conditions interfere with the accelerated change in gut
digestion.
Antigenicity (the piglet's gut mistakenly recognizes some proteins as pathogens and sets
up a defensive allergic reaction).
Carbohydrates and sugars from solid sources need a different set of enzymes.
improved condition of
the intestinal wall
resulting in improved
absorption capacity
improved enzyme
activity which will
improve the digestion
improved technical
performance of the
piglets
improved technical
Weanling pigs are fed ad libitum, usually through performance of
the
self-feeders, toTRAINING
INTERNATIONAL maximize their growthON
CENTER potential (source:
PIG HUSBANDRY (ITCPH), P.O. Boxsows
1, Lipa City,
PHILIPPINES
Pig International, Vol. 26, No. 10, October, 1996, cover)
BASIC COURSE ON PIG HUSBANDRY - FEEDING 32
Several researches have shown that adequate feed consumption before weaning is essential for a
smooth weaning process and a good post-weaning performance. Adequate feed intake during the
suckling period will prepare the digestive tract for optimal transition from the sow's milk to solid feed.
Weaning is stressful, but the stress of weaning is even greater when pigs are weaned earlier. A 5-
week old pig is better equipped to handle stress than a 3-week old one. The period after weaning is
an extremely critical period which may greatly influence the overall performance and profitability of the
market pig. During this period, the young pilet is very susceptible. Weaning does not only put stress
on the animals because it separates piglets from its mother, it also antroduces a new feeding regimen
to the young animal.
Major sites of enzyme secretion in pigs (source: Pig International. Vol. 26,
No. 2. February 1996. p. 29)
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The aim is to feed the weaners ad libitum in order to obtain a fast growth (+ 300 g/day). However,
during the first week after weaning great care in feeding should be observed.
Pigs are usually weaned early in the day (preferably on Thursdays). This is done by removing the
sow from the pen, while the piglets remain.
Feeding of weaners should be restricted to about 80% of the actual feed consumption divided into
three or four feedings per day. The next day inspect the weaners for any problems. Add a little more
feed if there are no visible signs of ill health. Inspection of weaners should be done at least four times
a day. On the third day, check and inspect again. If looseness of feces is apparent, you are feeding
too much, or the feed is not very digestible. If there is no fecal looseness, feed ad libitum or feed two
to three times a day.
Starter feed can be given at the age of 60 days (20 kgs body weight). Shifitng from prestarter to
starter feeds should be done gradually (can be done in 5 to 7 days).
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The creep area should be warm, dry and draft-free. It should be located in an area where the pigs are
least disturbed. Excitement, noise and a change in feeding routine affect eating habits and subsequent
feed consumption. Having the creep area near the sleeping area encourages a more frequent eating.
Arrange and situate the feeding area where it can easily be cleaned so that feed can be changed and
replaced conveniently.
5. Less setback to young pigs when weaned from the sow, the earlier pigs are to be
weaned, the more important it is that they be eating dry feed at an arly age, and finally
6. There will be less weight loss by the sow, because she need not produce
more milk to support her demanding piglets
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General Rules for Feeding Weaners
Do not change the kind of feed at weaning time (7 days before and after weaning).
Increase feeds gradually until it reaches 5% of the body weight or ad libitum level.
An orphan pig can obtain colostrum by being placed with another sow (a foster sow) that has just
farrowed. If no such sow is available, the orphan pig can be fed a commercial colostrum replacer or milk
replacer which are now available in the market.
This replacer should be mixed with lukewarm water and usually fed about every 3 hours. The use of a
shallow pan for feeding is also recommended. Immersing the baby pig's nose in the milk of few times
will result in its drinking freely. Bottle feeding can also be applied but is relatively time-consuming. It is
extremely important that all feeding utensils be kept clean and, otherwise diarrhea will occur. From 5-7
days old they can be creep fed following the sanitary regimen .
In cases where there are more piglets than the teats of the sow, split-sucking can be practiced (split the
number of piglets such that each of them can suck enough milk at one milking time). Infant formula can
also be used although it maybe more expensive.
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Chapter 6 FEEDING OF FINISHERS
PIG GROWTH
1. Composition of Growth
Pig growth comes from both nutrient supply and time (age) and pigs have their own potential as to
weight they ought to be by a certain age.
Live growth is the accumulation of lean tissue, fat tissue and bones. Lean is mostly muscle and
includes both carcass lean and lean in the offal and other body parts. Fat are mostly in the form of
fat storage depots under the skin with some other fat accumulation in between muscle bundles and
around kidneys and intestines.
Growth normally proceeds in a sigmoid or S-shaped manner. During early life the rate of weight gain
accelerates, while between 30 and 120 kg. growth is nearly linear. In the later life, as maturity is
approached, there is a slow down in weight gain.
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Fat Growth
When born, piglets have only about 1 % of fat. In the first month of life the percentage of fat can rise
to about 15 % and the piglets will have attained the rounded appearance. This build-up of fats is
badly needed for the coming stress and change of diet, which results, to low feed intake during
weaning. The fat in the body is used as an energy reserve. When appetite returns, the piglet will
start to accumulate fat to about 10 % of the body weight. Body fat that is physiologically needed is
called “target fat”.
When food supply exceeds the requirements for the growth of lean, target fat and bones, fat level in
the body rises with the level of feeding. At around six months of age the fat level may increase up to
25 % of the body weight.
On the average, target fat is satisfied if the composition of growth is about 20 % fat. Once target
fatness is reached, the rate of fat deposition should be controlled to have a good carcass quality.
Restricting the pig's feed allowance can do this.
Fat tissue has about 2 % protein, 8 – 12 % water. Pigs need more feed to accumulate fat than lean
tissue.
Lean Growth
In the young pig, lean growth is held back below its potential to divert nutrients for the synthesis of
target fat, but towards maturity the pig will primarily increase lean growth.
Lean growth is of major concern to pig producers because lean meat is the product demanded by
consumer and because lean growth requires less feed compared to the same weight of fat growth.
The maximum rate, which is possible for a pig to grow lean, will depend upon the sex and the
genetic merit of the pig. Females can grow lean faster than castrates, but entire or uncastrated
males can grow lean fastest.
Improved strains of pigs selected for fast growth and lean carcasses are also likely to have a higher
limit to their potential lean growth.
Pigs reach their maximum rate of lean growth when they reach about 50 kg. bodyweight. When
maximum lean growth is reached, increased food supply cannot enhance lean growth, but go
towards fat deposition.
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at and lean
f fat
pig
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Feeding of Finishers
Feed accounts for the biggest part of the cost of pig production. Efficient use of feeds is,
therefore, a very big component of profitable pig production. On the other hand, efficiency of feed
conversion does not guarantee profitability if it is achieved by feeding expensive ration.
The fattening stage of slaughter pigs can be divided into three stages:
1. Starter stage - In most commercial farms, the starting weight of pigs is approximately 20 kg. or
when pigs are about 2 months old. In the case of small farm (backyard), the starter stage begins
immediately upon weaning due to lack of rearing pen and it is also a common practice of the backyard
farmers. The feed used is starter feed containing at least 18 % crude protein and about 3250
kilocalories of digestible energy. This feed is given until they are 30 – 35 kgs.
2. Grower stage - starts from 30 or 35 kg or about 80 – 90 days old. Grower feed is used. Grower
feed contains at least 16 % crude protein and about 3200 kilocalories of digestible energy. The grower
feed is given until they reach about 60 kgs. bodyweight or about 120 to 130 days old.
3. Finisher stage - Finally when the pigs reach 60 kgs., a finisher ration containing at least 14 %
crude protein and 3200 kilocalories digestible energy is given until they are ready for the market. In
the Philippines, fattening pigs are normally sold at the weight of 85 – 90 kg bodyweight.
Most pigs are fed ad libitum in the starter and growing phase, while some are fed ad libitum throughout
the fattening period. For ad libitum feeding, adequate feeding space and access to the hopper are
very important.
Restricted feeding is also a possibility, pigs should be able to eat at the same time. This means there
should be enough feeding space for each of them to prevent or minimize feed competition.
The right spot of the scale between the two mentioned feeding systems is for the pigs to grow as fast
as possible without reducing the carcass value through undesirable fatness.
genetic potential
quality of the feed
environment - housing, temperature/climate
health status - presence of diseases
availability of feeds and raw materials
influence of carcass quality on selling price
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2. FEEDING SYSTEM / METHOD
The growth performance of the pigs is affected not only by the quantity and quality of feed given but
also by the method of feeding. There are three basic feeding systems for grower – finishers: (1) ad
libitum
(2) restricted and (3) combination of ad libitum and restricted feeding.
The level of feeding can vary from restricted feeding which is about 80 % - 90 % satiation to ad libitum
which is 100 % satisfaction.
Ad lib feeding will only give good results if Finishers fed ad libitum, usually have higher ADG
the pigs have high growth potential anf if than those which are fed on restricted basis.
they are in good health condition.
Advantages Disadvantages
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2. Restricted feeding
good carcass quality lower average daily gain (ADG) for high
growth potential animals resulting
better health control to longer fattening period.
3. ad libitum feeding until 50 kg bodyweight and then restricted feeding until market
weight
Pigs are fed ad libitum until 50 kgs bodyweight then fed restricted until they are marketed. With this
system, the growth potential of the animals can be maximized during its first 50 kg. of growth.
When the pig has reached 50 kg. bodyweight restricted feeding is practices to avoid thick backfat.
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Advantages Disadvantages
higher ADG with good carcass quality higher possiblity of digestive disorder if
shifting of feed is not properly done
lower feed cost
less control of health problems and feed
better use of good feed resulting to intake at the beginning
better FCR
Certainly, prevailing local conditions dictate which of the type of ration scale(s) is/are more attractive
than the other(s). In the same way that ad libitum feeding becomes more recommendable in
cases of:
5. healthy stocks
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ADG = 600 g/day ADG = 650 g/day ADG = 700 g/day ADG = 800 g/day
Fatt.
Weeks Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day Weight Feed/Day
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Average
Wet feeding means mixing the dry feed with 2 – 3 times its weight of water in the trough. ( 1:2-3).
Water should be added just before feeding. This method is only suitable for feeding regimen in
which the pigs are able to eat up all the feed they are offered, otherwise the wet feed is likely to
ferment in the trough as well as attract flies.
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Feed Density
Pigs grow according to their protein and energy intake. They tend to eat to satisfy their energy
requirement. When the energy density of the diet is altered, the pigs tend to adjust their feed intake to
compensate for it.
Option 1:
Option 2:
Another option to check the feed density is to weigh several liters or scoops of feed (ideal is 10
liters/scoops). Weigh the feeds and compute the feed density using the given formula below. If using
scoops use the number of scoops instead of liters.
Mass (kg)
Feed Density = ---------------------
Volume (li)
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Example:
5.50 kg.
Feed density =
10 liters
= 0.550 kg / liter
Different kinds of feed will have different densities, and therefore different weights. In the absence of
a feed scale, knowing the feed densities of your specific type of feed, you can make the necessary
adjustments on the use of feed scoop or container for the exact amount of feed.
Large can
Scoop
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1. PHASE FEEDING
Weaning at 21 days of age has become a standard practice for modern farm production. Weaning
this early often leads to a “post-weaning lag”. Newly weaned piglets frequently experience
decreased feed intake which results to decreased gain. To avoid this post-weaning lag and to
achieve optimum growth, nutritionists introduced the phase feeding program.
All these are achieved by a three or four-phase feeding program that introduces low
cost ingredients in a progressive way, to gently enhance maturation of the
gastrointestinal system
and at the same time to supply special
ingredients that will encourage
maximum growth performance.
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The three main factors which are important in the establishment of the phase feeding management
plan are:
Dietary specifications
The number and time of diet changes
The amount of each diet to be fed per pig
The allotment of feed in the different phases and the timing of diet changes can be based on three
different approaches:
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2. FEED ADDITIVES
2.1. FEED ADDITIVES USED AS ALTERNATIVE TO ANTIBIOTICS:
2.1.1 NUTRACEUTICAL
Probiotics
Organic acids/ acidifiers
Zinc oxide
Mannan Oligosaccharides
Enzymes
Plant extracts
2.1.2 PROBIOTICS
Probiotics are live microbial products. Probiotics increase the population of desirable
microflora in the gut at the expense of disease-producing organisms. Other benefits include
a reduction in intestinal pH and a reduction of toxic amines whereby improving the daily gain
and feed efficiency.
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2.1.3. ACIDIFIERS
Organic acids and their salts appear to potential alternatives to prophylactic in-feed antibiotics and
growth promoters.
Organic acids may have anti-agalactic properties for sows and alleviate piglet diarrhea caused by
antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Lactic acid and fumaric acid based blends can effectively improve growth
performance of young growing pigs and sow productivity.
The nutritional benefits of organic acids include lowering gastric pH, resulting in increased activity of
proteolytic enzymes and gastric retention time and improved protein digestion. They may affect
mucosal morphology, as well as stimulate pancreatic secretions and contribute to improved
digestion, absorption and retention of dietary nutrients.
Zinc oxide is added piglet diets at levels between 2,000 and 3,000 ppm. Zinc has
been shown to improve starter pig growth rate.
2.1.5. MANNAN OLIGOSACCHARIDES
Oligossacharides are complex carbohydrates extracted from yeast cell walls. It protects the health
of animals by at least two mechanisms:
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The initial effect of adding plant extracts to animal feed is stimulating appetite. Many plants also
contain active ingredients which increase secretion by the salivary glands and of gastric and
pancreatic juices (garlic, onion, paprika), therefore leading to a decrease in pH in the stomach
and better digestion.
Some substances have been shown to have strong antibacterial properties. For example
oregano oil has been shown to significantly reduce post-weaning diarrhea and mortality in piglets,
by inhibiting intestinal E.coli.
Of course, these nutritional alternatives should be combined with good husbandry practices.
Biosecurity is the most important factor.
Flavenoids which are found in extracts of garlic, onion and paprika have been found to increase
phagocytic activity.
2.2. ENZYMES
Enzymes may be beneficial in diets of newly weaned pigs which do not have a full complement of
digestive enzymes necessary for digesting starch and vegetable proteins.
2.3.1 CHROMIUM
Organic chromium (tripicolinate) increases leanness for about 6 %, but not consistent.
200 ppb chromium improves sow fertility, number of piglets born and weaned. Must be
fed at least six months to get response.
2.3.2. BETAINE
Enhanced leanness and feed efficiency. Works with methionine and cystine defficiency
and lysine excess.
2.3.3. CARNITINE
Initially thought to improve leanness and efficiency. 50 ppm in gestation improves litter
size and birth weight.
2.3.4. RACTOPAMINE
Beta agonist that “repartitions” where nutrients go from fat to lean deposition. It improves
growth rate, fed conversion and lean deposition. Dosage is 5 g/ton for 2 weeks then 9.9
g/ton for the last 2 weeks. Feed should contain at least 16 % crude protein and 0.90 %
lysine.
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